EMBEDDED SYSTEM

DESIGN
[ELC - 241]
For
S.Y.B.Sc. (Computer Science) Semester - IV
Electronics - (Paper - I)
New Syllabus as per CBCS Pattern Credit - 2
June 2020

Dr. J. A. Bangali S. R. Chaudhari

M. Sc., M. Phil, Ph.D. M. Sc., M.Phil.
Head, Dept. of Electronic Science, Vice principal and Head,
Co-ordinator, B.Sc. Computer Science Dept. of Electronic Science,
Kaveri College of Arts, Science & Commerce Modern College, Shivajinagar,
Pune-411038 Pune – 411005.

Prof. (Dr.) M. L. Dongare Prof. (Dr.) P. B. Buchade

M.Sc., D.H.E., Ph.D. M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D.
Vice Principal, Head, Dept. of Electronic Science, Principal and Head,
Rayat Shikshan Sanstha's, Dept. of Electronic Science,
S. M. Joshi College, Abasaheb Garware College,
Hadapsar, Pune – 411028. Karve Road, Pune - 411004.

Price ` 140.00

N5546
Embedded System Design ISBN 978-93-90506-47-7
First Edition : January 2021
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Preface …
We have great pleasure to present this book on ‘Embedded System Design’ which is
written as per the revised syllabus of Savitribai Phule Pune University for S.Y.B.Sc. (Computer
Science) in the subject of Electronics. The authors have sincerely put their efforts to give
complete information of the subject as prescribed in the syllabus in a simple manner.
Electronics and computer science go hand in hand. In fact, electronics is a backbone for
understanding computer operations. As the technology is changing day by day, yesterday’s
technology becomes old today. Keeping this in mind, SPPU has introduced latest
programming languages and technology in the syllabus.
This text book has been prepared as per the need of subject and syllabus specified by
SPPU.
The First Chapter introduces the concept of Single Board Computer (SBC) and the
fundamentals of Embedded System. The advantages/disadvantages of both are discussed in
this chapter.
In Second Chapter the architecture of System on Chip (SoC) and the details of Raspberry
Pi were thoroughly described. Raspberry Pi CPU, its architecture, internal blocks and their
functions are also discussed.
Third Chapter is based on Python. The structure of Python code, variables, data types,
functions, modules, packages used in Python were discussed in detail. Also few arithmetic
programs in Python were explained in this chapter.
Fourth Chapter describe the interfacing of input output devices to Raspberry Pi. Their
Python codes were also explained in this chapter.
After studying all this, student will get an idea of Raspberry Pi board and use of Python
programming and also they will understand the concept of SBC and SoC.
To give something extra to think and to explore the topic, ‘Think Over It’ element is
added in this book.
We are thankful to the publishers Shri Dineshbhai Furia and Shri Jignesh Furia and the
staff of Nirali Prakashan specially Mr. Ilyas Shaikh, Mrs. Manasi Pingle, Ms. Chaitali Takle, Mr
Ravindra Walodare for the great efforts they have taken to publish this book in time.
All valuable suggestions from the readers of this book are always welcome.

PUNE AUTHORS
JANUARY 2021
✍✍✍
Syllabus …
1. Introduction to Embedded Systems Using
Single Board Computers (SBC) (08 Lectures)
Single boards computer block diagram, Types, Comparison of SBC models, Specifications,
I/O devices (Storage, display, keyboard and mouse), Network access devices.
2. Architecture of System on Chip (SOC) (08 Lectures)
Architecture of SoC, Basic version Broad Coprocessor, Pin Description of Raspberry Pi,
Architectural features: CPU Overview, CPU Pipeline stages, CPU Cache Organization,
Branch Prediction and Folding (Concept), GPU Overview.
3. Programming Using Python (10 Lectures)
Overview of Rasberian OS (Operating System), Installation, different types of Operating
Systems
Basic Python Programming (Script programming): Variable and data types, Flow control
structures, Conditional statements (If … Then … else),
Functions: I/O function (GPIO, Digital), Time functions, Library functions.
Basic Arithmetic Programs: Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division.
4. Interfacing of Devices Using Python Programming (10 Lectures)
Basic interfacing: LED, Switch, LCD.
Internal Advanced: Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, Ethernet.
External advanced: Camera, Serial communication GSM, Ultrasonic Sensor, PIR, Finger
Print reader.

✍✍✍
Contents …
1. Introduction to Embedded Systems Using
Single Board Computers (SBC) 1.1 – 1.18

2. Architecture of System on Chip (SOC) 2.1 – 2.42

3. Programming Using Python 3.1 – 3.42

4. Interfacing of Devices Using Python Programming 4.1 − 4.34

Model Question Papers M.1 – M.2

✍✍✍
Unit 1…
Introduction to Embedded Systems
Using Single Board Computers (SBC)
Charles Stark "Doc" Draper was an American scientist and engineer,
known as the "father of inertial navigation". He was the founder and
director of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's
Instrumentation Laboratory, later renamed the Charles Stark Draper
Laboratory, which made the Apollo Moon landings possible through
the Apollo Guidance Computer it designed for NASA. Draper was one
of the pioneers of inertial navigation, a technology used in aircraft,
space vehicles, and submarines that enables such vehicles to navigate
by sensing changes in direction and speed, using gyroscopes, and
Charles Stark Draper accelerometers.
A pioneering figure in aerospace engineering, he contributed to the Apollo space program with
his knowledge of guidance systems. One of the first recognizably modern embedded systems
was the Apollo Guidance Computer, developed ca. 1965 by Charles Stark Draper at the MIT
Instrumentation Laboratory. He was born on 2 October 1901,Windsor, Missouri, United States
and died on 25 July 1987, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. He was awarded with
National Medal of Science for Behavioral and Social Science, National Medal of Science for
Engineering.

Introduction
The 8051 microcontroller, its architecture, instruction set, programming in assembly language,
in ‘C’ language and interfacings of various input/output device were thoroughly studied in last
semester. This semester, we have to study embedded system, its block diagram, its architecture,
programming using Python and interfacing of devices using Python programming.
This chapter includes the details of embedded systems, its definition, block diagram,
comparison of SBC models, Specifications, I/O devices (Storage, display, keyboard and mouse),
Network access devices.
1.1 Embedded System
• An embedded system is a computer system which can perform many tasks such as to access,
to process, to store, to control the data in various electronic systems.
• Embedded system is a combination of hardware and software.
• Software is usually known as firmware that is embedded into the hardware.
• Embedded systems are application specific, organized hardware which can be controlled by
specific software.

(1.1)
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 1-2 Introduction to Embedded ….

• One of the important features of the embedded systems is that it gives the output within the
specified time limits.
• Embedded systems are used in many appliances which are used in our daily life. It is used in
microwave, calculators, TV, remote control, home security systems, traffic control system etc.
• The hardware of embedded system mainly consists of power source,
microcontroller/microprocessor, timers, memory, I/O devises etc.
• The software consists of compliers, integrated development environment (IDE), assembler,
simulators etc.
• Usually, embedded C, embedded C++, embedded JAVA, assembly language are used in
embedded system programming.
• The block diagram of embedded systems is shown in Fig. 1.1.
• As shown in Fig. 1.1, embedded system consists of processor, program memory, data
memory, processor, power supply, parallel ports, serial communication ports, I/O interfacing
devices and application specific circuits.

Input devices
interfacing / Driver circuits

Program
Processor memory and data
memory

Power supply, Serial System

reset and Timers communication application
oscillator ports specific
circuit circuits

Interrupt Parallel ports

controller

Output interfacing
/ Driver circuits

Fig. 1.1: Block diagram of Embedded system

• As mentioned earlier, embedded systems consists of hardware and software designed for a
specific application.
• The illustration of basic structure of embedded system is shown in Fig. 1.2.
Processor
A-D D-A
Sensor and Actuator
converter converter
ASIC

Memory

Fig. 1.2: Basic structure of Embedded system

S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 1-3 Introduction to Embedded ….

• As shown in Fig. 1.2, embedded system is consists of sensor, ADC (Analog to Digital
Converter), processor, DAC (Digital to analog Converter), actuators, memory etc.
• Sensor measures the physical quantity and converts it into an electrical signal. The output of a
sensor is usually in analog form.
• ADC converts this analog output received by sensor into digital signal.
• Processor processes the data, calculates the output and stores it in memory.
• As this data has to be transmitted for further process or action, it has to be converted in to
analog form again.
• DAC converts this digital output into analog form.
• Actuator compares the data with the expected output which is stored in memory and then
further action is taken by the actuator.
Characteristics of Embedded Systems
• Embedded system usually performs a specialized operation.
• Embedded system must be of size to fit on a single chip.
• It must perform fast enough to process the data in real time.
• It has consumed less power to extent battery life.
• It has to monitor the data without any delay to give real time outputs.
• Microprocessor or microcontroller is used as a processor in embedded system.
• Memory has to be sufficient to store its software.
• It should contain peripherals to connect input/output devices.
• Software must be flexible and secure with more features.
Advantages of Embedded System:
• Low power consumption.
• Low cost.
• Small size.
• Enhanced real time performance.
• Easily customizable for a specific application .
Disadvantages of Embedded System
• High development cost.
• Time consuming design process.
• As its application specific, less market available.

1.2 Single Board Computers (SBC)

• A single board computer or SBC is a whole computer constructed on a single circuit
board having memory, microprocessor, I/O devices and other features which are required
for a functional computer.
• Personal computers have add-on slots in which various add-on cards can be inserted.
However, SBC does not have any extra slots for I/O devices.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 1-4 Introduction to Embedded ….

• Some SBC have plugs into backplane for system expansion.

• SBC usually use static RAM, low cost 8 bit microprocessor and few I/O/ devices.
Advantages of SBC:
• Easy to use.
• It has verified hardware.
• SBC has adaptability.
• Good performance at low price.
• Portable
• SBC has GPIO (General purpose input output) capability to interact with outside world.
• Low power consumption.
• Good support available for most of the SBC.
• SBC has small form factor and good computational quality.
Disadvantages of SBC:
• Usually delicate (electrically).
• If SBC is designed for an application or product which is in the high capacity category
then it is cost effective otherwise it may cost more as compared with SOC (system on
chip).
• Lot of customization on SBC can be difficult.
• SBC are not as powerful as the personal computers (PC). However, due to fewer
components on single board, SBC usually consume less power and so do not dissipate
much heat. Therefore, SBC in the smart phone can be used for entire day without
charging and without cooling it.
• All electronic gadgets such as smart phone, tablets contain SBC. Single Board Computers
are frequently used in embedded applications.
• An embedded computer cannot be expanded beyond its capability of I/O devices. For
example, a vending machine can have an embedded single board computer to control all
the functions of vending machine, but there is no provision to add more hardware to
expand the system.
• In many cases, SBCs are plugged into a backplane which allows for input/output devices
to be attached to the computer.
• SBC have all the capacity required for most of the automation tasks.
• SBC generally have less capacity than a multi-board computer.
• SBC are specialized equipment designed for a specific application. So, SBC are not
manufactured in large quantities as compared to multi-board computers.
• SBCs are mainly used in industrial applications.
1.2.1 Single Board Computer Block Diagram
Block diagram of SBC is shown in Fig. 1.3 The main blocks of SBC are Processor, memory,
General Purpose Input/Output (GPIO) pins, Ethernet port, External USB ports, microSD slot,
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 1-5 Introduction to Embedded ….

composite video/audio output, power supply, status LEDs etc. As per the application, the slots can
vary.

Ethernet port
USB slot for
Memory
power supply

microSD
slot
GPIO pins Processor Single board
computer
External
HDMI Composite USB ports
connector video/audio out

Status
LEDs

Fig. 1.3: Block diagram of SBC

• A Single Board Computer (SBC) is a complete computer built on a single circuit board as
shown in Fig. 1.3.
• Basic blocks of SBC are shown in Fig. 1.3.
• The heart of the SBC is processor. Usually ARM processors are used in SBC.
• Static RAM (8 bit/16 bit) is mostly used in SBC.
• SBC contains GPIO header to interface input and output devices such as sensors, displays,
keyboards etc.
• External USB ports are provided to interface other devices.
• Ethernet port is also provided to connect other devices to SBC.
• HDMI port provides digital video and audio output.
• MicroSD slots are given on SBC to increase the available memory.
• Usually SBC operates on 5V Dc power supply which can be connected through micro USB
slot.
• SBC can have various extra ports and slots as per the need or application.
1.2.2 Types of SBC
• There are two basic broad categories of SBCs; those which contain passive backplane and
other are standalone SBCs.
• Backplane SBC has the advantage of a standard interface for expansion cards such as ISA,
PCI etc.
• Standalone SBCs also has expansion cards which are less standardized. Backplane SBCs
works with various architectures including Intel architecture.
• Single Board Computers are used in variety of application. SBCs are designed for a
specific application for example, Raspberry Pi which was developed as an educational tool
to help, encourage and strengthened the programming skills of students.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 1-6 Introduction to Embedded ….

• The BeagleBoard and BeagleBone were also developed to help, educate and promote the
benefits and usage of open source hardware/software in embedded computing.
• Specifications of SBCs vary as per the application. Some of the SBCs come with I/O
interfaces required for audio applications, networking applications or wireless
applications. Some of the SBC contains expansion slots for PCI, ISA, VGA etc.
• SBC uses various types of processors such as ARM, Intel, other power architectures. Each
processor family has its own attributes that appeal to a specific application. ARM
processor is based on RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) architecture has digital
signal processing capabilities. ARM processor is very popular for its low power
consumption. Intel processor is mainly used in defense and aerospace applications. Power
architecture is based on RISC which supports legacy upgrades.
• Most of the SBCs use Linux operating system.
• Popular examples of SBCs are Raspberry Pi, BeagleBoard, BeagleBone, PandaBoard,
Cubieboard, Marsboard, Hackberry, Udoo, APC 8750, Intel Thin etc.
• Important Factors considered while selecting SBC are power, form factor, backward pin
compatibility, processor type, memory, operating system, I/O devices, overall
performance.
1.2.3 Comparison of SBC Models
• Single Board Computers are used in most of the electronic gadgets such as smart phones,
tablets.
• Some notable SBCs are available in the market for the development of hardware and
software such as Raspberry Pi, Beagles (BeagleBoard, BeagleBoardxM, BeagleBone,
BeagleBone Black), PandaBoard, MK802, MK808, Cubieboard, MarsBoard, Hackberry,
Udoo, DragonBoard. Intel Joule, nVidia Jetson etc. Recently, Intel has introduced Atom
processor based on MinnowBoard.
• However, out of all these types, Raspberry Pi and The Beagles/BeagleBone Black are most
cost effective and small sized SBCs.
• Below section describes the specifications and details of I/O devices of these SBCs.
Features of few SBCs are given below:
1. BCM5871X
• The BCM5871X is a series of quad-core 64-bit ARM processor specifically designed for
networking applications and NFV applications, control panel processing for Ethernet
switches.
• Network attached storage (NAS) etc. The BMC5871X has advanced computing,
networking and virtualization functions on a single SoC (System-on chip) with good
performance and power efficiency.
Features:
o Quad-core ARM Cortex.
o Hardware virtualization support.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 1-7 Introduction to Embedded ….

o Advanced power management mode.

o Support for open source projects and development models.
2. TI AM3358 based on ARM Cortex-A8
• The TI AM3358 processors offer a cost effective solution for industry applications. These
processors combine interface peripherals and display capabilities.
• The AM3358 is an ARM Cortex microprocessor with image graphics, peripherals and
industrial interface options. It supports high level operating systems, Linux, Android etc. It
also supports real-time responses, specialized data handling operations.
Features:
o 32 bit RISC processor with 64 kB RAM.
o External memory interfaces.
o General purpose memory controller.
o Error locator model.
o Power, reset and clock management.
3. Intel Atom T5500
• Intel Atom T5500 and T5700 are quad core Atom processor based on Intel Goldmont
architecture.
• It contains new 18EU Intel Gen9 graphics and media GPU with quick sync technology for
4K video encoding and decoding. It includes various peripherals related to IoT.
Features:
o Contains sensor Hub processor.
o Has power management.
o USB 3.0 and 2.0 ports.
o 12C, UART, PWM and GPIOs.
o Up to 6x MIPI CSI cameras.
o Integrate WiFi and Bluetooth through PCI Express interface.
4. NVIDIA
• NVIDIA is the ARM Cortex A15 based quad core CPU having very good performance and
widely used in mobile applications.
• It contains second generation battery saver CPU core. It is power efficient. NVIDIA is the
first multi-core mobile system-on-chip processor (SoC) introduced in 2011.
Features:
o Has full featured Web browsing.
o Console class gaming.
o Significantly high performance.
o More efficient user interface.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 1-8 Introduction to Embedded ….

5. Snapdragon 410
• Snapdragon 410 is 64 bit ARM Cortex A53 SoC mostly used in mobile phones.
• It is quad core processor and has Adreno 306 graphics card, memory controller,
Bluetooth, UMT/LTE radio etc.
The comparison of above SBCs is given in below table.
Table 2.1 : Comparison of SBCs
Processor Broadcom TI AM3358 based Intel Atom T5700 nVidia Qualcomm
BCM2837 based on ARM Cortex- 4-plus-1 based Snapdragon 410C
on ARM Cortex- A8 on ARM based on ARM
A53 Cortex-A15 Cortex-A53
Architecture 64 bit RISC 32 bit RISC 64 bit x86 32 bit RISC 64 bit RISC
Cores Quad cores Single core Quad core Quad core Quad core
Clock Speed 1.2 GHz 1 GHz 1.7 GHz burst to 2.3 GHz 1.2 GHz
2.4 GHz
GPU Broadcom Power VR Intel HD nVidia Aualcomm Adreno
VideoCore IV SGX530 Kepler GPU 306
Memory Type LPDDR2 DDR3 LPDDR4 DDR3L LPDDR3
Memory 1 GH 512 MB 4 GB 2 GB 1 GB
Onboard Storage No 4 GB 16 GB 16 GB 8 GB
eMMC Flash eMMC Flash eMMC Flash eMMC Flash
Supported Android, Various Android, Various Ubuntu Desktop/ Linux 4 Tegra Android, Various
Operating Linux Distributions, Linux Core, (Ubuntu), Linux Distributions
Systems Windows 10 IoT Distributions Ostro/Yocto Android Windows 10 IoT
Core Linux, Windows Core
10 IoT Core
Wifi facility Yes No Yes No Yes
Bluetooth facility Yes No Yes No Yes
GPIO 40 possible with 69 possible with 8 Dedicated/ 48 8 Dedicated 12
remapping remapping when remapping
interface pins
GPIO Voltage 3.3 V 3.3 V 1.8 V 1.8 V 1.8 V
PWM 2 8 4 4 0
USB 4 × Type A 1 × Type A-mini 1 × Type C 3.1, 1 × Type A- 1 × Type A-micro,
Client, 1 × Type A 3.0 Micro, 2 × Type A 2.0
1 × Type A Host 1 × Type A 3.0
… (Contd.)
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 1-9 Introduction to Embedded ….

PCIe No No 1 Port - Half Mini-PCIE No

5GB/s slot
Camera Interface Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
1 × MIPI-CSI 1 × GPMC 2 × MIPI-CSI 2 × MIPI-CSI, 1 × MIPI-CSI
x4 and x1
HDMI Output 1080p60 1080p24 1080p60 2160p30 1080p30
Display Interface HDMI micro HDMI HDMI, HDMI, LVDS HDMI,
MIPI-DSI (4K) MIPI-DSI
4K Video Encode No No 4k × 2kp60 4kx2kp24 1080p30
(H.264), (H.264) (H.264)
4kx2kp30 (MVC),
1080p60 (VP8),
1080p30
(VP9)
4K Video Decode No No 4kx2kp60 4kx2kp30 1080p30
(H.264, MVC, (H.264) (H.264), 720p
VP8, VP9) (H.265)
Power 250 - 750 mA @ 210 - 640 mA @ 130 - 600 mA, @ 250 - 4800 mA 50 - 400 mA @
Consumption 5V 5V 12V @ 12V 12V
1.2.4 Comparison of Raspberry Pi and BeagleBone
• Raspberry Pi is a Single Board computer developed in United Kingdom by Raspberry Pi
Foundation. It is specially developed for educational purpose. It is high performance
computer with low cost. Raspberry Pi is used in development of the projects such as retro
gaming arcade, cryptocurrency wallet, home theatre PC etc.
Features:
o Quad core 64 bit ARM Cortex A53 processor.
o 4 USB ports.
o HDMI video outputs.
o VideoCore IV multimedia.
BeagleBone:
• BeagleBone is a low cost, community supported development platform for all learners.
• It is tiny open-software which can be used for any type of small projects. BeagleBone
Black model has mechanical and header compatibility.
Features:
o 3D graphics.
o NEON Floating point processor.
o 5V Dc External Via Expansion Header.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 1-10 Introduction to Embedded ….

o Optional onboard serial header.

o Has Wifi, Bluetooth.
• BeagleBone Black has faster processor and RAM, internal flash storage, DC power jack, an
excellent OS support. Raspberry Pi is specially developed for educational purpose.
• It is a teaching/learning resource. BeagleBone is useful for developers. Raspberry Pi is suitable
for the applications which involve media centre or GUI. BeagleBone is suitable for embedded
systems or robotics.
• In next chapter Raspberry Pi, its pin configuration, I/O devices and all other details will be
discussed.
1.3 Input / Output Devices
• Single board computers (SBC) contains less number of circuits on the board by reducing
connectors and bus driver circuits that has to be used in PCs. SBC consists of input output
devices which are inbuilt or can be connected through connectors.
• Some of the SBC has slots in which I/O devices can be connected.
• Embedded SBCs contains units providing all required I/O with no provision for plug in
cards.
• Usually SBCs are plugged into a backplane to provide support to I/O cards.
Some of the standard input and output devices which are commonly used in embedded
systems/SBC are discussed in this section.
1.3.1 Memory
• Basic types of memories are primary and secondary and then RAM (Random Access
Memory) and ROM (Read only Memory) as shown in below Fig. 1.4.

Memory

Primary Secondary

Masked
SRAM DRAM NVRAM Flash EEPROM EPROM PROM
ROM

Fig. 1.4: Types of Memories

• As shown in Fig. 1.4, types of primary memory are SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
and DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory).
• Types of secondary memories are Masked ROM, Non-volatile RAM, Flash memory,
Programmable ROM (PROM), Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM) and Electrically
Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM).
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 1-11 Introduction to Embedded ….

• Usually embedded system consists of tiny memory chips from 128 MB or 32MB. SBCs
usually contain flash memory from 2 GB to 32 GB. Some of them have memory expansion
slots.
1.3.2 Keyboard and Mouse
• This is one of the input devices. A keyboard is an array of switches which can include
some internal logic circuit to interface the embedded systems.
• There are various types of keyboards used in embedded systems.
• The keyboards can be interfaced to SBC through USB port or on backplane. Some of
them are discussed below.
(i) Membrane Keyboard:
o In membrane keyboard, the keys are cushioned with rubber or silicone shell. These keys
are very sensitive to the pressure applied on it.
o Membrane keyboard consists of three layers such as a top membrane layer, an inner
middle layer and a bottom membrane layer.
o A conductive which is in between these two layers gets activated when a pressure is
applied on it. This type of keyboard can work better with high speed of typing.
o Membrane keyboards are available at reasonable cost. However, if keys are not hit
properly with sufficient pressure then keys are not registered. This is the major issue of
membrane keyboard.
o Another problem is due to rubber dome membrane. There is a rubber dome membrane
which supports all the keys. This membrane is designed to resist depression. However,
due to this membrane, the keys may not resume their original position after user
withdraws his finger from the key.
(ii) Mechanical Keyboards:
o Mechanical keyboards are very popular due to its durability and responsiveness
(accuracy). They are expensive compared with membrane keyboards.
o Key switches are used in mechanical keyboards by which keys hit a keystroke and
physically trigger a switch that sends a signal to register the key press.
o Working mechanism of mechanical keyboards and membrane keyboard is similar.
o Mechanical keyboard also resists keystroke that is the keys return to their initial position
once a user removes their fingers. In these types of keyboards, it uses springs instead of
rubber membrane. Springs result in smoother and more accurate keystrokes. This feature
makes mechanical keyboard more superior and popular.
o It also supports high typing speed with long durability. However, mechanical keyboards
produce more noise during use as compared with membrane keyboards.
(iii) Wireless Keyboards:
o The main benefit of wireless keyboards is that it reduces wiring and can be operated from
a distance.
o Two main technologies are used in wireless keyboards, Bluetooth and radio-frequency
(RF).
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 1-12 Introduction to Embedded ….

o Bluetooth is the most popular technology used to interface the keyboard to SBC. It has
limited range of communication. Radio- frequency keyboards utilize a broadcast
technique similar to Wi-fi and can be interfaced to SBC. Through USB dongle these
keyboards can be attached with SBC.
o Wireless keyboards need recharging periodically, modern keyboards usually can work for
months.
(iv) Rollup USB Keyboards:
o Nowadays, rollup USB wired keyboards are available in market. These keyboards can
blend easily and further can be rolled.
o They are small in size and light in weight. Due to its compact structure, they are
becoming popular in travelling professionals.
o Rollup keyboards are similar to the basic keyboard, only their manufacturing is little bit
different than the basic keyboard.
o Rollup keyboards are generally waterproof. They are designed to resist spills and
immersion in water. This keyboard produces very low noise which can be barely detected.
(v) Projection Keyboards:
o Projection keyboards are also known as Optical Virtual keyboard. They are latest
innovation in the keyboard technology.
o They usually use lasers to display a visible virtual keyboard onto a surface.
o When a user selects a key on the virtual keyboard, then optical sensor or camera senses
the finger movement which is translated it into actions. Then Computer software
identifies the key and further the character pressed by the user is recognized.
(vi) TouchScreen:
o Touchscreen is an input/output device. It can be used as keyboard and also as a display.
o The touchscreen registers the position of a touch on its surface and accordingly displays
the information on the screen.
o Two types of touchscreens resistive and capacitive are usually used in SBC.
o A resistive touchscreen uses a two dimensional voltmeter to sense the position on the
screen. It consists of two conductive sheets separated by spacer balls. The top conductive
sheet is flexible so that it can touch the bottom sheet. A voltage is applied across the
sheet whose resistance causes a voltage gradient to appear across the sheet. An analog
to digital converter is used to measure the voltage and resulting position. The resistive
touchscreen is usually used in industrial applications and can be suitable for roughest
surroundings. Resistive touchscreen are also operable with gloves and touchscreen
pencils.
o Capacitive touchscreen displays are mostly used at places where a very high light
transmission is needed. The coating of SiO2 makes the surface of capacitive touchscreen
very scratch resistance. So they are usually used for applications at public places.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 1-13 Introduction to Embedded ….

• These are the few types of keyboards which are commonly used in embedded systems or
in SBCs. The keyboards which are used in PCs are more expensive and use a
microprocessor to identify the key press. The major advantage of using microprocessor is
that it can provide debouncing of the keys.
1.3.3 Display
Display is an output device. Usually, monitors are used as a display device in Personal
Computers.
(i) LCD :
• In SBC or in embedded systems usually LCD is used as a display which can be interfaced
through a slot. Size of LCD display is selected as per the application.
• Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) consists of several layers, polarized panel filters and
electrodes. The rod shaped tiny molecules are sandwiched between a flat piece of glass
and an opaque substrate. When electric charge is applied to it, these rod shaped
molecules align into two different physical positions. When electric charge is applied they
align to block the light entering thorough them and if charge is not applied then they
become transparent. When light passes through it, the desired image appears on it. LCD
is thin, flat and consumes very less energy as compared with LED displays of CRTs
(Cathode Ray Tubes).
• Types of LCD are based on displayed data such as Segment LCD, Graphical LCD, Colour
LCD etc. Segment LCD displays numbers, letters and fixed symbol. They are usually used
in industrial panels. Graphical LCD has pixels in rows and columns. By energizing a
particular set of pixels, any character can be displayed. Color LCD has two types such as
Passive Matrix and Active Matrix. Passive color LCD is simple to implement as compared
with Active color LCD. Active color LCD is sharp and has better viewing angle.
• Main specifications of LCD are resolution, viewable size, response time, refresh rate,
matrix type, viewing angle, contrast angle, aspect ratio etc.
• LCDs are used in SBC or in embedded systems as they consumes very less power, they are
small in size, low weight, flat, portable, no flicker, less screen glare which reduces
eyestrain. However, LCDs cannot display multiple resolution images. The contrast ratio for
LCD images is lesser than CRT and plasma display.
• LCD has longer response time because of which ghost images can appear or images can
be mixed.
• LCD also has narrow viewing angle which can reduce image quality. But for most of the
industrial applications LCDs are used as a display.
(ii) LED :
• Light Emitting Diode (LED) display consists of array of LEDs to emit red, green and blue
light which forms color images. LED display mainly used for outdoor big screens, traffic
lights, in TVs etc.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 1-14 Introduction to Embedded ….

(iii) Plasma :
• Plasma display is also flat display. Plasma display emits light by itself. Each pixel of plasma
display is illuminated by a tiny bit of plasma or charged gas. The mercury vapor is
inserted into vacuum glass tube. When voltage is applied, the gas generates the effect of
plasma and emits ultraviolet light which excites the phosphor to generate visible light.
Each pixel is generated by three different colors (Red, Green, Blue) which creates color
image.
1.4 Network Access Devices
• Single Board Computers and embedded systems use various network access devices for
the wired and wireless communication. Three types of embedded networking devices
which are widely used are discussed in this section.
(i) Ethernet:
• Ethernet is the standard networking device used to connect computers on a network
using wired connection.
• It is simple interface and also used to connect SBC to other devices.
• A single router and a few Ethernet cables can create a Local Area Network (LAN) which
connects devices to communicate to each other.
• Ethernet can operate in a small area such as a room, office or cabin.
• Ethernet is a network protocol that controls data transmission of LAN. When any device
connected in the network wanted to send the data to another device, it senses the carrier
on the connecting wires. If it is free, then it sends the data packet on the network. Other
device check the packet, if it is the expected receiver then it receives data.
• Ethernet connects any computer or any electronic device to its network through Ethernet
adapter or network card.
• A network interface card either integrated into the motherboard of computer or on SBC
or separately installed in the device. For Ethernet networking, a router, hub, switch or
gateway is required. A hub is a device that acts as a connecting point between devices on
a network. Cable is unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables used in Ethernet LAN. These
cables are similar to the cables which are used for landline telephone. Ethernet can be
managed on Windows, Linex or macOS.
• Most Ethernet devices are backward compatible and can be used with lower speed
Ethernet cables and devices.
• Ethernet is still the standard for wired networking. However, today it has been replaced
by wireless networks such as Wi-fi, Bluetooth etc.
(ii) CAN Bus :
• The Control Area Network (CAN) protocol is specially developed for automotive industry.
• CAN is a serial network which can be used to establish local connections between
microcontroller in a motor vehicle.
• CAN bus protocol is a two-wire, half duplex system which is suitable for high speed
transfer of short messages.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 1-15 Introduction to Embedded ….

• CAN was basically developed to reduce cable wiring and separate electronic control units
inside the vehicle can communicate to each other.
• CAN is low cost and durable network. The major advantage of CAN is that electronic
control unit can have single CAN interface rather than having multiple analog /digital
inputs to every device. Thus, CAN reduce overall cost and weight of a system in
automobiles.
• In CAN, all the devices have CAN controller chip and so all devices can see all transmitted
messages. Each device can decide whether the message is relevant or should be filtered.
Devices can be added in CAN without any modification in the network.
• Every message in CAN has a priority. So if two devices try to send message
simultaneously, the one with highest priority can only transmit the message.
• CAN also include Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) code for error checking of all received
messages. Frames or messages with errors are disregarded by all the nodes or devices
and error frame can be transmitted to indicate the error in the network.
• CAN is mostly used in automobile industry. However, because of various advantages,
today CAN is used in various applications such as streetcars, light railways, long distance
trains, navigation systems, medical equipments, automatic doors etc.
(iii) I2C :
• I2C is a two wire, half duplex serial communication protocol with multi-master, multi-
slave architecture.
• I2C is used to interface low speed devices like microcontrollers, EEPROMs, A/D, D/A, I/O
peripheral or in similar embedded devices. It was invented by Philips.
• I2C bus is popular because it is simple and can have more than one master. Each slave
device has a unique address. Communication between master and slave is serial. So data
can be transferred bit by bit.
• I2C is used for single boards and also used to connect various components which are
linked via cable. I2C requires only two bus lines for communication.
• I2C can work with any baud rate. Simple master-slave relationship exists between all
components in I2C. Each device has a unique address. I2C also include collision detection
and provide arbitration.
• There are various other network devices used in SBC or in embedded systems. Most
popular and widely used network access devices and protocols are discussed in this
section.

Think Over It

• List the differences between microcontroller and SBC.

• Can Arduino called as SBC? Explain.
• Can SoC called as SBC?
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 1-16 Introduction to Embedded ….

Points to Remember
• An embedded system is a computer system which can perform many tasks such as to access,
to process, to store, to control the data in various electronic systems.
• Embedded system is a combination of hardware and software.
• One of the important features of the embedded systems is that it gives the output within the
specified time limits.
• The hardware of embedded system mainly consists of power source,
microcontroller/microprocessor, timers, memory, I/O devises etc.
• A single board computer or SBC is a whole computer constructed on a single circuit board
having memory, microprocessor, I/O devices and other features which are required for a
functional computer.
• SBC usually use static RAM, low cost 8 bit microprocessor and few I/O/ devices.
• There are two basic broad categories of SBCs; those which contain passive backplane and
other are standalone SBCs.
• Backplane SBC has the advantage of a standard interface for expansion cards such as ISA, PCI
etc.
• Standalone SBCs also has expansion cards which are less standardized. Backplane SBCs works
with various architectures including Intel architecture.
• Popular examples of SBCs are Raspberry Pi, BeagleBoard, BeagleBone, PandaBoard,
Cubieboard, Marsboard, Hackberry, Udoo, APC 8750, Intel Thin etc.
• Raspberry Pi is a Single Board computer developed in United Kingdom by Raspberry Pi
Foundation. It is specially developed for educational purpose. It is high performance
computer with low cost.
• BeagleBone is a low cost, community supported development platform for all learners.
• Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) consists of several layers, polarized panel filters and electrodes.
• Main specifications of LCD are resolution, viewable size, response time, refresh rate, matrix
type, viewing angle, contrast angle, aspect ratio etc.
• Light Emitting Diode (LED) display consists of array of LEDs to emit red, green and blue light
which forms color images.
• Plasma display emits light by itself. Each pixel of plasma display is illuminated by a tiny bit of
plasma or charged gas.
• Ethernet is the standard networking device used to connect computers on a network using
wired connection.
• Most Ethernet devices are backward compatible and can be used with lower speed Ethernet
cables and devices.
• The Control Area Network (CAN) protocol is specially developed for automotive industry.
• CAN bus protocol is a two-wire, half duplex system which is suitable for high speed transfer
of short messages.
• I2C is a two wire, half duplex serial communication protocol with multi-master, multi-slave
architecture.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 1-17 Introduction to Embedded ….

Exercises
[A] True or False :
1. A single board computer or SBC is a whole computer constructed on a single circuit
board having memory, microprocessor, I/O devices and other features which are required
for a functional computer.
2. The Control Area Network (CAN) protocol is specially developed for chemical industry.
3. Mechanical keyboard has more durability compared with other type of keyboards.
4. BeagleBone is a low cost, community supported development platform for all learners.
5. Usually ARM processors are used in SBC.
[B] Multiple Choice Questions :
1. Which of the following is NOT a disadvantage of embedded systems?
(a) High development cost (b) Time consuming design process
(c) Less market available (d) Small size
2. Ethernet port is provided to connect other devices to SBC. True or False?
(a) True (b) False
3. Which of the following is a type of SBC?
(a) Toshiba (b) BeagleBone
(c) Intel (d) Sony
4. LED consumes more energy than LCD. True or False?
(a) True (b) False
5. CAN protocol is specifically designed for _________ industry.
(a) Pharmaceutical (b) Home automation
(c) Automobiles (d) Farming
[C] Fill in the Blanks:
1. Embedded system is a combination of _____ and _____.
2. The disadvantage of embedded system is _____ development cost.
3. HDMI port provides digital ____ and _____ output.
4. ____ slots are given on SBC to increase the available memory.
5. Most of the SBCs use _____ operating system.
6. BeagleBone Black is a type of ____ .
[D] Short Answer Questions:
1. What is an embedded system?
2. What is SBC?
3. State any two characteristics of embedded system.
4. State any two features of SBC.
5. State any two advantages and disadvantages of embedded system.
6. Define SBC.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 1-18 Introduction to Embedded ….

7. Why SBC are popular and preferred in some of the applications?

8. State any types of SBC.
9. Compare any two SBCs.
10. What are the different types of memories?
11. State any two types of keyboards.
12. Write types of network access devices of embedded system or SBC.
[E] Long Answer Questions:
1. Draw and explain the block diagram of single board computer.
2. List characteristics of embedded system.
3. Draw and explain the block diagram of embedded system.
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of SBC?
5. Explain any two types of SBC in detail.
6. Compare any three types of SBC.
7. Explain types of memory in detail.
8. Explain membrane keyboard.
9. Explain mechanical keyboard.
10. What are different types of keyboards?
11. Write a short note on LCD display.
12. Explain Ethernet in detail.
13. What id I2C protocol?
14. Explain CAN protocol.

Answers
[A] True or False :
(1) True (2) False (3) True
(4) True (5) True
[B] Multiple Choice Questions :
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (c)
[C] Fill in the Blanks :
(1) Hardware and Software (2) High (3) Video and Audio
(4) MicroSD (5) Linux (6) SBC

✍✍✍
Unit 2…
Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)
th
Eben Christopher Upton is born on 5 April 1978 and is a British
technical director and ASIC architect for Broadcom. He is also a
founder and former trustee of the Raspberry Pi Foundation, and now
CEO of Raspberry Pi (Trading) Ltd.
He has completed a Bachelor of Arts degree in Physics and
Engineering in 1999 at the University of Cambridge . Then he went on
to do the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science graduating in
2001.
After his diploma, Upton was a research student in the Computer
Laboratory, University of Cambridge. After finishing his Ph.D. he took
a Master of Business Administration (MBA) at the Cambridge Judge
Eben Christopher Upton Business School while working in industry.
Upton was Director of Studies in Computer Science at St John's College, Cambridge, with
responsibility for undergraduate admissions. During his academic career, he co-authored papers
on mobile services, Human–computer interaction (HCI), Bluetooth and data dependency graphs.
He has been a visiting Researcher at Intel Corporation, Founder and Chief Technology Officer at
Idea works 3D and a software engineer at IBM.

Introduction
• A System-on-chip (SoC) is an integrated circuits (IC) which has most of the components of a
computer or any electronic system. These components include CPU (Central Processing Unit),
memory, I/O devices, graphical processing unit (GPU) etc.
• SoC is a complete electronic system which may contain analog, digital or radio frequency
functions. SoC is specially designed to meet the standards of required electronic circuits of
various computer components onto a single substrate or chip. Thus, instead of assembling
several chips and components onto a circuit board, the SoC fabricates all required circuits into
one unit.
• Unlike the motherboard based PC architecture which has various components on a circuit
board, SoC integrates all these components on a single chip.
• As SoC is an IC which contains both hardware /software, it consumes less power and has
better performance. It has small size and it is more reliable than multi chip systems.
• Best examples of SoC are smart phones, Internet of Things, embedded systems, tablets,
mobile computing, edge computing etc.
• There are some issues with SoC such as higher prototyping and architecture costs, it is more
complex to debug. It is not cost effective and requires more time to manufacture.
Advantages of SoC:
The basic purpose of using SoC is to have all components on a single chip with minimum
components.
(2.1)
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-2 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

The advantages of SoC are:

• Size of SoC is small and it includes many features and functions.
• SoC consumes less power.
• SoC is flexible in terms of chip size, power, form factor (form factor refers to the size,
shape, and physical specifications of hardware components) .
• As SoC is build on a single chip for a specific application, it is cost effective if produced in
large quantity.
• As SoCs are highly integrated, hard cores can be used to implement highly computational
functions in hardware.
Disadvantages of SoC:
• The designing process of SoC usually takes six to twelve months. So it is time consuming
to have SoC for a specific application.
• If any component on SoC is not functioning properly, then it cannot be replaced. In that
case, entire SoC has to be replaced.
• Visibility of SoC is limited.
In previous chapter, Single Board Computer (SBC) was thoroughly studied. Here the
differences between SoC and SBC are listed as:
• SBC is a whole computer constructed on a single printed circuit board (PCB) which
contains memory, processor, I/O and other slots. SoC is an integrated circuit (IC) or silicon
chip which has all the components fabricated on silicon chip.
• Many peripherals are connected to SBC through slots given on it. SoC have all the
components integrated on it. So SBCs are more adaptable as compared with SoC. One
single mistake while designing the SoC can be very expensive as it is a chip.
• SBC and SoC are entirely different to each other. SoC is a significant component of SBC.
• SoCs are widely used in industry as they have small form factor, less power consumption
and small size. SBCs are used to advance the end product.
• SBC has inbuilt hardware and software which includes SoCs, memory, connectivity
interfaces, USB, CAN, HDMI, video/audio inputs etc.
2.1 Architecture of SoC
SoC is a small chip which contains
all required components and circuits of Memory Voltage
(RAM/ROM) Oscillator regulator
a particular system.
Usually, SoC contains memory,
Power
application processor, voltage ADC Processor management
regulators, power management circuits, unit
timing sources such as oscillators,
External
external interface for USB, Universal DAC interface UART
Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter for USB
(UART), RAM/ROM, ADC/DAC, operating
system etc. The basic block diagram of Fig. 2.1 : Block diagram of SoC
SoC is shown in Fig. 2.1.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-3 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

• Basic architecture of SoC is shown in Fig. 2.1. Processor is the heart of SoC. Usually, SoC
has multiple core processors. It can be a microcontroller, a microprocessor or digital
signal processor or an application specific instruction set processor.
• SoC contains memory for storage. It may have RAM, ROM, EEPROM or flash memory.
• SoC include external interfaces such as USB, Ethernet, HDMI or can have Wi-fi and
Bluetooth which help to meet the industry standard communication protocol.
• SoC also has GPU (Graphical Processing Unit) to visualize the interface.
• Voltage regulators, oscillators, clocks, ADC/DAC are also part of SoC.
• Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) is included which is used to transmit
or receive serial data.
• SoC has internal interface bus or network to connect all the individual blocks on SoC.
As mentioned earlier, SoC is a silicon chip having all the components fabricated on it which
makes its size very small and also reduces wiring. Nowadays, SoCs are becoming popular because
of its application, small size and low power consumption.

2.2 Basic Version Board Coprocessor

Raspberry Pi has Basic version board processor, the details of which are discussed below.
Raspberry Pi:
Raspberry Pi is a small single board computer (SBC). Raspberry Pi foundation is registered as
an UK based Educational Charity. The aim of the foundation is to provide low cost, high
performance computer capable of creating, modeling specific applications.
• Raspberry Pi is credit size computer which can be plugged into a monitor. It acts as
minicomputer by connecting keyboard, mouse and display.
• Raspberry Pi 3 is based on Broadcom System on Chip with an ARM processor.
• Raspberry Pi is widely used for real time image/video processing, robotics, IoT based
applications.
• Raspberry Pi foundation officially provides Debian based Raspbian OS and NOOBS OS.
Raspbian OS is freely available OS. Raspbian have GUI (Graphical User Interface) which
includes tools like browsing, python programming, games etc.
• Raspberry Pi provides access to GPIO for developing various applications such as LED,
motors, sensors etc.
• Raspberry Pi provides on-chip I2C, UART, I2S modules.
2.2.1 Architecture and Pin Configuration of Raspberry Pi
Raspberry Pi has ARM processor and 512MB RAM. The architecture of Raspberry Pi and its pin
description are discussed in this section. Below Fig. 2.2 shows the architecture of Raspberry Pi.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-4 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

General-purpose input/output pins

for connecting electronic components

Ethernet port

Micro SD card
(Underneath) USB ports

Micro USB Audio jack

power HDMI ports
Camera
module port

Fig. 2.2 : Raspberry Pi architecture

Source: https://projects.raspberrypi.org/en/projects/raspberry-pi-getting -started/2
Ethernet USB ports

HDMI Power supply

BCM2835 (SoC)

Display GPIO ports

SDcard Camera module

Fig. 2.3 : Main blocks of Raspberry Pi

Raspberry Pi mainly consists of following blocks:
• Processor: Raspberry Pi uses Broadcom BCM2835 System on Chip which is ARM
processor and Videocore Graphics Processing Unit (GPU). It is the heart of the Raspberry
Pi which controls the operations of all the connected devices and handles all the required
computations.
• HDMI: High Definition Multimedia Interface is used for transmitting video or digital audio
data to computer monitor or to digital TV. This HDMI port helps Raspberry Pi to connect
its signals to any digital device such as monitor or digital TV or display through HDMI
cable.
• GPIO ports: General Purpose Input Output ports are available on Raspberry Pi which
allows the user to interface various I/O devices.
• Audio output: Audio connector is available for connecting audio output devices such as
headphones, speakers.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-5 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

• USB ports: This is a common port available for various peripherals such as mouse,
keyboard or any other I/O device. With the help of USB port, the system can be expanded
by connecting more peripherals.
• SD card: SD card slot is available on Raspberry Pi. An SD card with an operating system
(OS) installed is required for booting the device.
• Ethernet: Ethernet connector allows access to wired network. It is available only on the
Model B of Raspberry Pi.
• Power supply: Micro USB power connector is available onto which a 5V Power supply
can be connected.
• Camera module: Camera Serial Interface (CSI) connects Broadcom processor to Pi
camera.
• Display: Display Serial Interface (DSI) is used for connecting LCD to Raspberry Pi using 15
pin ribbon cable. DSI provides high resolution display interface which is specifically used
for sending video data.
2.2.2 Pin Description of Raspberry Pi
A row of GPIO (General Purpose Input Output) pins is available on Raspberry Pi. A 40 pin
header is provided on Raspberry Pi as shown in below Fig. 2.4.

3v3 Power 1 2 5 V power

GPIO 2 (I2C1 SDA) 3 4 5 V power

GPIO 3 (I2C1 SCL) 5 6 Ground

GPIO 4 (GPCLK0) 7 8 GPIO 14 (UART TX)

Ground 9 10 GPIO 15 (UART RX)

GPIO 17 11 12 GPIO 18 (PCM CLK)

GPIO 27 13 14 Ground

GPIO 22 15 16 GPIO 23

3v3 Power 17 18 GPIO 24

GPIO 10 (SPI0 MOSI) 19 20 Ground

GPIO 9 (SPI0 MISO) 21 22 GPIO 25

GPIO 11 (SPI0 SCLK) 23 24 GPIO 8 (SPI0 CE0)

Ground 25 26 GPIO 7 (SPI0 CE1)

GPIO 0 (EEPROM SDA) 27 28 GPIO 1 (EEPROM SCL)

GPIO 5 29 30 Ground

GPIO 6 31 32 GPIO 12 (PWM0)

GPIO 13 (PWM1) 33 34 Ground

GPIO 19 (PCM FS) 35 36 GPIO 16

GPIO 26 37 38 GPIO 20 (PCM DIN)

Ground 39 40 GPIO 21 (PCM DOUT)

Fig. 2.4 : 40 pin header on Raspberry Pi

S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-6 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

• Any of GPIO pins can be used as an input or output pin if they are designated in the
software. The output pin can be set to high (3.3 V) or low (0 V). GPIO pin designated as an
input pin can be read as high (3.3 V) or low (0 V).
• Two 5 V (pin no. 2 & 4) and two 3.3 V (pin no. 1 & 17) pins are available on the Raspberry
Pi board. Also a number of ground pins (pin no. 6, 9, 14, 20, 25, 30, 34, 39) are available.
Remaining pins are all general purpose 3.3 V pins, that is outputs are set to 3.3 V and
inputs are 3.3 V tolerant.
• GPIO 2 and GPIO 3 pins (pin no. 3 & 5 ) : SDA (I2C1 & 2) are pins of the I2C on the Pi.
SDA includes a fixed 1.8 kΩ pull-up to 3.3 V. That is, these pins are not suitable for use as
a general purpose I/O where no pull-up resistor is desired.
• GPIO 14 & GPIO 15: These pins (pin no. 8 & 10) are used as transmit and receive pins for
UART on Pi.
• GPIO 0 & GPIO 1: These pins (pin no. 27 & 28) are generally kept reserved for I2C
communication with an EEPROM.
• GPIO 7 & GPIO 8: These pins (pin no. 24 & 26) are used as Special Peripheral Interface
(SPI) to communicate with other peripherals.
• GPIO 12 & GPIO 13: Hardware Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) are available on these
pins (pin no. 32 & 33).
• GPIO 19: Pin number 35 is used by PCM to provide a frame-sync signal to an external
audio device such as DAC.
• GPIO 20: Pin number 38 is used by PCM as data input from audio device such as an I2C
microphone.
• GPIO 21: Pin number 40 is used by PCM to provide a data output signal to an external
audio device such as DAC.
The brief description of all the pins of Raspberry Pi is tabulated in below table:
Table 2.1 : Pin Description of Raspberry Pi

Pin group Pin name Description

Power Source +5 V, +3.3 V, GND and Vin +5 V - power output

+3.3 V - power output
GND – GROUND pin

Communication Interface UART Interface (RXD, TXD) UART (Universal Asynchronous

[(GPIO 15,GPIO 14)] Receiver Transmitter) used for
interfacing sensors and other
devices.
… (Contd.)
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-7 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

Pin group Pin name Description

SPI Interface (MOSI, MISO, CLK,CE) SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) Other devices can be connected
× 2 [SPI 0-(GPIO 10, GPIO 9, used for communicating with other serially at these pins.
GPIO 11, GPIO 8)] [SPI 1--(GPIO 20, boards or peripherals.
GPIO 19, GPIO 21, GPIO 7)]
TWI Interface TWI (Two Wire Interface) Interface SDA, SCL etc. can be connected
(SDA, SCL) × 2 [(GPIO 2, GPIO 3)] can be used to connect peripherals. at these pins.
[(ID_SD,ID_SC)]
INPUT OUTPUT PINS 26 I/O Although these some pins have
multiple functions they can be
considered as I/O pins.
PWM Hardware PWM available on These 4 channels can provide
GPIO12, GPIO13, GPIO18, GPIO19 PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)
outputs.
*Software PWM available on all
pins.
EXTERNAL INTERRUPTS All I/Os In the board all I/O pins can be
used as Interrupts.
There are different versions of Raspberry Pi available today as listed below:
1. Raspberry Pi 1 Model A
2. Raspberry Pi 1 Model A+
3. Raspberry Pi 1 Model B
4. Raspberry Pi 1 Model B+
5. Raspberry Pi 2 Model B
6. Raspberry Pi 3 Model B
7. Raspberry Pi Zero
The features of Raspberry Pi models which are widely used today are given in below Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 : Features of Raspberry Pi Models
Features Raspberry Pi Model Raspberry Pi 2 Raspberry Pi 3 Raspberry Pi zero
B+ Model B Model B
SoC BCM2835 BCM2836 BCM2837 BCM2835
CPU ARM11 Quad Cortex A7 Quad Cortex A53 ARM11
Operating 700 MHz 900 MHz 1.2 GHz 1 GHz
Frequency
RAM 512 MB SDRAM 1 GB SDRAM 1 GB SDRAM 512 MB SDRAM
GPU 250 MHz Videocore IV 250 MHz Videocore IV 400 MHz Videocore IV 250 MHz Videocore IV
Storage Micro-SD Micro-SD Micro-SD Micro-SD
Ethernet Yes Yes Yes No
Wireless WiFi and Bluetooth No No No
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-8 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

2.3 Architectural Features of Raspberry Pi

As mentioned earlier, Raspberry Pi has various modules with advanced features. The
architectural features of Raspberry Pi are discussed in this section.
The Main Features of Raspberry Pi:
The main features of Raspberry Pi are listed as:
• First generation of Raspberry Pi consists of the quad core Broadcom BCM2835 SoC. It
includes ARM1176JZF-S processor, VideoCore 4 graphics processing unit (GPU) and 1 GB
RAM.
• BCM43438 wireless LAN and Bluetooth on board, 100 Base Ethernet.
• 40 pin extended GPIO.
• 4 USB 2 ports.
• 4 pole stereo output and composite video port.
• Full size HDMI.
• CSI camera port for connecting a Raspberry Pi camera.
• DSI display port for connecting a Raspberry Pi touchscreen display.
• Micro SD port for loading operating system and storing data.
• Micro USB power source.
The peripheral of BCM2835 and CPU used in Raspberry Pi is thoroughly discussed in below
section.
2.4 Peripherals used in BCM2835
• Raspberry Pi is a series of SBCs developed for people who are interested in basic
computer science. It gained popularity due to its usage in robotics, its small size and its
functionality.
• The first generation of Raspberry Pi used BroadCom2835 SoC. All models of Raspberry Pi
consist of Broadcom SoC.
• Broadcom SoC consists of ARM compatible CPU with on-chip GPU, VideoCore IV.
• The speed of CPU ranges from 700 MHz to 1.2 GHz.
• The on board memory ranges from 256 MB to 1 GB RAM. SD cards are used to store the
operating systems.
• Most of the Raspberry Pi boards have one to four USB slots, HDMI composite video
output and an audio jack.
• Lower level output is provided by GPIO pins which support I2C protocol. The recent
Raspberry B model has 8P8C Ethernet port and the Pi 3 and Pi Zero have Wi-fi 802.11 and
Bluetooth on board.
• The first generation of Raspberry Pi has 256 MB RAM, next generation doubled the RAM
whereas third generation doubled it further.
• Raspberry Pi 3 Model released in February 2016 consists of on board Wi-fi and Bluetooth.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-9 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

2.5 Raspberry Pi Processor

• The first generation of Raspberry Pi used BroadCom2835 SoC. The Raspberry Pi 2 uses
BCM2836. The third generation of Raspberry Pi used BCM2837 SoC.
• Over the years, the performance of Raspberry Pi goes on increasing. First generation
Raspberry Pi provides a performance similar to 300 MHz Pentium II, third generation of
Raspberry Pi increases its performance 10 times than first generation raspberry Pi.
• The details of BroadCom2835 are given below. The block diagram of BCM2835 is shown
in below Fig. 2.5.

Samsung K4P2G324ED
2G-bit DRAM ARM1176JZF-S
Stacked BGA ARM Processor Core

OpenGL-ES1.1/2.0
VideoCore GPU
HD Video Encoder / Decoder LCD
1080p MIPI LCD
I/O USB
CSI
H264, MPEG2, JPEG PAL / TV
I/O SPI Encoder / Decoder NTSC
1080p HDTV
Graphics Accelerator HDMI
I/O GPIO

Codec
I/O I2C
VideoCore 1 VideoCore 2
L
I/O UART0
Audio

Camera MIPI R
PLLs SDIO
CSI / ISP

Crystal
20 MegaPixel SD memory
@ 220MP/Sec

Fig. 2.5: Block diagram of BCM2835

• The BroadCom2835 is a System on Chip (SoC). It contains multimedia capabilities which
are used in mobile phones and portable devices.
• It provides full HD video and stereo audio.
• It contains VideoCore IV multimedia coprocessor, ARM1176JZ-F application processor
and GPU.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-10 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

• It also contains advanced Image Sensor Pipeline (ISP) for connecting 20 MP camera.
• It contains Timers, Interrupt controller, GPIO, USB, PCM, I2C, DMA controller, I2C/SPI
slave, SPIO, PWM, UART0, UART1.
• The BCM 2835 has 3 Auxiliary peripherals; one mini UART and two SPI masters. They
share same area in the peripheral and have common interrupts. They are controlled by
auxiliary enable register.
• Two auxiliary registers controls interrupt status register, auxiliary enable register.
• Mini UART has to be enabled before use. Mini UART has following features as:
o 7 or 8-bit operation.
o One start bit and one stop bit.
o No parities.
o Break generation.
o 8 symbols deep FIFOs for receive and transmit data.
o Auto flow control with programmable FIFO level.
o 16550 registers.
o Baud rate derived from system clock.
• However, as it is mini UART, it does not have following:
o Break detection.
o Framing error detection.
o Parity bit.
o Receive time-out interrupt.
o DSR (Data Set Ready), DTR (Data Terminal Ready), RI (ring Indicator) signals.
• Two SPIs (Special Peripheral Interface) have to be enabled before use. They have
following features:
o Single bit length between 1 and 32-bit.
o Multi beat infinite bit length.
o Three independent chip select per master.
o 32 bit wide transmit and receive FIFOs.
o Wide clocking range.
o Programmable data out hold time.
o Shift in-out MS or LS bit first.
o Clock inversion (idle high or idle low).
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-11 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

However, there are some issues with SPI. There is no SPI standard in any form. Some SPI
interfaces are widely used with memory devices, so their rules are followed. The universal SPI has
been developed to work with the non-standard SPI devices.

• The BroadCom Serial controller (BSC) is a master, fast mode (400 kb/s) BSC controller.
BSC is compatible to I2C bus.

• Majority of the hardware pipelines and peripherals of BCM2835 are bus master which
manages their own data.

• DMA (Direct Memory Access) controllers are directly connected to the peripherals. The
BCM2835 DMA controller provides 16 DMA channels.

• There are 54 general purpose I/O (GPIO) lines split into two banks. All GPIO have at least
two alternative functions. The GPIO peripherals have three dedicated interrupt lines.
These lines are triggered by the setting of bits in the event detect status register.

• The ARM has two types of interrupt sources; interrupt coming from the GPU peripherals,
interrupt coming from local ARM control peripherals and special events interrupts. For
each interrupt source (ARM or GPU) there is an interrupt enable bit (read/write) and an
interrupt pending bit (read only).

• The PCM audio interface provides high quality serial audio streams. It supports many
classic PCM formats including I2S.

• Pulse Width Modulator (PWM) controller have features as: (a) two independent output bit
streams, clocked at a fixed frequency (b) bit streams configured individually to output of
PWM or to serialized version of 32-bit word (c) PWM output have variable input and
output resolutions.

• Serial Interface Peripherals (SPI) have features as: (a) implement three wire aerial protocol
SPI or SSP (Synchronous Serial Protocol) (b) provide supports for polled interrupt or DMA
operation (c) implements LoSSI Master (Low Speed Serial Interface).

• The BCM2835 has two UARTs (Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter). The UART
performs serial to parallel conversion of data characters received from external peripheral
devices or modem. The UART provides separate 16 × 8 transmit and 16 × 12 receive FIFO
memory. The UART contains standard asynchronous communication bits (start, stop,
parity). However, DSR, DTR and RI are not supported.

BCM2835 uses ARM16JZF-S processor as CPU. The architecture, explanation of each block
and its features are discussed in next section.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-12 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

2.6 CPU Architecture

Raspberry Pi uses ARM116JZF-S CPU. The CPU architecture of ARM116JZF-S is shown in
below Fig. 2.6.

Debug Optional VFP Coprocessor

interface controller

POWERED
Instruction ARM Data
cache TM cache
TrustZone
TCRAM 0 enabled TCRAM 0
TM
TCRAM 1 ARM 11 core TCRAM 1

Memory management
ARM1176JZF-S

AMBA AXI Interface

Instruction Data Peripheral

DMA port
interface interface

Fig. 2.6: CPU architecture of ARM116JZF-S

• The ARM1176JZ-S processor is an integer core which implements ARM11. It supports
Java bytecodes.
• The features of ARM1176JZ-S are:
o Provision for Intelligent Energy Management (IEM).
o High speed Advanced Microprocessor Bus Architecture (AMBA), Advanced Extensible
Interface (AXI) which supports prioritized multiprocessor implementations.
o An Integer core with integral Embedded ICE-RT logic.
o An eight stage pipeline.
o Branch prediction with return stack.
o Low interrupt latency configuration.
o Internal coprocessor CP14 and CP15.
o External coprocessor interface.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-13 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

o Instruction and data Memory Management Units (MMUs), managed using MicroTLB
structures backed by Main TLB.
o Virtually indexed and physically addressed caches.
o 64-bit interface to both caches.
o Tightly-Coupled Memory (TCM) which can be used as local RAM with DMA.
o External coprocessor support, trace support.
o JTAG-based debug.
o ARM1176JZF-S processor includes Vector Floating Point (VFP) coprocessor whereas
ARM1176JZ-S does not include VFP. Other features of both the processors are same.
o The ARM1176JZ-S processor has three instruction sets as : 32-bit ARM instruction set
used in ARM state with media instructions, 16-bit Thumb instruction set used in
Thumb state and 8-bit JAVA bytecodes used in Jazelle state.
Components of the ARM1176JZ-S Processor:
The block diagram of ARM1176JZ-S processor is shown in Fig. 2.7.
ARM1176JZF-S
JTAG ETM Coprocessor
interface interface interface VIC interface

Vector
floating point
coprocessor

Instruction Prefetch Integer core Load store Data cache

cache unit unit

L1 instruction Memory L1 data side

Instruction management Data
TCM side controller unit controller TCM

System
metrics

L2 instruction Power L2 data Peripheral L2 DMA

interface control interface port Interface

Fig. 2.7: Block diagram of ARM1176JZ-S

The main components of the ARM1176JZ-S processor are:
1. Integer core
2. Load store unit (LSU)
3. Prefetch unit
4. Memory system
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-14 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

5. AMBA AXI interface

6. Coprocessor interface
7. Debug
8. Instruction cycle summary and interlocks
9. Vector Floating Point (VFP) coprocessor
10. System control
11. Interrupt handling
1. Integer Core:
• The ARM1176JZ-S has AARM11 Integer Core. The processor contains Embedded CE-RT
logic and a JTAG debug interface which enables the hardware debuggers to communicate
with the processor. The Integer core consists of following sections:
(i) Instruction Set category
(ii) Conditional execution
(iii) Registers
(iv) Modes and exceptions
(v) Thumb instruction set
(vi) DSP instructions
(vii) Media extension
(viii) Datapath
(ix) Branch prediction
(x) Return stack
All sections of integer core are discussed below.
(i) Instruction set categories:
The main instruction set categories are:
1. Branch instructions
2. Data Processing instructions
3. Status register transfer instructions
4. Load and store instructions
5. Coprocessor instructions
6. Exception-generating instructions.
Only load, store, and swap instructions can access data from memory.
(ii) Conditional execution: The processor conditionally executes almost all the ARM
instructions. The flags such as condition code flag, negative or sign, zero, carry and overflow flags
will get updated after each arithmetic or logical instructions.
(iii) Registers: The ARM1176JZ-S core contains 33 general purpose 32-bit registers and 7 are
dedicated 32-bit registers. At any time only 16 general purpose registers are visible. Remaining
registers are banked registers used to speed up execution processing.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-15 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

(iv) Modes and exceptions: The ARM1176JZ-S processor provides a set of operating modes
to support complex operating systems, user applications and real-time demands. There are 8
operating modes out of which 6 are exception processing modes:
• User
• Supervisor
• Fast interrupt
• Normal interrupt
• Abort
• System
• Undefined
• Secure monitor.
(v) Thumb instruction set: The Thumb instruction set contains a subset of the 32-bit ARM
instruction encoded into 16-bit wide opcodes. This reduces the amount of memory required for
instruction storage.
(vi) DSP instructions: The DSP extensions to the ARM instruction set provide:
• 16-bit data operations.
• Saturating arithmetic.
• MAC operations.
The processor executes multiply instructions using a single cycle 32 × 16 implementation. The
processor can perform 32 × 32, 32 × 16 and 16 × 16 multiply instructions (MAC).
(vii) Media extension: The ARMv6 instruction set provides media instruction to complement
the DSP instructions. There are 4 media instruction groups:
• Multiplication instructions for handling 16-bit and 32-bit data, including dual-
multiplication instructions that operate on both 16-bit halves of their source registers.
This group includes an instruction that improves the performance and size of code for
multi-word unsigned multiplications.
• Single Instruction Multiple Data (SIMD) instructions to perform operations on pairs of 16-
bit values held in a single register, or on sets of four 8-bit values held in a single register.
The main operations supplied are addition and subtraction, selection, pack, and
saturation.
• Instructions to extract bytes and halfwords from registers, and zero-extend or sign-extend
them. These include a parallel extraction of two bytes followed by extension of each byte
to a halfword.
• Unsigned Sum-of-Absolute-Differences (SAD) instructions. These are used in MPEG motion
estimation.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-16 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

(viii) Datapath: The Datapath consists of 3 pipelines: (a) ALU, shift and Sat pipeline, (b) MAC
pipeline, (c) Load/store pipeline
(a) ALU, Shift and Sat pipeline:
The ALU, Shift and Sat pipeline executes most of the ALU operations, and includes a 32-bit
barrel shifter. It consists of three pipeline stages:
ALU: The ALU stage performs all arithmetic and logic operations and generates the condition
codes for instructions that set these flags. The ALU stage consists of a logic unit, an arithmetic
unit and a flag generator. The pipeline logic evaluates the flag settings in parallel with the main
adder in the ALU. The flag generator is enabled only on flag-setting operations. The ALU stage
separates the carry chains of the main adder for 8-bit and 16-bit SIMD instructions.
Shift: The shift stage contains the full barrel shifter. Shift stage performs all shifts, including
those required by the LSU. The shift stage implements saturating left shift that doubles the value
of an operand and saturates it.
Sat: The Sat stage implements the saturation logic required by the various classes of DSP
instructions.
(b) MAC pipeline: The MAC pipeline executes all of the enhanced multiply and multiply-
accumulate instructions.
The MAC unit consists of a 32 × 16 multiplier and an accumulate unit that is configured to
calculate the sum of two 16 × 16 multiplies. The accumulate unit has its own dedicated single
register read port for the accumulate operand. To minimize power consumption, the processor
only clocks each of the MAC and ALU stages when required.
(c) Load/store pipeline: Load/store pipeline is a part of the Load/Store Unit (LSU). LSU
encompasses the entire L1 data side memory system and the integer load/store pipeline. This
includes:
• the L1 data cache.
• the data side TLB.
• the integer store buffer.
• the NEON store buffer.
• the integer load data alignment and formatting.
• the integer store data alignment and formatting.
The pipeline accepts one load or store per cycle that can be present in either pipeline 0 or
pipeline 1. This gives the processor flexibility when scheduling load and store instructions.
(ix) Branch prediction: The Integer Core uses both static and dynamic branch prediction. All
branches are predicted where the target address is an immediate address or fixed-offset PC-
relative address.
The first level of branch prediction is dynamic through a 128-entry Branch Target Address
Cache (BTAC). If the PC of a branch matches an entry in the BTAC, the processor uses the branch
history and the target address to fetch the new instruction stream.
The processor might remove dynamically predicted branches from the instruction stream and
might execute such branches in zero cycles.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-17 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

If the address mappings are changed then the BTAC must be flushed. A BTAC flush instruction
is provided in the CP15 coprocessor.
The processor uses static branch prediction to manage branches not matched in the BTAC.
The static branch predictor makes a prediction based on the direction of the branches.
(x) Return stack: The processor includes a three-entry return stack to accelerate returns
from procedure calls.
For each procedure call, the processor pushes the return address onto a hardware stack.
When the processor recognizes a procedure return, the processor pops the address held in the
return stack that the prefetch unit uses as the predicted return address.
2. Load Store Unit (LSU):
• The Load/Store Unit (LSU) manages all load and store operations. The load/store pipeline
decouples loads and stores from the MAC and ALU pipelines. When the processor issues
LDM and STM instructions to the LSU pipeline, other instructions run concurrently subject
to the requirements of supporting precise exceptions.
3. Prefetch Unit:
• The main purpose of Prefetch Unit (PFU) is to perform speculative fetch of instructions
ahead of the DPU by predicting the outcome of branch instructions and to format
instruction data in a way that aids the DPU in efficient execution.
• The PFU fetches instructions from the memory system under the control of the DPU and
the internal coprocessors CP14 and CP15.
• In ARM state, the memory system can supply up to two instructions per cycle.
• In Thumb state, the memory system can supply up to four instructions per cycle.
• The PFU buffers up to three instruction data fetches in its FIFO. There is an additional
FIFO between the PFU and the DPU that can normally buffer up to eight instructions. This
reduces or eliminates stall cycles after a branch instruction. This increases the
performance of the processor.
Program flow prediction occurs in the PFU by:
• Predicting the outcome of conditional branches using the branch predictor and for direct
branches, by calculating their destination address using the offset encoded in the
instruction.
• Predicting the destination of procedure returns using the return stack.
• The DPU resolves the program flow predictions that the PFU makes.
• The PFU fetches the instruction stream as dictated by:
o The program counter.
o The branch predictor.
o Procedure returns signaled by the return stack.
o Exceptions including aborts and interrupts signaled by the DPU.
o Correction of mispredicted branches as indicated by the DPU.
• The PFU starts instruction fetches at a rate that is determined dynamically using a
prediction scheme which aims to ensure that the pipeline is kept fed with instructions
without over-fetching instructions that are not used.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-18 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

• Fetching of unused instructions consumes extra power and can impact performance.
• The prefetch unit fetches instructions from the instruction cache, Instruction TCM, or from
external memory and predicts the outcome of branches in the instruction stream.
4. Memory System:
The memory system provides the core with following:
• Separate instruction and data caches.
• Separate instruction and data tightly-coupled memories.
• 64-bit datapaths throughout the memory system.
• Virtually indexed, physically tagged caches.
• Memory access controls and virtual memory management.
• Support for four sizes of memory page.
• Two-channel DMA into TCMs.
• I-fetch, D-read/write interface, compatible with multi-layer AMBA AXI.
• 32-bit dedicated peripheral interface.
• Export of memory attributes for second-level memory system.
Sections in Memory System:
The memory system consists of following sections:
(i) Instruction and data caches.
(ii) Cache power management.
(iii) Instruction and data TCM.
(iv) TCM DMA engine.
(v) DMA features.
(vi) Memory management unit.
These sections are described in details as follows:
(i) Instruction and data caches:
The core provides separate instruction and data caches. The cache has the following features:
• Independent configuration of the instruction and data cache during synthesis to sizes
between 4 kB and 64 kB.
• 4-way set-associative instruction and data caches. Each can be locked independently.
• Pseudo-random or round-robin replacement.
• Eight word cache line length.
• The MicroTLB entry determines whether cache lines are write-back or write-through.
• Ability to disable each cache independently, using the system control coprocessor.
• Data cache misses that are non-blocking. The processor supports up to three outstanding
data cache misses.
• Streaming of sequential data from LDM and LDRD operations, and sequential instruction
fetches.
• Critical word first filling of the cache on a cache-miss.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-19 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

• All the cache RAM blocks and the associated tag and valid RAM blocks can be
implemented using standard ASIC RAM compilers. This ensures optimum area and
performance of the design.
• Each cache line is marked with a Secure or Non-secure tag that defines if the line contains
Secure or Non-secure data.
(ii) Cache power management:
To reduce power consumption, the core uses sequential cache operations to reduce the
number of full cache reads. If a cache read is sequential to the previous cache read and the read is
within the same cache line, only the data RAM set that was previously read is accessed. The core
does not access tag RAM during sequential cache operations.
To reduce unnecessary power consumption additionally, the core only reads the addressed
words within a cache line at any time.
(iii) Instruction and data TCM:
Because some applications might not respond well to caching, configurable memory blocks
are provided for Instruction and Data Tightly Coupled Memories (TCMs). These ensure high-speed
access to code or data.
An Instruction TCM typically holds an interrupt or exception code that the processor must
access at high speed, without any potential delay resulting from a cache miss.
A Data TCM typically holds a block of data for intensive processing, such as audio or video
processing.
Each TCM can be configured to be Secure or Non-secure.
(iv) TCM DMA engine:
The size of the Instruction TCM (ITCM) and the size of the Data TCM (DTCM) can be separately
configured to be 0 kB, 4 kB, 8 kB, 16 kB, 32 kB or 64 kB. For each side (ITCM and DTCM):
• If the TCM size is configured to be 4 kB, we can get one TCM of 4 kB, on this side.
• If the TCM size is configured to be larger than 4 kB, we get two TCMs on this side, each of
half the configured size. So, for example, if an ITCM size of 16 kB is configured, we get
two ITCMs, each of size 8 kB.
Below Table lists all possible TCM configurations.
Table 2.3 : TCM configurations
Configured TCM size Number of TCMs Size of each TCM
0 kB 0 0
4 kB 1 4 kB
8 kB 2 4 kB
16 kB 2 8 kB
32 kB 2 16 kB
64 kB 2 32 kB
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-20 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

The TCM can be anywhere in the memory map. The INITRAM pin enables booting from the
ITCM.
To support use of the TCMs by data-intensive applications, the core provides two DMA
channels to transfer data to or from the Instruction or Data TCM blocks.
DMA can proceed in parallel with CPU accesses to the TCM blocks. Arbitration is on a cycle-
by-cycle basis.
The DMA channels connect with the System-on-Chip (SoC) backplane through a dedicated
64-bit AMBA AXI port.
The DMA controller is programmed using the CP15 system-control coprocessor. DMA
accesses can only be to or from the TCM, and an external memory. There is no coherency support
with the caches.
Only one of the two DMA channels can be active at any time.
(v) DMA features:
The DMA controller has the following features:
• Runs in background of CPU operations.
• Enables CPU priority access to TCM during DMA.
• Programmed with virtual addresses.
• Controls DMA to either the instruction or data TCM.
• Allocated by a privileged process (OS).
• Software can check and monitor DMA progress.
• Interrupts on DMA event.
• Ability to configure each channel to transfer data between Secure TCM and Secure
external memory.
(vi) Memory Management Unit:
The Memory Management Unit (MMU) has a unified Translation Lookaside Buffer (TLB) for
both instructions and data.
The MMU includes a 4 kB page mapping size to enable a smaller RAM and ROM footprint for
embedded systems and operating systems such as Windows CE that have many small mapped
objects.
The ARM1176JZ-S processor implements the Fast Context Switch Extension (FCSE) and high
vectors extension that are required to run Microsoft Windows CE.
The MMU is responsible for protection checking, address translation, and memory attributes,
and some of these can be passed to an external level two memory system.
The memory translations are cached in MicroTLBs for each of the instruction and data caches,
with a single Main TLB backing the MicroTLBs.
The MMU has the following features:
• Matches Virtual Address, ASID and NSTID.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-21 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

• Each TLB entry is marked with the NSTID.

• Checks domain access permissions.
• Checks memory attributes.
• Translates virtual-to-physical address.
• Supports four memory page sizes.
• Maps accesses to cache, TCM, peripheral port, or external memory.
• Hardware handles TLB misses.
• Software control of TLB.
Paging:
Four page sizes are supported by 16 MB super sections, 1 MB sections, 64 kB large pages and
4 kB small pages.
Domains:
Sixteen access domains are supported.
TLB:
A two-level TLB structure is implemented. Eight entries in the main TLB are lockable.
Hardware TLB loading is supported and is backwards compatible with previous versions of the
ARM architecture.
ASIDs:
TLB entries can be global or can be associated with particular processes or applications using
Application Space IDentifiers (ASIDs).
ASIDs enable TLB entries to remain resident during context switches to avoid subsequent
reload of TLB entries and also enable task-aware debugging.
NSTID:
TrustZone extensions enable the system to mark each entry in the TLB as Secure or Non-
secure with the Non-Secure Table IDentifier (NSTID).
System Control Coprocessor:
Cache, TCM and DMA operations are controlled through a dedicated coprocessor CP15,
integrated within the core.
This coprocessor provides a standard mechanism for configuring the level one memory
system, and also provides functions such as memory barrier instructions.
5. AMBA AXI interface:
• The Advanced Microcontroller Bus Architecture (AMBA) protocols are an open standard,
on-chip interconnect specification for the connection and management of functional
blocks in a SoC.
• AMBA facilitates right-first-time development of multi-processor designs with large
number of controllers and peripherals.
• AMBA bus interface provides high bandwidth connections between the processor, second
level caches, on-chip RAM, peripherals, and interfaces to external memory.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-22 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

There are separate bus interfaces for:

o Instruction fetch, 64-bit data.
o Data read/write, 64-bit data.
o Peripheral access, 32-bit data.
o DMA, 64-bit data.
• All interfaces are AMBA AXI compatible. This enables them to be merged in smaller
systems. Additional signals are provided on each port to support second-level cache.
The ports support the following bus transactions:
(a) Instruction fetch: Servicing instruction cache misses and non-cacheable instruction
fetches.
(b) Data read/write: Servicing data cache misses, hardware handled TLB misses, cache
eviction and non-cacheable data reads and writes.
(c) DMA: Servicing the DMA engine for writing and reading the TCMs. This behaves as a
single bidirectional port.
These ports enable several simultaneous outstanding transactions, providing:
• High performance from second-level memory systems that support parallelism.
• High use of pipelined and multi-page memories such as SDRAM.
The following sections describe the AMBA AXI interface in more detail:
(i) Bus clock speeds.
(ii) Unaligned accesses.
(iii) Mixed-endian support.
(iv) Write buffer.
(v) Peripheral port.
(i) Bus clock speeds:
The bus interface ports operate synchronously to the CPU clock if IEM is not implemented.
(ii) Unaligned accesses:
The core supports unaligned data access. Words and halfwords can align to any byte
boundary. This enables access to compacted data structures with no software overhead. This is
useful for multi-processor applications and reducing memory space requirements.
The Bus Interface Unit (BIU) automatically generates multiple bus cycles for unaligned
accesses.
(iii) Mixed-endian support:
The core provides the option of switching between little-endian and byte invariant big endian
data access modes. This means, the core can share data with big-endian systems, and improves
the way the core manages certain types of data.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-23 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

(iv) Write buffer:

All memory writes take place through the write buffer. The write buffer decouples the CPU
pipeline from the system bus for external memory writes. Memory reads are checked for
dependency against the write buffer contents.
(v) Peripheral port:
The peripheral port is a 32-bit AMBA AXI interface that provides direct access to local, Non-
shared devices separately.
The peripheral port does not use the main bus system. The memory regions that these non-
shared devices use are marked as Device and Non-Shared.
Accesses to these memory regions are routed to the peripheral port instead of to the data
read-write ports.
6. Coprocessor Interface:
• The ARM1176JZ-S processor connects to external coprocessors through the coprocessor
interface.
• This interface supports following ARM coprocessor instructions:
o LDC
o LDCL
o STC
o STCL
o MRC
o MRRC
o MCR
o MCRR
o CDP
• The memory system returns data for all loads to coprocessors in the order of the accesses
in the program. The processor suppresses HUM operation of the cache for coprocessor
instructions.
• The external coprocessor interface relies on the coprocessor executing all its instructions
in order.
• Externally-connected coprocessors follow the early stages of the core pipeline to permit
the exchange of instructions and data between the two pipelines. The coprocessor runs
one pipeline stage behind the core pipeline.
• To prevent the coprocessor interface introducing critical paths, wait states can be inserted
in external coprocessor operations. These wait states enable critical signals to be retimed.
• Coprocessor interface describes the interface for on-chip coprocessors such as floating-
point or other application-specific hardware acceleration units.
7. Debug:
• The ARM1176JZ-S core implements the ARMv6.1 Debug architecture that includes
extensions of the ARMv6 Debug architecture to support TrustZone.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-24 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

• It introduces three levels of debug as:

o debug everywhere,
o debug in Non-secure privileged user and Secure user,
o debug in Non-secure user only.
• The debug coprocessor, CP14, implements a full range of debug features that Debug and
Debug Test Access Port describe.
• The core provides extensive support for real-time debug and performance profiling.
The following sections describe debug in more detail:
(i) System performance monitoring
(ii) ETM interface
(iii) ETM trace buffer
(iv) Software access to trace buffer
(v) Real-time debug facilities
(vi) Debug and trace environment.
(i) System performance monitoring:
This is a group of counters that one can configure to monitor the operation of the processor
and memory system.
(ii) ETM interface:
One can connect an external Embedded Trace Macrocell (ETM) unit to the processor for real-
time code tracing of the core in an embedded system.
The ETM interface collects various processor signals and drives these signals from the core.
The interface is unidirectional and runs at the full speed of the core.
The ETM interface connects directly to the external ETM unit without any additional glue
logic. The ETM interface can be disabled for power saving.
(iii) ETM trace buffer:
The functionality of the ETM can be extended by adding an on-chip trace buffer. The trace
buffer is an on-chip memory area. The trace buffer stores trace information during capture that
otherwise passes immediately through the trace port at the operating frequency of the core.
When capture is complete, the stored information can be read out at a reduced clock rate
from the trace buffer using the JTAG port of the SoC, instead of through a dedicated trace port.
This is a two-step process that avoids implementation of a wide trace port that has many
high-speed device pins. In effect, a zero-pin trace port is created where the device already has a
JTAG port and associated pins.
(iv) Software access to trace buffer:
Buffered trace information can be accessed through an APB slave-based memory-mapped
peripheral included as part of the trace buffer. Internal diagnostics can be performed on a closed
system where a JTAG port is not normally brought out.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-25 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

(v) Real-time debug facilities:

The ARM1176JZ-S processor contains an Embedded ICE-RT logic unit that provides the
following real-time debug facilities:
• Up to six breakpoints.
• Thread-aware breakpoints.
• Up to two watchpoints.
• Debug Communications Channel (DCC).
The Embedded ICE-RT logic connects directly to the core and monitors the internal address
and data buses. The Embedded ICE-RT logic can be accessed in one of two ways:
• Executing CP14 instructions.
• Through a JTAG-style interface and associated TAP controller.
The Embedded ICE-RT logic supports two modes of debug operation:
1. Halting debug-mode: On a debug event, such as a breakpoint or watchpoint, the debug
logic stops the core and forces the core into Debug state. This enables the internal state of the
core to examine and the external state of the system, independently from other system activity.
When the debugging process completes, the core and system state is restored and normal
program execution resumes.
2. Monitor debug-mode: On a debug event, the core generates a debug exception instead
of entering Debug state, as in Halting debug-mode. The exception entry activates a debug
monitor program that performs critical interrupt service routines to debug the processor. The
debug monitor program communicates with the debug host over the DCC.
(vi) Debug and trace environment:
Several external hardware and software tools are available to enable real-time debugging
using the Embedded ICE-RT logic and execution trace using the ETM.
8. Instruction Cycle Summary and Interlocks:
• The pipelined architecture of ARM9E-S overlaps the execution of several instructions in
different pipeline stages.
• The instruction cycle count is the number of cycles that an instruction occupies the
execute stage of the pipeline.
• The other pipeline stages (Fetch, Decode, Memory, Writeback) are only occupied for one
cycle by any instruction (in this model, interlock cycles are grouped in with the instruction
generating the data that creates the interlock condition, not the instruction dependent on
the data).
• The request, address, and control signals on both the instruction and data interfaces are
pipelined so that they are generated in the cycle before the one to which they apply.
• The instruction address, IA[31:1], is incremented for prefetching instructions in most
cases. The increment varies with the instruction length 4 bytes in ARM state or 2 bytes in
Thumb state.
• The letter i is used to indicate the instruction length.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-26 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

9. Vector Floating-Point (VFP) :

• The VFP supports floating point arithmetic operations. It is the part of ARM1176JZF-S.
• The VFP coprocessor is mapped as coprocessor numbers 10 and 11. Software can
determine whether the VFP is present by the use of the Coprocessor Access Control
Register.
• It supports single and double precision arithmetic on vector-vector, vector-scalar and
scalar-scalar data sets. Vectors can consist of up to eight single precision or four double-
precision elements.
• VFP has its own bank of 32 registers which can be used in pairs for double-precision
operands or it can operate loads and stores of VFP registers in parallel with arithmetic
operations.
• The VFP supports all five floating exceptions such as invalid operation, divide by zero,
overflow, underflow, inexact defined by the IEEE 754 standard.
• These exception traps can be individually enabled or disabled.
• All rounding modes are supported and basic single/double formats are used.
10. System Control:
• The control of the memory system and its associated functionality, and other system-wide
control attributes are managed through a dedicated system control coprocessor, CP15.
• The system control and configuration registers provide overall management of:
o Memory functionality.
o Interrupt behaviour.
o Exception handling.
o Program flow prediction.
o Coprocessor access rights for CP0-CP13, including the VFP, CP10-11.
• The system control and configuration registers also provide the processor ID and
information on configured options.
• The system control and configuration registers consist of 18 read-only registers and
seven read/write register.
• Some of the functionality depends on how we set external signals at reset.
11. Interrupt Handling:
• Interrupt handling in the ARM1176JZ-S processor is compatible with previous ARM
architectures, but has several additional features to improve interrupt performance for
real-time applications.
The interrupt handling contains following sections:
(i) Vectored interrupt controller port
(ii) Low interrupt latency configuration
(iii) Configuration
(iv) Exception processing enhancements.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-27 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

(i) Vectored interrupt controller port:

• The core has a dedicated port that enables an external interrupt controller such as the
ARM Vectored Interrupt Controller (VIC) to supply a vector address along with an interrupt
request (IRQ) signal. This provides faster interrupt entry but we can disable it for
compatibility with earlier interrupt controllers.
(ii) Low interrupt latency configuration:
• This mode minimizes the worst-case interrupt latency of the processor with a small
reduction in peak performance or instructions-per-cycle. The behaviour of the core can
be tuned to suit the requirements of the application.
• The low interrupt latency configuration disables HUM operation of the cache. In low
interrupt latency configuration, on receipt of an interrupt, the ARM1176JZ-S processor
abandons any pending restartable memory operations or restarts memory operations on
return from the interrupt.
• To obtain maximum benefit from the low interrupt latency configuration, software must
only use multi-word load or store instructions that are fully restartable.
• The software must not use multi-word load or store instructions on memory locations
that produce side-effects for the type of access concerned. This applies to ARM (LDC, all
forms of LDM, LDRD and STC, and all forms of STM and STRD), Thumb (LDMIA, STMIA,
PUSH and POP).
• To achieve optimum interrupt latency, memory locations accessed with these instructions
must not have large number of wait-states associated with them.
To minimize the interrupt latency, the following is recommended:
• Multiple accesses to areas of memory marked as Device or Strongly Ordered, must not be
performed.
• Access to slow areas of memory marked as Device or Strongly Ordered must not be
performed. That is, those that take many cycles in generating a response.
• SWP operations must not be performed to slow areas of memory.
(iii) Configuration:
• The processor for low interrupt latency mode can be configured by use of the system
control coprocessor. To ensure that a change between normal and low interrupt latency
configurations is synchronized correctly. Software systems should be used so that only by
changing the configuration, interrupts can be disabled.
(iv) Exception processing enhancements:
• The ARMv6 architecture contains several enhancements to exception processing, to
reduce interrupt handler entry and exit time such as SRS to save return state to a
specified stack frame, RFE to return from exception and CPS which will directly modify the
CPSR.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-28 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

2.7 CPU Pipelining Stages

• The pipeline consists of 3 stages:
1. Fetch stage
2. Decode stage
3. Execute stage
• Below Fig. 2.8 shows the pipeline stages of the processor and the pipeline operations that
take place at each stage.
LSU branch
result
Fe De Ex
Address Data phase
phase load/store
AGU and and
writeback branch

Multiply
Instruction and W/R
Decode Divide
Fetch and
Register ALU
Read Shift and
Branch

Branch

Branch forwarding
and speculation
ALU branch not forwarded/speculated
LSU branch result

Fig. 2.8 : Cortex-M3 pipeline stages

• The names of the pipeline stages and their functions are:
Fe: Instruction fetch where data is returned from the instruction memory.
De: Instruction decode, generation of LSU address using forwarded register ports, and
immediate offset or LR register branch forwarding.
Ex: Instruction execute, single pipeline with multi-cycle stalls, LSU address/data pipelining to
AHB interface, multiply/divide, and ALU with branch result.
• The pipeline structure provides a pipelined 2-cycle memory access with no ALU usage
penalty, address generation forwarding for pointer indirection.
Pipeline Stages:
• Below Fig. 2.9 shows pipeline stages such as the two Fetch stages, a Decode stage, an Issue
stage and the four stages of the ARM1176JZ-S integer execution pipeline. These eight stages
make up the processor pipeline.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-29 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

Fe1 Fe2 De Iss Sh ALU Sat WBex

st nd
1 fetch 2 fetch Instruction Reg. read Shifter ALU Saturation Writeback
stage stage decode and issue stage operation stage MuI/ALU

MAC1 MAC2 MAC3

st nd rd
1 multiply 2 multiply 3 multiply
acc. stage acc. stage acc. stage

ADD DC1 DC2 WBIs

Address Data Data Writeback
generation cache 1 cache 2 from LSU

Fig. 2.9 : ARM1176JZ-S pipeline stages

• Above Fig. 2.9 shows the pipeline operations as:
Fe1: First stage of instruction fetch where address is issued to memory and data returns from
memory.
Fe2: Second stage of instruction fetch and branch prediction.
De: Instruction decode.
Iss: Register read and instruction issue.
Sh: Shifter stage.
ALU: Main integer operation calculation.
Sat: Pipeline stage to enable saturation of integer results.
WBex: Write back of data from the multiply or main execution pipelines.
MAC1: First stage of the multiply-accumulate pipeline.
MAC2: Second stage of the multiply-accumulate pipeline.
MAC3: Third stage of the multiply-accumulate pipeline.
ADD: Address generation stage.
DC1: First stage of data cache access.
DC2: Second stage of data cache access.
WBls: Write back of data from the Load Store Unit.
• By overlapping the various stages of operation, the ARM1176JZ-S processor maximizes the
clock rate achievable to execute each instruction. It delivers a throughput approaching one
instruction for each cycle.
• The Fetch stages can hold up to four instructions, where branch prediction is performed on
instructions ahead of execution of earlier instructions.
• The Issue and Decode stages can contain any instruction in parallel with a predicted branch.
• The Execute, Memory and Write stages can contain a predicted branch, an ALU or multiply
instruction, a load/store multiple instruction and a coprocessor instruction in parallel
execution.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-30 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

Typical ALU Pipeline Operations:

• Below Fig. 2.10 shows all the operations in each of the pipeline stages in the ALU pipeline,
the load/store pipeline, and the HUM buffers.
Ex1 Ex2 Ex3
Sh ALU Sat
ALU
Shifter Calculate pipeline
Fe1 Fe2 De Iss opera- Satura-
writeback WBex
tion tion
st Register value
1 2
nd Base
Instruction read and register
fetch fetch MAC1 MAC2 MAC3
stage stage decode instruction writeback
issue Not Not Not
used used used Multiply
pipeline
Common decode pipeline
ADD DC1 DC2 WBIs
Not Not Not Not Load/
used used used used Store
pipeline

Not Hit under

used miss

Fig. 2.10 : Typical ALU operations in pipeline stages

Typical ALU Operation:
• Below Fig. 2.10 shows a typical ALU operation and data processing instruction. The
processor does not use the load/store pipeline or the HUM buffer.
Typical Multiply Operation:
• Below Fig. 2.11 shows a typical multiply operation. The MUL instruction can loop in the
MAC1 stage until it has passed through the first part of the multiplier array enough times.
• The MUL instruction progresses to MAC2 and MAC3 where it passes through the second
half of the array once to produce the final result.
Ex1 Ex2 Ex3
Sh ALU Sat
ALU
Fe1 Fe2 De Iss Not Not Not pipeline
st nd Register used used used WBex
1 2 Instruction read and Base
fetch fetch register
stage stage decode instruction MAC1 MAC2 MAC3
issue st nd rd writeback
1 2 3
multiply multiply multiply Multiply
stage stage stage pipeline
Common decode pipeline

ADD DC1 DC2 WBIs

Load/
Not Not Not Not Store
used used used used pipeline

Not Hit under

used miss

Fig. 2.11 : Typical multiply operation

S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-31 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

• Below Fig. 2.12 shows pipeline flow for Load/Store operation.

Ex1 Ex2 Ex3
Sh ALU Sat
ALU
Shifter Calculate pipeline
Fe1 Fe2 De Iss opera- Satura-
writeback WBex
tion tion
st Register value
1 2
nd Base
Instruction read and register
fetch fetch MAC1 MAC2 MAC3
stage stage decode instruction writeback
issue Not Not Not
used used used Multiply
pipeline
Common decode pipeline
ADD DC1 DC2 WBIs
First Second
Data stage of stage of Writeback Load/
address data cache data cache from Store
calculation access access LSU pipeline

Not Hit under

used miss

Fig. 2.12: Pipeline flow for load/store operation

Software Pipelining:
• Software pipelines is a parallel processing technique that enables multiple data elements to
be processed simultaneously by breaking the computation into a series of sequential stages.
• Pipelines are common in both hardware and software. For example, application processors
and GPUs use hardware pipelines. The graphics standard OpenGL ES is based on a virtual
pipeline.
• In a pipeline, a complete process is divided into a series of stages. A data element is
processed in one stage and the results are then passed to the next stage.
• Because of the sequential nature of a pipeline, only one stage is used at a time by a particular
data element. This means that, the other stages can process other data elements.
• Software pipelines can be used in specific application to process different data elements.
• For example, a game requires many different operations to happen. A game might use a
similar pipeline to this:
1. The input is read from the player.
2. The game logic computes the progress of the game.
3. The scene objects are moved based on the results of the game logic.
4. The physics engine computes positions of all objects in the scene.
5. The game uses OpenGL ES to draw objects on the screen.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-32 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

2.8 CPU Cache Organization

• Each cache is implementation-defined and can be one, two or four-way set associative
cache of configurable size. They are physically indexed and physically addressed.
• The cache sizes are configurable with sizes in the range of 1 to 64 kB, but the maximum
clock frequency might be affected if you increase the cache sizes beyond 16 kB.
• Fig. 2.13 shows blocked diagram of cache subsystem.
• Both the instruction cache and the data cache are capable of providing two words per
cycle for all requesting sources.
• The cache way size can be varied between 1 kB and 16 kB in powers of 2. A 1 kB cache
size must be implemented as a 1 way cache, and a 2 kB cache must be implemented as a
2 way cache. All other cache sizes must be implemented as 4 way set associative. The
cache line length is fixed at eight words (32 bytes).
• The maximum cache way size that the processor supports is 16 kB. The minimum cache
way size that the processor supports is 1 kB. Instruction cache and data cache together or
instruction cache and data cache individually can be disabled.
• If a cache is implemented within the ARM1156T2F-S processor, way 0 must be present.
• Write operations must occur after the Tag RAM reads and associated address
comparisons have completed.
• A three-entry Write Buffer is included in the cache to enable the written words to be held
until they can be written to cache. One or two words can be written in a single store
operation.
• The addresses of these outstanding writes provide an additional input into the Tag RAM
comparison for reads.
• To avoid a critical path from the Tag RAM comparison to the enable signals for the data
RAMs, there is a minimum of one cycle of latency between the determination of a hit to a
particular way and the start of writing to the data RAM of that way. This requires the
Cache Write Buffer to be able to hold three entries, for back-to-back writes.
• Accesses that read the dirty bits must also check the Cache Write Buffer for pending
writes that result in dirty bits being set. The cache dirty bits for the data cache are
updated when the Cache Write Buffer data is written to the RAM. This requires the dirty
bits to be held as a separate storage array (significantly, the tag arrays cannot be written,
because the arrays are not accessed during the data RAM writes), but permits the dirty
bits to be implemented as a small RAM.
• The other main operations performed by the cache are cache line refills and write-back.
These occur to particular cache ways, which are determined at the point of the detection
of the cache miss by the victim selection logic.
• To reduce overall power consumption, the number of full cache reads is reduced by the
sequential nature of many cache operations, especially on the instruction side.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-33 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

• On a cache read that is sequential to the previous cache read, only the data RAM set that
was previously read is accessed, if the read is within the same cache line.
• The Tag RAM is not accessed at all during this sequential operation.
• Cache line refills can take several cycles. The cache line length is of eight words.
• The control of the level one memory system and the associated functionality, together
with other system wide control attributes are handled through the system control
coprocessor, CP15.
• Below Fig. 2.13 shows the block diagram of the cache subsystem. This Fig. 2.13 does not
show the cache refill paths.

CP15 Virtual Write

interface address data

RAMSet base address and size Write buffer data (1-2 words)

Write buffer addresses

Micro
TLB

TAGRAM DATARAM TCM

Way
select
Comparator

Micro TLB Cache Data

miss and hit out
Data Abort

Fig. 2.13 : Level one cache block diagram

• Cache is Harvard implementation.
• Cache replacement policies are Pseudo-Random or Round Robin which is controlled by
the RR bit in CP15 register c1.
• MicroTLB determines if cache lines are write-back or write-through.
• It contains both secure and non-secure data in cache lines.
• Processor handles branches first time execution when no history is available for dynamic
prediction for the prefetch unit.
• Integer Core (IC) uses static branch prediction and return stack.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-34 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

• Prefetch Unit (PU) uses dynamic branch prediction.

• When a branch is resolved, the PU receives information from the IC and either allocates
space in the Branch Target Address Cache (BTAC) or updates an entry.
• Branches are resolved at or before the third execution stage.
2.9 Branch Prediction
• Branch prediction uses both static and dynamic techniques. Dynamic branch prediction is
used by default. But when there is no information history, static prediction is used instead.
• Branch prediction predicts:
o That there is a branch instruction at a given address.
o The type of the branch:
(i) Unconditional or conditional.
(ii) Immediate or load.
(ii) Normal branch, function call, or function return.
o The target address or the state of the branch, either ARM or Thumb.
o The direction of conditional branch, either taken or not taken.
o There are two branch prediction methods:
(i) Static branch prediction.
(ii) Dynamic branch prediction.
(i) Static branch prediction:
• The static branch prediction is based on decoding the instruction. Therefore, it can see
branches on fresh code without any history, but the prediction is done only at the
decoding stage. So no fetch decision can be made before this stage, that is, speculative
fetches from the branch target cannot be made.
• Static branch prediction is based on the characteristics of the branch instruction.
• It uses no history information.
• ARM1176JZF-S predicts all forward conditional branches not taken and all backward
branches taken.
• Added to mitigate the trouble experienced by the miss when first encountering the
branch by the predictor.
(ii) Dynamic branch prediction:
• The dynamic branch prediction estimates the instructions based on history, so that it can
fetch speculatively to an arbitrary chosen branch of the execution code.
• More hardware is required, but it saves some unnecessary i-cache lookup/memory
accesses and the prediction quality is higher for previously seen branches.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-35 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

• By default, the dynamic branch prediction is used and if there is no information in its
history, the static prediction is used instead.
• Many branch instructions are conditional. For conditional branches, whether the branch
should be taken cannot be determined until the instruction is executed.
• The processor makes a prediction about whether the branch will be taken and fetches
based on the prediction.
• The processor must also be able to detect when it gets the prediction wrong and re-fetch
from the correct location.
• Branch prediction logic is an important factor in achieving high throughput in Cortex-R
series processors.
• If branch prediction is not specified, one has to wait until a conditional branch executes
before you could determine where to fetch the next instruction from.
• It uses a Branch Target Address Cache (BTAC) as the first line of branch prediction that
hold virtual target addresses.
• Prediction history of a branch is stored as a two-bit value in the BTAC. BTAC is a 128-
entry direct-mapped cache structure.
• Two bit values represent the following four states: Strong predict branch taken, Weak
predict branch taken, Strong predict branch not taken and Weak predict branch not
taken.
2.10 Branch Folding
• Branch folding is a technique where the Branch instruction is removed from the pipeline
and is stored in a buffer, which is executed on all dynamic predicted branches.
• It can improve the Branch CPI to under 1.
• Predicted branches that lead directly to another branch.
• Branches that are have been cancelled when fetched.
Branch instructions are removed from the pipeline if the following conditions are met:
• The instruction is not a branch with a link (address is stored in a linked register).
• The instruction does not point to a code sequence that contains a branch in the first two
instructions.
• The instruction is not break-pointed.
• The instruction is not aborted. This method can produce a CPI for branch instructions that
is much lower than 1.

2.11 GPU Overview

• The GPO is specially designed to speed up the operation of image calculations.
• Broadcom Videocore IV uses OpenGL ES2.0, Performance: 24 GFLOPS, RPi can play 1080p,
Blu-Ray quality videos, Graphical capabilities are similar to the those of the original XBOX.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-36 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

Media 3D 2D
application application application

OpenMAX OpenGL ES OpenVG

ARM

EGL

Kernel driver (VCHIQ)

Videocore IV GPU

GPL/BSD
BSD licensed
licensed

Fig. 2.14 : Raspberry Pi software architecture

• BroadCom VideoCore 4 GPU is shown in above Fig. 2.14. It contains Tile-based render
(TBR) which uses 4 cores. It has 40 nm technology.
• It is capable of Blu-Ray quality of 1080p with H.264 at 40Mb/s.
• Its graphics performance is similar to the Xbox 1.
• It has texture filtering and DMA infrastructure.
• It has 24 GFLOPS of general purpose computational power.
• It has OpenGL ES 1.1, OpenGL ES 2.0, hardware accelerated OpenVG 1.1, Open EGL and
OpenMax.

2.12 Software
• Raspbian has been the most popular among the operating systems due to the boost
provided by the Raspberry Pi foundation.
• It is a Debian based Linux operating system easily available at the foundation website. Some
of the popular operating systems are:
o Raspbian
o CentOS
o Fedora
o Ubuntu MATE
o Kali Linux
o Ubuntu Core
o Windows 10 IoT Core
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-37 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

o RISC OS
o Slackware
o Debian
o Arch Linux ARM
o Android Things
o SUSE
o FreeBSD
o NetBSD

Think Over It

• Is the iPhone an example of SoC? Is the system saved on a processor in case of iphone?
• Which fabrication technologies are used in SoC?
• Which technology is used in Videon?
• What is the difference between SoC and CPU? ‘Soc will replace CPU in coming years’,
comment.
• What are Nolocal and Global variables used in Python?

Points to Remember
• SoC is a complete electronic system which may contain analog, digital or radio frequency
functions.
• The basic purpose of using SoC is to have all components on a single chip with minimum
components.
• If any component on SoC is not functioning properly, then it cannot be replaced. In that case,
entire SoC has to be replaced.
• Raspberry Pi is a small single board computer (SBC).
• Raspberry Pi is credit size computer which can be plugged into a monitor. It acts as
minicomputer by connecting keyboard, mouse, and display.
• Raspberry Pi uses Broadcom BCM2835 System on Chip which is ARM processor and
Videocore Graphics Processing Unit (GPU). It is the heart of the Raspberry Pi which controls
the operations of all the connected devices and handles all the required computations.
• The first generation of Raspberry Pi used BroadCom2835 SoC. The Raspberry Pi 2 used
BCM2836. The third generation of Raspberry Pi used BCM2837 SoC.
• The BroadCom2835 is a System on Chip (SoC). It contains multimedia capabilities which are
used in mobile phones and portable devices.
• The ARM1176JZ-S processor is an integer core which implements ARM11. It supports Java
bytecodes.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-38 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

• The main components of the ARM1176JZ-S processor are :

o Integer core
o Load store unit (LSU)
o Prefetch unit
o Memory system
o AMBA AXI interface
o Coprocessor interface
o Debug
o Instruction cycle summary and interlocks
o System control
o Interrupt handling
• The main instruction set categories are:
o Branch instructions
o Data Processing instructions
o Status register transfer instructions
o Load and store instructions
o Coprocessor instructions
o Exception-generating instructions.
• The Integer Core uses both static and dynamic branch prediction.
• The main purpose of Prefetch Unit (PFU) is to perform speculative fetch of instructions ahead
of the DPU by predicting the outcome of branch instructions and to format instruction data in
a way that aids the DPU in efficient execution.
• The Memory Management Unit (MMU) has a unified Translation Lookaside Buffer (TLB) for
both instructions and data.
• The ARM1176JZ-S processor implements the Fast Context Switch Extension (FCSE) and high
vectors extension that are required to run Microsoft Windows CE.
• The MMU is responsible for protection checking, address translation, and memory attributes,
and some of these can be passed to an external level two memory system.
• The memory translations are cached in MicroTLBs for each of the instruction and data caches,
with a single Main TLB backing the MicroTLBs.
• The Advanced Microcontroller Bus Architecture (AMBA) protocols are an open standard, on-
chip interconnect specification for the connection and management of functional blocks in a
SoC.
• The pipeline consists of 3 stages:
o Fetch stage
o Decode stage
o Execute stage
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-39 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

• Cache is Harvard implementation.

• Cache replacement policies are Pseudo-Random or Round Robin which is controlled by the
RR bit in CP15 register c1.
• MicroTLB determines if cache lines are write-back or write-through.
• Integer Core (IC) uses static branch prediction and return stack.
• Prefetch Unit (PU) uses dynamic branch prediction.
• Static branch prediction is based on the characteristics of the branch instruction. It uses no
history information.
• The dynamic branch prediction estimates the instructions based on history, so that it can
fetch speculatively to an arbitrary chosen branch of the execution code.
• Branch folding is a technique where the Branch instruction is removed from the pipeline and
is stored in a buffer, which is executed on all dynamic predicted branches.
• Raspbian has been the most popular among the operating systems due to the boost
provided by the Raspberry Pi foundation.

Exercises
[A] True or False :
1. A System-on-chip (SoC) is an integrated circuits (IC) which has most of the components of a
computer or any electronic system.
2. SoC consumes more power.
3. Raspberry Pi is credit size computer which can be plugged into a monitor.
4. High Definition Multimedia Interface is used for transmitting video or digital audio data to
computer monitor or to digital TV.
5. GPIO pins of Raspberry works on 5V.
[B] Fill in the Blanks :
1. SoC has ____, ____, ____ and ____.
2. SoC consumes _____ power.
3. Raspberry Pi is a type of _____ .
4. ______is an official OS provided by Raspberry Pi foundation.
5. HDMI stands for ____ _____ _____ _____
6. Raspberry Pi is a ____ pin SBC.
7. Raspberry Pi uses _______ processor.
[C] Multiple Choice Questions :
1. Raspberry Pi provides on-chip _______ modules.
(a) UART (b) I2C
(c) I2S (d) All of these
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-40 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

2. The MMU is responsible for ________ .

(a) protection checking (b) address translation
(c) memory attributes (d) all of these
3. The AMBA protocol stands for ______ .
(a) Advanced Microcontroller Bus Architecture
(b) Advanced Microprocessor Bus Architecture
(c) Arithmetic Microcontroller Bus Architecture
(d) None of these
4. The ARM1176JZ-S processor contains an Embedded ICE-RT logic unit that provides _____ .
(a) up to 6 break points (b) thread-aware breakpoints
(c) up to 2 watch points (d) All of these
5. CPU pipelining stages contains _____ .
(a) fetch stage (b) decode stage
(c) execute stage (d) All of these
6. _____ is the official OS provided by Raspberry Pi foundation.
(a) Raspbian (b) Debian
(c) Linux (d) None of these
[D] Short Answer Questions :
1. What is SoC?
2. Write any one advantage and disadvantage of SoC.
3. What are the main blocks of SoC?
4. What is Raspberry Pi?
5. Write main blocks of Raspberry Pi.
6. Which processor is used in Raspberry Pi?
7. Write long form of HDMI and GPIO.
8. Write function of GPIO pins available in Raspberry Pi.
9. List various models of Raspberry Pi available in market today.
10. Write any two features of Raspberry Pi.
11. List Peripherals used in BCM2835.
12. Write various blocks of BroadCom2835.
13. List main components of the ARM1176JZ-S processor.
14. What are the different types of branch prediction?
15. Write any two features of DMA.
16. What is MMU?
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-41 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

17. What do you mean by AMBA AXI interface?

18. Write CPU pipelining stages.
19. What is the function of MicroTLB?
20. What is branch folding?
21. List blocks of GPU used in Raspberry Pi.
22. Which software is most popular for Raspberry Pi?
[E] Long Answer Questions :
1. What is SoC? Write its advantages and disadvantages.
2. Differentiate between SoC and SBC.
3. Draw and explain the architecture of SoC with the help of neat diagram.
4. Write a short note on Raspberry Pi.
5. List features of Raspberry Pi.
6. Draw and explain the architecture of Raspberry Pi with the help of neat diagram.
7. Write the functions of following:
GPIO, HDMI, SD card, Ethernet, Camera module.
8. Write a short note of comparison of Raspberry Pi modules.
9. Compare Raspberry Pi Models with reference to SoC, CPU, RAM, GPU, storage.
10. Write architectural features of Raspberry Pi.
11. Write a short note on peripherals used in BCM2835.
12. Draw block diagram of BroadCom2835 and explain any three blocks.
13. Draw the diagram of CPU architecture of ARM116JZ-S.
14. Write features of ARM1176JZ-S.
15. Draw the diagram of ARM1176JZ-S processor and list main components of it.
16. Write a short note on:
(i) Integer core
(ii) Load store unit (LSU)
(iii) Prefetch unit
(iv) Memory system
(v) AMBA AXI interface
(vi) Coprocessor interface
(vii) Debug
(viii) Instruction cycle summary and interlocks
(ix) System control
(x) Interrupt handling
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 2-42 Architecture of System on Chip (SOC)

17. Explain CPU pipelining stages.

18. Explain Cortex-M3 pipeline stages with the help of neat diagram.
19. Explain ARM1176JZ-S pipeline stages with the help of neat diagram.
20. Draw the diagram of Typical ALU operations in pipeline stages.
21. Draw the diagram of Typical multiply operation.
22. Draw the diagram of Pipeline flow for Load/Store operation.
23. What is software pipelining?
24. Explain CPU cache organization.
25. Draw and explain level one cache block diagram.
26. Write a short note on branch prediction.
27. Explain the concept of branch folding.
28. Write a short note on GPU used in Raspberry Pi.
29. List various softwares used for Raspberry Pi.
30. Write a short note on pipelining of Raspberry Pi.

Answers
[A] True or False :
(1) True (2) False (3) True
(4) True (5) False
[B] Fill in the Blanks :
(1) CPU, GPU, Memory and I/O devices (2) Less (3) SBC
(4) Raspbian (5) High Definition Multimedia Interface (6) 40
(7) ARM1176JZF-S
[C] Multiple Choice Questions :
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (a)

✍✍✍
Unit 3…
Programming Using Python
st
Guido van Rossum a Dutch programmer was born on 31 January
1956. He is known as the creator of the Python programming
language, for which he was the "Benevolent dictator for life" (BDFL)
until he stepped down from the position in July 2018. He is
currently a member of the Python Steering Council, however he has
withdrawn from nominations for the 2020 Python Steering Council.
Van Rossum was born and raised in the Netherlands where he
received a master's degree in mathematics and computer science
from the University of Amsterdam in 1982. He has a brother, Just
Guido van Rossum van Rossum, who is a type designer and programmer who designed
the typeface used in the "Python Powered" logo.

Introduction
• In last chapter, Raspberry Pi and its architecture, the processor used in Raspberry Pi and
pipelining stages were discussed.
• This chapter deals with Operating System used for Raspberry Pi, its installation, and various
types of Operating Systems.
• This chapter will also give details of Python programming, data types, variables used in
Python, conditional statements, functions and few arithmetic programs.
3.1 Overview of Raspbian OS
(Operating System)
• Raspberry Pi OS which is formerly known as Raspbian is a Debian-based operating system for
Raspberry Pi. As Raspberry Pi Foundation has recommended Raspbian as the primary
operating system for Raspberry Pi family, it is widely used for compact single board
computers of Raspberry Pi from 2015.
• Raspberry Pi OS is a free operating system based on Debian which is optimized for the
Raspberry Pi hardware.
• Raspberry Pi OS comes with over 35,000 packages which is precompiled software bundled in
a nice format for easy installation on Raspberry Pi.
• Raspberry Pi OS is a community project under active development, with an emphasis on
improving the stability and performance of as many Debian packages as possible.
• Raspbian is a competent and versatile operating system which is suitable for a PC and it
provides a command line, a browser and tons of other programs.

(3.1)
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-2 Programming Using Python

• Raspberry Pi as running Raspbian can be used as a cheap and effective home computer, or it
can be used as a springboard. It can be used in countless other functional devices, from
wireless points to retro gaming machines.
3.2 Installation of Raspbian
• Raspbian is the most popular operating system for Raspberry Pi. The installation process of
Raspbian is same for all models of Raspberry Pi.
• In Raspbian, thousands of pre-built libraries to perform many tasks and optimize the OS are
available.
• Installing Raspbian on Raspberry Pi is very straightforward. Raspbian software has to be
downloaded.
• MicroSD card, a computer slot, Raspberry Pi board with basic peripherals (a mouse, keyboard,
screen and power supply) are required.
• Raspbian can be installed using NOOBS which is an operating system installation manger.
Steps for installing Raspbian are described as below:
Step 1: Downlaod Raspbian:
Download latest version of Raspbian.
Step 2: Unzip the file:
Raspbian OS is compressed, so files should be unzipped. Depending on built-in utilities,
certain programs are used to unzip the files. For Windows users, 7-zip is used. For Mac users, The
Unarchiver and for Linux, Unzip is used to unzip the files.
Step 3: Write the disc image on microSD card:
Downloaded OS require image writer to write into the SD card (microSD card). So download
‘win32 disk imager’ and write the disc image to it. For Windows users, ‘Win32 Disk Imager’ is
required. For Mac users, disk utility is required and for Linux users, Etcher is usually used.
The process of writing image is slightly different for different users. For each of these
programs, destination has to be selected to make sure that microSD card chosen and disc image
that is the unzipped Raspbian file is selected. Then select double-check and hit the button to
write.
Step 4: Put the microSD card in Raspberry Pi and boot up:
Once the disc image has been written to the microSD card, put it in Raspberry Pi board, plug
in the peripherals and provide power supply to it. Raspbian will boot directly to the desktop. The
default credentials for username are pi and password id raspberry.
• After completing above steps, Setup Options window will open, on which few settings have to
be made.
• Below steps have to be followed:
1. Select first option in the list of the setup options window which is ‘Expand File system’
option and press enter key. This will make use of all the space present on the SD card as a
full partition. It will expand the OS to fit the whole space on the SD card which can be
used as the storage memory for the Raspberry Pi.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-3 Programming Using Python

2. Select third option in the list of the setup option menu as ‘Enable Boot To
Desktop/Scratch’ window option. The window looks like as below (Fig. 3.1).

Fig. 3.1
• After completing above steps, it may ask to reboot the Raspberry Pi then every time system
has to be rebooted.
• After reboot, if ‘Setup Options’ screen is not visible then follow below command:
o In the ‘choose boot option window’, select the second option as Desktop Log in as user
‘pi’ at the graphical desktop and press the enter key. Once this is done, ‘Setup Options’
page will come, if not select the ‘Ok’ button at the bottom of this window which will go to
previous window. This will boot into the desktop environment which is familiar screen. If
this step is not done then the Raspberry Pi boots into a terminal each time with no GUI
options.
o Once above step is finished, select ‘finish’ button at the bottom of the page which will
reboot automatically.
Step 5: Updating the firmware:
After rebooting, the desktop screen looks like the image below:

Fig. 3.2: Raspberry Pi screen image

S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-4 Programming Using Python

Now, open a terminal and entre the command as:

sudo rpi-update
The Raspbian will get updated.
Updating the firmware is necessary because certain models of Raspberry Pi have bug or might
not have all the required dependencies to run it smoothly. The latest firmware might have fix
those bugs, so it is very important to update or upgrade the firmware.
3.3 Different Types of Operating Systems
• Raspberry Pi is the most popular SBC today. It is similar to computer and can perform many
tasks.
• The functionality of Raspberry Pi can be extended by running OS on the device. It performs as
a bridge between the user and Raspberry Pi hardware. OS helps in developing and executing
the programs.
• OS enables the interaction between hardware and software. Also OS manages CPU, memory,
disk drives, printers and all user interfaces.
• Raspbian is the official Raspberry Pi OS, however other OS are also available which can run on
Raspberry Pi.
Most popular Raspberry Pi OS are listed below:
1. Raspbian:
• Raspbian is the official OS provided by Raspbery Pi foundation which can be used for all
models of Raspberry Pi. Raspbian is free operation system which is known as the modified
version of the popular OS Debian. It can serve all the general purposes required for
Raspberry Pi.
Features of Raspbian:
o It can allow the user to set up a new password, username and interaction with wifi
network.
o All applications having different specifications of Raspberry Pi models can run on
Raspbian.
o The Software Tool of Raspbian allows user to download any required software from
internet.
o It offers features like searching, toolbars configuration, key layout shortcuts, thumbnails
and multi-page controlling with the newly introduced tool qpdf View.
o Preboot execution environment of Raspbian enabled users to boot their Raspberry using
server through Ethernet.
o It overcomes the pi devices’ security concern which is known as the pi/raspberry and
eliminates the hassle to go online.
2. DietPi:
• DietPi is an extremely light Dibain OS. It is 3 times lighter than the other Raspberry Pi OS
which are available today. Its installation is easy and automated. If dietpi.txt is configured
before powering up, no user input will be required.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-5 Programming Using Python

Features of DietPi:
o Diet Processing Tool which comes in package helps in determining the installed
programs’ priority level and control schedulers.
o With the help of customization ability, performance of the hardware and software can be
adjusted.
o It uses minimum space in RAM, its size starts at just 400MB.
o It introduces lightweight Whiptail menus that take less time to execute the command line.
o It is suitable for new users and its performance can be bossted by controlling the amount
of logging according to the need using DietPi-Ramlog.
o Installation, updating is made available automatically in DietPi OS. When there is an
update available, no need to write an image for updating the system.
3. LIBREELC:
• LIBREELC is a small open source JEOS. The boot time is faster as compared with
OpenELEC. It offers backbones for backdated hardware. It was launched in 2016 to
generate better multimedia output than OpenELEC.
Features of LIBREELC OS:
o This OS can be installed in less than 20 minutes. It contains clear instruction, an SD creator
app and an installer.
o It boots up within few seconds.
o With the help of Kodi, it offers standard customizations. It contains bunch of add-ons.
o It is managed by a team of developers and provide updates every month.
o It works closely with Kodi and regularly patches while maintaining security.
4. OSMC:
• It works best to manage media content. It is an open source software that has interface
with many features. It is based on KodiOs which provides support virtually to any media
content.
Features of OSMC:
o It has several customizable built-in-images that allow Raspberry to produce high-quality
videos, pictures and other media contents.
o It takes very less time to complete the installation.
o This OS updates automatically. It will update itself automatically once every month.
o It offers Google play store. User can download, install, and start using the required
applications whenever required.
5. RISC OS:
• RISC OS is the best Raspberry OS as it is intended to serve ARM processors. It enhances
the performance and efficiency of the system.
Features of RISC OS:
o Designed by the original inventor of ARM. It is a unique open-source operating system
for Raspberry Pi.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-6 Programming Using Python

o It is maintained by a dedicated team of volunteers.

o It is not suitable for new users.
o It will take time to get used to the environment offered by RISC.
o It is a single-user OS and operates co-operative multitasking known as CMT. It is secured
from OS corruption and boot time is very less.
6. Windows IoT Core:
• This is a powerful Raspberry Pi OS designed specially for writing sophisticated programs
and making prototypes. It was intended to serve the developers and programmers. It has
enabled the coders to make IoT projects using Raspberry Pi and Windows 10.
Features of Windows IoT Core OS:
o It focuses on security, connectivity, project development and integration with the cloud.
o It requires Windows 10 for running on any device.
o It contains Microsoft Visual Studio to work with any applications.
o It only allows a single Universal Windows Program application and background
processes.
o It is compatible with ARM and IoT core can be used on SBCs like Raspberry Pi.
o IoT core can be blended with sensors like cameras, PIR sensors, servos and temperature
sensors to extend the usability.
7. Lakka:
• Lakka is more suitable to develop computer games or even play games on a single board
computer. It can turn Raspberry into a gaming console without keyboard or mouse. Also
it contains a good user interface and a handful of customization features.
Features of Lakka OS:
o It can be installed on SD card easily, or it can be used as running live.
o The OS is free and lightweight.
o It has a dedicated setup of hardware.
o It handles and processes computing power for running games using a libretro core.
o It allows the user to connect several USB joypads.
o It consumes less power and runs smoothly on Raspberry and other low-end hardware
architectures.
o It is developed and backed by a group of developers, designers and gamers.
8. RaspBSD:
• It is an open-source software which comes from FreeBSD 11. The developers have
preconfigured it in two images for use in Raspberry Pi. The Berkeley Software Distribution
has invented it and now it is one of the widely used single board OS.
Features of RaspBSD OS:
o This OS is very lightweight and mostly used as game consoles.
o It is intended to help newcomers to build projects using Raspberry Pie.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-7 Programming Using Python

o It is regularly updated and uses only publicly available tools.

o It comes with Openbox and the LXDE graphical desktop, alongside FreeBSD package
repositories which will be preconfigured.
9. RetroPie:
• It is built based on the Debian software library. It is suitable for emulating retro games on
a single-board computer like Raspberry, ODroid C1/C2, or even PC. It provides a modern
and user-friendly interface.
Features of RetroPie:
o RetroPie uses the Emulation Station front end and SBC to generate the best retro gaming
experience for its users.
o It comes with a special preloaded SD card image that can boot the OS without facing any
trouble.
o It is one of the very few OS that can be operated by installing on top of another operating
system.
o IoT devices, running media-player and more than 50 other applications come pre-
installed in this OS.
10. Ubuntu Core:
• Ubuntu is one of the widely used operating systems. This OS is designed for building and
managing Internet of Things applications. It is open source and backed by many
developers.
Features of Ubuntu Core OS:
o Ubuntu has 20+ other derivatives. So using this OS, user will be a member of an active
and welcoming forum.
o It covers the basic sets of the platform, services and technologies to work more efficiently
with IoT projects.
o This OS is lightweight and highly secure.
o Focuses on meeting the requirement of IoT devices and their distributors.
o Public and Private key is generated while two steps validation and authentication at every
step makes it more secure.
11. Linutop:
• This OS is specially developed to start an Internet stall or digital marketing platform. It is
based on Raspbian OS and is dedicated to rendering Web Kiosk or digital signage.
Linutop is a small, lightweight OS and also comes with a hardware setup.
Features of Linutop OS:
o This OS can be easily used on Raspberry Pi B, B+, and get a smooth performance.
o It is more suitable for running businesses such as hotels, restaurants, shops, city halls,
offices and museums.
o Linutop is a customized version of the same Linux distribution used by Xubuntu and
Ubuntu/XFCE.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-8 Programming Using Python

o It is capable of running multimedia software and emphasizes secure web browsing on

single board computers.
12. Kali Linux:
• Kali is based on Linux specially designed for Raspberry Pi. It can be used on desktop
computers. Additional tools can be used which are available on the website to extend the
capabilities of certain features.
Features of Kali Linux OS:
o Class 10 SD card with at least 8 GB of data storage is required for installing a prebuilt Kali
Linux image on Raspberry.
o This OS offers a lot of security and forensics tools to ensure the project or applications’
security.
o Security can be ensured through research, testing, forensic reports, or even reverse
engineering to accomplish the goal.
o The Kali is best for high computing projects.
o Kali can provide support to Ethical Hacking, it helps in Cracking Wi-Fi password, spoofing
and testing networks.
13. Ubuntu Mate:
• Ubuntu is very popular today. Ubuntu Mate is specially designed and dedicated to run on
Raspberry Pi. It is a good choice for users looking for an alternative to Raspbian.
Features of Ubuntu Mate OS:
o It is a Debian based Linux distribution which gets updates much faster.
o It has colourful interface and it offers Raspbian, Minecraft Pi or Scratch.
o The Ubuntu team maintains the kernel and updates can be done by expanding the file
system automatically.
o It comes with HDMI, WIFI, Bluetooth, and Ethernet support. It can encode and decode the
hardware-assisted video using FFmpeg.
14. OpenMedia Vault:
• It is Debian based OS which is intended to improve the network performance. It is
suitable for network drive or storage applications running in Raspberry Pi.
Features of OpenMedia Vault OS:
o The OS can be updated using the Debian Package Management.
o It is more suitable to use in any office or home. Its performance can be improved by
installing plugins from a vast collection.
o It supports traditional services of Raspberry Pi.
o It comes with Link aggregation, Wake On Lan, and IPv6 support.
15. Gentoo:
• This OS is very flexible. It is from Linux distribution and it is very lightweight. All packages
and services are available with this OS. It is supported by Arch Linux, which is widely
recognized for Raspberry Pi development.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-9 Programming Using Python

Features of Gentoo OS:

o This OS can be used easily on Raspberry Pi. More functionality can be added using
emerge and portage.
o It compiles new applications locally on the computer.
o After downloading new software, Source code can be extracted and developed according
to user’s preference.
o It is supported by onboard Raspberry Pi Ethernet, WiFi, and Bluetooth adaptors.
16. Kano:
• It is usually referred to as an entirely planned educational project and designed for the
children. Kano manufactures computer kits to inspire children to learn how a computer
works, how to write code, or how to work with basic projects. Children and the individuals
who are interested in developing art, music, apps and games software can start with the
starting kit distributed by Kano.
Features of Kano OS:
o Kano offers an open-source OS to use in Raspberry Pi and setup wizard guides the user
after completing the installation.
o It contains several story modes and a fresh set of features. User need to create an account
and set a username to use this.
o With Other applications like Minecraft, Youtube, web browsers are also available with this
OS. These most used applications are usually located on the menu.
o User can start building small projects after installing the OS with the dedicated apps.
o This is a new OS. They have provided many books, resources and instruction videos on
their website.
17. Rokos:
• Rokos is best for the projects related to cryptography. As the necessity to transform
computer into a minor node is increasing, SBCs are becoming more popular.
Featuers of Rokos OS:
o This OS offers solution to start crypto mining for the people who cannot afford high-end
computers or hardware.
o It provides support to users to create Bitcoin wallet or portfolio.
o This OS helps the user to earn and educate them.
o It comes with fully functional Bitcoin and OKcash node. The OpenBazar server is also
involved with the package.
o It focuses on updating security, regulations and optimizing the system regularly.
Dependencies for compilation are also added.
18. Minibian:
• All the features and applications are packed into this minimalistic version of Raspbian. As
it is developed and managed by the same team, it takes advantage of Raspbian. It focuses
on eliminating the unneeded apps to improve overall performance, although it does not
offer a graphical user interface.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-10 Programming Using Python

Features of Minibian OS:

o The environment of the Minibian is more stable and it can provide a lightweight system
for the embedded system.
o The same repositories and binary projects like Raspbian can be used.
o It is not suitable for advanced projects and less popular among the developers.
o Boot ability through network or ethernet is now available.
19. Chromium OS:
• Google offers this open-source version of the Chromium OS. That was intended to use on
Chromebook computers, but it is also available for Raspberry Pi. It can single-handedly
convert the Raspberry Pi into a desktop PC as it allows users to run powerful applications
using cloud computing rather than depending on the hardware resources.
Features of Chromium OS:
o It is more suitable for web browsing.
o It comes with all the applications offered by Google like Gmail, drive, access, docs, keeps
etc.
o Chromium can be used on Raspberry Pi 3 or 3B+ devices as there are no images available
for Pi Zero or Raspberry 4.
20. Alpine Linux:
• It is intended to serve the users who need more computational power. It is an
independent Linux distribution that focuses on ensuring security, improving the system’s
efficiency and making the interface simple. It is more suitable for a network project or
work with VPN, Routers and Firewalls.
Features of Alpine Linux:
o It is lightweight system and has an image for Raspberry Pi which will not occupy more
than 50 MB of the storage.
o Any system according to the user’s demand can be built and any application can be
configured.
o Its own APK management tool can be used for upgrading the apps.
o It can be used as a workstation for XFCE, Firefox and Linux software.
o It provides a noise-free Linux environment.
• As discussed above, there are number of operating systems available for Raspberry Pi.
User can select any one depending on the application.
• Today Raspberry Pi is the most demanding and attractive SBC.
• Raspberry Pi helps to build any prototypes and develop applications or software.
• Raspberry Pi can generate output like a desktop computer and has ability to serve
individuals and small business.
• User should select the right OS to accomplish his goal.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-11 Programming Using Python

3.4 Basic Python Programming (Script Programming)

• Python is becoming very popular nowadays. Python is a general purpose interpreted,
interactive, object-oriented and high-level programming language.
• It was created by Guido van Rossum during 1985-1990 at the National Research Institute for
Mathematics and Computer Science in the Netherlands.
• Python is copyrighted. Python source code is also available under the GNU General Public
License (GPL).
• Python is derived from many other languages such as ABC, Modula-3, C, C++, Algol-68,
SmallTalk, and Unix shell and other scripting languages.
• Python is maintained by a core development team at the institute.
• Python is designed to be highly readable. It uses English keywords frequently where as other
languages use punctuation and it has fewer syntactical constructions than other languages.
• Today, Python is very essential to become a good software Engineer.
3.4.1 Features of Python
• Python is Interpreted, that means, Python is processed at runtime by the interpreter.
Compiling a program is not required before executing it.
• Python is Interactive that means user can interact with the interpreter directly while
writing the programs on Python prompt.
• Python supports Object-Oriented style or technique of programming that encapsulates
code within objects.
• Python is very easy to understand so it is known as beginner’s language. It supports the
development of a wide range of applications from simple text processing to WWW
browsers to games.
• It can be used as a scripting language or can be compiled to byte-code for building large
applications.
• It supports automatic garbage collection.
• Python is easy to read, easy to maintain. It has broad standard library.
• It is portable, extendable.
• It supports GUI programming.
3.4.2 Python Installation
• The documentation of Python is available on heet://www.python.org/doc/. The
documentation is available in HTML, PDF and PostScript formats.
• Python is available for a wide variety of platforms. Only the binary code application for
selected platform has to be downloaded and Python is installed.
• If the binary code for selected platform is not available then a C compiler has to be
downloaded to compile the source code manually. Compiling the source code offers
more flexibility in terms of choice of features.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-12 Programming Using Python

The steps for installing Python on various platforms are given below:
(I) Unix and Linux Installation:
• Open a Web browser and go to https://www.python.org/ downloads/.
• Follow the link to download zipped source code available for Unix/Linux.
• Download and extract files.
• To customize some options, edit the Modules/Setup file.
• run ./configure script.
• make
• make install
This installs Python at standard location /usr/local/bin and its libraries at
/usr/local/lib/pythonXX where XX is the version of Python.
(II) Windows Installation:
• Open a Web browser and go to https://www.python.org/ downloads/.
• Follow the link for the Windows installer python-XYZ.msi file where XYZ is the version to
install.
• To use this installer python-XYZ.msi, the Windows system must support Microsoft
Installer 2.0. Save the installer file on local machine and then run it and check whether the
machine supports MSI.
• Run the downloaded file. This brings up the Python install wizard, accept the default
settings, wait until the install is finished.
(III) Macintosh Installation:
• Get instructions, for the current version with extra tools to support development on the
Mac from http://www.python.org/ download/mac/.
• For older Mac OS's before Mac OS X 10.3 (released in 2003), MacPython is available.
• Jack Jansen maintains it and access to the entire documentation is available at his website
− http://www.cwi.nl/~jack/ macpython.html. Complete installation details for Mac OS
installation are available on this site.
3.4.3 Python Variable
• Variables are nothing but reserved memory locations to store the values. When a variable
is created, some space is reserved.
• Based on the data type of a variable, the interpreter allocates memory and decides what
can be stored in the reserved memory.
• By assigning different data types to variables, integers, decimals or characters in these
variables can be stored.
• Python is completely object oriented. Variables or their types need not to be declared
before using them. Every variable in Python is an object.
• Python variables do not need explicit declaration to reserve memory space. The
declaration happens automatically when a value to a variable is assigned. The equal sign
(=) is used to assign values to variables.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-13 Programming Using Python

• For example :
num = 50 #num is of type int
str = "Chaitanya" #str is of type string
• Variable name is known as identifier. There are few rules that have to follow while naming
the variables in Python as given below:
o The name of the variable must always start with either a letter or an underscore (_).
For example: _str, str, num, _num are all valid names for the variables.
o The name of the variable cannot start with a number. For example: 9num is not a valid
variable name.
o The name of the variable cannot have special characters such as %, $, # etc., they can
only have alphanumeric characters and underscore (A to Z, a to z, 0-9).
o Variable name is case sensitive in Python which means ‘num’ and ‘NUM’ are two
different variables in python.
• Python allows user to assign a single value to several variables simultaneously.
For example: a = b = c = 5
• Here, an integer object is created with the value 5, and all three variables are assigned to
the same memory location.
• Multiple variables can be assigned to multiple objects.
For example: a,b,c = 5,6,"Hello"
• Here, two integer objects with values 5 and 6 are assigned to variables a and b
respectively, and one string object with the value "Hello" is assigned to the variable c.
3.4.4 Python Data Types
• There are many data types available in Python. Python has various standard data types to
define the operations possible on them and the storage method for each of them.
• Python has 5 standard data types as:
1. Numbers
2. String
3. List
4. Tuple
5. Dictionary
1. Python Numbers:
• This data types store numeric values. To number objects, a value is assigned to them.
For example: var1 = 2
var2 = 15
• The reference to a number object can be deleted by using the del statement. The syntax
of the del statement is :
del var1[,var2[,var3[....,varN]]]]
• A single object or multiple objects can be deleted by using the del statement.
For example: del var
del var_a, var_b
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-14 Programming Using Python

• Python supports 4 different numerical types:

(i) int (signed integers)
(ii) long (long integers, can also be represented in octal and hexadecimal)
(iii) float (floating point real values)
(iv) complex (complex numbers)
• Python allow to use a lowercase l with long, but it is recommended that only an
uppercase L shall be used to avoid confusion with the number 1. Python displays long
integers with an uppercase L.
2. Python Strings:
• Python strings are identified as an adjoining set of characters represented in the
quotation marks.
• Python allows pairs of single or double quotes.
• The slice operator ([ ] and [:] ) with indexes starting at 0 in the beginning of the string and
working their way from −1 at the end can be used as subset of strings.
• The plus (+) sign is used for the string concatenation operator and the asterisk (*) is used
for the repetition operator.
3. Python Lists:
• A list contains items separated by commas which are enclosed within square brackets ([ ]).
• Lists are similar to arrays in C. However, in Python all the items belonging to a list can be
different data type.
• The values of the list can be accessed using the slice operator ([ ] and [:]) with indexes.
4. Python Tuples:
• A tuple is another sequence data type which is similar to the list.
• A tuple consists of a number of values separated by commas which are enclosed within
parentheses.
• The main difference between list and tuple is Lists are enclosed in brackets ( [ ] ) and their
elements and size can be changed. Tuples are enclosed in parentheses ( ( ) ) and cannot
be updated. Tuples can be thought of as read-only lists.
5. Python Dictionary :
• Dictionaries in Python are of hash table type. They work like associative arrays found in
Perl. It consists of key-value pairs.
• A dictionary keys are usually numbers or strings.
• Dictionaries are enclosed by curly braces ({ }) and values can be assigned and accessed
using square braces ([ ]).
3.4.5 Data Type Conversion
• Sometimes, conversion of built-in data types is required. The type name as a function can
be used to convert between types.
• In Python, there are various built-in functions available which can perform conversion
from one data type to another. Some of them are listed in below table 3.1.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-15 Programming Using Python

Table 3.1 : Python Built-in Functions for Data Conversion

Sr. No. Function Description

1. int(x [,base]) Converts x to an integer.

Base specifies the base if x is a string.

2. long(x [,base]) Converts x to a long integer. base specifies the base if

x is a string.

3. float(x) Converts x to a floating-point number.

4. complex(real [,imag]) Creates a complex number.

5. str(x) Converts object x to a string representation.

6. repr(x) Converts object x to an expression string.

7. eval(str) Evaluates a string and returns an object.

8. tuple(s) Converts s to a tuple.

9. list(s) Converts s to a list.

10. set(s) Converts s to a set.

11. dict(d) Creates a dictionary. d must be a sequence of (key,

value) tuples.

12. frozenset(s) Converts s to a frozen set.

13. chr(x) Converts an integer to a character.

14. unichr(x) Converts an integer to a Unicode character.

15. ord(x) Converts a single character to its integer value.

16. hex(x) Converts an integer to a hexadecimal string.

17. oct(x) Converts an integer to an octal string.

• Python supports the following types of operators.
(i) Arithmetic Operators such as:
+ Addition
− Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
% Modulus
** Exponent
//
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-16 Programming Using Python

(ii) Comparison (Relational) Operators such as:

== Equal to
!= No equal to
<> Range
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than and equal to
<= Less than and equal to
(iii) Assignment Operators such as:
=
+ = Add AND
− = Subtract AND
* = Multiply AND
/ = Divide AND
% = Modulus AND
** = Exponent AND
// = Floor Division
(iv) Bitwise Operators such as:
& Binary AND
| Binary OR
^ Binary XOR
~ Binary Ones Complement
<< Binary Left Shift
>> Binary Right Shift
(v) Logical Operators such as:
and Logical AND
or Logical OR
not Logical NOT
(vi) Membership Operators such as: in, not in
(vii) Identity Operators such as: is, is not

3.5 Flow Control Structures

• Flow control structures basically control the flow of program execution depending upon the
condition is true or false. The action to be taken is specified in program depending on the
outcome is true or false.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-17 Programming Using Python

• The general format of decision making structure is given below:

Name Description

Process
Normal Code Statement - 1 input and 1 output.
Example would be setting up a variable.
Condition Block - 1 input and 2 or more potential
outputs, makes decision on output based on the
Decision
condition. Condition example would be, is A > B?

Direction of the execution flow of the software

program. path can be traversed again and again.

Condition

If condition
is true
If condition
is false
Conditional
code

Fig. 3.3: Flow control structure

• As shown in above Fig. 3.3, flow control structures are nothing but decision making structures.
It is usually represented in the form of flowchart with specified boxes. There are rectangles,
diamonds and arrows. Each box represents a unique action.
• Python assumes any non-zero and non-null values as TRUE condition. If it is either zero or null
then it is treated as FALSE value.
• The flow of a Python program is controlled by conditional statements, Loops and function
calls.
• Conditional statements includes if...then statements. Loops consists of For loop, While loop
etc. There are various Functions available in Python, some of them are discussed here.
(i) If...Then...else
• Sometimes few statements need to be executed only if a particular condition is satisfied.
In that case If.. Then.. else statement is required.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-18 Programming Using Python

• In Python, compound statement if, elif and else is used which will conditionally execute
blocks of statements.
• The syntax is as follows:
if expression:
statement(s)
elif expression:
statement(s)
elif expression:
statement(s)
...
else:
statement(s)
• The elif and else statements are optional. However, Python does not have a switch
statement. For all conditions, if, elif and else must be used.
if y > 0: print "y is positive"
elif y % 2: print "y is negative and even"
else: print "y is odd and negative"
Or it can be written as
if y > 0:
print "y is positive"
elif y % 2:
print "y is nagetive and even"
else:
print "y is odd and positive"
(ii) While statement
• The while statement in Python is basically for the repeated execution of a statement or
block of statements which are controlled by a conditional expression.
• The syntax for while statement is as below:
while expression:
statement(s)
• A while statement also include as else condition, break and continuous statement
count = 0
while x > 0:
x = x // 2 # truncating division
count += 1
print "The approximate log2 is", count
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-19 Programming Using Python

• First loop condition is evaluated. If the condition is false then the While statement ends. If
loop condition is true then the statement or block of statements which are in loop body
are executed.
• When all the statements in the loop finishes executing, the loop condition is evaluated
again to check whether another iteration is required or not.
• This process continues until the loop condition is false, then the While statement ends.
• The loop body should contain statements which can make the loop condition false, or the
loop will never end and it becomes endless loop. If it happens then a break statement is
raised.
• A loop body ends if it has return statement, then whole function ends in this case.
(iii) For statement
• In Python, the for statement is used for repeated execution of a statement or block of
statements which is controlled by an iterable expression.
• The syntax for for statement is as below:
for target in iterable:
statement(s)
• Here, keyword in is a part of syntax of the for statement. The for statement can also
include an else and break and continue statement.
Iterators:
• An iterator is any object i such that i.next() can be called without any arguments.
• i.next() returns the next item of iterator i, or, when iterator i has no more items,
raises a StopIteration exception.
• The for statement implicitly calls iter to get an iterator.
• Python provides built-in functions range and xrange to generate and return integer
sequences. The simplest way to loop n times in Python is:
for i in xrange(n):
statement(s)
• range(x) returns a list whose items are consecutive integers from 0 (included) up
to x (excluded).
• range(x,y) returns a list whose items are consecutive integers from x (included) up
to y (excluded). The result is the empty list if x is greater than or equal to y.
The break Statement
• The break statement can be only used inside a loop body.
• When break executes, the loop terminates. If a loop is nested inside other
loops, break terminates only the innermost nested loop.
• The syntax of loop is as follows:
while True: # this loop can never terminate
naturally
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-20 Programming Using Python

x = get_next( )
y = preprocess(x)
if not keep_looping(x,y): break
process(x,y)
The continue Statement
• The continue statement in Python returns the control to the beginning of the while
loop.
• The continue statement rejects all the remaining statements in the current iteration of
the loop and goes back to the top of the loop.
• The continue statement can be used in both while and for loops.
The else Clause on Loop Statements
• Both the while and for statements can use else clause.
• The statement after the else executes when the loop terminates naturally. However, if
the loop terminates prematurely (via break, return, or an exception) then no further
statements are executed.
• If a loop contains one or more break statements, then user has to check whether the
loop terminates naturally or prematurely.
• User can use an else clause on the loop for this purpose:
for y in some_container:
if is_ok(y): break
# item y is satisfactory, terminate loop
else:
print "Warning: no satisfactory item was
found in container"
y = None
The pass Statement
• The body of Python program cannot be empty, it must contain at least one statement.
The pass statement can be used in that case which performs no action. So when a
statement as per syntax is required and nothing is written there then pass statement can
be used.
if condition1(x):
process1(x)
elif x>33 or condition2(x) and x<5:
pass # nothing to be done in this case
elif condition3(x):
process3(x)
else:
process_default(x)
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-21 Programming Using Python

The try Statement

• In Python, the try statement includes try, expect, finally and else clauses.
• A try statement is used to catch exceptions that might be thrown as program executes.
• The try block tries to catch the errors.
• The try and except block in Python is used to catch and handle exceptions.
3.6 Functions
• A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called.
• Functions are important as they can process data and can be called as and when required in
main program.
• The data can be passed with known parameter into a function. A function can return data as a
result.
• A function is a block of organized, reusable code that is used to perform a single action.
Functions provide better modularity for the application and a high degree of code reusing.
• Python provides many built-in functions like print(), etc. And users can create their own
functions. These functions are called user-defined functions.
• Function block begin with the keyword def followed by function name and parentheses (( )).
Any input parameter should be put in these parentheses.
• The code block of each function starts with a colon () and is intended.
• The statement return [expression] has to be used at the end of the function.
• The syntax of function is given as below:
def functionname(parameters):
"function_docstring"
function_suite
return [expression]
• Function consists of def which marks the start of the function, function name, parameters
(arguments) through which values can be passed to function, a body of function or block of
statements a colon (:) to mark end of function and optional return statement to return a value
from the function.
• Once the function is defined, it can be called by its name directly from the Python prompt.
• In Python, the parameters (arguments) are passed by reference. That means, if the parameter
within a function is changed then the change also reflects back in the calling function.
• A function can be called by using various types of formal arguments as: required arguments,
keyword arguments, default arguments, variable-length arguments.
• The return statement exits a function.
3.6.1 Scope of Variables
• In Python, all variables in a program may not be accessible at all locations of that program. It
depends on the variable declaration.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-22 Programming Using Python

• The scope of variable determines accessibility of that variable. The variable can be declared as
Global variables or Local variables.
• Variables which are defined inside the function have local scope and those which are defined
outside the function have global scope.
• Local variables can be accessed only inside the function in which they are declared. Global
variables can be accessed at any location of a program by any function.
3.6.2 Types of Functions
• There are two types of functions: Built-in functions and User-defined functions.
• Built-in functions are built in Python. User-defined functions are defined by the users.
• Built-in functions of Python are listed in below table.
Table 3.2 : Python Built-in Functions
Built-in Functions
abs ( ) delattr ( ) hash ( ) memoryview ( ) set ( )
all ( ) dict ( ) help ( ) min ( ) setattr ( )
any ( ) dir ( ) hex ( ) next ( ) slice ( )
ascii ( ) divmod ( ) id ( ) object ( ) sorted ( )
bin ( ) enumerate ( ) input ( ) oct ( ) staticmethod ( )
bool ( ) eval ( ) int ( ) open ( ) str ( )
breakpoint ( ) exec ( ) isinstance ( ) ord ( ) sum ( )
bytearray ( ) filter ( ) issubclass ( ) pow ( ) super ( )
bytes ( ) float ( ) iter ( ) print ( ) tuple ( )
callable ( ) format ( ) len ( ) property ( ) type ( )
chr ( ) frozenset ( ) list ( ) range ( ) vars ( )
classmethod ( ) getattr ( ) locals ( ) repr ( ) zip ( )
compile ( ) globals ( ) map ( ) reversed ( ) _import_ ( )
complex ( ) hasattr ( ) max ( ) round ( )
[I] I/O Function (GPIO, Digital):
• Python program has to obtain data from user. It can be taken as an input from keyboard. In
Python, the input function is available as input ( ) which can be written on Python prompt. .
For example :
>>> s = input()
Hello
>>> s
‘Hello’
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-23 Programming Using Python

• The output can be written on console by using print ( ) function as:

print(<obj>, ..., <obj>)
For example :
>>> print("Hello")
Hello
GPIO:
• General Purpose Input Output (GPIO) pins of Raspberry Pi can be used as input or output.
Through GPIO pins, Raspberry Pi connects to outside world and can access input and
output.
• GPIO pins of Raspberry Pi are the physical interface between Pi and the outside world.
• GPIO pins can be programmed according to user’s need to interact with external devices.
For example: to read the state of a physical switch, any GPIO pin can be configured as
input pin and read the switch status to make decision.
• To use Raspberry Pi GPIO pins in Python, RPi.GPIO package has to be imported. This
RPi.GPIO is already installed on Raspbian OS. So, it does not need to install externally.
The library has to be included in the Python program as:
import RPi.GPIO as GPIO
• The GPIO pin number and physical pin number of Raspberry Pi are different. In GPIO
numbering, pin number refers to number on Broadcom SoC and in physical numbering,
pin number refers to the pin 40-pin header on Raspberry Pi board.
• So, the GPIO pins of Raspberry Pi has to be defined. They can be defined as:
GPIO.setmode (Pin Numbering System)
• In RiPi.GPIO, GPIO numbering is identified by BCM whereas Physical numbering is
identified by BOARD.
• Pin Numbering System = BOARD/BCM
• E.g. If user use pin number 40 of P1 header as a GPIO pin then it has to be configured as
output.
In BCM,
GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BCM)
GPIO.setup(21, GPIO.OUT)
In BOARD,
GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BOARD)
GPIO.setup(40, GPIO.OUT)
GPIO.setup (channel, direction, initial value, pull up/pull down)
This function is used to set the direction of GPIO pin as an input/output.
channel: GPIO pin number as per numbering system.
direction: set direction of GPIO pin as either Input or Output.
initial value: can provide initial value.
pull up/pull down: enable pull up or pull down if required.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-24 Programming Using Python

Few examples are given as follows:

• GPIO as Output
GPIO.setup(channel, GPIO.OUT)
• GPIO as Input
GPIO.setup(channel, GPIO.IN)
• GPIO as Output with initial value
GPIO.setup(channel, GPIO.OUT, initial=GPIO.HIGH)
• GPIO as Input with Pull up resistor
GPIO.setup(channel, GPIO.IN, pull_up_down = GPIO.PUD_UP)
GPIO.output(channel, state)
This function is used to set the output state of GPIO pin.
channel: GPIO pin number as per numbering system.
state: Output state i.e. HIGH or LOW of GPIO pin.
e.g.
GPIO.output(7, GPIO.HIGH)
GPIO.input(channel)
This function is used to read the value of GPIO pin.
e.g.
GPIO.input(9)
Example:
Turn ON and OFF LED using Python on Raspberry Pi. Switch is used to control the LED ON-
OFF.
Python Program :
import RPi.GPIO as GPIO #import RPi.GPIO module

LED = 32 #pin no. as per BOARD, GPIO18 as per BCM

Switch_input = 29 #pin no. as per BOARD, GPIO27 as per BCM
GPIO.setwarnings(False) #disable warnings
GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BOARD) #set pin numbering format
GPIO.setup(LED, GPIO.OUT) #set GPIO as output
GPIO.setup(Switch_input,GPIO.IN,pull_up_down=GPIO.PUD_UP)

while True:
if(GPIO.input(Switch_input)):
GPIO.output(LED,GPIO.LOW)
else:
GPIO.output(LED,GPIO.HIGH)
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-25 Programming Using Python

[II] Time Functions:

• Date and time are very important in everyday life. So all the programming languages have
date and time functions.
• Python provides three modules: datetime, time and calendar which helps user to deal
with dates, time, duration and calendars.
• The ‘datetime’ module consists of four important classes as ‘datetime’, ‘date’, ‘time’, and
‘timedelta’.
• The ‘datetime’ class handles a combination of date and time which has attributes as year,
month, day, hour, minute, second, microsecond and tzinfo.
• The data class handles dates of Gregorian calendar and has year, month and day
attributes.
• The time class handles time consuming per day that means 24 × 60 × 60 seconds. It has
hour, minute, second, microsecond and tzinfo attributes.
• The timedelta class handles the duration. Duration can be difference between two; date,
time or datetime instances.
The epoch
• The ‘epoch’ is the point where the time starts. This point considers the 0.0 hours of
st
January 1 of the current year.
• For example: Python program to measure the time in seconds from epoch is as follows:
#knowing the time since the epoch
import time
epoch = time.time() # call time() function of time module
print epoch()

The output of the program is:

C:\python ep.py
1462077746.917558
Above time is in seconds from epoch.
(i) The time function: Python consists of a function named ‘time’ to handle time related
tasks. For this, first the time module has to be imported by using –
import time
The time ( ) function returns the number of seconds passed since epoch.
(ii) The time.ctime (): The time.ctime () function considers seconds passed since epoch as an
argument and returns string representing local time which is more understandable to user.
import time
# seconds passed since epoch
seconds = 1545925769.9618232
local_time = time.ctime(seconds)
print("Local time:", local_time)
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-26 Programming Using Python

The output of the program is as :

Local time: Thu Dec 27 15:49:29 2018
(iii) The time.clock (): The time.clock () function return the processor time which is used to
test the performance testing/benchmarking as:
time.clock()
The clock() function returns the right time taken by the program.
(iv) The time.sleep (): The time.sleep() function pause the current execution for specified
number of seconds. It passes a floating point value as input to get more precise sleep time.
The sleep () function can be used in programs where user need to wait for a file to finish
closing.
For example :
import time
# using ctime() to display present time
print ("Time starts from : ",end="")
print (time.ctime())
# using sleep() to suspend execution
print ('Waiting for 5 sec.')
time.sleep(5)
# using ctime() to show present time
print ("Time ends at : ",end="")
print (time.ctime())

The output of above program is :

Time starts from : Fri Mar 22 20:00:00 2019
Waiting for 5 sec.
Time ends at : Fri Mar 22 20:00:05 2019
(v) The time.struct_time class: The time.struct_time is used for data structure present in the
time module. It is named under tuple interface and can be accessible via index or the attribute
name. Its syntax is as:
time.struct_time
This class is used when the specific field of a date has to be accessed.
This class provides functions such as localtime (), gmtime () and return struct_time objects.
For example :
import time
print('Current local time:', time.ctime())
t = time.localtime()
print('Day of month:', t.tm_mday)
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-27 Programming Using Python

print('Day of week :', t.tm_wday)

print('Day of year :', t.tm_yday)

The output of the program is

Current local time: Fri Mar 22 20:10:25 2019
Day of month: 22
Day of week : 4
Day of year : 81
(vi) The time.strftime (): The time.strftime () function takes a tuple or struct_time in the
second argument and converts to a string as per the format specified in the first argument. Its
syntax is as:
time.strftime()
For example:
import time
now = time.localtime(time.time())
print("Current date time is: ",time.asctime(now))
print(time.strftime("%y/%m/%d %H:%M", now))
print(time.strftime("%a %b %d", now))
print(time.strftime("%c", now))
print(time.strftime("%I %p", now))
print(time.strftime("%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S %Z", now))
The output of the program is
Current date time is: Fri Mar 22 20:13:43 2019
19/03/22 20:13
Fri Mar 22
Fri Mar 22 20:13:43 2019
08 PM
2019-03-22 20:13:43 India Standard Time
• Python has various format codes used in strftime as given in table 3.2.
Table 3.2 : Python Format Codes
Format Meaning Example
Code
%a Weekday as an abbreviated name. Sun, Mon, …., Sat
%A Weekday as full name. Sunday, Monday, …., Saturday
%w Weekday as a decimal number, where 0 is Sunday 0, 1, …., 6
and 6 is Saturday.
… (Contd.)
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-28 Programming Using Python

Format Meaning Example

Code
%d Day of the month as a zero-padded decimal 01, 02, …., 31
number.
%b Month as an abbreviated name. Jan, Feb., …., Dec.
%B Month as full name. January, February, …., December
%m Month as zero-padded decimal number. 01, 02, …., 12.
%y Year without century as a zero-padded decimal 00, 01, …., 99
number.
%Y Year with century as decimal number. 0001, 0002, …., 2016, …., 9999
%H Hour (24-hour clock) as zero-padded decimal 00, 01, ….,23
number.
%I Hour (12-hour clock) as a zero-padded decimal 01, 02, …., 12
number.
%p Either AM or PM. AM, PM
%M Minute as a zero-padded decimal number. 00, 01, …., 59
%S Second as a zero-padded decimal number. 00, 01, …., 59
%f Microsecond as a decimal number, zero-padded 000000, 000001, …., 999999
on the left.
%Z Time zone name. (empty), UTC, EST, CST
%j Day of the year as a zero-padded decimal 001, 002, …., 366
number.
%U Week number of the year (Sunday as the first day 00, 01, …., 53
of the week) as a zero-padded decimal number.
All days in a new year preceding the first Sunday
are considered to be in week 0.
%W Week number of the year (Monday as the first 00, 01, …., 53
day of the week) as a decimal number. All days in
a new year preceding the first Monday are
considered to be in week 0.
%c Appropriate date and time representation. Tue Aug 16 21:30:00 1988
%x Appropriate date representation. 08/16/88 (None);
08/16/1988 (en_US)
%X Appropriate time representation. 21:30:00 (en_US)
%% A single % character. %
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-29 Programming Using Python

(vii) The timedelta: The timedelta class is useful to find duration such as differences between
two dates or finding the date after adding a period to current date.
It is also used to find the future date or previous dates using timedelta class.
The format of timedelta is:
datetime.timedelta(days=0, seconds=0, microseconds=0, milliseconds=0,
minutes=0, hours=0, weeks=0)
Days, seconds and microseconds are only stored internally in the timedelta object. Other
arguments are converted to those units as:
• A millisecond is converted to 100 microseconds.
• A minute is converted to 60 seconds.
• An hour is converted to 3600 seconds.
• A week is converted to 7 days.
Calendar Module
The ‘calendar’ module is used to create calendar of any month or year. It is also used to know
whether the year is a leap year or not by using isleap () function.
For example :
# to test whether leap year or not
from calendar import *
y = int (input (‘entre year: ‘))
if (isleap(y)):
print (y, ‘ is leap year’)
else:
print (y, ‘ is not leap year’)

The output of the program is :

C:\>python leap.py
Entre year: 2020
2020 is leap year
The perf_counter() and process_time()
• The perf_counter() and process_time() functions of ‘time’ module are used to measure the
time difference between two points in a program. Thus, these two functions are used to
measure the time taken for execution of a python program.
• perf_counter () function returns the time duration in fractional seconds. It measures the time
taken by the program to execute a group of statements. It includes the time elapsed during
sleep of the processor.
• process_time () function also return the time duration in fractional seconds. It measures the
total time taken by the program and CPU in executing a group of statements. It will not
include the time elapsed during the sleep of the processor.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-30 Programming Using Python

The syntax are as:

t1 = perf_counter ()
t2 = process_time ()
[III] Library Functions:
• The standard library of Python is very extensive. It offers a wide range of functions.
• The library contains built-in modules which are written in ‘C’. These built-in functions give
access to system functionality such as I/O file.
• Python library also provides various modules which can give solutions to many problems
in programming.
• The Python installers for Windows platform include the entire standard library and also
many additional components. For Unix operating system, Python provides collection of
packages.
• Also several thousand components from individual programs and modules are available
along with the standard library.
• Some of the built-in functions are tabulated in Table 3.3.
• The Python standard library is available on their official website docs.python.org>library.
• Libraries are maintained by group of contributors and it is made available to all users. This
type of collaboratively maintained software is known as open source. Python is an open
source.
• In Python, library has to be imported to access library functions. To import library, the
code has to be downloaded into the computer where Python is running and then import
it.
• Python is an ocean of libraries which are used for various purposes. Top 10 Python
libraries which are widely used are: TensorFlow, Scikit-Learn, Numpy, Keras, PyTorch,
LightGBM, Eli5, SciPy, Theano, Pandas.
Commonly used Python built-in functions are listed below:
Table 3.3 : Commonly used Python Built-in Functions
Function Description
Python abs() Returns absolute value of a number.
Python any() Checks if any Element of an Iterable is True.
Python all() Returns true when all elements in iterable are true.
Python ascii() Returns string containing printable representation.
Python bin() Converts integer to binary string.
Python bool() Converts a Value to Boolean.
Python bytearray() Returns array of given byte size.
Python callable() Checks if the object is callable.
… (Contd.)
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-31 Programming Using Python

Function Description
Python bytes() Returns immutable bytes object.
Python chr() Returns a character (a string) from an Integer.
Python compile() Returns a python code object.
Python classmethod() Returns class method for given function.
Python complex() Creates a complex number.
Python delattr() Deletes attribute from the object.
Python dict() Creates a Dictionary.
Python dir() Tries to return attributes of object.
Python divmod() Returns a tuple of quotient and remainder.
Python enumerate() Returns an enumerate object.
Python staticmethod() Transforms a method into a static method.
Python filter() Constructs iterator from elements which are true.
Python eval() Runs python code within program.
Python float() Returns floating point number from number, string.
Python format() Returns formatted representation of a value.
Python frozenset() Returns immutable frozenset object.
Python getattr() Returns value of named attribute of an object.
Python globals() Returns dictionary of current global symbol table.
Python exec() Executes Dynamically Created Program
Python hasattr() Returns whether object has named attribute.
Python help() Invokes the built-in help system.
Python hex() Converts to Integer to Hexadecimal.
Python hash() Returns hash value of an object.
Python input() Reads and returns a line of string.
Python id() Returns Identity of an object.
Python isinstance() Checks if an object is an Instance of Class.
Python int() Returns integer from a number or string.
Python issubclass() Checks if a Class is Subclass of another Class.
Python iter() Returns an iterator.
Python list() Creates a list in Python.
… (Contd.)
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-32 Programming Using Python

Function Description
Python locals() Returns dictionary of a current local symbol table.
Python len() Returns length of an object.
Python max() Returns the largest item.
Python min() Returns the smallest value.
Python map() Applies function and returns a list.
Python next() Retrieves next item from the iterator.
Python memoryview() Returns memory view of an argument.
Python object() Creates a featureless object.
Python oct() Returns the octal representation of an integer.
Python ord() Returns an integer of the Unicode character.
Python open() Returns a file object.
Python pow() Returns the power of a number.
Python print() Prints the given object.
Python property() Returns the property attribute.
Python range() Returns sequence of integers between start and stop.
Python repr() Returns a printable representation of the object.
Python reversed() Returns the reversed iterator of a sequence.
Python round() Rounds a number to specified decimals.
Python set() Constructs and returns a set.
Python setattr() Sets the value of an attribute of an object.
Python slice() Returns a slice object.
Python sorted() Returns a sorted list from the given iterable.
Python str() Returns the string version of the object.
Python sum() Adds items of an iterable.
Python tuple() Returns a tuple.
Python type() Returns the type of the object.
Python vars() Returns the __dict__ attribute.
Python zip() Returns an iterator of tuples.
Python __import__() Function called by the import statement.
Python super() Returns a proxy object of the base class.
… (Contd.)
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-33 Programming Using Python

Function Description
Python Dictionary clear() Removes all Items.
Python Dictionary copy() Returns shallow copy of a dictionary.
Python Dictionary fromkeys() Creates dictionary from given sequence.
Python Dictionary get() Returns value of the key.
Python Dictionary items() Returns view of dictionary's (key, value) pair.
Python Dictionary keys() Returns view object of all keys.
Python Dictionary popitem() Returns and removes latest element from dictionary.
Python Dictionary setdefault() Inserts key with a value if key is not present.
Python Dictionary pop() Removes and returns element having given key.
Python Dictionary values() Returns view of all values in dictionary.
Python Dictionary update() Updates the dictionary.
Python List append() Adds a single element to the end of the list.
Python List extend() Adds iterable elements to the end of the list.
Python List insert() Insert an element to the list.
Python List remove() Removes item from the list.
Python List index() Returns the index of the element in the list.
Python List count() Returns count of the element in the list.
Python List pop() Removes element at the given index.
Python List reverse() Reverses the list.
Python List sort() Sorts elements of a list.
Python List copy() Returns a shallow copy of the list.
Python List clear() Removes all items from the list.

3.7 Basic Arithmetic Programs: Addition, Subtraction,

Multiplication, Division
• As mentioned earlier in this chapter, Python is a cross-platform programming language that
means it can run on multiple platforms like Windows, MacOs, Linux etc.
• Python program can be typed and run on command prompt or in IDEL.
• On command prompt, it immediately returns the results of command that user has entered. In
IDEL, the program can be saved and then run to see the outputs.
• There are different ways in which Python program can be run as:
1. Interactive Mode
2. Command Line
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-34 Programming Using Python

3. Text Editor (VS Code)

4. IDE (PyCharm)
1. Interactive Mode:
• In Interactive mode, the program can be run line by line in a sequence. To entre in an
interactive mode, you will have to open Command Prompt on Windows and type ‘python’
and press enter.
2. Command line:
• To run Python script stored in a ‘ .py’ file in command line, user has to write ‘python’
keyword before the file name in the command line.
3. Text Editor (VS Code):
• To run Python script on a text editor such as VS Code (Visual Studio Code), following
steps have to followed:
• Go in the extension section or press ‘ ctrl+shift+X’ on Windows, then search and install
extension ‘Python’ and ‘Code Runner’. Restart VS Code after that. Then create a new file
with the name ‘helllo.py’ and write a code.
For example: print (‘Hello’)
• Then right click on the text area and select the option ‘Run Code’ or press ‘ctrl+Alt+N’ to
run the program.
4. IDE (PyCharm):
• Python script can be run on a IDE (Integrated Development Environment) such as
PyCharm, following steps have to be followed for this:
o Create a new project.
o Give a name to that project as ‘GfG’ and click on Create.
o Select the root directory with the project name as specified in the last step. Right
click on it, go in New and click on ‘Python file’ option.
o Then give the name of the file as ‘hello’ (any name can be specified).
o This will create a ‘hello.py’ file in the project root directory.
o Here, the extension .py need not be specified, as it will take it automatically.
3.7.1 Python Programs for Addition, Subtraction, Division and
Multiplication
[I] Python program for addition of 2 numbers:
# Python program for addition of two numbers

num1 = 1.5
num2 = 3.5

# Add two numbers

sum = num1 + num2
# Display the sum
print('The sum of {0} and {1} is {2}'.format(num1, num2, sum))
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-35 Programming Using Python

Output
The sum of 1.5 and 3.5 is 5.0
[II] Python program for subtraction of 2 numbers:
# Python program for subtraction of two numbers

num1 = 5.0
num2 = 3.0
# subtract two numbers
sub = num1 - num2

# Display the sub

print('The subtraction of {0} and {1} is {2}'.format(num1, num2, sub))
Output
The subtraction of 5.0 and 3.0 is 2.0
[III] Python program for multiplication of 2 numbers:
# Python program for multiplication of two numbers

num1 = 5.0
num2 = 3.0
# multiply two numbers
mul = num1 * num2

# Display the mul

print('The multiplication of {0} and {1} is {2}'.format(num1, num2,
mul))
Output
The multiplication of 5.0 and 3.0 is 15.0
[IV] Python program for division of 2 numbers:
# Python program for division of two numbers

num1 = 15.0
num2 = 3.0
# division of two numbers
div = num1/num2

# Display the div

print('The division of {0} and {1} is {2}'.format(num1, num2, div))
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-36 Programming Using Python

Output
The division of 15.0 and 3.0 is 5.0
[V] Python program for addition, subtraction, multiplication and division using functions :
#Addition function
def add(x,y):
s = x + y
print("Addition is: ",s)

#Subtraction function
def subtract(x,y):
s = x - y
print("Subtraction is: ",s)

#Multiplication function
def multiply(x,y):
s = x*y
print("Multiplication is: ",s)

#Division function
def division(x,y):
s = x/y
print("Division is: ",s)

#Ask for user input

x = int(input("Enter x: "))
y = int(input("Enter y: "))

#Function call
add(x,y)
subtract(x,y)
multiply(x,y)
divide(x,y)

Output:
Enter x: 20
Enter y: 5
Addition is: 25
Subtraction is: 15
Multiplication is: 100
Division is: 4.0
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-37 Programming Using Python

Think Over It

• What is the difference between Raspberry Pi and Tinker board?

• How can real data be accessed through Raspberry Pi for FFT?
• How to generate PWM using Raspberry Pi?
• What is the difference between Class method and Static method ?
• What is GIL? How to use it in Python?
• What are Decorators in Python?
• What are Pickling and Unpickling in Python?

Points to Remember
• Raspberry Pi OS which is formerly known as Raspbian is a Debian-based operating system for
Raspberry Pi.
• Raspbian is the most popular operating system for Raspberry Pi. The installation process of
Raspbian is same for all models of Raspberry Pi.
• In Raspbian, thousands of pre built libraries to perform many tasks and optimize the OS are
available.
• Raspbian is the official Raspberry Pi OS, however other OS are also available which can run on
Raspberry Pi.
• Python is a general purpose interpreted, interactive, object-oriented and high-level
programming language.
• It was created by Guido van Rossum during 1985-1990 at the National Research Institute for
Mathematics and Computer Science in the Netherlands.
• Python is copyrighted. Python source code is also available under the GNU General Public
License (GPL).
• Python is designed to be highly readable. It uses English keywords frequently where as other
languages use punctuation and it has fewer syntactical constructions than other languages.
• The documentation of Python is available on heet://www.python.org/doc/. The
documentation is available in HTML, PDF and PostScript formats.
• Python variables do not need explicit declaration to reserve memory space. The declaration
happens automatically when a value to a variable is assigned.
• Python has 5 standard data types as:
1. Numbers
2. String
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-38 Programming Using Python

3. List
4. Tuple
5. Dictionary
• The main difference between list and tuple is Lists are enclosed in brackets ( [ ] ) and their
elements and size can be changed. Tuples are enclosed in parentheses ( ( ) ) and cannot be
updated. Tuples can be thought of as read-only lists.
• The flow of a Python program is controlled by conditional statements, loops and function
calls.
• Conditional statements includes if...then statements. Loops consists of For loop, While loop
etc.
• The body of Python program cannot be empty, it must contain at least one statement. The
pass statement can be used in that case which performs no action.
• A try statement is used to catch exceptions that might be thrown as program executes.
• The try block tries to catch the errors.
• A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called.
• Functions are important as they can process data and can be called as and when required in
main program.
• Function block begin with the keyword def followed by function name and parentheses (()).
Any input parameter should be put in these parentheses.
• The return statement exit from the function.
• The scope of variable determines accessibility of that variable. The variable can be declared as
Global variables or Local variables.
• Local variables can be accessed only inside the function in which they are declared. Global
variables can be accessed at any location of a program by any function.
• Python provides three modules: datetime, time and calendar which helps user to deal with
dates, time, duration and calendars.
• The ‘epoch’ is the point where the time starts.
• Python consists of a function named ‘time’ to handle time related tasks. For this, first the time
module has to be imported by using – import time.
• The ‘calendar’ module is used to create calendar of any month or year.
• The perf_counter() and process_time() functions of ‘time’ module are used to measure the
time difference between two points in a program.
• The standard library of Python is very extensive. It offers a wide range of functions.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-39 Programming Using Python

Exercises
[A] True or False :

1. Raspberry Pi OS which is formerly known as Raspbian is a Debian-based operating system for

Raspberry Pi.
2. Raspbian is not the official Raspberry Pi OS.

3. Python is completely object oriented.

4. Python variables require explicit declaration to reserve memory space.

5. Python allows pairs of single or double quotes.

6. The main difference between list and tuple is Lists are enclosed in brackets ( [ ] ) and Tuples
are enclosed in parentheses ( ( ) ).

[B] Multiple Choice Questions :

1. …… are the types of Operating systems used for Raspberry Pi.

(a) Raspbian (b) DietPi

(c) LIBREELC (d) All of above

2. …… is the official Operating system for Raspberry Pi.

(a) Raspbian (b) DietPi

(c) LIBREELC (d) None of these

3. Python is …… high level language.

(a) interpreted (b) object oriented
(c) interactive (d) All of above
4. Python can be installed on ……
(a) windows (b) Linux
(c) maOS (d) All of above
5. Python has …… data types.
(a) 3 (b) 4
(c) 5 (d) 6

[C] Fill in the Blanks:

1. Raspberry Pi OS is formerly known as _______
2. Python is a general purpose _______, ______, object-oriented and high-level programming
language.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-40 Programming Using Python

3. The _____ block tries to catch the errors.

4. Function block begin with the keyword _____ followed by function name and parentheses (()).

5. Python provides three modules: _____, ______ and ______which helps user to deal with dates,
time, duration and calendars.

6. The ‘______’ is the point where the time starts in ‘time’ module used in Python program.

[D] Short Answer Questions:

1. Which OS is recommended for Raspberry Pi?

2. What is Raspbian?

3. List atleast 4 different OS used for Raspberry Pi.

4. List atleast 4 features of Raspbain OS.

5. What is Python?

6. List atleast 4 features of Python.

7. What are the different ways to install Python?

8. What are Python variables?

9. List data types used in Python.

10. What are Python Tuples?

11. What is the difference between Lists and Tuples?

12. What is ‘function’ and how function is defined in Pyhton?

13. What are the flow control structures used in Python?

14. What is ‘break’ and ‘pass’ statements used in Python?

15. What is the use of ‘time’ function?

[E] Long Answer Questions:

1. What is Raspbian? List features of Raspbian.

2. Explain installation steps of Raspbian.

3. List various types of operating systems used for Raspberry Pi. Give features of at two OS.

4. What is Python? List features of Python.

5. Describe various types of Python installation.

6. Write a short note on Python variables.

7. Write a short note of various Data types used in Python.

S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-41 Programming Using Python

8. Give at least 5 examples of data type conversion functions.

9. Describe flow control structures used in Python with suitable example.

10. Explain if else, for and while loops used in Python.

11. Explain following:

(a) Break statement

(b) Pass statement

(c) Continue statement

(d) Try statement

(e) Range

12. What is the use of functions? Give at least 3 examples of functions used in Python.

13. Write a short note on variables used in Python.

14. Explain GPIO functions.

15. Write a short note on GPIO functions.

16. Explain various ways and steps of Python installation.

17. What is ‘time’ function? Explain various modules used in ‘time’ function.

18. Explain time.ctime(), time.clock(), time.sleep(), time.struct_time, time.strftime (), modules of

‘time’ function.

19. What is timedelta class ? Explain calendar function used in Python.

20. Write a short not on Library function used in Python.

21. Write a Python program for the addition of two numbers. Write output of the program.

22. Write a Python program for the subtraction of two numbers. Write output of the program.

23. Write a Python program for the multiplication of two numbers. Write output of the program.

24. Write a Python program for the division of two numbers. Write output of the program.

Answers
[A] True or False :
(1) True (2) False (3) True
(4) False (5) True (6) True
[B] Multiple Choice Questions :
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (c)
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 3-42 Programming Using Python

[C] Fill in the blanks :

1. Raspbain 2. interpreted, interactive

3. try 4. def

5. Datetime, time and calendar

6. epoch

✍✍✍
Unit 4…
Interfacing of Devices Using Python
Programming
Introduction
• In previous chapters, the details of Raspberry Pi board, its pin configuration, function of
each pin were discussed. Also the introduction of Python scripting language, functions
used in Python and Python programs for addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
were discussed.
• Raspberry Pi has General Purpose Input/output (GPIO) pins which can be used to
interface many input output devices. The devices like LEDs, Sensors, display, camera etc.
can be interfaced through these GPIO pins.
• Raspberry Pi can be programmed using Python scripting language and various I/O
devices can be controlled by programming Raspberry Pi.

• In this chapter, interfacing of LED, switch, LCD, camera, serial communication GSM,
ultrasonic sensor, PIR and finger print reader are discussed. The Python programs for all
these I/O devices are also given in this chapter.

• Raspberry Pi has 40 pins GPIO connector. The latest version of the Raspberry Pi series,
Raspberry Pi Model B, has 40 GPIO pins which include power pins and ground pins.

• Fig. 4.1 shows Raspberry Pi Model B board.

• As discussed in chapter 3, the GPIO pin number and physical pin number of Raspberry Pi
are different.

• In GPIO numbering, pin number refers to number on Broadcom SoC and in physical
numbering, pin number refers to the pin 40-pin header on Raspberry Pi board. So, the
GPIO pins of Raspberry Pi have to be defined.

• As shown in Fig. 4.1, the numbers in the centre which are circled are the physical pins of
Raspberry Pi. These pins are known as Board Pins or numbers. The GPIO numbers such as
Physical Pin 3 is GPIO 2 which is seen by the processor. These numbering is called as GPIO
numbering or BCM numbering. So, while programming Raspberry Pi, user has to take care
about these numbering and decide which type of numbering is used in programming.

(4.1)
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 4-2 Interfacing of Devices Using Python Programming

5 V power
5 V power

GPIO 14
GPIO 15
GPIO 18

GPIO 23
GPIO 24

GPIO 25

GPIO 12

GPIO 16
GPIO 20
GPIO 21
Ground

Ground

Ground

GPIO 8
GPIO 7
GPIO 1
Ground

Ground
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
R

H
P
p
b

d
a
s

e
a

e
r
r

r
i
13
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
31
33
35
37
39
11
1
3
5
7
9
3.3 V
GPIO 2
GPIO 3
GPIO 4
Ground
GPIO 17
GPIO 27
GPIO 22
3.3 V
GPIO 10
GPIO 9
GPIO 11
Ground
GPIO 0
GPIO 5
GPIO 6
GPIO 13
GPIO 19
GPIO 26
Ground

Fig. 4.1: Raspberry Pi Model B

4.1 Python Programming For Raspberry Pi
• Python is an interpreted language that means a Python program or script can be directly
executed rather than compiling it into machine code.
• Interpreted languages such as Python are easy and quicker to program with more
benefits such as being an interpreter, it identify the type of variable whether it is a
number or list or string. Interpreter itself can identify the type of variable.
• Python interpreter can be run in two ways: as an interactive shell to execute individual
commands or as a command-line program to execute standalone programs or scripts.
• The integrated development environment (IDE) bundled with Python and the Raspberry Pi
is called as IDEL.
• The output of IDEL is very slow as compared with output of command-line program.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 4-3 Interfacing of Devices Using Python Programming

• The installation of Python was discussed in previous chapter. Some of the popular
modules useful on the Raspberry Pi are shown in below table 4.1:
Table 4.1: Few Popular Packages Used Particularly for Raspberry Pi
Module Description URL Package name
RPi, GPIO Access to GPIO pins sourceforge.net/ python-rpi.gpio
projects/raspberry-gpio-
python
GPIOzero Simplified access to gpiozero.readthedocs.org python-gpio-zero
GPIO pins
Pygame Gaming framework pygame.org python-pygame
SimpleCV Easy API for Computer simplecv.org No package
Vision
SciPy Scientific computing www.scipy.org python-scipy
NumPy The numerical numpy.scipy.org python-numpy
underpinings of Scipy
Flask Microframework for flask.pocoo.org python-flask
web development
Feedparser Atom and RSS feed pypi.python.org/pypi/ No package
parser feedparser
Requests “HTTP for Humans” docs.python-requests.org python-requests
PIL Image processing www.pythonware.com/ python-imaging
products/pil/
wxPython GUI framework wxpython.org python-wxgtk2.8
pySerial Access to serial port https://github.com/pyserial/ python-serial
pyserial
PyUSB FTDI-USB interface bleyer.org/pyusb No package
• To use one of the packages mentioned in table, first that module has to be downloaded,
configured and installed. For example: numPy module can be installed as follows:
sudo apt-get install python-numpy
4.1.1 Setting Raspberry Pi Module
• The Raspberry Pi is actually minicomputer which is capable of doing many things. The pin
configuration of Raspberry Pi was discussed in chapter 3. Raspberry Pi can be
programmed using Python.
• To write a Python program for Raspberry, first Operating System has to be installed and
then Raspberry has to be configured.
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• Install Raspbian with Desktop and connect keyboard, mouse and monitor to Raspberry Pi.
Windows, macOS or Linux can be used for installing OS.
• If Raspbian Lite is installed then keyboard, mouse and monitor are not required. This will
allow getting a terminal into Raspberry Pi on another computer.
4.1.2 Steps for Booting Raspberry Pi
• Booting Raspberry Pi for the first time include following steps:
o Push the microSD card into the socket on the bottom of the board.
o Plug in a USB keyboard and mouse.
o Plug the HDMI output into TV or monitor. Make sure that, monitor is ON and set to
the correct input.
o Plug in power supply and switch ON the board.
• Once the board is ON, Raspberry Pi logo appears on screen. While configuring the
Raspberry Pi board first time, Raspbian desktop environment appears on screen.
• Few things have to be set with Raspbian Pi Configuration Tool. To open it, click → Menu
Preferences → Raspberry Pi Configuration as shown in below Fig. 4.2.

Fig. 4.2: Raspberry Pi configuration tool

• The Raspberry Pi configuration tool allows user to change many important settings on
Raspberry Pi such as:
System → Expand Filesystem, change password, Boot, Overscan etc.
Interface → SSH, GPU memory, Overclock
Localization → Set keyboard, Set Locale, Set Timezone etc.
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• A typical laptop or desktop will have additional hardware to set the date and time;
however Raspberry Pi does not have such hardware. Raspbian is configured automatically
and get synchronized its time and date with a network Time Protocol (NTP) server when
plugged into a network.
• To write a Python program for Raspberry Pi, GPIO library is required. In Raspbian,
Python and GPIO library are preinstalled.
4.1.3 First Python Program on Raspberry Pi
• To write first Python program, open Python’s IDEL editor, In Menu →Programming → and
click on Python 3 as shown in below Fig. 4.3.

Fig. 4.3: Python’s IDEL editor

• The message containing Python version, date, time, license will appear on screen.
• Type “print ("Hello !")” into the Python window and press enter, ‘Hello !’ word will appear
on blue color on screen.
• For every new program, open Python's IDLE editor and open a new window (CTRL + N),
enter the code below and save it. To run the Python program, type sudo python
filename.py

4.2 Interfacing of LED to Raspberry Pi

• Raspberry Pi has 17 General Purpose Input Output pins through which any I/O devices
can be connected.
• Pin number 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26 are the GPIO pins of
Raspberry Pi.
• LED can be interfaced or connected to any of these I/O pins.
• Connect the LED between ground and 25 (GPIO) with a 1 kΩ resistor in series as shown in
below Fig. 4.4.
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3.3 V 1 2 5 V power
GPIO 2 3 4 5 V power
GPIO 3 5 6 Ground
GPIO 4 7 8 GPIO 14
Ground 9 10 GPIO 15
R
GPIO 17 11 a 12 GPIO 18
GPIO 27 13 s 14 Ground
p
GPIO 22 15 b 16 GPIO 23
e
3.3 V 17 18 GPIO 24
r
GPIO 10 19 r 20 Ground
y
GPIO 9 21 22 GPIO 25
R1 LED1
LED
GPIO 11 23 P 24 GPIO 8 Green
i 1 kW
Ground 25 26 GPIO 7 RR11
H LED 11kkW
GPIO 0 27 28 GPIO 1
e
GPIO 5 29 a 30 Ground
d
GPIO 6 31 e 32 GPIO 12
GPIO 13 33 r 34 Ground
GPIO 19 35 36 GPIO 16
GPIO 26 37 38 GPIO 20
Ground 39 40 GPIO 21

(a) (b)
Fig. 4.4 : Interfacing LED to Raspberry Pi
• As shown in above Fig. 4.4, the anode of the LED is connected to GPIO25 (physical pin 22)
with a series resistance of 1 kΩ value. The cathode of the LED is connected to GND pin.
The GPIO25 pin has to be configured as an output pin so that Raspberry Pi can drive the
LED.
• If GPIO25 pin made High for some time and LOW for some time and if this process is kept
in a loop then LED will start blinking.
• A Python program is written to make GPIO25 pin high and low.
4.2.1 Algorithm for Blinking LED
• Import the code needed for GPIO control.
• Import the code needed for the sleep function.
• Use the chip’s signal numbers.
• Set pin 25 as an output pin.
• Create an infinite loop consisting the required code.
• Turn the LED ON.
• Wait for one second.
• Turn the LED OFF.
• Wait for one second.
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4.2.2 Procedure of Interfacing and Blinking of LED

• Open Terminal.
• Launch IDEL by typing - sudo idle.
• After the IDLE is launched, open a new window by FILE → OPEN or Ctrl+N.
• Type the below code in that window:
import time
import RPi.GPIO as GPIO # Import GPIO library
GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BOARD) # Use board pin numbering
GPIO.setup(25, GPIO.OUT) # Setup GPIO Pin 25 to OUT
while True:
GPIO.output(25,True) # Turn ON LED
time.sleep(1) # Wait for one second
GPIO.output(25,False) # Turn OFF LED
time.sleep(1) # Wait for one second
• Save the code by FILE → SAVE or Ctrl+S.
• RUN the code RUN → RUN or Ctrl+F5.
• Once the program will start executing, the LED will start blinking.
4.3 Interfacing of a Switch to Raspberry Pi
• The switch or push button can be connected to Raspberry Pi in very simple way. In this
case, GPIO pin where the switch is connected has to be configured as an input pin so that
it will read the incoming data from the switch. One end of the switch will be connected to
GPIO pin through a pull-up or pull-down resistance as shown in below Fig. 4.5.
+5V

+5V
10 kW

GPIO_IN GPIO_IN

10 kW

(a) Input Pull-High (b) Input Pull-Low

Fig. 4.5 : Connection of a switch

• As shown in above Fig. 4.5, if an input pin is pull-down then it will read ‘Low’ when the
switch is pressed. In pull-up resistance, it will read ‘High’ when the switch is pressed.
• Raspberry Pi has an internal pull-up and pull-down resistors, which can be enabled
through software. External pull-up or pull-down resistors also can be used.
• Below Fig. 4.6 shows the interfacing of switch to Raspberry Pi.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 4-8 Interfacing of Devices Using Python Programming

3.3 V 1 2 5V
GPIO 2 3 4 5Vr
GPIO 3 5 6 Ground
GPIO 4 7 8 GPIO 14
Ground 9 10 GPIO 15
R
GPIO 17 11 a 12 GPIO 18
GPIO 27 13 s 14 Ground +5V
p
GPIO 22 15 b 16 GPIO 23
e
3.3 V 17 18 GPIO 24
r
GPIO 10 19 r 20 Ground
y
GPIO 9 21 22 GPIO 25
GPIO 11 23 P 24 GPIO 8
i
Ground 25 26 GPIO 7
H
GPIO 0 27 28 GPIO 1
e
GPIO 5 29 a 30 Ground
d
GPIO 6 31 e 32 GPIO 12
GPIO 13 33 r 34 Ground
GPIO 19 35 36 GPIO 16
GPIO 26 37 38 GPIO 20
Ground 39 40 GPIO 21

Fig. 4.6: Interfacing a switch to Raspberry Pi

4.3.1 Algorithm for Interfacing a Switch
• Connect a switch as shown in Fig. 4.6.
• Set pin GPIO23 as an input pin.
• Create a variable called count and store 0 in it.
• Save the value of pin GPIO23 into input value.
• Check that value continuously. If the switch is pressed, then the value is true.
• If it is true then increment the counter.
• Print the text to the terminal.
• Execute the program:
import RPi.GPIO as GPIO #Import GPIO library
import time #Import time library
GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BOARD) #Set GPIO pin numbering
GPIO.setup(23, GPIO.IN, pull_up_down=GPIO.PUD_UP) #Enable input and pull down resistors
while True:
input_value = GPIO.input(23) #Read and store value of input to a variable
if input_value == Ture: #Check whether switch is pressed
print('Switch is Pressed') #Print 'Switch is Pressed'
time.sleep(0.5) #Delay of 0.5s
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• The procedure to run the program is same as explained in LED interfacing section.
• The program will print “Switch is Pressed” message when the push switch is pressed.
The time.sleep(0.5) command will insert necessary delay between two consecutive switch
press.
• The LED or any other device can be connected to see the operation of a switch. If switch is
ON, then that device will turned ON.
4.4 Interfacing LCD to Raspberry Pi
• LCD is used to display the alphanumeric characters. LCD can be connected to GPIO pins
of Raspberry Pi and through program any characters can be displayed on LCD.
• Out of 40 pins of Raspberry Pi, 17 GPIO pins can be used to interface LCD.
• There are +5 V (Pin 2 and 4) and +3.3 V (pin 1 and 17) power output pins are available on
Raspberry Pi board.
• LCD requires +5 V, so provide +5 V to 16 × 2 LCD through +5 V power rail.
• Fig. 4.7 shows the interfacing of LCD to Raspberry Pi.
3.3 V 1 2 5V
GPIO 2 3 4 5V
GPIO 3 5 6 Ground
R +5V
GPIO 4 7 a 8 GPIO 14 R1
Ground 9 s 10 GPIO 15
p 1k 1
GPIO 17 11 b 12 GPIO 18 VSS
2
e VDD
GPIO 27 13 14 Ground 3 VEE
r
GPIO 22 r GPIO 23 4 RS
15 16
y 5
RW
3.3 V 17 18 GPIO 24 6
E
GPIO 10 19 P 20 Ground 7 D0
i 8
GPIO 9 21 22 GPIO 25 D1
9 D2
P 10
GPIO 11 23 24 GPIO 8 D3
i 11
n GPIO 7 D4
Ground 25 26 12 D5
GPIO 1 13 D6
GPIO 0 27 H 28
14
e D7
GPIO 5 29 30 Ground
a
GPIO 6 31 d 32 GPIO 12 16*2 LCD
e
+5V GPIO 13 33 34 Ground
r
GPIO 19 35 36 GPIO 16
GPIO 26 37 38 GPIO 20
Ground 39 40 GPIO 21
C1

1000 u

Fig. 4.7: Interfacing LCD to Raspberry Pi

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• As shown in above Fig. 4.7, LCD is interfaced to 10 GPIO pins of Raspberry Pi.
• GPIO pin 21, 20, 16, 12, 25, 24, 23 and 18 are used as ‘BYTE’ and created ‘PORT’ function
to send the data to LCD. GPIO 21 is LSB and GPIO 18 is MSB.
• 16 × 2 LCD module has 16 pins as tabulated in below Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Pin Configuration of LCD
Category Pin Pin Name Function
No.
Power 1 VSS Ground pin, connected to Ground.
Pins
2 VDD or VCC Voltage pin +5 V.
Contrast 3 V0 or VEE Contrast setting, connected to VCC thorough a variable
Pin resistor.

Control 4 RS Register Select pin, RS = 0 Command mode, RS = 1 Data

Pins mode.
5 RW Read/ Write pin, RW = 0 Write mode, RW = 1 Read mode.
6 E Enable, a high to low pulse need to enable the LCD.
Data Pins 7-14 D0- D7 Data pins stores the data to be displayed on LCD or the
command instructions.
Backlight 15 LED+ or A To power the Backlight +5 V.
Pins 16 LED− or K Backlight Ground.
4.4.1 Procedure of Sending Data to LCD
• Enable the module by setting E high and RS low to enable commands to LCD.
• Clear screen by sending value 0 × 01 to data port as a command.
• Provide ASCII code of characters to be displayed.
• Once E pin goes low, the LCD process the received data and display it. So E will be set
high before sending the data and then low after sending the data.
• The characters will be sent one by one serially.
The Python program for displaying characters on LCD is as under:
import RPi.GPIO as IO # calling for header file which helps us use GPIO’s of PI
import time # calling for time to provide delays in program
import sys
IO.setmode (IO.BCM) # programming the GPIO by BCM pin numbers. (like PIN29 as‘GPIO5’)
IO.setup(6,IO.OUT) # initialize GPIO Pins as outputs
IO.setup(22,IO.OUT)
IO.setup(21,IO.OUT)
IO.setup(20,IO.OUT)
IO.setup(16,IO.OUT)
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IO.setup(12,IO.OUT)
IO.setup(25,IO.OUT)
IO.setup(24,IO.OUT)
IO.setup(23,IO.OUT)
IO.setup(18,IO.OUT)
def send_a_command (command): # execute the loop when “sead_a_command” is called
pin=command
PORT(pin); # calling 'PORT' to assign value to data port
IO.output(6,0) # putting 0 in RS to tell LCD we are sending command
IO.output(22,1) # telling LCD to receive command/data at the port by pulling EN
pin high
time.sleep(0.05)
IO.output(22,0) # pulling down EN pin to tell LCD we have sent the data
pin=0
PORT(pin); # pulling down the port to stop transmitting
def send_a_character (character): # execute the loop when “send_a_character” is called
pin=character
PORT(pin);
IO.output(6,1)
IO.output(22,1)
time.sleep(0.05)
IO.output(22,0)
pin=0
PORT(pin);

def PORT(pin): # assigning PIN by taking PORT value

if(pin&0×01 == 0×01):
IO.output(21,1) # if bit0 of 8bit 'pin' is true, pull PIN21 high
else:
IO.output(21,0) # if bit0 of 8bit 'pin' is false, pull PIN21 low
if(pin&0×02 == 0×02):
IO.output(20,1) # if bit1 of 8bit 'pin' is true, pull PIN20 high
else:
IO.output(20,0) # if bit1 of 8bit 'pin' is true, pull PIN20 low
if(pin&0×04 == 0×04):
IO.output(16,1)
else:
IO.output(16,0)
if(pin&0×08 == 0×08):
IO.output(12,1)
else:
IO.output(12,0)
if(pin&0×10 == 0×10):
IO.output(25,1)
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else:
IO.output(25,0)
if(pin&0×20 == 0×20):
IO.output(24,1)
else:
IO.output(24,0)
if(pin&0×40 == 0×40):
IO.output(23,1)
else:
IO.output(23,0)
if(pin&0×80 == 0×80):
IO.output(18,1) # if bit7 of 8bit 'pin' is true pull PIN18 high
else:
IO.output(18,0) #if bit7 of 8bit 'pin' is false pull PIN18 low

while 1:
send_a_command(0×01); # sending 'all clear' command
send_a_command(0×38); # 16*2 line LCD
send_a_command(0×0E); # screen and cursor ON
send_a_character(0×48); # ASCII code for 'H'
send_a_character(0×45); # ASCII code for 'E'
send_a_character(0×4C); # ASCII code for 'L'
send_a_character(0×4C); # ASCII code for 'L'
send_a_character(0×4F); # ASCII code for 'O'

time.sleep(1)
After running the program, ‘HELLO’ message will be displayed on LCD.
4.5 Setting Bluetooth, WI-FI and Ethernet on Raspberry Pi
• Most of the Raspberry Pi models have on board connectivity options for Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth.
• The Raspberry Pi 3, 3B+, Raspberry Pi Zero w and Raspberry Pi 4 have built-in Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth facility.
• The Raspberry Pi 3 is the first version of the computer to have in-built wireless and
Bluetooth features. Subsequently, all latest models of Raspberry Pi have these features.
• The Raspberry Pi can be easily connected to a Smartphone, TV or any other device
through Wi-Fi or Bluetooth.
4.5.1 Setting Wi-Fi on Raspberry Pi
• The Raspberry Pi can be connected to wireless network using desktop tool. For this, a
keyboard, mouse and monitor/display have to be connected to Raspberry Pi.
• Before setting Wi-Fi on Raspberry Pi, Ethernet connection has to be disconnected.
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• To connect the router, right-click on wireless networking icon on the right corner of the
panel. Select the option ‘Turn on Wi-Fi’, then select the desired network from the menu.
• Input the ‘Pre shared Key’ when asked and then wait for the connection to be established.
• Wireless network can be set up on the command line. This option is used if Raspberry is
accessing using SSH which used for Ethernet.
• To set wireless connection, there are two options; it can be set up through GUI or can be
set up on the command line. Below commands will upgrade the Raspberry Pi.
sudo apt update
sudo apt upgrade
If SSID name is already defined then use it or if it is not defined, use below command;
sudo iwlist wlan0 scan
This will reveal the SSID in the line "ESSID". Next, open wpa_supplicant.conf:
sudo nano /etc/wpa_supplicant/wpa_supplicant.conf
Following code has to be added:
ctrl_interface=DIR=/var/run/wpa_supplicant GROUP=netdev
update_config=1
country=India
network={
ssid="SSID"
psk="PASSWORD"
key_mgmt=WPA-PSK
}
Add the SSID and password in the network.
The command Ctrl + X is used to exit and save, Y and Enter used to confirm it. Wireless
connectivity should be established immediately. If it is not established, use below command to
restart wireless:
sudo ifdown wlan0
sudo ifup wlan0
Then enter below command:
sudo reboot
• After rebooting, wireless connection will get established.
• Before booting, Wi-Fi can be set up on Raspberry Pi 3. This is another option to set up
Wi-Fi on Raspberry Pi which is described below:
o Insert the microSD card in Pc’s card reader and enter command- /boot/directory.
o Create a text file wpa_supplicant.conf, then open it and add the details.
o Save it, close the file and eject the microSD card.
• Above steps works only with pre-Raspbian Buster OS and various other operating system.
Raspbian Buster has a Wi-Fi driver which prevents the use of wpa_supplicant.conf file.
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• Wi-Fi can be set up using Graphical Interface or GUI. This process is more effective than
setting Wi-Fi using command line interface which is described in above section.
• Before starting the Wi-Fi setting, make sure that latest version of Raspberry Pi OS is
installed. Follow the below steps:
o On desktop, locate network icon in the right-hand side and click on the icon to see
the list of available Wi-Fi networks.
o Select available Wi-Fi SSID in the drop-down list.
o Enter Wi-Fi password into the text box.
o Click on ‘Ok’. Wi-Fi will get connected to Raspberry Pi.
o Signal strength will be displayed in the upper task bar on the right side.
o Test connection by opening the web browser.
• Thus, Wi-Fi can be connected to Raspberry Pi.
4.5.2 Setting Bluetooth on Raspberry Pi
• Similar to Wi-Fi, Bluetooth is built-in into Raspbian Buster. For older models of Raspberry
Pi, run update and upgrade then use below command:
sudo apt install bluetooth-pi
• Before establishing communication between Raspberry Pi and a Bluetooth enabled
device, both the devices should be paired. Pairing a Bluetooth device on Raspberry is
similar to pairing Bluetooth on Smartphone or Laptop.
• Bluetooth can be activated from the command line as:
bluetoothctl
• Many options are available with this. Type "help" to see them.
• Bluetooth needs to be enabled, discoverable and made capable of discovering devices. It
can be done using below command:
power on
agent on
scan on
• With these commands, Raspberry Pi will detect the device, then add the device. The
connection can be made by entering connect followed by the MAC address. If password is
required on the remote device then enter it when asked.
• Thus, Bluetooth connection will get established.
• For communicating Raspberry Pi and a device via Bluetooth, there are two ways as:
o Bluetooth GUI (Graphical User Interface).
o Command Line Interface.
• Before starting communication using Bluetooth, following packages have to be installed:
Blueman: Blueman is a full featured Bluetooth manager. It provides GUI based setting
panel Bluetooth manager.
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Bluez: Bluez provides the Bluetooth protocol stack and the bluetoothctl utility.
Bluetooth: This package provides all the plugins supported by BluezBluetooth stack.
• Above packages can be installed using following command,
sudo apt-get install bluemanbluez Bluetooth
• Reboot Raspberry Pi after successful installation of above packages.
4.5.3 Setting Ethernet on Raspberry Pi
• A direct Ethernet connection is always much faster than a Wi-Fi connection to access
Internet.
• Raspberry Pi can be directly connected to Ethernet on laptop or desktop with an Ethernet
cable bypassing the local network so that bandwidth is not shared with other computers.
• Ethernet can be set up on Raspberry Pi by following steps:
o Connect Raspberry Pi using PC Ethernet Port using an Ethernet cable.
o Open Windows, click on menu and select icon for settings.
o Click on ‘Network & Internet’. If Ethernet is already plugged, ‘Ethernet’ tab is seen on
the left side. Click on tab, ‘Network and Sharing Center’ can be seen on right side of
‘Related Settings’ section. Click on it.
o Wi-Fi sharing settings can be modified in Wi-Fi status window. On ‘Network and
Sharing Center’, a connection field for Wi-Fi, click the blue text. It will open ‘Wi-Fi
Status’ window where Wi-Fi status can be modified.
o In ‘Wi-Fi Status’ window, click on the ‘Properties’, it will open ‘Wi-Fi Properties’.
o In ‘Wi-Fi Properties’ window, click on ‘Sharing’ tab and check the box for ‘Allow other
network users to connect through this computer’s Internet connection’. In drop-down
menu, select Ethernet connection.
o Check Ethernet connection properties in the ‘Network and Sharing Center’ window.
o Check IPv4 settings in ‘Ethernet Properties’ window. Once ‘Use the following IP
address’ is selected, ‘IP address’, ‘Subnet Mask’ and ‘Default Gateway’ field are in
enabled position. Raspberry Pi can be pinged via its hostname such as:
ping raspberrypi.local.
o After this Ethernet is enabled on Raspberry Pi.
• The Ethernet port of Raspberry Pi can be also configured using Static IP address.
Procedure for setting Ethernet on Raspberry Pi is as follows:
o Review current network settings by typing ‘ifconfig’ command on command prompt
o Backup the current network configuration by using below command.
sudo cp /etc/dhcpcd.conf /etc/dhcdcp.backup
o To change the network setting, edit dhcpcd.conf file to set the static IP address.
o The following command is used to load the file into an editor
sudo nano /etc/dhcpcd.conf
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Place below lines at the top of the file to set Ethernet IP address:
interface eth0
static ip_address=10.11.44.124/24
static routers=10.11.44.1
static domain_name_servers=172.16.33.85
• Set the IP address , set the routers value to the gateway address. Once the file has been
updated, use ctrl to save and exit.
o Restart the Raspberry Pi by using following command:
sudo reboot
o Test the new network setup by using ‘ping’ command and check whether Ethernet
cable is connected properly, IP address, mask and gateway are correct.
• Once everything is done properly, Ethernet is enabled.

4.6 Interfacing of Camera to Raspberry Pi

• The camera module is provided with Raspberry Pi which can be used to take pictures and
videos.
• Raspberry Pi camera v1.3 have features as: resolution 5 MP, HD Video recording, it can
capture wide, still images of resolution 2592 × 1944 pixels and it can be connected
through CSI interface.
• Raspberry Pi board has CSI (Camera Serial Interface) port through which camera can be
directly connected to Raspberry Pi using 15-pin ribbon cable.
• Camera module should be handled very carefully as camera can be damaged by static
electric charge.
• Camera can be installed on Raspberry Pi by inserting the cable into the Raspberry Pi
camera port. The camera cable slot is in between the USB and micro-HDMI port on
Raspberry Pi board as shown in below Fig. 4.8.

Fig. 4.8 : Interfacing camera module to Raspberry Pi

S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 4-17 Interfacing of Devices Using Python Programming

• There are two versions of camera module: standard version which is designed to take
pictures in normal light and NoIR version which can use infrared light source to take
pictures in the dark.
Steps to Connect and Install Camera on Raspberry Pi:
• Turn OFF the Raspberry Pi.
• Locate the camera module port on Raspberry Pi and connect camera to it using cable.
• Turn ON Raspberry Pi board.
• Go to main menu and open Raspberry Pi configuration tool, select Interface tab and
enable the camera interface.
• Reboot Raspberry Pi board.
• Now, camera is connected to Raspberry Pi. To capture an image in jpeg format, type
following command on terminal window:
raspistill-o image.jpg
‘image’ is the name of the captured picture which will be stored in Raspberry Pi.
• To capture 10 second video, type following command:
raspivid-o video.h264 -t 10000
Here, ‘video’ is the name of the captured video and "10000" is the number of
milliseconds.
• Python picamera library control the camera module. In IDE, following code will control the
camera functions:
from picamera import PiCamera
from time import sleep
camera = PiCamera()
camera.start_preview()
sleep(5)
camera.stop_preview()
• Camera preview can be seen if monitor is connected to Raspberry Pi. The preview can be
rotated by following commands :
camera = PiCamera()
camera.rotation = 180
Image can be rotated by 90, 180 or 270 degrees.
• To take capture still pictures use following code :
camera.start_preview()
sleep(5)
camera.capture('/home/pi/Desktop/image.jpg')
camera.stop_preview()
• As camera will take few seconds to sense the light levels, keep camera in sleep mode for
at least two seconds before capturing an image.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 4-18 Interfacing of Devices Using Python Programming

• New image is stored on desktop once the program is Run.

• To capture 5 images in a row, type following code :
camera.start_preview()
for i in range(5):
sleep(5)
camera.capture('/home/pi/Desktop/image%s.jpg' % i)
camera.stop_preview()
• To capture the video, type following code :
camera.start_preview()
camera.start_recording('/home/pi/Desktop/video.h264')
sleep(5)
camera.stop_recording()
camera.stop_preview()
After running the code, preview of captured video will be displayed on screen.
• Simple code for basic camera is given below :
from SimpleCV import Camera, Display
from time import sleep
mycamera = Camera(prop_set={‘width’ : 320, ‘height’ : 240})myDisplay =
Display(resolution=(320, 240))
while not myDisplay.isDone();
myCamera.getImage().save(myDispaly)
sleep(.1)
Here size of window is 320 × 240, the code will be in the loop until it get a frame from the
camera and display it in the window.
• The main features of an image such as brightness, contrast, resolution can be controlled.
• Image effect can be applied by using- camera.image_effect. There are various image
effect options available, such as none, solarize, negative, denoise, hatch, film, blur etc.
Many things are possible with camera module such as add buttons to control the camera
with the help of GPIO python code, integrate camera with Minecraft Pi, post the camera pictures
to Twitter automatically.

4.7 Interfacing GSM Module to Raspberry Pi

• Dial up MODEMs are very familiar and widely used for land line telephone network.
However, it has limitations when used in embedded systems.
• GSM (Global System for Mobile) is introduced to rectify the limitations of dial-up MODEM
which is based on SIM card.
• GSM is almost similar to mobile communication system. Data can be transmitted and
received by any embedded system through GSM module.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 4-19 Interfacing of Devices Using Python Programming

• GSM module can be interfaced to Raspberry Pi and can be used in image, video, audio
processing, automation, surveillance.
• GSM module can be interface to Raspberry Pi in two ways: through USB or through GPIO
interfacing.
• A micro USB cable can be used for connecting Raspberry Pi to GSM module which
provide power and establish a serial communication.
• Below Fig. 4.9 shows interfacing of Raspberry Pi and GSM module through micro USB
cable.

Fig. 4.9: Interfacing GSM module to Raspberry pi using USB cable

Source: https://www.rhydolabz.com/wiki/?p=18639#:~:text=Power%20on%20the%20raspberry%
20pi, be%20in%20an%20on%20state.
• SIM 868 and SIM 900 GSM modules are almost same and have similar features. SIM 868
modules have Quad-Band GSM/GPRS and can be used for satellite navigation.
• On SIM 868 module, there is yellow jumper which is shorted to make three terminal pairs
as:
A: Control the SIM 868 through USB to UART.
B: Control the SIM 868 through Raspberry Pi.
C: Access Raspberry Pi through USB to UART.
• GSM module can be controlled using UART, I2C or SPI interfaces, if it is serially connected
to Raspberry Pi.
• GSM module understands AT commands which can be passed through UART, I2C or SPI
protocol. GSM module can be checked, configured and make ready to receive voice calls,
SMS, MMS etc. with the help of these AT commands.
Steps for Interfacing GSM Module to Raspberry Pi :
• Insert a SIM card into GSM modem and connect it to Raspberry Pi using USB cable as
shown in Fig. 4.9.
• Power ON the Raspberry Pi and Rasbian OS.
• Make sure that, transmission and reception pins and ground pins are properly connected.
• Power ON the GSM module and wait for few seconds for SIM initialization.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 4-20 Interfacing of Devices Using Python Programming

• Run below Python program for sending a message through Raspberry Pi and GSM
module.
• In the program, proper libraries are imported and serial communication is enabled.
Modem is controlled through AT command.
[I] Program for sending message using GSM module
# Code for sending message using GSM module
import RPi.GPIO as GPIO
import os, time
GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BOARD)
# Enable Serial Communication
port = serial.Serial("/dev/ttyUSB0", baudrate=9600, timeout=1)
# Transmitting AT Commands to the Modem
# '\r\n' indicates the Enter key
port.write('AT'+'\r\n')
rcv = port.read(10)
print rcv
time.sleep(.1)
port.write('ATE0'+'\r\n') # Disable the Echo
rcv = port.read(10)
print rcv
time.sleep(.1)
port.write('AT+CMGF=1'+'\r\n') # Select Message format as Text mode
rcv = port.read(10)
print rcv
time.sleep(.1)
port.write('AT+CNMI=2,1,0,0,0'+'\r\n') # New SMS Message Indications
rcv = port.read(10)
print rcv
time.sleep(.1)
# Sending a message to a particular Number
port.write('AT+CMGS="9422321170"'+'\r\n')
rcv = port.read(10)
print rcv
time.sleep(.1)
port.write('Hello'+'\r\n') # Message
rcv = port.read(10)
print rcv
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 4-21 Interfacing of Devices Using Python Programming

port.write("\x1A") # Enable to send SMS

for i in range(10):
rcv = port.read(10)
print rcv
After executing the above program, the message will be sent to mobile number specified in
the program code.
[II] Program for sending message using GSM module
# Code for receiving SMS via GSM module
import RPi.GPIO as GPIO
import os, time
# Find a suitable character in a text or string and get its position
def locate(str, ch):
for i, ltr in enumerate(str):
if ltr == ch:
yield i
GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BOARD)
# Enable Serial Communication
port = serial.Serial("/dev/ttyAMA0", baudrate=9600, timeout=1)
# Transmitting AT Commands to the Modem
# '\r\n' indicates the Enter key
port.write('AT'+'\r\n')
port.write("\x0D\x0A")
rcv = port.read(10)
print rcv
time.sleep(1)
port.write('ATE0'+'\r\n') # Disable the Echo
rcv = port.read(10)
print rcv
time.sleep(1)
port.write('AT+CMGF=1'+'\r\n') # Select Message format as Text
mode
rcv = port.read(10)
print rcv
time.sleep(1)
port.write('AT+CNMI=2,1,0,0,0'+'\r\n') # New SMS Message Indications
rcv = port.read(10)
print rcv
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 4-22 Interfacing of Devices Using Python Programming

time.sleep(1)
ck=1
while ck==1:
rcv = port.read(10)
print rcv
fd=rcv
if len(rcv)&gt;3: # check if any data received
ck=12
for i in range(5):
rcv = port.read(10)
print rcv
fd=fd+rcv # Extract the complete data
# Extract the message number shown in between the characters "," and '\r'
p=list(locate(fd, ","))
q=list(locate(fd, '\r'))
MsgNo=fd[p[0]+1:q[1]]
# Read the message corresponds to the message number
rd=port.write('AT+CMGR='+MsgNo+'\r\n')
msg=''
for j in range(10):
rcv = port.read(20)
msg=msg+rcv
print msg
time.sleep(0.1)
After executing the above program, the message will be received and retrieved on the mobile
number specified in the program code.
4.8 Interfacing Ultrasonic Sensor to Raspberry Pi
• Ultrasonic sensors are used to measure the distance between two objects using ultrasonic
waves. Ultrasonic waves are used as they are more accurate and not audible to human
ear.
• HC-SR04 ultrasonic sensor as shown in below Fig. 4.10 is widely used for distance
measurement up to 400 cm. It consists of transmitter, receiver and control circuit. As
shown in Fig. 4.10, it has Vcc, Trig, Echo and GND.
• The ultrasonic transmitter transmits waves (of 40 kHz) get reflected by the target which
are received by the receiver.
• The Echo pin will change the state and it becomes high. It remains in high state until it hit
the target object and returns to receiver.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 4-23 Interfacing of Devices Using Python Programming

• Based on the time for which Echo pin stays high, distance can be calculated using the
formula: Speed = Distance/Time.

Ultrasound Ultrasound
transmitter receiver
VCC Trig Echo GND

Fig. 4.10 : Ultrasonic sensor HC – SR04

• The ultrasonic sensor is interfaced to Raspberry Pi as shown in below Fig. 4.11. As
Raspberry Pi works on 3.3V and ultrasonic sensor require 5 V, a level converter is
connected as shown in Fig. 4.11.
Ultrasonic sensor
3.3 V 1 2 5 V power
GPIO 2 3 4 5 V power
VCC Trig Echo GND GPIO 3 5 6 Ground
GPIO 4 7 8 GPIO 14
Ground 9 10 GPIO 15
R
GPIO 17 11 a 12 GPIO 18
GPIO 27 13 s 14 Ground
p
GPIO 22 15 b 16 GPIO 23
e
3.3 V 17 18 GPIO 24
r
GPIO 10 19 r 20 Ground
y
GPIO 9 21 22 GPIO 25
5V 3.3 V GPIO 11 23 P 24 GPIO 8
i
Level converter Ground 25 26 GPIO 7
H
GPIO 0 27 28 GPIO 1
e
GPIO 5 29 a 30 Ground
d
GPIO 6 31 e 32 GPIO 12
GPIO 13 33 r 34 Ground
GPIO 19 35 36 GPIO 16
GPIO 26 37 38 GPIO 20
Ground 39 40 GPIO 21

Fig. 4.11 : Interfacing ultrasonic sensor to Raspberry Pi

S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 4-24 Interfacing of Devices Using Python Programming

• The Raspberry Pi read the Echo pin to calculate the time, so this pin is connected to GPIO
and configured as an input pin. The output is available on Trig pin, so it is configured as
output pin.
• The range of ultrasonic sensor is from 2 cm to 400 cm. So in the program it is checked
whether the object is within the range or not.
The python program for interfacing ultrasonic sensor is given below:
import RPi.GPIO as GPIO #Import GPIO library
import time #Import time library
GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BCM) #Set GPIO pin numbering
TRIG = 21 #connect pin 21 to TRIG
ECHO = 23 #connect pin 23 to ECHO
print "Distance measurement starts"
GPIO.setup(TRIG,GPIO.OUT) #configure Trig as GPIO out
GPIO.setup(ECHO,GPIO.IN) #configure Echo as GPIO in
while True:
GPIO.output(TRIG, False) #Set TRIG as LOW
print "Waitng For Sensor To Settle"
time.sleep(2) #Delay of 2 seconds
GPIO.output(TRIG, True) #Set TRIG as HIGH
time.sleep(0.00001) #Delay of 0.00001 seconds
GPIO.output(TRIG, False) #Set TRIG as LOW
while GPIO.input(ECHO)==0: #Check whether the ECHO is LOW
pulse_start = time.time() #Saves the last known time of LOW pulse
while GPIO.input(ECHO)==1: #Check whether the ECHO is HIGH
pulse_end = time.time() #Saves the last known time of HIGH pulse
pulse_duration = pulse_end - pulse_start #Get pulse duration to a variable
distance = pulse_duration * 17150 #Multiply pulse duration by 17150 to get distance
distance = round(distance, 2) #Round to two decimal points
if distance > 2 and distance < 400: #Check whether the distance is within range
print "Distance:",distance - 0.5,"cm" #Print distance with 0.5 cm calibration
else:
print "Object is Out Of Range" #display object is out of range
time.sleep(0.00001)
After running the program, corresponding message will get displayed.

4.9 Interfacing PIR Sensor to Raspberry Pi

• Passive Infrared (PIR) sensor detects any movement of human or animals which emits
infrared.
• PIR sensor detects change in the infrared radiation. PIR sensor is shown in below Fig. 4.12.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 4-25 Interfacing of Devices Using Python Programming

• When any object or human is detected in the field of

view of PIR sensor, the temperature of PIR sensor rises
and again come to ambient temperature. PIR sensor
converts this temperature change into the change in
output which is considered as movement detection.
• The output of PIR sensor is high (5 V) when it senses
the motion and low (0 V) when there is no motion.
Therefore, PIR sensor is also known as Motion Sensor. Fig. 4.12: PIR sensor
• PIR sensors are used in many applications such as lighting control system, home
automation, security systems etc.
• When the movement is detected by the PIR sensor, its output goes high which will be
read by Raspberry Pi and LED can be turned ON as an indication of movement detection.
So, when there is a movement in front of PIR sensor, LED will be ON.
• PIR is an input to Raspberry Pi and LED is treated as output. So PIR is configured as input
pin and LED is configured as output pin of Raspberry Pi.
• PIR sensor is interfaced to Raspberry Pi as shown in below Fig. 4.13.
PIR sensor

3v3 Power 1 2 5V

GPIO 2 3 4 5V

GPIO 3 5 6 Ground

GPIO 4 7 8 GPIO 14

Ground 9 10 GPIO 15
R
GPIO 17 11 12 GPIO 18
a
GPIO 27 13 s 14 Ground
p
GPIO 22 15 b 16 GPIO 23
e 18 GPIO 24
3.3 V 17 r
GPIO 10 19 r 20 Ground
y
GPIO 9 21 22 GPIO 25
GPIO 11 23 P 24 GPIO 8
i
Ground 25 26 GPIO 7
H 28 GPIO 1
GPIO 0 27 e
GPIO 5 29 a 30 Ground
d
GPIO 6 31 32 GPIO 12
e 330
r 34 Ground LED
GPIO 13 33
GPIO 19 35 36 GPIO 16

GPIO 26 37 38 GPIO 20

Ground 39 40 GPIO 21

Fig. 4.13 : Interfacing PIR sensor to Raspberry Pi

S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 4-26 Interfacing of Devices Using Python Programming

• The program code for interfacing PIR sensor is given below:

import RPi.GPIO as GPIO

PIR_input = 29 #read input from PIR

LED = 32 #LED for indication of movement detection
GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BOARD) #choose pin no. system
GPIO.setup(PIR_input, GPIO.IN)
GPIO.setup(LED, GPIO.OUT)
GPIO.output(LED, GPIO.LOW)
while True: #when motion detected turn LED ON
if(GPIO.input(PIR_input)):
GPIO.output(LED, GPIO.HIGH)
else:
GPIO.output(LED, GPIO.LOW)
• Instead of LED, buzzer can be connected which will buzz when the movement is detected
by the PIR sensor.
4.10 Interfacing Finger Print Reader to Raspberry Pi
• As fingerprints are unique and no two fingerprints can match, so it is always used in
security systems.
• Fingerprint technology is most popular technology to verify the identity of an individual.
• The characteristics such as ridges or minutia patterns of a Fingerprint found within print
area are used for matching purpose.
• The fingerprint sensing process consists of capturing the image, extracting the features of
fingerprint, storing its digital data and then comparing the current image with the stored
fingerprint image.
• An electronic device which records a digital image of the fingerprint pattern is known as
fingerprint reader or scanner.
• Fingerprint reader provides high level security, so it
has many advantages as compared with other
security systems.
• Fingerprint sensor R307 is widely used to read the
fingerprint in biometrics systems. It can store 1000
fingerprint images. It is operated on 3.3 V and can
be interfaced through USB. Fig. 4.14 shows R307
fingerprint sensor. Fig. 4.14: Fingerprint sensor R307

• To interface fingerprint reader to Raspberry Pi, USB to TTL converter is required which can
support various baud rates for serial communication. CP2102 USB to TTL converter is
widely used in between fingerprint reader and Raspberry Pi.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 4-27 Interfacing of Devices Using Python Programming

• Interfacing of fingerprint reader is shown in below Fig. 4.15.

Fingerprint USB to TTL Raspberry Pi

sensor R307 converter board

Fig. 4.15
• To write a python program, first fingerprint package has to be imported from python
library. Then the sensor is initialised with appropriate baud rate and checked for its
password. The fingerprints are stored in memory.
• At the beginning of the program, packages required to read fingerprint has to be
downloaded.
The steps for interfacing the fingerprint reader are given below:
(i) Install required library and packages by typing following commands:
sudo bash
wget –O – http://apt.pm-codeworks.de/pm-codeworks.de.gpg | apt-key add –
wget http://apt.pm-codeworks.de/pm-codeworks.list -P /etc/apt/sources.list.d/
(ii) Update library and download fingerprint sensor library by typing following commands:
sudo apt-get update
sudo apt-get install python-fingerprint –yes
(iii) Check USB port where fingerprint sensor is connected by using below command:
ls /dev/ttyUSB*
(iv) Allot memory space to store fingerprint image in digital form.
(v) Below code will initialize fingerprint sensor and allot memory space:
import time
from pyfingerprint.pyfingerprint import PyFingerprint
# Detect new finger
# Initialize the sensor
init:
f = PyFingerprint('/dev/ttyUSB0', 9600, 0xFFFFFFFF, 0x00000000)

if ( f.verifyPassword() == False ):
raise ValueError('The fingerprint sensor password is wrong!')
except Exception as e:
print('The fingerprint sensor could not be initialized!')
print('Exception message: ' + str(e))
exit(1)
# Gets some sensor information
print('Currently used templates: ' + str(f.getTemplateCount()) +'/'+
str(f.getStorageCapacity()))
After executing above steps, the fingerprint is detected and stored in char buffer 1.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 4-28 Interfacing of Devices Using Python Programming

(vi) if-else loop can be used to check whether fingerprint is matching with the particular image
which is already stored.
## Enroll new finger
try:
print('Waiting for fingerprint...')

while ( f.readImage() == False ): #wait for new fingerprint

pass

f.convertImage(0x01)
# Convert image into digital form and stores it in char buffer 1
result = f.searchTemplate() # Checks if fingerprint is already enrolled
positionNumber = result[0]
if ( positionNumber >= 0 ):
print('Template already exists at position #' + str(positionNumber))
exit(0)
print('Remove finger...')
time.sleep(2)
print('Wait for same finger again...')
while ( f.readImage() == False ):
pass
(vii) The fingerprint is detected and stored in char buffer 2. This process is repeated and if a new
fingerprint is detected it is stored in another variable called PositionNumber.
(viii) Python program code is given below:
import time
from pyfingerprint.pyfingerprint import PyFingerprint
# initialize the sensor
init:
f = PyFingerprint('/dev/ttyUSB0', 9600, 0xFFFFFFFF, 0x00000000)

if ( f.verifyPassword() == False ):
raise ValueError('The fingerprint password is wrong!')
except Exception as e:
print('The fingerprint sensor could not be initialized!')
print('Exception message: ' + str(e))
exit(1)
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 4-29 Interfacing of Devices Using Python Programming

print('Currently used templates:

' + str(f.getTemplateCount()) +'/'+ str(f.getStorageCapacity()))
# enroll new finger
try:
print('Waiting for fingerprint...')
while ( f.readImage() == False ):
pass
f.convertImage(0x01)
result = f.searchTemplate() # Checks if finger is already enrolled
positionNumber = result[0]
if ( positionNumber >= 0 ):
print('Fingerprint image already exists at position #' + str(positionNumber))
exit(0)
print('Remove finger...')
time.sleep(2)
print('Wait for same finger again...')
while ( f.readImage() == False ): # Wait for same fingerprint
pass
f.convertImage(0x02)
# Convert image into digital form and stores it in charbuffer 2
if ( f.compareCharacteristics() == 0 ): # Compare two charbuffers
raise Exception('Fingers do not match')
f.createTemplate() # Creates a template
positionNumber = f.storeTemplate() # Save fingerprint at new position number
print('Finger enrolled successfully!')
print('New position #' + str(positionNumber))
except Exception as e:
print('Operation failed!')
print('Exception message: ' + str(e))
exit(1)
(ix) Below code will delete registered fingerprint from the stored data:
from pyfingerprint.pyfingerprint import PyFingerprint
init:
f = PyFingerprint('/dev/ttyUSB0', 9600, 0xFFFFFFFF, 0x00000000)
if ( f.verifyPassword() == False ):
raise ValueError('The fingerprint password is wrong!')
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 4-30 Interfacing of Devices Using Python Programming

except Exception as e:
print('The fingerprint sensor could not be initialized!')
print('Exception message: ' + str(e))
exit(1)
print('Currently used templates:
' + str(f.getTemplateCount()) +'/'+ str(f.getStorageCapacity()))
delet:
#delete the template of the fingerprint
positionNumber = input('Please enter the template position you want to delete: ')
positionNumber = int(positionNumber)
if ( f.deleteTemplate(positionNumber) == True ):
print('Template deleted!')
except Exception as e:
print('Operation failed!')
print('Exception message: ' + str(e))
exit(1)
(x) Below code is used to search fingerprint from the stored data.
import hashlib
from pyfingerprint.pyfingerprint import PyFingerprint
# initialize the sensor
init:
f = PyFingerprint('/dev/ttyUSB0', 9600, 0xFFFFFFFF, 0x00000000)
if ( f.verifyPassword() == False ):
raise ValueError('The fingerprint password is wrong!')
except Exception as e:
print('The fingerprint sensor could not be initialized!')
print('Exception message: ' + str(e))
exit(1)
print('Currently used templates:
' + str(f.getTemplateCount()) +'/'+ str(f.getStorageCapacity()))
search:
print('Waiting for finger...') # search the finger and calculate hash
while ( f.readImage() == False ): #read fingerprint image
pass
f.convertImage(0x01) #Convert image into digital form and stores it in charbuffer 1
result = f.searchTemplate()
positionNumber = result[0]
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 4-31 Interfacing of Devices Using Python Programming

accuracyScore = result[1]
if ( positionNumber == -1 ):
print('No match found!')
exit(0)
else:
print('Found template at position #' + str(positionNumber))
print('The accuracy score is: ' + str(accuracyScore))
exit(1)

Think Over It

• Is it possible to do image processing using Raspberry Pi? How?

• How ECG sensor can be interfaced to Raspberry Pi?
• Is it possible to implement MATLAB code on Raspberry Pi?
• Can FPGA board used with Raspberry Pi?

Points to Remember
• Python interpreter can be run in two ways: as an interactive shell to execute individual
commands or as a command-line program to execute standalone programs or scripts.
• The integrated development environment (IDE) bundled with Python and the Raspberry
Pi is called as IDEL.
• To write a Python program for Raspberry, first Operating System has to be installed and
then Raspberry has to be configured. Booting Raspberry Pi for the first time include
following steps:
o Push the microSD card into the socket on the bottom of the board.
o Plug in a USB keyboard and mouse.
o Plug the HDMI output into TV or monitor. Make sure that monitor is ON and set to
the correct input.
o Plug in power supply and switch ON the board.
• In Raspbian, Python and GPIO library are preinstalled.
• Pin number 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26 are the GPIO pins of
Raspberry Pi.
• Most of the Raspberry Pi models have on board connectivity options for Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth.
• The Raspberry Pi 3, 3B+, Raspberry Pi Zero w and Raspberry Pi 4 have built-in Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth facility.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 4-32 Interfacing of Devices Using Python Programming

• The Raspberry Pi 3 is the first version of the computer to have in-built wireless and
Bluetooth features. Subsequently, all latest models of Raspberry Pi have these features.
• Blueman: Blueman is a full featured Bluetooth manager. It provides GUI based setting
panel Bluetooth manager.
• Bluez: Bluez provides the Bluetooth protocol stack and the bluetoothctl utility.
• A direct Ethernet connection is always much faster than a Wi-Fi connection to access
Internet.
• Raspberry Pi can be directly connected to Ethernet on laptop or desktop with an Ethernet
cable bypassing the local network so that bandwidth is not shared with other computers.
• The camera module is provided with Raspberry Pi which can be used to take pictures and
videos.
• Raspberry Pi camera v1.3 have features as: resolution 5 MP, HD Video recording, it can
capture wide, still images of resolution 2592 × 1944 pixels and it can be connected
through CSI interface.
• Raspberry Pi board has CSI (Camera Serial Interface) port through which camera can be
directly connected to Raspberry Pi using 15-pin ribbon cable.
• Camera module should be handled very carefully as camera can be damaged by static
electric charge.
• Ultrasonic sensors are used to measure the distance between two objects using ultrasonic
waves. Ultrasonic waves are used as they are more accurate and not audible to human
ear.
• HC-SR04 ultrasonic sensor is widely used for distance measurement up to 400 cm. It
consists of transmitter, receiver and control circuit. As shown in Fig. 4.10, it has VCC, Trig,
Echo and GND.
• Passive Infrared (PIR) sensor detects any movement of human or animals which emits
infrared.
• PIR sensor detects change in the infrared radiation.
• Fingerprint technology is most popular technology to verify the identity of an individual.
• The characteristics such as ridges or minutia patterns of a Fingerprint found within print
area are used for matching purpose.
Exercises
[A] True or False :
1. The GPIO pin number and physical pin number of Raspberry Pi are different.
2. Python is not an interpreted language.
3. The integrated development environment (IDE) bundled with Python and the Raspberry
Pi is called as IDEL.
4. If Raspbian Lite is installed then keyboard, mouse and monitor are not required.
5. In Raspbian, Python and GPIO library are not preinstalled.
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 4-33 Interfacing of Devices Using Python Programming

6. A direct Ethernet connection is always much faster than a Wi-Fi connection to access
Internet.
7. The Raspberry Pi 3 is the first version of the computer to have in-built wireless and
Bluetooth features.
[B] Multiple Choice Questions :
1. Which operating system does Python supports?
(a) Windows (b) Linux
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
2. Following models of Raspberry Pi have Bluetooth facility.
(a) Raspberry Pi 3 (b) Raspberry Pi Zero
(c) Raspberry Pi 4 (d) All of these
3. PIR sensor detects change in the …… radiation.
(a) Infrared (b) Micro
(c) Ultraviolet (d) None of these
4. Ultrasonic sensor widely used to measure ……
(a) Time (b) Distance
(c) Frequency (d) None of these
5. Which library/libraries have to be imported to interface fingerprint reader to Raspberry
Pi?
(a) PyFingerprint (b) Numpy
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
[C] Fill in the Blanks:
1. Python is an ______ language.
2. The integrated development environment (IDE) bundled with Python and the Raspberry
Pi is called as ____ .
3. The Raspberry Pi 3 is the first version of the computer to have in-built ____ and ______
features.
4. Ultrasonic sensors are used to measure the distance between two objects using ____
waves.
5. PIR sensor detects change in the _____ radiation.
6. In Raspbian, ______ and ______ library are preinstalled.
[D] Short Answer Questions:
1. What is IDEL?
2. List two popular modules used in Raspberry Pi.
3. What is the difference between Raspbian and Raspbian Lite?
4. How many pins are as GPIO in Raspberry Pi?
5. What is Bluetooth technology?
6. What is the difference between Bluetooth and Wi-Fi?
7. What is the use of GSM module?
S.Y.B.Sc. (Comp. Sci.) : Elect. - S-IV - P-I 4-34 Interfacing of Devices Using Python Programming

8. Explain the working principle of ultrasonic sensor.

9. What is the application of PIR sensor?
10. State the applications of fingerprint reader.
[E] Long Answer Questions:
1. Explain the steps for booting the Raspberry Pi.
2. Draw the diagram of interfacing the LED to Raspberry Pi and write python program to
blink the LED.
3. Explain the interfacing of a switch to Raspberry with the help of diagram and python
program.
4. Draw the diagram of interfacing of LCD to Raspberry Pi. Write python program to display
the message on LCD.
5. Explain the procedure of setting the Bluetooth on Raspberry Pi.
6. Explain the procedure of setting Wi-Fi on Raspberry Pi.
7. Explain the procedure of installing the Ethernet on Raspberry Pi.
8. Explain how camera is interfaced to Raspberry Pi? Write python program to capture
images using the camera.
9. Draw the diagram of interfacing the GSM module to Raspberry Pi. Write a python
program to send SMS on given mobile number.
10. Explain how ultrasonic sensor is interfaced to Raspberry Pi. Write a python program to
measure the distance between two objects.
11. Write a python program to detect the movement using PIR sensor to Raspberry Pi.
12. Explain with help of neat diagram the interfacing of fingerprint reader to Raspberry Pi.
Write a python program to read and store the fingerprint.

Answers
[A] True or False :
(1) True (2) False (3) True
(4) True (5) False (6) True
(7) True
[B] Multiple Choice Questions :
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a)
[C] Fill in the Blanks :
(1) interpreted (2) IDEL (3) wireless and bluetooth
(4) ultrasonic (5) infrared (6) Python and GPIO

✍✍✍
 Model Question Paper - I
Time : 2 Hours Maximum Marks : 35
Note :
1. Q.1 is compulsory.
2. Solve any three questions from Q.2 to Q.5.
3. Q.2 to Q.5. carry equal marks.

Q.1. Answer the flowing questions in one or two sentences. (Any 5) (5 marks)
1. What is SBC?
2. Write any one advantage and disadvantage of SoC.
3. What is Raspbian? List features of Raspbian.
4. State any two types of SBC.
5. List two popular modules used in Raspberry Pi.
6. What is the use of GSM module?
7. List at 4 features of Python.
Q.2. Answer the following : (10 marks)
[A] 1. Draw and explain the block diagram of single board computer. (3)
2. What is Python? List features of Python. (3)
[B] Draw the diagram of interfacing the LED to Raspberry Pi and write python program to blink
the LED. (4)
Q.3. Answer the following : (10 marks)
[A] 1. Compare any three types of SBC. (3)
2. Explain membrane keyboard. (3)
[B] Draw and explain the architecture of SoC with the help of neat diagram. (4)
Q.4. Answer the following : (10 marks)
[A] 1. Write a short note of comparison of Raspberry Pi modules. (3)
2. Write a short note on Python variables. (3)
[B] Explain how camera is interfaced to Raspberry Pi? Write python program to capture images
using the camera. (4)
Q.5. Write a short note on the following : (Any 4) (10 marks)
1. Break and Pass statements used in Python.
2. Four features of ARM1176JZ-S.
3. Prefetch unit.
4. Data types used in Python.
5. Pipelining used in Raspberry Pi.
6. Types of keyboard.
✍✍✍
(M.1)
 Model Question Paper - II
Time : 2 Hours Maximum Marks : 35
Note :
1. Q.1 is compulsory.
2. Solve any three questions from Q.2 to Q.5.
3. Q.2 to Q.5. carry equal marks.

Q.1. Answer the flowing questions in one or two sentences. (Any 5) (5 marks)
1. What is SoC?
2. Write any one advantage and disadvantage of SBC.
3. What is Python? List features of Python.
4. State any types of keyboard.
5. Write two softwares used for Raspberry Pi.
6. What is the use of ultrasonic sensor?
7. List at 4 features of Raspberry Pi.
Q.2. Answer the following : (10 marks)
[A] 1. Draw and explain the block diagram of SoC. (4)
2. Give at least 4 examples of data type conversion functions. (2)
[B] Explain with help of neat diagram the interfacing of fingerprint reader to Raspberry Pi. Write a
python program to read and store the fingerprint. (4)
Q.3. Answer the following : (10 marks)
[A] 1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of SBC? (3)
2. Explain the procedure of setting Wi-Fi on Raspberry Pi. (3)
[B] Draw the diagram of interfacing the GSM module to Raspberry Pi. Write a python program to
send SMS on given mobile number. (4)
Q.4. Answer the following : (10 marks)
[A] 1. Explain if else, for and while loops used in Python. (3)
2. Explain CPU pipelining stages. (3)
[B] Explain how ultrasonic sensor is interfaced to Raspberry Pi. Write a python program to
measure the distance between two objects. (4)
Q.5. Write a short note on the following : (Any 4) (10 marks)
1. LCD display.
2. Branch prediction.
3. Continue and try statements used in Python.
4. Functions used in Python.
5. Procedure of installing the Ethernet on Raspberry Pi.
6. GPU of Raspberry Pi.
✍✍✍

(M.2)