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 HARVEY'S LANGUAGE COURSE

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR

AND

COMPOSITION

REVISED EDITION

BY

THOS. W. HARVEY , A. M.

NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
Edna Ty59.08.446

HARVEY'S

SERIES OF SCHOOL BOOKS .

Graded School First Reader, . $ 0 13

Graded School Second Reader , 25
Graded School Third Reader, 36
Graded School Fourth Reader, 45
Graded School Fifth Reader, 70

Elementary Grammar and Composition ,

Revised, 42
Practical English Grammar, Revised, . 65

Graded School Primary Speller, 13

Graded School Speller, 18

First Lessons in the English Language

(old ), 20
Elementary Grammar (old) , 33
Practical English Grammar (old ), 65
Copies mailed, postpaid, on receipt of price.

Entered according to Act of Congress , in the year 1869, by

WILSON , HINKLE & CO.,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States,
for the Southern District of Ohio.
COPYRIGHT , 1880, BY VAN ANTWERP , BRAGG & CO.
COPYRIGHT, 1897 AND 1908, BY THOMAS A. HARVEY.
HAR . ELE . GRAM . REV .
E- P 106
HARYARD Ciitu LCR
EY EXDANGE FROM
NEW YORK STATE LIBRARY
FES 26 1932
 PREFACE ,

This work is a revision of the author's Elementary Grammar,

first published in 1869. Although many changes have been made,
especially in the arrangement of topics, the author has kept
steadily in view, in the work of revision, the aim he had in
the preparation of the original treatise — to present the subject
in a style neither too difficult for the beginner, nor too simple
for the advanced student.
Part I consists of lessons in technical grammar, sentence -mak .
ing, and composition . Great care has been taken never to define a
term or to enunciate a principle without first preparing the mind
of the pupil to grasp and comprehend the meaning and use of
the term defined or the principle enunciated . Ideas are first de
veloped by intelligent questioning and appropriate illustrations ;
then , clothed in words. The author would call special attention
to the exercises in false syntax. The “ Cautions, ” if intelligently
taught and applied, will lead the pupil to avoid, as well as to
criticise, the most common inaccuracies of expression.
Sentence-making and composition are, it is believed , presented
in a natural and attractive manner. Words are given for the
pupil to use in sentences. At first, all the words are given ; then,
a part of them. Having acquired some facility in the construc
tion of sentences, the pupil is next taught use groups of words,
phrases, and clauses, as single words.
In composition, the pupil is first taught to tell what he sees
in a picture, and to answer questions concerning the objects rep
resented in it. The description and the answers following it make
(w )
iv PREFACE .

a composition. He is next taught to study a picture, and to

exercise his inventive powers in writing short stories suggested
by it. Experience has demonstrated that this is a natural method
of instruction , and that pupils taught in this manner need prac
tice only to enable them to describe scenery, as well as occur
rences in actual life, readily and accurately.
This course of instruction is introductory to that given in Part
II, which contains a concise yet exhaustive statement of the prop
erties and modifications of the different parts of speech , carefully
prepared models for parsing and analysis, rules of syntax, and
plans for the description of single objects — a continuation of the
composition work begun in Part I. Notes, remarks, and sugges
tions are but sparingly introduced , as they serve rather to confuse
than to assist the learner.
Diagrams for “ mapping ” sentences are given in connection
with the models for analysis. This is a new feature, introduced
at the request of a large number of intelligent teachers.
It has been said that there is no royal road to geometry. The
same may be said of grammar and composition. The meaning
and application of technical terms must be learned, sentences must
be analyzed, words must be parsed, before the student can com
prehend the philosophy that underlies the correct use of any lan
guage. The labor necessary to acquire this knowledge, and the
practice necessary to secure facility and accuracy in the use of
one's mother - tongue, may be made attractive, but it can not be
dispensed with , neither can it be materially lessened . All ihat
is claimed for this work is, that it shows how this labor should
be expended to secure the best results .
JUNE, 1880.
 CONTENTS .

PART I.

PAGE. PAGE.
The Senses, . 7 Composition - Picture Lesson, 41
Definition of Object, 7 The Pronoun , 42
Definition of Word , 8 Adjective Element, 42
Language, . 8 Possessives, - 43
The Sentence , 8 Appositives, 45
Sentence -Making - Definitions, 9 Personal Pronouns, 47
Quotation Marks, . 11 Person , 47
Parts of Speech , . 12 Possessive Pronouns, 50
The Noun, . 13 Relative Pronouns, 52
Number, 15 Clauses, 52
Abbreviations, 16 The Relative Clause , 53
Contractions, 18 Interrogative Pronouns, 55
Elements of a Sentence, . 19 Incorrect Language - Cautions, 56
Analysis, . 21 The Adverb , . 57
Composition - Picture Lessons, 22, 23 Adverbial Element, 58
The Verb , 24 Adverbial Clause, 59
Classes of Verbs, 25 Incorrect Language - Cautions, 60
Objective Element, 25 Composition – The Lion, . 61
Incorrect Language - Cautions, 27 The Preposition , 62
Sentence -Making, 28 The Phrase, 63
Composition - Picture Lesson, 30 The Infinitive, 65
The Adjective, . 31 Position of Modifiers,
The Article, 33 The Conjunction , : 67
Sentence -Making, 34 Compound Elements, 68
Incorrect Language - Cautions, 35 Simple Sentences, 70
Composition - Picture Lesson , 36 Compound Sentences, 71
The Participle, . 37 Complex Sentences, 73
The Participial Noun, 39 The Interjection, 77
(v )
vi CONTENTS.

PART II.

PAGE. PAGE .
THE NOUN , 79 Person and Number, 108
Gender, 79 Auxiliaries, • 109
Person , 81 Conjugation , 109
Number, . 82 Coördinate Forms, . 116
Case, 83 Regular Verbs, 118
Declension , 85 Irregular Verbs, 118
Parsing, 85 Defective Verbs, . 119
Composition - Animals, 88 Redundant Verbs, 119
THE PRONOUN , . 88 Composition - Sugar, 121
Personal Pronouns, 88 False Syntax - Cautions, 122
Possessive Pronouns, 91 The Adverb - Classes, 124
Relative Pronouns, 93 Composition - Vegetable Products, 126
Interrogative Pronouns, 95 THE PREPOSITION , 127
False Syntax - Cautions, 97 THE CONJUNCTION, . 129
THE ADJECTIVE, 98 Composition - Iron , . . 130
Descriptive Adjectives, 98 THE INTERJECTION , • 131
Comparison, 98 Composition — The Metals, . 132
Definitive Adjectives, 100 Ellipsis, 133
False Syntax - Cautions, 102 Abridgment, . 134
Composition - Plants, · 102 Modified Subject and Predicate, . 136
THE VERB, 103 Composition - A Hurricane, . . 137
Voice, 103 Rules of Syntax , . . 138
Mode, . 105 Letter -Writing, . 142
Tense , 106 Misceli Exercises, 45

PART III .

PUNCTUATION , 148 The Curves, . 153

The Comma, 148 The Brackets, . 153
The Semicolon , . 150 Other Marks, . 154
The Colon , . 151 APPENDIX , . 156
The Period, 151 Irregular Verbs, 156
The Interrogation Point, 152 Unipersonal Verbs, . 159
The Exclamation Point, . . 152 Capital Letters, Italics, etc., 160
The Dash , . 152
 GRAMMAR .

PART 1.

ELEMENTARY COURSE .

1. OBJECTS .

1. The Senses. We have five senses : seeing, hear

ing, feeling, tasting, and smelling.
When we see, feel, taste, or smell things, or hear sounds,
we are said to perceive them.
I drop a book upon the floor. A force, called gravitation ,
draws it toward the center of the earth. We can not perceive
this force; but we are conscious of it,-that is, we know such
a force must exist.
We are conscious of many other things that we can not
perceive ; as, love, hatred, joy, sorrow .
All these things are called objects. What, then, is an object ?

2. An Object is any thing we can perceive, or of

which we may be conscious.
When we think, we think of objects; when we talk , we
talk about objects; when we write, we write about objects.
When we talk or write, we use words to express our
thoughts. What, then, is a word ?
8 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

3. A Word is a syllable, or a combination of sylla

bles, used in the expression of thought.
QUESTIONS . - How many senses have we ? Name them . Name some
things that we can perceive. Name some things that we can not per
ceive, but of which we may be conscious. What is an object ? What
is a word ?

2. DEFINITIONS .

1. Language is the expression of thought by means

of words.

When we talk , we express our ideas by spoken words.

This is called Spoken Language.

2. Spoken Language is the expression of ideas by

the voice .

When we write or print our thoughts, we use letters which

represent sounds. This is called Written Language.

3. Written Language is the expression of thought

by the use of written or printed characters.
4. Grammar treats of the principles and usages of
language .

5. English Grammar teaches how to speak and write

the English language correctly .
QUESTIONS . — What is language ? Spoken language ? Written lan
guage ? Grammar ? English Grammar ?

3. THE SENTENCE.

What is the color of chalk ? It is white. Chalk breaks

easily : is it tough or brittle ? It is brittle. We can not see
through it : hence we say it is opaque.
 THE SENTENCE. 9

We will join the words white, brittle, and opaque with the
word chalk, thus:
Chalk is white.
Chalk is brittle.
Chalk is opaque.

Each of these groups of words makes complete sense, and

is called a Sentence.

1. A Sentence is a group of words making complete

sense .

Each group is also called a Proposition.

2. A Proposition is a thought expressed in words.

In writing sentences , observe the following directions :

1st. Begin each sentence with a capital letter.

2d. Spell each word correctly .

3d . Place a period [ . ] at the end of every sentence

that declares something, or makes a command.
4th . Place an interrogation point [ ? ] at the end
of every question .
5th . Never divide a syllable at the end of a line .
QUESTIONS . — What is a sentence ? A proposition ? Give the direc
tions for writing sentences.

4. SENTENCE-MAKING.
I.

When I say, “ The window is open ," I state a fact, using

what is called a Declarative Sentence .

1. A Declarative Sentence is a sentence used in stat

ing a fact.
10 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

When I say , " Is the window open ? " I ask a question ,

using an Interrogative Sentence.

2. An Interrogative Sentence is a sentence used in

asking a question.

Form declarative sentences out of the following words :

1. Iceland, very, is, in, it, cold. 2. Lesson, an , this, easy,
is . 3. June, cherries, in, ripe, are. 4. Is, house, our, hill,
the, under. 5. Always, good, happy, are , scholars. 6. Cap,
river, into, the, fell, boy's, red, the, little. 7. Deep, our, is, lane
very, in, snow, the. 8. Corn, spring, the, in, plants, farmer.
9. Ice, the, smooth, when, I , skate, to, like, very, is.

Form interrogative sentences out of the following words :

1. Lemons, where, grow , do. 2. Is , sick , to-day, brother,
John's. 3. Cold , it, very, was, yesterday . 4. Aunt, does, the,
toll -gate, live, your, beyond, river, the, over. 5. Writing,
exercise, is, pleasant, a, not. 6. You, school, at, not, yester
day, were. 7. Pick, white, I, this, may, rose.
Note .-Write other groups, and require the pupils to arrange
them into sentences. Use this exercise until the pupils can easily
and readily construct sentences containing not fewer than fifteen
words.
QUESTIONS. - What is a declarative sentence ? An interrogative sen
tence ? Repeat the directions to be observed in writing sentences.

II.

When I say , “ Clarence, open the window ," I make a com

mand ; and when I say, “ Do forgive me ! ” I express an en.
treaty. In each instance I use an Imperative Sentence.

3. An Imperative Sentence is a sentence used in

expressing a command or an entreaty .

When I say, “ Oh, that window is open again ! ” I express
some feeling or emotion, using an Exclamatory Sentence.
 THE SENTENCE . 11

4. An Exclamatory Sentence is a sentence used in

expressing some feeling or emotion .
An exclamation point ( ! ) is usually placed after an ex
clamatory sentence.

Form imperative sentences out of the following words :

1. Go, your, seats, to, boys. 2. Home, go, once, at, Ponto.
3. Me, your, lend, book , Jane. 4. Minutes, lesson, ten, pupils,
study, the. 5. Question, Susan, this, answer. 6. Skates, John,
me, have, let, my. 7. Book, put, shelf, the, on, the. 8. Par
ents, obey, your, always. 9. Team , into, the, drive, the, Jonas,
barn.

Form exclamatory sentences out of the following words :

1. Am, ha, ha, ha, I , it, of, glad . 2. Clock , four, hark,
strikes, the. 3. Pretty, is, oh, she, how. 4. Don't, it, ugh,
like, I. 5. Alone, pshaw, me, let.
Tell the kinds of sentences in the following exercises :
1. The winds bring perfume. 2. Where is my new book ?
3. Go to the ant, thou sluggard ! 4. Pshaw, go away ! 5. Ne
cessity is the mother of invention . 6. Does God uniformly
work in one way ? 7. Oh, how I trembled with disgust !
8. Be not forward in the presence of your superiors. 9. Lend
me your wings ! I mount ! I fly !
Tell the kinds of sentences in your reading lessons. Change the
form of these sentences from declarative to interrogative, etc.
QUESTIONS . — What is an imperative sentence ? An exclamatory sen.
tence ? What mark is usually placed after an exclamatory sentence ?

5. QUOTATION MARKS.

The man yawned, and said, “ How sleepy I am ! "

In this sentence, these marks ( " ) are placed before the
words that the man used, and these ( ” ) after them. They
are called Quotation Marka
12 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

Quotation Marks should be used , in writing, when

we quote the exact language of another.
Such a quotation should begin with a capital letter.
When we state what another says, without using his exact
language, the quotation marks should not be used. In this
book, the answers supposed to be given by the pupils to the
questions asked by the teacher, are usually not quoted.
Use quotation marks and capital letters properly in these sentences :
1. Did your mother send you, said the merchant, gruffly.
2. The general said, be ready to start at 5 A. M. 1
3. Will you come into my parlor, said the spider to the fly.
4. The pupils kept repeating, four times three are twelve,
four times three are twelve, for at least three minutes.
QUESTION . — When should quotation marks be used ?

6. PARTS OF SPEECH.

" Scholars study.” What word is here used instead of the

names of the persons of whom we are speaking ? “ Scholars . "
What word tells what scholars do ? “ Study.”
“ Good scholars study.” What word here describes schol
ars ? “ Good. "
“ Good scholars study diligently ." What word here tells
how good scholars study ? “ Diligently."
Words, then , not only have different meanings, but they
are also used in different ways.
They can be divided into classes, according to their mean
ing and use . These classes are called Parts of Speech.

Parts of Speech are the classes into which words

are divided according to their meaning and use .
It is necessary to know its meaning and use in order to
determine to which class any word belongs.
QUESTIONS . — What are parts of speech ? What is necessary in order
to determine the class to which any word belongs ?
 THE NOUN . 13

THE NOUN .

7. ORAL LESSON.

What are the words boy, girl, city, door, window , book, desk ?
They are names of objects.
That is correct. They are the names of objects, not the
objects themselves. Because each word is a name, it is called
a Noun , which means a name.

1. A Noun is a name ; as , boy, John, railroad.

What are the words house, farm , garden, dog, horse, blacksmith,
merchant ? They are nouns. Why ? Because they are names.
What are the words Mary, John, Washington , Chicago, Ohio,
America ? They are nouns. Why ? Because they are names.
Can the name boy be applied to any boy in the school, or
in the world ? It can . It is a name, then, which is common
to all boys ; that is, it can be applied to each of them. So,
also, the name girl is common to all girls ; the name house, to
all houses ; the name city, to all cities. Objects of the same
kind form what is called a class. The same name can be
applied to each object belonging to the same class. The names
boy, girl, house , and city are called Common Nouns, because they
can be applied to any one of a class of objects .

2. A Common Noun is a name which may be ap

plied to any one of a class of objects ; as, bird , door,
lightning.
Can the name John be applied to all boys ? It can not.
Why ? Because boys have different names, such as Charles,
Frank, Samuel, Clarence. Why are boys called by different
names ? In order to distinguish one from another, or to dis
tinguish a particular boy from the rest of the boys in the
school, or in the world.
14 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

Can the name city be applied to all cities ? It can. Is

the name Chicago applied to all cities ? It is not. Why ?
Because it is the name of a particular city. That is correct ;
and the names given to particular objects to distinguish them
from the rest of their class, are called Proper Nouns.

3. A Proper Noun is the name of some particu

lar person , place, people, or thing ; as, Susan, Rome,
American, Mars.

What kind of noun is plow ? It is a common noun. Why ?

Because it can be applied to all plows .
What kind of noun is New York ? It is a proper noun.
Why ? It is the name of a particular city.
Rem . 1.-Proper nouns should commence with capital let
ters. A common noun should commence with a small letter,
unless it is the first word of a sentence or is a word of
special importance. The words I and O should always be
capital letters.

Write the names of five kinds of fruit ; of five kinds of grain ; of

three articles of clothing ; of five games ; of five bad habits ; of six
farming implements ; of four trades ; of six townships in your
county ; of six large cities ; of five large rivers ; of five mount
ains ; of seven of your school-mates.

What are the words you have written ? Why ? Tell which
are common and which are proper nouns.
Tell which are common and which are proper nouns in the fol -
lowing list :
Rain . Snow. College . Augusta . Palestine.
Barn. Sarah . Minute. Volcano. Black Sea.
Slate. Organ. Steeple. Railroad . Lake Erie.
April . Boston . Church . Thunder. Indianapolis.
Hour. Lesson . Temple. Vesuvius. Niagara Falls.
Rem . 2.—Common nouns, when in a tabulated list of words
as above, may begin with capital letters, as if each began a
sentence.
 NUMBER . 15

Point out all the nouns in your reading lesson , and tell which are
common and which are proper nouns, using the following

MODEL.

“ Cicero was an orator."

Cicero is a noun ; it is a name : proper'; it is the name of a
particular person. Orator is a noun ; ( why ?) : common ; it may
be applied to any one of a class of objects.
QUESTIONS. — What is a noun ? How many classes of nounsare there ?
What is a common noun ? Give examples. What is a proper noun ?
Give examples. Which class should commence with capital letters ?
When should common nouns commence with capital letters ?

8. NUMBER .

Does the word fan denote one object, or more than one ?
It denotes but one object. Does the word fans denote one
object, or more than one ? It denotes more than one object.
That is right. When a noun denotes but one object, it is
said to be in the Singular Number .

1. The Singular Number denotes but one object.

When a noun denotes more than one object, it is said to
be in the Plural Number.

2. The Plural Number denotes more than one object.

The last sound in the word fan readily unites with the
sound represented by the letter s, and its plural is formed by
adding s to the singular. The plural of any noun ending with
a sound that will readily unite with the sound represented by
s, is formed by adding s to the singular.
The plural of any word ending with a sound that will not
readily unite with the sound represented by s, is formed by
adding es to the singular, when the singular does not end
with e ; as, church, church -es ; mass, masses .
16 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

These are two ways of forming plurals. There are many

other ways. Nouns ending in f or fe usually change these
endings to ves ; those ending in y, with a vowel before it, add
s ; those ending in y, with a consonant before it, change y to
į and add es ; those ending in o, with a consonant before it,
add es .
A few nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, sheep ,
deer, trout, vermin . Letters, figures, marks, and signs add ' s ;
as , b's, 6's, *' s, Z's.

Write the plurals of the following nouns :

Ox. City . Desk. Alley. Street. School.
Girl. Fish . Road. Child. House. Money .
Boy. Man. Folly. Wind. Pencil. Wagon .
Calf. Rose. Book. Knife. Vessel. Woman .
Box. Plow. Chair. Fence. Potato. Monkey .

·Note . - The teacher should assist the pupil in writing the plurals
of some of these words. They ought not to be required to remem
ber and apply a large number of rules. The plural forms must be
learned by practice in writing them .
QUESTIONS. - What does the singular number denote ? The plural
number ? Mention some of the ways of forming the plural number.

9. ABBREVIATIONS .
I.

“ Dr. Vinton is a brother of Gen. Vinton, and the father

17
of Mrs. Noble.”
In this sentence, the first word is Doctor ; but in writing
it the first and last letters only have been used. This is a
short way of writing a word, and is called an Abbreviation.
The word General is also abbreviated, the first three letters
only being used . In abbreviating the word Mistress, all the
letters are omitted except the first, the fifth , and the last.
A period should be placed after an abbreviation.

Rem . - Abbreviations generally begin with capital letters.

 ABBREVIATIONS. 17

Write the following abbreviations and their equivalents :

Dr. Doctor. Esq. Esquire.
Mr. Mister. Gov. Governor .
Cr. Credit. Rev. Reverend.
St. Saint, or Street. Hon . Honorable.
Mt. Mount. Prof. Professor.
Col. Colonel. Pres. President.
Gen. General. Mrs. Mistress.
Maj. Major. Atty. Attorney .
Lieut. Lieutenant. Capt. Captain .
Co. Company. Supt. Superintendent.

Make the proper abbreviations in the following sentences

1. Major Whipple lives in Saint Louis. 2. Moses Johnson,
Esquire, is an uncle of Professor Collins. 3. Lieutenant Wil
son is a guest of Superintendent Furness. 4. Doctor Metz
lives on Wood Street, next door to Colonel Clark. 5. Were
Mister Jones and President Tappan in the city to -day ?

II .

“ N. B.—Wm. Smith, Esq. , lives in Utica, N. Y.” .

In this sentence, the first two letters, “ N. B., are the
initials, or first letters, of the Latin words Nota bene, and are
equivalent to take notice. “ N. Y.” is the abbreviation for Neu
York, the first letters of each word being used.

Write the following abbreviations and their equivalents :

A. M. Forenoon . P. M. Afternoon.
B. C. Before Christ. A. D. In the year of our Lord .
U. S. United States. C. O. D. Collect on Delivery.
M. C. Member of Congress. B6l. Barrel.
M. D. Doctor of Medicine. Lb. Pound.
P. O. Post Office. No. Number.
P. S. Postscript. Ult. The last month .
R. R. Railroad . Prox . The next month.
M Noon. Admr Administrator.
M. Gr.2
 18 . ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

Write the abbreviations for the days of the week .

Write the abbreviations for the months of the year .
Write the abbreviations for the States of the Union .

Note .- " A . M.," when placed after the name of a person , is

equivalent to Master of Arts. “ P. M.,” when written or printed
in a similar manner, is equivalent to Postmaster.
The abbreviations for weights and measures, as well as ult. and
prox ., should begin with small letters, unless they stand alone, or
at the beginning of sentences. In some cases, small letters may
be used as the abbreviations for forenoon and afternoon .

Make the proper abbreviations in the following sentences :

1. Take notice. The train will leave at 3 o'clock in the
afternoon. 2. Samuel Fish, Member of Congress, has removed
to Buffalo, New York . 3. Send the books to Joel Elkins,
Master of Arts, and collect on delivery. 4. My father left for
Europe on the seventh day of the last month. 5. Send me
four barrels of flour this forenoon . 6. I will pay you on the
sixth day of the next month.
QUESTIONS. — What is an abbreviation ? How are periods and capi
tals used in connection with abbreviations ?

10. CONTRACTIONS.

“ Do n't fail to come. ” In writing or printing do n't, a mark

( ' ) is used between n and t. It is called an Apostrophe. In
an abbreviation or contraction like this, it shows that one or
more letters are omitted.

Tell what letters are omitted in the contracted words in these sen .
tences :
1. We're going home. 2. We'll not go with you . 3. I
did n't know that you told ' em not to go. 4. I'll help you
as soon as I've learned my lesson. 5. We came from o'er
the sea . 6. They're both truants. 7. The corporal said,
3 ' Bout feco,"
 THE SENTENCE . 19

11. ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE .

In the sentence, “ Chalk is white, " chalk is called the Sub

ject, for it is that about which something is said , or affirmed.

1. The Subject of a proposition is that of which

something is affirmed .

White is called the Predicate, for it is that which is affirmed

of the subject chalk.

2. The Predicate of a proposition is that which is

affirmed of the subject.

Is is called the Copula, for it is used to join the predicate

to the subject, and the word copula means a link. The copula
also affirms that the predicate belongs to the subject. It is
sometimes a group of words ; as, will be, shall have been, etc.

3. The Copula is a word , or group of words, used to

join a predicate to a subject, and to make an assertion .

In the sentence, “ Ice is cold,” what is the subject ? " Ice.”

Why ? Because it is that of which something is affirmed .
What is the predicate ? “ Cold .” Why ? Because it is that
which is affirmed of the subject. What is the copula ? “ Is."
Why ? Because it is the word used to assert the predicate
cold of the subject ice. Why is it called the copula ? Because
it links or joins the predicate to the subject.

Point out the subject, predicate, and copula in each of the following
sentences :

1. Air is transparent. 2. Iron is heavy. 3. Nero was cruel.

4. Jane has been studious. 5. Walter will be tardy. 6. Mary
should be kind. 7. Ellen is unhappy . 8. Martha was cheer
ful. 9. George should have been industrious.
 20 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

Point out the nouns in these sentences, and tell which are common
and which are proper nouns.
QUESTIONS.- What is the subject of a proposition ? The predicate ?
The copula ? What does the word copula mean ?

12. THE PREDICATE.

In the sentence, Man is mortal,” the predicate mortal de

notes a quality belonging to the subject man. Words which
express qualities may be called quality-words.
Nouns may be used as predicates. When they are thus
used , they denote kind or class.
In the sentence, “ Horses are animals,” what is the subject ?
“ Horses. ” Why ? What is the predicate ? “ Animals.” Why ?
What does the word animals denote ? It denotes the kind or
class of beings to which horses belong. What part of speech
is it ? It is a noun . Why ? What is the copula ? “ Are .”

Affirm qualities of the following subjects :

Iron Trees Fishes Oranges
Play Books Apples Marbles
Lead School Flowers Swimming
Model.—Oranges are yellow .
Affirm the following qualities of appropriate subjects :
soft. hard . young opaque..
wise. sweet. happy . mellow .
blue. round. square . transparent.
Model . - Sugar is sweet.
Affirm kind or class of the following subjects :
Gold Oxen Wheat
Sheep
Corn River Eagles Houses
Coats Silver Tables Wagons
Model .—Eagles are birds.
QUESTIONS. — What are quality -words ? Can they be used as predi
cates ? Give example. Give an example of a noun used as a predicate.
 ELEMENTS . 21

13. ELEMENTS .

We have seen that a sentence is composed of parts. These

parts are called Elements.

1. An Element is one of the distinct parts of a

sentence .

2. The Subject and the Predicate are called Principal

Elements, because no sentence can be formed without
them . All other distinct parts of a sentence are called
Subordinate Elements. The Copula is not called an
element.

3. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into its

elements. Any sentence can be so separated .

Analyze the following sentences, using this

MODEL.

“ Iron is heavy . "

This is a sentence ; it is a group of words making complete
sense : declarative ; it states a fact.
Iron is the subject; it is that of which something is affirmed :
heavy is the predicate; it is that which is affirmed of the sub
ject : is is the copula ; it joins the predicate to the subject.
Iron | is : heavy.

1. Indigo is blue. 2. Flies are insects. 3. Mary was tardy.

4. Boys will be playful. 5. Children should be careful. 6.
Men may be imprudent. 7. John can be studious. 8. Roses
are fragrant. 9. Julius should be diligent,
Point out the common and proper nouns in the above sentences.
QUESTIONS. — What is an element ? What are the principal elements ?
Subordinate elements ? What is analysis ?
22 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

14. COMPOSITION.

I.

Note . — The answers to the questions in this and similar exercises,

should first be given orally, and then written on slates or slips of
paper. The first answer should begin with the words, “ I see.”
Look at the picture, and answer the following questions :
1. What do you see in this picture ?
2. What are the boy and the girl doing ?
3. Where is the bird's nest ?
4. Where is the bird ?
5. Do you think the children will rob the nest ?
Read what has been written .
 COMPOSITION . 23

J. BEARD HARLEY

II .

1. What do you see in this picture ?

2. What is the dog doing ?
3. How many rats has he killed already ?
4. What are the rats trying to do ?
5. Will the dog catch the one that is trying to climb the
broom ? Why ?
6. Where do rats live ?
7. What harm do they do ?
Read what has been written .
Note.-Select other pictures, and ask questions concerning what
is to be seen in them . Should a painting or chromo be used, call
attention to the different colors ; write their names, and compare
them with similarly colored objects in the school-room - such as
articles of dress, flowers, etc. This exercise may be used , with profit,
at intervals during several years of school life ; and it should not be
dispensed with until pupils can use pictures, in composition work ,
without the assistance of a teacher.
24 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

THE VERB .

15. ORAL LESSON.

In the sentence, “ Fishes swim ,” what is the subject ?

“ Fishes.” Why ? What is the predicate ? “ Swim .” Why ?
Is there any copula expressed ? There is not.
The predicate, then, can be affirmed of the subject directly ;
one word expressing both the copula and the predicate.
A word which can be used to affirm something of a sub
ject, is called a Verb. It usually expresses action, being, or
state ; as, I run, denotes action ; I am, denotes being ; I sleep,
denotes state .

A Verb is a word which expresses action , being, or

state ; as, George writes, I am , he dreams.
What is the word “ trot” in the sentence, “ Horses trot ? ”
It is a verb . Why ? Because it affirms action of the subject
“ horses."
What is the word “ stand ” in the sentence " Houses stand ? "
It is a verb. Why ? Because it affirms state of the subject
“ houses.”

Write sentences , using the following verbs as predicates :

sail. look. loiter. whine.
pur. limp. listen. cackle.
run. mow. study . gobble.
sing howl. neigh. reform .
play. walk . stand. scream .
reap. work. recite. whistle.

Model.—Birds sing.
Point out all the verbs in your reading lesson.
QUESTIONS.—What is a verb ? What does it usually express ? Give
the directions for writing sentences. (See page 9.)
 CLASSES OF VERBS. 25

16. CLASSES OF VERBS .

In the sentence, “ Boys study grammar,” the word " gram

mar
6 ” is required to complete the meaning of the predicate
" study.” That which tells what the boys study , completes its
meaning, and is called an Objective Element, or Object.

1. An Objective Element is a word or a group of

words which completes the meaning of a verb.
Those verbs which require the addition of an object to
complete their meaning, are called Transitive Verbs.

2. A Transitive Verb requires the addition of an

object to complete its meaning.
Ex.— " Columbus discovered America ." The verb “ discoy
ered ” requires the addition of some word, as “ America ,” to
complete its meaning, and is , therefore, transitive.
Rem .—The object of a transitive verb is not always ex
pressed ; but some word different from the subject can always
be made its object.
In the sentence, “ Clarence walks,” no word is required to
complete the meaning of the verb " walks. " Those verbs
which do not require the addition of an object to complete
their meaning are called Intransitive Verbs.

3. An Intransitive Verb does not require the addi

tion of an object to complete its meaning.
Ex.- " Horses run .” The verb “ .run ” does not require the
addition of an object to complete its meaning. It is, there
fore, intrunsitive.
Rem .-Some verbs are transitive in one sense and intransi
tive in another sense. To determine whether a verb can be
used both transitively and intransitively consult a dictionary.
The copula is always a verb.
26 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

4. A Copulative Verb is used to join a predicate to

a subject, and to make an assertion .

Ex.- “ Lambs are playful.” The verb " are ” is used to join
the predicate " playful” to the subject " lambs. ” It is, there
fore, a copulative verb.

Write seven sentences containing transitive verbs.

Model. - John struck James.

Write seven sentences containing intransitive verbs .

Models.—Houses stand. Boys swim.

Write seven sentences containing copulative verbs.

Model.–The weather was warm .

Write sentences, using the following nouns as objective elements :

cars, grass. books. churches.
laws. wood. wheat. elephants.
lions. boats. letters. geography.
trees. debts. pictures. mountains.
Model .–Fire burns wood.

Analyze the following sentences, using this

MODEL.

“ Scholars learn lessons,”

This is a sentence ; ( why ?) : declarative ; (why ?).
Scholars is the subject ; (why ?): learn is the predicate ;
(why ?) . “ Learn ” is modified by lessons, an objective element
Scholars learn | lessons.

1. Dogs hunt rabbits. 2. Jane studies botany. 3. Eli

drives horses. 4. Horses draw wagons . 5. Men build houses.
6. Farmers sow grain . 7. Merchants sell goods. 8. Haste
makes waste. 9. Soldiers fight battles. 10. Cats catch mice.
 CAUTIONS. 27

Point out the verbs in the following sentences, using these

MODELS.

I. “ The nights are chilly .”

Are is a verb ; it denotes being : copulative; it joins the pred
icate to the subject.

II. “ Corn grows."

Grows is a verb ; (why ?) : intransitive ; it does not require an

object to complete its meaning.
III. “ Horses draw wagons .”

Draw is a verb ; (why ?) : transitive; it requires an object to

complete its meaning.

1. Viola blushed. 2. Stephen was a martyr. 3. Boys may

be useful. · 4. Merchants sell goods. 5. Mechanics build
houses. 6. Fishes swim. 7. James is sick. 8. John should
be careful. 9. Dogs kill sheep. 10. Henry struck William.
Point out the nouns in these sentences, and tell which are common
and which are proper nouns.
QUESTIONS. — What is an objective element ? A transitive verb ? An
intransitive verb ? A copulative verb ? Is the object of a transitive
verb always expressed ? Give a sentence in which it is not expressed .

17. INCORRECT LANGUAGE .

Caution 1.-Do not use saw for seen , or went for

gone , after has, have, has been, or have been.

Ex.-1 . I have saw a fine horse to-day. 2. The little boy

has went into the woods. 3. George has went there several
times. 4. Have you saw Mr. Olds to -day ?

Caution 11. -Do not use see or seen for saw in ex

pressing past time .
28 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

Ex . - 1. Hiram see a flock of wild turkeys yesterday . 2. I

seen a dog running after a fox. 3. I know John was whis
pering ; I seen him . 4. It is the largest peach I ever see.

Caution III . —Do not use done for did , or come for
came , in expressing past time .
Ex.-1 . He done his work well yesterday. 2. My father
come home last week. 3. I done my task before Eli come.

Caution IV . - Do not use is , was , or has been as the

copula or predicate of a sentence whose subject denotes
more than one object.
Ex.-1 . The horse and the cow is in the stable. 2. Weasels
was plenty around there. 3. Eliza and Sarah has been here.
4. We was very much surprised. 5. Are you sure that they
was there ?

Caution V. —Do not use was for were as the copula

or predicate of a sentence whose subject is you.
Ex.-1 . You was there, we know. 2. Perhaps you was try
ing to hide somewhere.

18. SENTENCE -MAKING .

In the sentence, “ John and Silas went to town ," two words
are used as the subject — what are they ? John and Silas. In
the sentence, “ John, Silas, and Ezra went to town ,” how
many nouns are used as the subject ? Three - John, Silas, and
Ezra.
Observe that in the first sentence the two nouns used as
the subject are joined by the word and. There is no comma
( , ) after the first word. Observe, also, that in the second
sentence, there is a comma after the first two nouns - John
and Silas.
 SENTENCE - MAKING . 29

When several words are used in the same way , they are
said to be of the same kind , or rank, and they form what is
called a series. When more than two words are thus used to
form a series, they should be separated by commas. Write
the following rules for punctuation on your slates, and commit
them to memory :

Rule I. - Three or more words of the same kind, or

rank , used together, should be separated by commas.
Rule 11. —Two words of the same kind, or rank ,
used together, are not usually separated by commas,
but are connected by and, or, or some similar word .
Rem .-When two words of the same rank, used together,
are not connected by and, or, or some similar word, they are
usually separated by commas.

Arrange the following words into sentences :

1. Houses, mills, build , and, bridges, mechanics. 2. Raise,
wheat, corn , farmers, barley , and . 3. In, oranges, West Indies,
lemons , grow , the, and , pine-apples. 4. Metals, gold , are, sil
ver, precious, and. 5. Mary, Susan, cousins, are, Ada, and.
6. New York, cities, and, large, Philadelphia, are, San Fran
cisco.
Note.-In writing these sentences, observe carefully the direc
tions given in the two rules for the use of the comma.

Fill the blanks in the following exercises :

1. I have in my desk.
2. are wild animals.
3. A merchant sells
4. I can buy of a grocer.
5. Have you seen ?
6. are in Colorado.
7. I can see from my window .
8. Violets are flowers.
9. and four and and six equal
30 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

19. COMPOSITION .

TOYS
HATS CAPS FURS!

ARLLY

î'ell what these children are doing. Give them names.

Tell whether the two standing together are at home, or at
the home of the little girl holding the doll.
Tell how old you think the little girl is that has a basket
on her arm . How much older is the little boy ?
Write a story about three children that played at keeping
shop one afternoon .
Write a story about a brother and a sister that spent a day
with their cousin, who lived in the country. Tell what games
they played.
Write a story about three little girls that were left alone
at home one afternoon. Tell how they spent the afternoon ,
what books they read, what games they played, etc.
Write a description of your play-house at home. Tell how
large it is, and what playthings are in it.
 THE ADJECTIVE. 31

THE ADJECTIVE ,

20. ORAL LESSON .

When quality -words are joined to nouns by copulas, they

are said to be predicated of those nouns.
They may be written or printed in connection with nouns,
without being joined to them by copulas; thus: white chalk ,
sour apples, a square table, good boys.
When thus used, they describe or restrict the meaning of
nouns, but are not predicated of them.
Words that do not express quality may be used as modi
fiers of nouns . In the sentences, “ This book heavy," "That
book is light, " "Two boys were sick, ” “ Three boys were idle,"
the words, this, that, two, and three, are modifiers of the nouns
that follow them ; but they do not express any quality. This
and that point out the nouns to which they belong ; two and .
three denote number.
Those words which modify nouns by expressing quality,
pointing them out, or denoting number, are called Adjectives.

1. An Adjective is a word used to describe or define

a noun .

2. There are two classes of Adjectives: Descriptive

and Definitive.

All quality -words are Descriptive Adjectives.

3. A Descriptive Adjective describes a noun by ex

pressing some quality belonging to it ; as, good , white.

Pointing-out words and number-words are Definitive Adjec

tives.

4. A Definitive Adjective limits or defines a noun

without expressing any of its qualities ; as, this, few .
32 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

Rem .—Most adjectives derived from proper nouns, should

commence with capitals; as, American cotton, French customs.

Place each of the following adjectives before a noun :

Dry Dirty Rough Spanish
Bad Light Round Healthy
Soft Moist Square Pleasant
Good Warm Smooth Australian
Models.-- Smooth ice. Clean hands.
What kind of adjectives are these ? Why ?

Place each of the following adjectives before a noun :

That Some Latter Yonder
Four Many Either Neither
Such These Certain Another
Each Those Sundry Fourfold

Models. Much money. Sundry books.

What kind of adjectives are these ? Why ?

Point out the adjectives in the following sentences , using this

MODEL.

"Fearful storms sweep over the islands."

Fearful is an adjective ; it is a word which modifies the mean

ing of a noun : descriptive ; it denotes a quality. These is an
adjective ; definitive ; it defines without denoting any quality.
1. Both horses are lame. 2. Ripe peaches are plentiful.
3. Large houses are expensive. 4. You may take either road.
5. That boy has a kind father. 6. Every man carried a square
box. 7. This lesson is hard . 8. The brave soldier received
a severe wound. 9. That large cat caught this beautiful bird.
Point out the nouns and verbs in the above sentences.
Point out the adjectives in your reading lesson.
QUESTIONS . - What is an adjective ? A descriptive adjective ? A de
finitive adjective ? What adjectives should commence with capitals ?
 THE ARTICLE . 33

THE ARTICLE ,

21. ORAL LESSON.

When we say, “ A horse was stolen ," a denotes that one

horse is meant, but it does not point out any particular horse.
When we say “ The horse was stolen ," the denotes that a
particular horse is meant.
The words “ A ” and “ The,” in these sentences, are definitive
adjectives, because they limit nouns without denoting any of
their qualities. They are also called Articles.
A and an are different forms of the same word. A is used
when the following words begin with a subvocal or aspirate ;
an , when the following word begins with a vocal.
1. The is called the Definite Article , because it points
out definitely the object which it restricts.

2. A or An is called the Indefinite Article, because it

restricts in an indefinite or general manner.

Place a or an before the following words, and tell why it should be

used :

egg. hour. hearth . memory.

ode. eagle. humor. measure.
cart. stand. orange. opossum.
goat. house. turkey. elephant.
oven. honor. vulture. advantage.

Usea oran instead of the dashes in the following sentences, and

tell why it should be used :
1. Temperance is virtue. 2. The house stands on
hill. 3. loud report was heard. 4. Life is but vapor.
5. He is honest man . 6. He has ax to grind. 7. Father
has bought horse. 8. My being child, was plea for
my admission .
El. Gr.
34 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

Use the proper articles instead of the dashes in the following sen
tences :
1. Such law is disgrace to any state . 2. Repeat
first four lines in concert. 3. Love took up harp of life,
and smote on all chords with might. 4. fox is cunning.
5. days are calm . 6. wise son maketh glad father.

Point out thearticles in your reading lesson , using this

MODEL.

“ The man was riding in a wagon .”

The is a definite article ; it points out definitely the object
which it restricts. A is an indefinite article; it restricts in an
indefinite or general manner.
QUESTIONS. — What words are called articles ? Which is the definite
article ? The indefinite article ? When is a used ? When is an used ?

22. SENTENCE -MAKING .

I.

Write sentences containing the following words, supplying words,

where necessary , to make complete sense :
1. Flowers , the, garden. 2. Fishes, sea . 3. Nests, birds.
4. Winter, go, robins, where. 5. Quarts, how, gallon . 6. Five,
thirty. 7. Columbus, Ohio. 8. Lion, man, the. 9. Let, book,
me. 10. Dog, that, cross, is, ugly, and. 11. I, in, large, live,
a, roomy, house, brick. 12. Col. Smith, prudent, man, brave,
and, honorable, a, is. 13. Sugar, grocer, soap, coffee, a, sells.
Fill the blanks in these exercises, carefully choosing words .
1. America.
2. San Francisco California .
3. in the winter.
4. I have lesson .
5. when the ice is smooth .
6. Where do the birds ?
 CAUTIONS . 35

II.

In the sentence, “ I saw a little old man ," little and old are
adjectives, but they are not separated by commas. The ex
pression old man is modified by little, and not the noun man
only. When an adjective and a noun form a single expres
sion in this way, the adjective is not separated by a comma
from another adjective placed before it.

Punctuate the following sentences properly :

1. The kind old man took the poor child in his arms.
2. Plain honest truth wants no artificial covering. 3. Mary
is a gentle sensible and well-behaved girl. 4. The good man
was loved esteemed and respected. 5. His large old -fashioned
spectacles frightened the child. 6. That little mischievous
boy is my nephew .

23. INCORRECT LANGUAGE .

Caution 1. - Do not use a before vocal sounds, or

an before subvocals and aspirates.
Ex.-1 . An hundred cents make one dollar. 2. There should
be an universal rejoicing. 3. This is a open country . 4. Henry
is a honest lad .

Caution 11. -Do not use these or those before a noun

in the singular number.
Ex.-1 . I do n't like these kind of apples. 2. These sort
of people are good neighbors. 3. Those yoke of oxen belong
to me.

Caution III .-Do not use them for those ; this here
for this ; or that ' ere for that.

Ex.-1 . Look at them tramps. 2. Do you live in this here

house ? 3. That 'ere girl is not very handsome.
 36 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

24. COMPOSITION .

What do you see in this picture ? What can be seen

through the window ? Is the storm approaching the house
where the girl is, or has it passed it ? Why do you think
so ? Does the picture represent a morning or an evening
scene ?
Write a description of the prominent objects to be seen
from the door of the school-house - also, a description of any
thing that may occur while you are looking at these objects.
Describe what may be seen through the windows and doors
of the sitting -room and parlor at home.
Describe what may be seen from various places near your
home_also, what may have occurred during your visits to
those places
 THE PARTICIPLE. 37

THE PARTICIPLE .

25. ORAL LESSON .

" James saw the man plowing.”

What is the subject of this sentence ? Why ? What is the

predicate ? Why ? What is the objective element ? Why ?
What words limit or restrict “ man ” ? The words " the " and
" plowing.” What does the word " plowing” denote ? It tells
what the man was doing. Does it affirm any thing of man ?
It does not : it modifies it like an adjective.
The word “ plowing,” then, partakes of the properties of
both a verb and an adjective. Like a verb, it expresses ac
tion : like an adjective, it modifies a noun.. Because it par
takes of the properties of two parts of speech , it is called a
Participle, which means partaking of.

1. A Participle is a word derived from a verb , and

partakes of the properties of a verb , and of an adjec
tive or a noun.

When we say , “ The boy is writing," the participle " writ

ing ” denotes a continuance of the act : the boy is continuing to
write.
When we say, “ The letter is written ," the participle “ writ
ten ” denotes a completion of the act : the writing of the letter
is finished .
When we say, “ Having written the letter, he mailed it, ” the
words “ having written ” denote that the writing of the letter
was completed before the time represented by the verb “ mailed . ”

2. There are three Participles: the Present, the Per

fect, and the Compound.
38 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

3. The Present Participle denotes the continuance of

action, being, or state ; as , loving, being loved .

The present active participle always ends in ing. This participle

may be used as an adjective. It is then placed before the
noun it modifies, as in the sentence, “ Look at the twinkling
stars," and is called a participial adjective. It may also be used
as a noun, as in the sentence, “ I am fond of reading."

4. The Perfect Participle denotes the completion of

action , being, or state ; as, loved, been, lived.

The perfect participle usually ends in d or ed, but frequently

in n, en, or t. This participle is frequently used as an adjec
tive, but never as a noun.

5. The Compound Participle denotes the completion

of action, being, or state at or before the time repre
sented by the principal verb ; as, “ Having learned the
lesson, he recited it."

Rem . — The “ principal verb" is the verb used as copula or

predicate of the sentence in which the compound participle
is found .
The compound participle is formed by placing having or
having been before a perfect participle, or having been before a
present active participle ; as, having learned, having been learned,
having been learning.

Give the present, perfect, and compound participles of the following

verbs :
Go. Spell. Take. Suffer. Answer.
Sit. Hope. Make. Enjoy. Demand .
See. Grow. Learn . Recite. Enchant.
Help. Come. Write. Arrive. Resemble.
Find. Paint. Study. Inquire. Reconcile
 THE PARTICIPLE . 39

Point out all the participles in the following exercises , using these

MODELS.

I. “ The boy, laughing, ran away. "

Laughing is a participle ; it is a word derived from the verb
laugh, and partakes of the properties of a verb and of an
adjective: present; it denotes the continuance of an act.

II. : “ The lesson, studied carefully, was recited .”

Studied is a participle ; (why ?) : perfect; it denotes completion.

III. “Having recited, we were dismissed . "

Having recited is a participle ; ( why ?) : compound ; it denotes
the completion of an act before the time represented by the principal
verb .

1. Look at Dash playing with Rose. 2. I send you this

note, written in haste, hoping it will reach you before you
leave town. 3. Here it comes sparkling, and there it lies
darkling 4. Having finished the task assigned me, I will rest
awhile. 5. The boy passed on, whistling as before. 6. The
fort, situated on a high hill, was captured at day -break . 7. I
see men as trees, walking.
QUESTIONS. — What is a participle ? The present participle ? How
does it end ? The perfect participle ? How does it usually end ? The
compound participle ? How is it formed ?

26. THE PARTICIPIAL NOUN .

In the sentence, “ I like skating,” what part of speech is

skating ? It is a noun. Why ? It is a name, the name of an
action .
That is correct. It is a noun ; but, as it expresses action,
and is derived from the verb " skate, ” it is called a participial
noun. A participial noun is also a common noun ; but it need
not be called such in parsing.
40 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

Point
this out the participial nouns in the following exercises, using
MODEL.

“ Miss Gray teaches writing.”

This is a sentence ; declarative.
Writing is a noun ; ( why ?) : participial ; it is derived from
the verb “ write ,” and partakes of the properties of a verb
and a noun .

1. He was in danger of losing his life. 2. Let there be no

more running and jumping on the lawn. 3. These strawber
ries are of my own raising. 4. The two men commenced
searching for a shelter. 5. They could not avoid being dis
covered.

Point out the participles and participial nouns in the following

exercises :

1. John would have avoided meeting him, if he could have

done so without being called a coward. 2. Looking over the
wall, we saw a fox caught in a trap . 3. Seeing is believing.
4. The poor woman stood at the door, wringing her hands.
5. Who told you of my being here ? 6. Do you see the teacher
pointing his finger at us ?

Read the following three times, then reproduce it from memory .

THE DOG AND THE PARTRIDGE .
As I was hunting with a young pointer, the dog ran on a
brood of very small partridges. The old bird cried, fluttered,
and ran tumbling along just before the dog's nose, till she
had drawn him to a considerable distance, when she took
wing and flew still farther off, but not out of the field . On
this , the dog returned to me, near the place where the young
birds lay concealed in the grass. The old bird no sooner
perceived this, than she flew back to us, settled just before
the dog's nose, and, by rolling and tumbling about, drew off
his attention from her young, and thus preserved her brood a
second time
 COMPOSITION . 41

27. COMPOSITION .

Where do you think these children have been ? What are

the man and the little boy talking about ? Tell what time
of day you think it is. Are the children going to a picnic
or coming home from one ? Write a description of what you
think they have been doing.
Write a story about a drive to a grove, a lake, or the
sea -shore.
Write a composition about the last picnic in the woods
that you attended .
Write a story about a foolhardy boy that was hurt at a
picnic by falling from a tree which he was told not to climb.
Describe a fishing excursion. Describe a walk on the bank
of a river. Tell what you saw .
42 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

THE PRONOUN .

28. ORAL LESSON .

"John put John's hat on John's head."

Is this a correct sentence ? It is not. What word is un .
necessarily repeated ? “ John's .” How should the sentence
be written ? It should be written ; “ John put his hat on his
head .” What word is here used instead of John's ? “ His.” —
This word is called a Pronoun, which means instead of a noun.

1. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ,

as, he runs, she sings, they listen.

Point out the pronouns in these sentences :

1. He is your uncle. 2. His dog worried our cat. 3. She
lost the book which he gave her. 4. Did you tell me who
they are ? 5. It can not find its way out. 6. Were you with
them ? 7. Yes ; I was with them, and can tell you what they
said . 8. It was the dog that died . 9. Sarah can not find her
book. 10. Who will find it for her ?

29. THE ADJECTIVE ELEMENT.

1.

In the sentence, “ Small lakes are abundant,” what word

modifies “ lakes ” ? The adjective “ small. ”
In the sentence, “ John's hat is torn ,” what word modifies
“ hat ” ? The noun " John's.” In what manner does it modify
“ hat ” ? It denotes that it is the hat which John owns.
In the sentence, “ Mr. Jones the mason is insane, " what
word modifies “ Mr. Jones ” ? The noun mason ." In what
manner does it modify “ Mr. Jones ” ? It tells his trade, or
business.
These modifying words are called Adjective Elements, because
they modify nouns.
 THE POSSESSIVE . 43

1. An Adjective Element is a word or group of

words which modifies a noun .

In the sentence, “ Ripe peaches are plentiful, ” what element

is " ripe " ? It is an adjective element. Why ? Because it
modifies the noun " peaches.”
In the sentence, “ This boy has six peaches ," what elements
are " this " and " six ” ? They are adjective elements. Why ?

Write five sentences, modifying their subjects by descriptive adjec

tives .
Model.Cold weather is unpleasant.

Write five sentences, modifying their subjects by definitive adjectives.

Model.Both horses are lame.

II.

In the sentence, “John's hat is torn ,” the noun " John's”

is called a Possessive, because it denotes ownership. A possess
ive always modifies a noun denoting a different object from
itself, and sometimes denotes kind or authorship instead of
ownership ; as, Ray's Algebra.
1. A Possessive is a noun or pronoun used to modify
a noun different in meaning from itself. When a noun
or pronoun is used as a possessive, it is said to be in
the possessive case .
Rem. 1. – The apostrophe ( ' ) is used to show that a noun
is a possessive.
Rem. 2.-A possessive may be modified by another possess
ive and by an adjective. In the sentence, “ John's brother's
slate is broken ," the possessive “ brother's ” is modified by
* John's.”
In writing the possessive case of nouns, remember that,

1st. When a noun denotes but one object, the letter

8 follows the apostrophe ; as in John's, Moses'8.
44 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

Rem .—The apostrophe only is used after a few words ; as

in conscience' sake, goodness' sake, Jesus' sake, etc.
2d. When the noun denotes more than one object,
and ends with 8, the apostrophe alone is used, as in
ladies '.

3d . When the noun denotes more than one object,

and does not end with s, the apostrophe is usually
followed by s, as in men's.

Note . - Illustrate these rules by writing on the blackboard ap

propriate examples of plural nouns in the possessive case. The ex
amples should always be used in sentences. Show , also, that the
apostrophe is never used in writing the possessive case of a pronoun .
Model.- Eli's uncle is rich . His head is bald.
Write five sentences, modifying their subjects by possessives.
Point out the possessives in the following sentences :

1. Your father's brother is my uncle. 2. Mr. Eddy sells

children's shoes. 3. Our farm once belonged to your grand
father. 4. Her doll's dress was soiled . 5. We met on the
boys' playground. 6. Did you ride in the ladies' car ? 7. The
horse's foot is lame. 8. Have you read Andrews's Geology ?

Correct the errors in the following sentences :

1. The flag was fastened to the ox' horn . 2. The canary
is not in it's cage. 3. The vessels sail's are spread. 4. Alice'
lesson is learned. 5. The hook caught in the boys' coat
6. We then went into the ladie's parlor.

III .

In the sentence, “ The nest of the bird is very small,”

what word may be used instead of the group “ of the bird " ?
The word “ bird's ” ? What is that word ? It is a possessive.
That is correct. A group of words beginning with " of"
may frequently be used instead of a possessive.
 THE APPOSITIVE . 45

Substitute groups for the possessives in the following sentences :

1. I grasped the boy's hand. 2. Daniel was in the lion's
den. 3. The vessel's owner was drowned. 4. Have you found
the fox's den ? 5. We were startled by the lightning's flash .
6. Were you at home when the barn's roof was blown off ?
7. An owl's hoot was heard.

Substitute possessives for the groups beginning with “ of ” in the

following sentences :
1. The head of the horse was hurt. 2. We loitered by the
bank of the river. 3. The house of the squirrel was a hollow
tree. 4. The hunters came to the den of a tiger. 5. The
owner of the dog was much surprised.

IV.

In the sentence, “ Mr. Jones the mason is insane," the

noun mason is called an Appositive. An appositive always
denotes the same object as that denoted by the noun it
modifies, and usually expresses rank, office, or business.

1. An Appositive is a word or group of words used

to modify a noun or pronoun by denoting the same
object.
An appositive is usually placed after the noun or pronoun
with which it is in apposition. Thus, in the sentence, “ The
emperor Nero was a cruel tyrant,” “ Nero " is in apposition
with “ emperor."

Rule . -An appositive is usually set off by a comma

unless it is unmodified, or modified by the only .

Write five sentences, modifying their subjects or objects by apposi

tives.
Models.-Mr. Tod the mason died yesterday. I have seen
Mr. Smith the engineer.
46 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

Point out the appositives in the following sentences :

1. Mr. Whitcomb the lawyer is out of town . 2. Whang,
the Chinese miller, acted foolishly. 3. Milton the poet was
blind. 4. Stephenson, the celebrated engineer, lived in En
gland. 5. Have you seen Mr. Hicks, the man who sells
strawberries ? 6. I am reading the speeches of the states
man, Webster. 7. Washington, the capital of the United
States, is situated on the Potomac.

Analyze the following sentences, using these

MODELS,

I. “ Sweet sounds soothe the ear. "

This is a sentence ; declarative.
Sounds is the subject; soothe, the predicate. “ Sounds” is
modified by sweet, an adjective element ; “ soothe,” by ear, an
objective element ; “ ear," by the, an adjective element.

sounds | soothe | ear.

Sweet the

II. “ Frank's father is a merchant."

This is a sentence ; declarative.
Father is the subject; merchant, the predicate. “ Father
is modified by Frank's, an adjective element : " merchant," by
a, an adjective element.

III . “ Milton the poet was blind ."

This is a sentence ; declarative.
Milton is the subject; blind, the predicate ; was is the
copula. “ Milton ” is modified by poet, an adjective element ;
“ poet,” by the, an adjective element.

Milton was : blind .

po et
the
 THE PRONOUN . 47

1. Clarence is a good scholar. 2. Charles found an old

knife. 3. Helen's mother is sick. 4. Miss Young the milliner
is dead . 5. Mary studied her spelling lesson.
6. The thief stole father's horse. 7. The sheriff caught
Hobbs the burglar. 8. Five boys earned three dollars. 9. Both
vessels have sailed . 10. Each boy earned a dollar.
11. Several scholars were tardy . 12. Few men escaped .
13. Many men died. 14. Mr. Snooks the grocer boards Mr.
Sears the tailor. 15. John's slate is broken.
Point out the verbs, participles, and adjectives in these exercises.
QUESTIONS . — What is a pronoun ? What is an adjective element ?
Can nouns be used as adjective elements ?
What is a possessive ? Give the directions for writing possessives.
What is an appositive ? Give the rule for writing appositives.

30. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

In the sentences, “ I write," " You read ," " They study," what
are the words “ T," " you ,” and “ they ? ” They are pronouns.
Why ? Because they are used instead of nouns -— " I," instead
of the name of the person speaking ; " you," instead of the
name of the person spoken to ; " they," instead of the names
of the persons spoken of.
The name of a person speaking, or a pronoun used instead
of that name, is said to be of the First Person .
1. The First Person denotes the speaker.

The name of a person spoken to, or a pronoun used instead

of that name, is said to be of the Second Person .
2. The Second Person denotes the person addressed.

The name of a person or object spoken of, or a pronoun

used instead of that name, is said to be of the Third Person .
3. The Third Person denotes the person or object
spoken of.
48 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

Those pronouns which show by their form whether the

nouns which they represent are of the first, second, or third
person, are called Personal Pronouns.

4. Personal Pronouns both represent nouns and show

by their form whether they are of the first, second, or
third person .

Rem . — The personal pronouns are I, thou, he, she, it, we, our,
us, my, mine, ye, you, your, thy, thine, thee, his, him , her, its, they,
their, them , myself, himself, etc.
Point out all the personal pronouns in the following sentences :
1. Thou callest. 2. I come. 3. She studies. 4. I like her.
5. They are honest 6. Her lesson was learned. 7. I bor
rowed his books . 8. They have sold their farms. 9. You
should study your lesson. 10. Ye are the people. 11. It can
not find its master. 12. Thy fame hath preceded thee.

Analyze the foregoing sentences, and point out the nouns and verbs ,
using these
MODELS.
17
I. “ It is he."
This is a sentence ; declarative.
It is the subject; he is the predicate ; is is the copula.

II. “ He has lost his book .”

This is a sentence ; declarative.
He is the subject; has lost, the predicate . “ Has lost " is
modified by book, an objective element ; and " book ," by his,
an adjective element.

III . “ Their horses drowned themselves. "

This is a sentence ; declarative.
Horses is the subject; drowned, the predicate. “ Horses " is
modified by their, an adjective element, and “ drowned ," by
themselves, an objective element.
 THE SENTENCE . 49

Substitute appropriate pronouns for the dashes in the following

sentences :
1. Steven died a martyr to faith . 2 . house to
was a strange land. 3. said of son, is
brother .” 4. Let there be no strife betwixt and
5. Lend pen till write exercises.
6. How much missed brother and sister.
7. say are friends. 8. asked to visit
9. Would think right for to neglect
garden ?

Write fue sentences, using personal pronouns as subjects .

Model. We are scholars.

Write five sentences, using personal pronouns as subjects and predi

cates .
Model. - It was she.

Write five sentenoes, using personal pronouns as objects.

Model. — Henry admires them .

Write fue sentences, using personal pronouns as adjective elements.

Model. - His book is in his hand.

Point out the personal pronouns in your reading lesson , using this

MODEL.

“ His book is on my desk .”

His is a pronoun ; it is a word used instead of a noun :
personal; it represents a noun, and shows that it is of the
third person .
My is a pronoun ; personal; it represents a noun, and shows
that it is of the first person.
QUESTIONS . — What is a pronoun ? A personal pronoun ? Name some
of the personal pronouns. What is the first person ? The second person ?
The thirdperson :
11. :
50 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

31. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS .

In the sentence, “ This house is ours," what is the subject ?

" House.” Why ? What is the predicate ? “ Ours .” Why ?
It is that which is affirmed of the subject. What is the
copula ? " Is."
What modifies “ house ? ” " This ,” an adjective element.
66
What words can be used instead of ours ? " Our house.
What does the pronoun “ our” denote ? It denotes that we
own the house.
“ Ours," then, is used to denote both the possessor and the
thing possessed. In this sentence, it represents both our "
and “ house ." Because it does this , it is called a Possessive
Pronoun .

Possessive Pronouns are words used to represent both

the possessor and the thing possessed. The possessive
pronouns are mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs,
our own, etc.

In the sentence, “ That book is his,” what is the predicate ?

“ His .” Why ? What does it represent ? It represents the
words his book. What is it ? It is a possessive pronoun.
Why ? Because it represents both the possessor and the thing
possessed.
In the sentence, “ That is his book," what is the predicate ?
“ Book .” What modifies “ book ? " . His , ” an adjective ele
ment. What is “ his ? ” It is a personal pronoun . Why is it
not a possessive pronoun ? Because it modifies the noun fol
lowing it, and does not represent both the possessor and the
thing possessed. It is a possessive, because it is used as an
adjective element ; but it is not a possessive pronoun.

Write five sentences , using possessive pronouns as subjects .

Model. - His is a hard lot.
 POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 81

Write five sentences, using possessive pronouns as predicates .

Model. — That desk is mine.

Analyze the following sentences, using these

MODELS .

I. “ Ours is an easy task .”

This is a sentence ; declarative.
Ours is the subject; task, the predicate ; is is the copula.
“ Task ” is modified by an and easy, both adjective elements .

Ours is : task .
easy
an

II. “ That factory is theirs."

This is a sentence; declarative.
Factory is the subject; theirs, the predicate; is is the copula.
" Factory ” is modified by that, an adjective element.

III . “ This land is our own . "

This is a sentence ; declarative.
Land is the subject ; our own, the predicate. “ Land ” is
modified by this, an adjective element.
1. This book is hers. 2. Those apples are his. 3. Yours is
a hard lesson. 4. Those marbles are mine. 5. This book is
thine. 6. The evenings are our own. 7. The victory is ours.

Point out the possessive pronouns in these sentences, using this

MODEL.

That book is mine."

Mine is a pronoun ; possessive ; it represents both the possessor

and the thing possessed : it is equivalent to " my book . ”
QUESTIONS. — What are possessive pronouns ? Name some of them .
52 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

32. RELATIVE PRONOUNS .

When we say, “ A rich man owns that house, ” what element

is the word “ rich ? ” It is an adjective element. Why ?
When we say, “ A man who is rich , owns that house,” what
words do we use instead of “ rich ” to modify “ man ? ” Wo
use the words, “ who is rich .” What element do these words
form ? An adjective element. Why ? Because they modify a
noun.
Is the expression, “ who is rich ," a proposition ? It is.
Why ? Because it has a subject and a predicate. What is the
subject ? “ Who . ” Why ? What is the predicate ? “ Rich ."
Why ? What is the copula ?
What part of speech is " who ? " It is a pronoun. Why ?
It is a word used instead of a noun. Instead of what noun
is it used ? The noun man .
This sentence, then, contains two propositions : " A man
owns that house, ” and “ who is rich .” The second proposition
is an adjective element modifying the subject of the first.
These propositions are called Clauses.
The pronoun who " is not only the subject of a proposi
tion , but it also joins the modifying clause “ who is rich " to
the noun which it limits.
Those pronouns that represent preceding words or expres
sions, to which they join modifying clauses, are called Relative
Pronouns.
A Relative Pronoun is a word ' sed to represent a
preceding word or expression , to which it joins a
modifying clause . The relative pronouns are who ,
which, what , and that. As is also a relative after
such, many, same, and some other words.
Rem .—The suffixes ever, so, and soever, are sometimes added
to these pronouns ; as, whoever, whoso, whosoever.
The word or expression represented by a relative pronoun ,
is called its Antecedent.
 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 53

Point out the relative pronouns in the following sentences, using

this
MODEL .

“ A man who is industrious, will prosper.”

Who is a pronoun ; relative ; it represents a preceding word,
to which it joins a modifying clause. The word it represents
11
is man ."

1. Tell me whom you saw . 2. Those who sow, will reap.

3. He that hateth, dissembleth with his lips. 4. This is the
house which my father bought.
5. I gave him all that I had . 6. Judge ye what I say .
7. He will do what is right. 8. A kind boy avoids doing what
ever injures others. 9. Whoever studies, will learn. 10. What
ever ye shall ask in my name, that will I do.

Substitute pronouns for the dashes in the following sentences :

1. Death lifts the vail hides a brighter sphere. 2. Blest
are the feasts simple plenty crowns. 3. God , in
- trust. 4. The man paid the money, was the cashier.
5. The message sent, was received . 6. No one can
tell others may do. 7. will do is proper .
QUESTIONS . — What are clauses ? What is a relative pronoun ? Name
the pronouns in this class. What suffixes are sometimes added to rela
tive pronouns ? What is an antecedent ?

33. THE RELATIVE CLAUSE.

Clauses introduced by relative pronouns are called Relative

Clauses.

A Relative Clause is a clause introduced by a rela

tive pronoun .

Write five sentences, modifying their subjects by relative clauses .

Model.—The boy that studies, will learn .
54 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

Write five sentences, modifying their objects by relative clauses.

Model.-I have lost the knife which you gave me.

Analyze the following sentences, using these

MODELS.

I. “ The fish which you caught, is a trout.”

This is a sentence ; declarative.
Fish is the subject; trout, the predicate ; is, the copula .
" Fish ” is modified by the and the clause which you caught,
both adjective elements.
fish . is : trout.
The ! a
which you caught

II. “ I like a horse that is gentle.”

This is a sentence ; declarative.
| is the subject ; like, the predicate. " Like " is modified by
horse, an objective element, which is modified by a and the
clause that is gentle, both adjective elements.

I like | horse
a
that is gentle.

1. A very old man who is wealthy , lives there. 2. I have a

knife that has a white handle. 3. He who studies, will learn .
4. You have many blessings which I can not share. 5. Solo
mon , who was the son of David, built the temple. 6. He is a
man that deserves respect. 7. The lord chastens him whom
he loves. 8. They that forsake the law, praise the wicked.

Use adjectives instead of relative clauses in the following sentences :

1. I have an apple that is rotten. 2. A little boy who is
lame, came to our house yesterday . 3. How far do you go
with the rivers that flow ? 4. I like people that are honest.
5. Will you buy me a knife that has four blades ?
 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 55

Use relative clauses instead of adjectives in the following sentences :

1. Industrious people always prosper. 2. There are many

rich men in New York. 3. He has some counterfeit money .
4. A barking dog seldom bites. 5. The moldy paper was
burned.

34. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS .

In the sentences : “ Who is that man ?” “ Which comes

first ? ” “ What is he ? " what words are used instead of the
answers to the questions ? The words " who," " which ," and
11
“ what.”
Which and what, not used as modifiers, together with who,
whose, and whom, when used in asking questions, are called
Interrogative Pronouns.

The Interrogative Pronouns are who, whose, whom , which,

and what, when used in asking questions .

Rem .—The words which and what are sometimes placed

before nouns. They are then called Interrogative Adjectives.
Ex .- “ Which road shall I take ? ” The word “ which " is
an interrogative adjective, modifying " road.” “ What noise is
that ? ” The word “ what” is an interrogative adjective, modi
fying " noise.”

Point out the interrogative pronouns in the following sentences ,

using this
MODEL.

“ Who visited your school yesterday ?”

Who is a pronoun ; interrogative; it is used in asking a question.

1. What did he say ? 2. Who wrote that letter ? 3. Which

trots the fastest ? 4. Whom did you call ? 5. Whose house
was burned ? 6. What can he mean ? 7. Who has learned
this lesson ? 8. Who discovered America ? 9. Who borrowed
John's slate ? 10. Whose book is this ?
56 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

Point out the nouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, and personal pro
nouns in these sentences.

Analyze the foregoing sentences, using this

MODEL .

“ Whom can you trust ? ”

This is a sentence ; interrogative.
You is the subject; can trust, the predicate. “ Can trust”
is modified by whom , an objective element.
You can trust | whom ?

QUESTIONS. - Define a relative clause. What is an interrogative pro

noun ? What words are used as interrogative pronouns ? Which of
these are sometimes used as interrogative objectives ?

35. INCORRECT LANGUAGE .

Caution 1.- Do not use him , me , or her as the sub

ject or the predicate of a sentence.
Ex.-1 . Him and me were in the boat. was me.
3. Me and the doctor were there. 4. Him and you were
tardy . 5. It is her. 6. You, and him, and me were boys
together.

Caution II. - Do not use improper forms of pronouns .

Ex.-1 . Is that book your'n ? 2. No ; it is his'n. 3. She
took my shawl , and left her'n . 4. You'uns were not with us
last night. 5. No ; we'uns stayed at home. 6. Will you let
us have your boat ? we have sold our'n.

Caution III. — The pronoun you should precede he ,

she , or they ; and he , she , or they should precede I or
we .
 THE ADVERB . 57

Ex . - 1. He and you are brothers. 2. They and you attend

the same school. 3. I and you must study hard this forenoon .
4. We and he will stay in at recess. 5. We and you must
camp out next vacation .

Caution IV. -Do not use which to represent persons,

or who or whom to represent animals, objects without
life, or children not referred to by name.

Ex. - 1 . The man which you saw is my father . 2. I love

all which speak the truth . 3. Have they found the child
who was lost ? 4. The man always bowed to the children
whom he met. 5. Was that your dog who was killed ? 6. I
saw the man which was here yesterday.

THE ADVERB .

36. ORAL LESSON.

In the sentence, Birds sing sweetly ," does the word

" sweetly ” denote what the birds sing ? It does not ; it tells
how they sing. Does it complete the meaning of the verb
" sing," like an objective element ? It does not : it modifies
it in another way .
In the sentence, “ Very large vessels were seen ," what is
modified by “ very ? ” The word “ large.” What is " large ?”
It is an adjective.
In the sentence, “ He rode quite fast, ” what word tells how
he rode ? The word “ fast.” What word tells how fast he
rode ? The word “ quite.”
Words used in this manner are called Adverbs.

An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an ad

jective, a participle, or an adverb .
58 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

Point out the adverbs in the following sentences, using this

MODEL.

The wind blew furiously. "

Furiously is an adverb ; it is used to modify a verb .

1. That vessel sails slowly. 2. He built a house there.

3. Emma is quite late. 4. Those mountains are very high.
5. We were agreeably surprised. 6. I will shortly return .
7. You will never see him again. 8. I would gladly pardon
you. 9. So thought Palmyra. 10. He afterwards escaped.

Point out the nouns, verbs, pronouns, and adjectives in these sen
tences .

Point out the adverbs in your reading lesson.

Write seven sentences, modifying their predicates by adverbs.

Model .—We should walk quietly.

Write seven sentences, modifying their subjects by adjectives, and

these adjectives by adverbs.
Model.- Very loud reports were heard .

Write seven sentences, modifying their predicates by adverbs, and

those adverbs by other adverbs.
Model .-He walks quite slowly.

37. THE ADVERBIAL ELEMENT.

A word or group of words used like an adverb—that is,

used to modify a verb, an adjective, a participle, or an ad
verb-is called an Adverbial Element.

An Adverbial Element is a word or group of words

used to modify a verb , an adjective, a participle, or
an adverb .
 ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS. 59

Analyze the sentences in the preceding section , using these

MODELS.

I. “ Our house is very small.”

This is a sentence; declarative .
House is the subject; small, the predicate ; is, the copula.
“ House ” is modified by our, an adjective element ; " small,”
by very, an adverbial element.

house is : small.
| Our | very

II. “ We should study our lessons carefully.”

This is a sentence ; declarative.
We is the subject; should study, the predicate. “ Should
study " is modified by lessons, an 66objective element, and by
carefully, an adverbial element. Lessons ” is modified by
our, an adjective element.

We should study | lessons

1 carefully our

QUESTIONS. — What is an adverb ? What do adverbs usually denote ?

What is an adverbial element ?

38. THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE .

In the sentence, “ Flowers bloom when spring comes,"

what group of words tells when flowers bloom ? The group
" when spring comes . " What element is this group ? It is
an adverbial element. Why ? Because it modifies the verb
" bloom .”
Is this group a proposition ? It is. Why ? Because it
contains a subject and a predicate. What is the subject ?
" Spring.” Why ? What is the predicate ? “ Comes. " Why ?
The group is called an Adverbial Clause, because it contains a
subject and a predicate, and is used as an adverbial element.
60 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

An Adverbial Clause is a clause used as an adverbial

element.

Adverbial clauses begin with wher, where, while, because, if,

and a large number of other words.

Point out the adverbial clauses in the following sentences :

1. I left the spade where I found it. 2. John was whis
pering while you were talking. 3. The bear growled when
he saw the hunter. 4. I can not go before my father returns.
5. Henry will play with you, if you desire it. 6. We traveled
slowly, because we wished to see the country. 7. I can go
now , for my task is finished .

Analyze the above sentences, using the following

MODEL .

“ He trembles when it thunders. "

This is a sentence ; declarative.
He is the subject; trembles, the predicate. “ Trembles " is
modified by the clause when it thunders , an adverbial element.

He | trembles
| when it thunders.

QUESTIONS . — What is an adverbial clause ? With what words do ad

verbial clauses begin ?

39. INCORRECT LANGUAGE .

Caution 1. -Do not use such expressions as, I don't

see nothing , Don't tell nobody , etc.

Ex.-- 1. I don't want nothing to-day. 2. Don't tell nobody

nothing about it. 3. We did n't catch no fish. 4. John don't
feel no better than he did yesterday.
 CAUTIONS. 61

Caution 11. -Do not use adjectives as adverbo .

Ex.-1 . I feel tolerable well. 2. Does not Mary dress neat ?
3. Samuel speaks very distinct. 4. He was that cold he
could n't move. 5. You ought to read slower. 6. I am ex
ceeding glad to see you. 7. How careless Julia holds her
pen ! 8. You should always speak distinct.

Caution III . —Do not use adverbs as adjectives.

Ex.-1 . I felt sickly yesterday . 2. We arrived safely at

San Francisco last evening. 3. This flower smells sweetly.
4. Stand as nearly to me as you can. 5. The country looks
beautifully after a shower. 6. Things look somewhat more
favorably this morning. 7. The doctor said that his patient
felt more comfortably.

40. COMPOSITION.

Read the following description three or four times, then reproduce

it from memory .
THE LION.
A full-grown lion is nearly nine feet in length, and be
tween four and five feet in height. The or lioness,
is about three fourths as large as the male. The body of the
lion is covered with hair of a tawny color. He has a long
and thick mane, which he can erect at pleasure. A lioness
has no mane .
The lion lives entirely upon the flesh of other animals.
He usually crouches in a thicket, and watches until some
animal passes within fifteen or twenty feet of him, when he
leaps upon it, and generally seizes it at the first bound.
Should he happen to miss his object, he returns to his hiding
place, with a measured step, and waits for another oppor
tunity. He most frequently hides near a spring or a river,
that he may seize the animals which come thither to quench
their thirst. He rarely attacks men, unless wounded or driven
by hunger.
62 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

THE PREPOSITION . X

41. ORAL LESSON.

In the sentence, “ A man of wealth rode by our house,”

what does the group of words “ of wealth ” modify ? It modi
fies the noun “ man .” What element is it ? It is an adjective
element. Why ? Because it modifies a noun .
What does the group of words “ by our house ” modify ?
It modifies the verb “ rode : " it tells where he rode. What
element is it ? It is an adverbial element. Why ? Because
it modifies a verb .
The word “ of ” connects the noun " wealth ” to the noun
“ man .” The word “ by ” connects the noun “ house " with the
verb " rode.” They are said to show the relations between the
words which they connect, and are called Prepositions. The
nouns which follow them are called their Objects.

A Preposition is a word used to show the relation

between its object and some other word .

LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL PREPOSITIONS.

A = at, on, or in. At. Ere. Till , until.
Aboard. Athwart. Except. Through .
About. Before. For . Throughout
Above. Behind . From. To.
According to Beside , besides . In, into . Toward .
Across . Beneath . Of. Towards.
After. Between. Off. Under.
Against. Betwixt. On . Unto .
Along Beyond Over. Up .
Amid , amidst . But. Past. Upon .
Among , amongst . By. Round . With .
Around. Down. Save. Within.
As to . During Since. Without
 THE PHRASE . 63

Point out the prepositions in the following sentences, using this XХ

MODEL.

“ He came from France to America."

From is a preposition ; it shows the relation between its
object and some other word. It shows the relation between
France " and " came. ” To is a preposition ; it shows the rela
tion between “ America " and " came."

1. The old man was often in want of the necessaries of

life. 2. The boy went through the gate into the garden.
3. Be not forward in the presence of your superiors. 4. He
was not, at that time, in the city. 5. He drove over the
bridge into the city. 6. He went to the doctor for advice.
7. The path brought them to the end of the wood. 8. She
turned to the old man with a lovely smile upon her face.
9. The light came through the stained windows of the old
church.

Point out the nouns, verbs, adjectives, and pronouns in these son
tences .
QUESTIONS. — What is a preposition ? What is the object of a preposi
tion ? Name the principal prepositions.

42. THE PHRASE .

I.

1. A group of words consisting of a preposition and

its object is called a Phrase.

Phrases are most commonly used as adjective or adyerbial

elements.

Analyze the following sentences, using this

MODEL

“ Habits of industry will lead to prosperity .”

This is a sentence ; declarative.
64 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

Habits is the subject; will lead, the predicate. " Habits " is
modified by the phrase of industry, an adjective element;
" will lead ” is modified by the phrase to prosperity, an ad
verbial element.

Habits 1 will lead

of industry to prosperity .

1. Light moves in straight lines. 2. They went aboard the

ship. 3. I differ from you on that point. 4. The two thieves
divided the money between them. 5. The ship was driven
upon the rocks.
6. Our sincerest laughter is fraught with some pain. 7. The
young lambs are bleating in the meadows. 8. They came to
the country of the free. 9. I will divide this farm among
my three sons . 10. Man goeth to his long home. 11. The
sleep of a laboring man is sweet.

Substitute single words or clauses for the phrases in the following

sentences :
Models.-I . “ Henry studies his lessons with care " = ' Henry
studies his lessons carefully . ” II . “ Ice forms in cold weather"
“ Ice forms when the weather is cold . ”

1. The sailors weighed anchor at sunrise. 2. The enraged

lion struggled in vain. 3. Flowers bloom in the spring.
4. Some seed fell on stony ground . 5. The face of the poor
boy was disfigured. 6. Our schools should be the pride and
boast of our country . 7. I have written this letter in haste

II .

In the sentence, " To play is pleasant," " to play ” is the

subject. Why ? It is that of which something is affirmed .
It is a form of the verb “ play.” It expresses action, but does
not affirm it. For this reason, it is called an Infinitive or an
Infnitive Phrase.
 THE INFINITIVE . 65

2. An Infinitive is a form of the verb used to express

action without affirming it.

Rem.—The word " to " is usually placed before the verb, and
is called the sign of the infinitive. The two parts should not
be separated in analyzing or parsing.
An infinitive may be the subject or the predicate of a propo
sition, or an adjective, objective, or adverbial element.

Analyze the following sentences , using these

MODELS.

I. “ To love is to obey ."

This is a sentence ; declarative .
To love is the subject; to obey, the predicate ; is, the copula.

To love | is : to obey.
|

II. “ The lawyer went to his office to write a letter .”

This is a sentence ; declarative.
Lawyer is the subject; went, the predicate. " Lawyer" is
modified by the, an adjective element ; " went,” by the phrases
to his office and to write a letter, both adverbial elements.
"Office” is modified by his, an adjective element ; “ to write,"
by letter, an objective element, which is modified by a, an
adjective element.

lawyer 1 went
The 1
to office to write | letter.
his а.

1. To lie is wicked. 2. He wants to go to the city. 3. To

doubt the promise of a friend is a sin. 4. John studies to
learn. 5. My sister wishes to remain here. 6. Are you ready
to recite ? 7. Boys seldom like to work hard. 8. To teach
the young is a pleasant task .
El Gr. - 6 .
66 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

III.

The meaning of a sentence may often be changed by chang.

ing the position of the single words, phrases, and clauses of
which it is composed .
In the sentence, “ John only studies algebra, " only " modi
fies “ John.” He is the only person that studies algebra. In
the sentence, “ John studies algebra only ,” “ only ” modifies
" algebra." It is the only branch that John studies.
In the sentence, “ A watch was found yesterday by a school
boy with steel hands, ” the phrase " with steel hands ” modifies
" school-boy ; ” but in the sentence, “ A watch with steel hands
was found yesterday by a school-boy,” the phrase " with steel
hands " modifies watch . ” In the first sentence, the steel
hands are represented as belonging to the school-boy ; in the
second , to the watch.
In the sentence, “ He needs no spectacles that can not see,"
the clause “ that can not see " is not intended to be used as
a modifier of " spectacles ," but of the word “ he.” It should
be placed between “ he” and “ needs.”

Rule.- Words, phrases, and clauses, used as modifi

ers, should be placed as near the modified words as
possible.

Locate the phrases and clauses properly in these sentences :

1. The sled was bought by a boy going to school for a
dollar. 2. Wanted. - A horse by an English gentleman, six
teen hands high . 3. A man was hanged yesterday with a
blind eye.
4. Look at those two men fishing with sunburnt
faces. 5. The book was dropped by a bad boy on my head .
6. I saw a dog bite a man with long ears and a white spot
on his face . 7. Mr. Otis needs a surgeon, who has broken
his arm . 8. A silver fruit knife was found by a child which
has a broken back . 9. He wants no food that can not eat.
QUESTIONS.—What is a phrase ? An infinitive ? Give the rulo for
the placing of modifying words, phrases, and clauses .
 THE CONJUNCTION . 67

THE CONJUNCTION .

43. ORAL LESSON.

In the sentence, “ Ellen and Mary study botany," what

iwo words are used as the subject ? “ Ellen ” and “ Mary .”
Why ? Because something is affirmed of them : both Ellen
and Mary study botany . What word connects the words
Ellen ” and “ Mary ?” The word “ and."
In the sentence, “ Ellen or Mary studies botany,” what two
66
words are used as the subject ? Ellen ” and “ Mary.” Are
both represented as studying botany ? They are not : if Ellen
studies botany, Mary does not. What word connects the
words “ Ellen ” and “ Mary ?” The word “ or.”
In the statement, “ Ellen will study botany, if Mary studies
algebra,” how many clauses are there ? There are two : “ Ellen
will study botany,” and “ Mary studies algebra .” What word
is used to connect these two clauses ? The word “ if. ”
The words " and,” “ or," " if,” and all other words used
merely to join words or groups of words, are called Con
junctions.

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words,

phrases, clauses, and members.
Conjunctions merely connect words, phrases, clauses, and
members ; they do not express relations, like prepositions.

Point out the conjunctions in the following sentences, using this

MODEL.

“ Eli and Silas will improve, if they study."

And is a conjunction ; it is a word used to connect words : it
connects " Eli ” and “ Silas.” If is a conjunction ; it connects the
clauses, “ Eli and Silas will improve” and “ they study."
 68 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

1. We moved along silently and cautiously. 2. I consent

to the constitution , because I expect no better. 3. He heaped
up great riches, but passed his time miserably. 4. He is both
learned and wise. 5. I shall not go, if it rain .
6. Cold and hunger awake not her care. 7. They submit,
since they can not conquer. 8. He has many faults, still he
is very popular. 9. Emma or Susan will remain at home.
QUESTIONS.—What is a conjunction ? What is the difference between
a conjunction and a preposition ?

44. COMPOUND ELEMENTS .

“ James and Samuel are kind , honest, and faithful." In

this sentence, “ James ” and “ Samuel" are the parts of what
is called a Compound Subject; " kind," " honest, ” and “faithful,”
are the parts of a Compound Predicate.
Two or more similar parts of a proposition, connected by
conjunctions, form a Compound Element.

A Compound Element consists of two or more simi

lar parts of the same proposition connected by con
junctions.

Rem . I.-The conjunctions may be expressed or understood.

Any element of a proposition may be compound.

Directions for Writing . - When a compound element

consists of more than two parts,
I. Place a comma after each part except the last.
II. Use the conjunction between the last two parts
only .

When a compound element consists of two parts,

I. Connect them by a conjunction .
II . Or , omit the conjunction and use a comma in its
stead.
 COMPOUND ELEMENTS. 69

Rem. 2.—When it is the intention of the writer to make

the parts emphatic, the conjunction and the comma - may both
be used between any two of them.

Write five sentences , each containing a compound subject.

Model.-Ellen and Lucy are my sisters.

Write five sentences, each containing a compound predicate.

Model. — We run , jump, and talk at recess.

Write five sentences, each containing a compound objective element.

Model.—My father owns a farm and a factory.

Write five sentences, each containing a compound adjective element.

Model.— Tray is a large, black , and cross dog.

Write five sentences, each containing a compound adverbial element.

Model.-We stopped then and there.

Analyze the following sentences, using these

MODELS .

I. “ William and Henry study algebra . "

This is a sentence ; declarative.
William and Henry is the compound subject; study, the predi
cate. “ Study” is modified by algebra, an objective element.

William
and study | algebra.
Henry

II . “ Mr. Edson buys and sells butter and eggs.”

This is a sentence ; declarative.
Mr. Edson is the subject ; buys and sells, the compound
predicate, which is modified by butter and eggs, a compound
objective element.
70 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

buys butter
Mr. Edson and and
sells eggs.

III . “ The two boys moved along silently and cautiously.”

This is a sentence ; declarative.
Boys is the subject ; moved, the predicate. “ Boys” is modi
fied by the and two , adjective elements ; “ moved , ” by along,
an adverbial element, and by silently and cautiously, a com
pound adverbial element.

boys | moved silently

two along and
the cautiously

1. Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution.

2. Mr. Mann owns and cultivates a large and valuable farm .
3. Two and two are four. 4. Duty and interest forbid vicious
and wicked indulgences. 5. Your levity and heedlessness will
prevent all improvement . 6. Forty pupils study arithmetic,
grammar and geography. 7. The wearied soldiers fought
bravely and successfully.
QUESTIONS.—What is a compound element ? Give directions for writ
ing a compound element consisting of more than two parts. Of two
parts only.

45. SIMPLE SENTENCES.

“ Wheat is a vegetable .” This sentence consists of a single

proposition. It is called a Simple Sentence.
A Simple Sentence consists of a single proposition .

In the sentences, “ I see a dog ,” “ I see a boy ," " I see a

tree,” “ I see a house," " I see ” is a part common to all of
them. We may combine these, and form a single sentence,
by using this common part but once ; thus, “ I see a dog, a
boy, a tree, and a house ."
 COMPOUND SENTENCES. 71

Combine the sentences in the following paragraphs into single sen

tences :

1. I found a book. I found a pencil. I found a slate. I

found a knife.
2. Apple trees grow thriftily. Apples grow in our orchard.
3. John walked to the lake. John walked over the hill.
John walked rapidly.
4. The horse was old. The horse was lame. The horse
was blind.
5. The wind blew fiercely. The wind blew last night. The
wind blew from the north.
6. William gave me a new book. William sold me ten
marbles. William bought a sled for my brother.
QUESTIONS. — What is a simple sentence ? How may several sen .
tences be combined so as to form a single sentence ?

46. COMPOUND SENTENCES .

" Wheat grows in the field, and men reap it. ” This sen
tence consists of two propositions, each of which will make
complete sense when standing alone. It is called a Compound
Sentence.

1. A Compound Sentence consists of two or more

connected sentences, each of which will make com
plete sense when standing alone.

Rem .—The sentences of which a compound sentence is com

posed , are called Members.

In the sentence, “ Exercise strengthens the constitution,

and temperance strengthens the constitution ," " exercise" and
“ temperance ” are parts not common to the two members.
The sentence may be changed to a simple one by uniting
these, and using the common parts but once ; thus, “ Exercise
and temperance strengthen the constitution . "
72 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

2. A compound sentence containing common parts,

may be changed to a simple one by uniting the parts
not common to all its members, and using the common
parts but once .
Write five compound sentences, each containing two members.

Change the following compound sentences to simple ones :

1. Behold my mother and behold my brethren . 2. I saw
a man in a boat and I saw a boy in the water. 3. Washing
ton was a warrior and Washington was a statesman. 4. The
man you saw was sick, or he was in trouble. 5. The river
was swift, and it was very deep.

Analyze the following sentences , using this

MODEL .

" The heavens declare the glory of God, and the firmament
showeth his handiwork ."

This is a sentence ; compound. “ The heavens declare the

glory of God ” is the first member ; " the firmament showeth
his handiwork ,” the second member ; " and " is the connective.
Heavens is the subject of the first member ; declare, the
predicate. “ Heavens ” is modified by the, an adjective ele
ment ; “ declare," by glory, an objective element, which is
modified by the and the phrase of God , adjective elements.
Firmament is the subject of the second member ; showeth ,
the predicate. " Firmament” is modified by the, an adjective
element ; " showeth ,” by handiwork , an objective element, which
s modified by his, an adjective element.

heavens , declare | glory

The the of God ,
and
firmament | showeth | handiwork.
| the his
 COMPLEX SENTENCES . 73

1. Talent is something, but tact is every thing. 2. Art is

long, and time is fleeting. 3. Lead us not into temptation,
but deliver us from evil. 4. The gathering clouds threatened
an approaching storm, and the deep darkness of the night
soon enveloped them . 5. The stores were closed , and the
hum of business was hushed. 6. Every eye was filled with
tears, and , for a moment, all were silent. 7. You may stay
here with me, or we will go to the lecture with Susan .
QUESTIONS.—What is a compound sentence ? What are its members ?
How can a compound sentence containing common parts, be changed
to a simple sentence ?

47. COMPLEX SENTENCES.

1.
A sentence, any element of which is a clause, is a Complex
Sentence. A clause must contain a subject and a predicate.
1. A Complex Sentence is one some element of
which contains a subject and a predicate.

In the complex sentence, “ I know where gold is found,"

the first clause, “ I know ,” makes complete sense when stand
ing alone. It is therefore called the Principal Clause.

2. A Principal Clause is one which makes complete

sense when separated from the rest of the sentence.

The second clause, “ where gold is found,” does not make

complete sense when standing alone, and is therefore called
a Subordinate Clause.

3. A Subordinate Clause is one which does not make

complete sense when separated from the rest of the
sentence .

Clauses may also be divided into the following five classes :

Subject, Predicate, Objective, Adjective, and Adverbial.
74 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

Rem. 1. - A complex sentence whose subject or predicate

only is a clause, need not be separated into principal and
subordinate clauses in analysis.
Rem . 2.—Some complex sentences are composed of many
clauses. Each clause should be analyzed in the order indi
cated by its position.

MODELS FOR COMPLETE ANALYSIS.

I. “ He that hateth, dissembleth with his lips.”

This is a sentence ; declarative ; complex , it is composed of a

principal clause and a subordinate clause. “ He dissembleth
with his lips ” is the principal clause ; " that hateth ," the
subordinate clause.
He is the subject of the principal clause ; dissembleth, the
predicate. “ He ” is modified by the clause that hateth, an
adjective element, of which that is the subject, and hateth,
the predicate . " Dissembleth ” is modified by the phrase with
his lips, an adverbial element ; “ lips,” by his, an adjective
element.

He dissembleth
with lips.
that hateth
his

II. “ That he is very sick, is evident. "

This is a sentence ; declarative ; complex ; its subject is a clause.

That he is very sick is the subject ; evident, the predicate ; is,
the copula. He is the subject of the subject clause ; sick, the
predicate ; is, the copula. “ Sick ” is modified by very, an ad
verbial element. That is a conjunction used to introduce the
subject clause.

( That ) he | is : sick

very is : evident.
 COMPLEX SENTENCES. 75

III. “ He never denied that the letter was lost .”

This is a sentence ; declarative, complex. “ He never denied ” is
the principal clause ; " the letter was lost,” the subordinate
clause. “ That" is the connective.”
He is the subject of the principal clause ; denied, the predi
cate, which is modified by never, an adverbial element, and
by the clause that the letter was lost, an objective element.
Letter is the subject of the subordinate clause ; was lost, the
predicate. “ Letter ” is modified by the, an adjective element.
That is a connective joining the clause " the letter was lost "
to “ denied .”
( that) letter | was lost.
He | denied | the
1 never

IV. “ He builds a palace of ice where the torrents fall.”

This is a sentence ; declarative ; complex . “ He builds a palace

of ice " is the principal clause ; " the torrents fall,” the subor
dinate clause. “ Where " is the connective.
He is the subject of the principal clause ; builds, the predi
cate, which is modified by palace, an objective element, and
by the clause where the torrents fall, an adverbial element.
(
Palace " is modified by a and the phrase of ice, adjective
elements ; “ torrents,” by the, an adjective element ; “ fall,” by
where, an adverbial element.

He builds | palace
a of ice
torrents | fall
the where

1. He that flattereth, deceiveth his neighbor. 2. The boy

that you saw , is my younger brother. 3. He was frightened
when he first saw a lion . 4. I can not study where pupils
make so much noise. 5. I would pay you if I had the
money. 6. That he will succeed, is uncertain. 7. The mes
76 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

senger reported that the brave general was dead. 8. He is a

good man, though very eccentric . 9. Nature never did betray
the heart that loved her.
10. The poor too often turn away, unheard,
From hearts that shut against them, with a sound
That shall be heard in heaven . — Longfellow .

Write five sentences, using clauses as subjects .

Model.— “ Haste makes waste, " is a true saying.

Write five sentences, using clauses as objects.

Model.-I believe that the earth is round.

Write five sentences, using clauses as adjective elements.

Model .—The report that he is insane, is unfounded .

Write five sentences , using clauses as adverbial elements.

Model.–Our teacher is delighted when we are studious.
Analyze the sentences you have written.

II .

4. Complex sentences may often be reduced to sim

ple sentences by using single words or phrases, instead
of subordinate propositions, as modifiers.
Reduce the following complex sentences to simple sentences :
Models.-I . “ A man who is wealthy, lives there ” = " A man
of wealth lives there ,” or, “ A wealthy man lives there.”
II . “ We started when the sun rose ” = “ We started at
sunrise."
1. A pupil that is studious, will learn rapidly. 2. Men who
are honest, are respected . 3. A boy, when he is at play, is
happy. 4. An accident that was unavoidable, occurred at the
factory this morning. 5. Franklin, who was a philosopher,
was an American 6. One soldier was not present when the
 THE INTERJECTION . 77

roll was called . 7. They weighed anchor when the tide turned .
8. My brother has gone to the city that he may find employ
ment.

5. Simple sentences may often be enlarged to com

plex sentences by using subordinate propositions, in
stead of single words or phrases, as modifiers .
Enlarge the following simple sentences :
Model.— " None think the great unhappy bv.t the great ”
" None think that the great are unhappy but the great."
1. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 2. I went down to
the river at ten o'clock . 3. Time wasted is existence ; used,
is life. 4. Thou hast uttered cruel words. 5. The poor must
work in their grief. 6. They came here to see the country.
7. The wild beasts kept for the games, had broken from their
dens. 8. Haste to cheer my father's heart.
QUESTIONS.—What is a complex sentence ? A principal clause ? A
subordinate clause ? Into what five classes may clauses be divided ?
How may complex sentences be reduced ? How may simple sentences
be enlarged ?

THE INTERJECTION ,

48. ORAL LESSON.

“ Hurra ! we have found him .”

Is this a sentence ? It is. What is the subject ? The pro
noun " we. ” What is the predicate ? " Have found.” What
modifies the predicate ? The pronoun " him ," an objective
element.
What does the word “ hurra " denote ? It denotes that the
speaker or writer is highly pleased . Does it affirm or deny
any thing ? It does not : it simply implies a feeling or emotion
of pleasure.
78 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

There are words, also, used to denote sorrow, grief, surprise,

disgust, pity, hatred , etc.
All such words are called Interjections.

An Interjection is a word used to denote some sud

den or strong emotion.

Rem . - Interjections usually , but not always, require an ex:

clamation point [ ! ] after them.

Point out the interjections in each of the following sentences , using

this
MODEL.

Hush ! they are coming."

Hush is an interjection ; it denotes some sudden emotion .

1. Ha ! it freezes me. 2. Aha ! you are a truant. 3. Ahem !

I will think about it. 4. Hark ! the clock strikes one .
5. Pshaw ! I knew that yesterday . 6. Alas ! we shall see him
no more . 7. Tush ! tush ! man, I made no reference to you .
8. Ay, he is every inch a king. 9. Oh , what a noble mind is
here o'erthrown ! 10. Alas ! they had been friends in youth .
11. Hark ! hark ! the lark at heaven's gate sings. 12. Alas ! for
the rarity of Christian charity.
Point out all the parts of speech in the above sentences.
Note . - Interjections may be omitted in the analysis of the sen
tences in which they are found. They may be placed before and a
little above the first words in a diagram .
QUESTIONS. — What is an interjection ? What should usually be placed
after an interjection ?
 PART II .

SYNTAX .- COMPOSITION ,

49. PROPERTIES OF THE NOUN.

To the noun belong Gender, Person, Number, and

Case. These are called its Properties.

50. GENDER .

Objects are either male or female ; as, boy, girl; or neither

male nor female ; as, apple. Their names, therefore, may be
classified with regard to sex. This distinction is called Gender.

1. Gender is a distinction of nouns or pronouns

with regard to sex .

2. There are four genders: Masculine, Feminine,

Common , and Neuter.

3. The Masculine Gender denotes males ; as, boy.

4. The Feminine Gender denotes females ; as, girl.

Some words, as children, parent, etc. , are used to denote

either males or females. The gender of such words is said
to be Common .
(79 )
80 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

5. The Common Gender denotes either males or

females ; as, parent.

6. The Neuter Gender denotes neither males nor

females ; as , house.

7. There are three ways of distinguishing the mas

culine and feminine genders :

1. By using different words ; as, father, mother ; brother, sister ;

boy, girl , gentleman , lady ; Mr. , Mrs. ; Charles, Caroline ; drake,
duck ; hart, roe.
2. By different terminations ; as, actor, actress ; executor, exec
utrix ; hero, heroine.
3. By joining some distinguishing word ; as, man-servant, maid
servant ; he -bear, she -bear ; landlord, landlady ; merman, mer
maid.

Tell the gender of the following nouns :

Cart. Duke. Father. Nephew. Countess.
Poet. Susan . Joseph . Milliner . President.
Aunt. Baker. Madam. Empress. Administratrix .

Give the corresponding masculine or feminine for the following

nouns :
King. Uncle. Francis. Augusta. Miss Jones.
Niece. Widow . Brother. Sorcerer. Grandfather.
Count. Female. Prophet. Mediator. Hen -sparrow .

Write five sentences, using masculine nouns as subjects .

Model .—John left his book on my desk .

Write five sentences, using feminine nouns as objects.

Model.—The teacher sent my sister home at recess .

Write six sentences , using nouns in the common or neuter gender

as subjects or objects.
Model, - A beggar frightened me this morning .
 81
PERSON .

Tell the gender of all the nouns in your reading lesson.

QUESTIONS. — What belong to nouns ? What is gender ? How many
genders are there ? What is the masculine gender ? The feminine
gender ? The common gender ? The neuter gender ? How many ways
are there c . distinguishing the inasculine and feminine genders ? Give
them .

51. PERSON .

1. Person is that property of a noun or pronoun

which distinguishes the speaker, the person spoken to ,
and the person or object spoken of.
2. There are three persons, First, Second, and Third .
(See page 47.)

Tell the person of the nouns and pronouns in the following sen
tences :

1. My lesson is learned. 2. Have you seen our old friend

lately ? 3. Ellen, tell your sister to come home. 4. I saw
him on the battle eve. 5. They left the plowshare in the
mold. 6. Your horse is in our barn, Mr. Eckel. 7. He left
home early in the morning.

Write five sentences, using nouns or pronouns of the first person as

subjects, predicates , or objects.
Model.— We are pupils. I defended myself.

Write five sentences, using nouns or pronouns of the second person

as subjects or objects.
Model.— You may be excused . I envy thee.

Write five sentences, using nouns or pronouns of the third person

as subjects, predicates, or objects.
Models.-Studious pupils learn long lessons easily . They left
their homes in sorrow .

QUESTIONS. — What is person ? How many persons are there ? Define

thom .
A Gr .
82 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

52. NUMBER .

1. Number is that property of a noun or pronoun

which distinguishes one from more than one.

2. There are two numbers, Singular and Plural.

(See page 15.)

· 53. FORMATION OF THE PLURAL .

1. Nouns whose last sound will unite with s, form their

plurals by adding s only to the singular; as, book, books ; boy,
boys ; desk, desks.
2. Nouns whose last sound will not unite with s, form their
plurals by adding es to the singular ; as, bush , bushes ; box ,
boxes.
3. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y
into i, and add es ; as, mercy, mercies.
4. Some nouns ending in f or fe, change these endings into
ves ; as, knife, knives.
5. Most nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, add
es ; as, cargo, cargoes.
6. Nouns ending in o, preceded by a vowel, add s ; as, folio,
folios.
7. Letters, figures, marks, and signs add 's ; as, p's and q's ;
9's and 1l's ; the *' s ; the 3's and Y's.
8. Proper nouns usually add s only in forming their plu
rals ; as, Mary , Marys; Sarah , Sarahs ; Nero, Neros. The forms
Maries, Neroes, etc. , are sometimes used.
9. Most nouns from foreign languages change us to i ; um
and on to a ; is to es or ides; a to æ or ata ; and x to ces or ices ;
as, calculus, calculi ; arcanum, arcana ; phenomenon , phenomena ;
thesis, theses ; ephemeris, ephemerides.
10. Some nouns form their plurals irregularly , as, man,
men ; ox, oxen ; mouse, mice.
11. A few nouns are alike in both numbers; as , sheep, doer,
trout, yoke, hose, vermin, and others.
 CASE . 83

12. In compound words, the part described by the rest is

generally pluralized ; as, brothers-in - law , courts m
- artial, ox -carts.
13. Nouns ending in ful or full, form their plurals by add
ing s to the singular ; as, handfuls, mouthfuls.

Write the plurals of the following words, letters, and signs :

Calf. Clam. Truth. A , b, c. Analysis.
Tax. John. Tooth. Armful. Mischief.
1, t . Folly. Reply. Charles. Creature.
Hoe. Rake. Horse. Salmon. Chimney.
Turf. Child. Radix. Woman. Embargo.
Vase. Glory . Studio . Incubus. Momentum.
Plow. Tariff. Cameo. Wrench. Wagon -load .

Write the singular of the following nouns :

Feet. Geese. Errata. Heroes. Ellipses.
Mice. Folios. Rubies. Badges. Beauties.
Oxen. Pence. Loaves. Judges . Children.
Genii. Strata . Horses. Valleys . Monkeys.
Tell the number of all the nouns in your reading lesson.
QUESTIONS . — What is number ? How many numbers are there ?
What is the singular number ? The plural number ? Repeat the rules
for the formation of the plural.

54. CASE.

“ The sun is shining : ” here “ sun ” is used as the subject

of a proposition. “ Every star is a sun : ” here “" sun is used
as the predicate. “ The sun's rays are warm : " here " sun ” is
used as an adjective element, modifying " rays.” “ We saw
the sun at noon :" here “ sun ” is used as an objective element,
66
modifying " saw . ” Dear is thy light, Osun ! ” here " sun "
is used absolutely — i. e. , it is absolved or separated from any
grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence .
In no two of these sentences has the word " sun ” the same
relation to the other words .
These different relations are called Cases.
84 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

1. Case is the relation of a noun or a pronoun to

other words.

Rem .—The term case is also applied to the form of a noun

or a pronoun used independently or as a part of a sentence.

2. There are four cases : Nominative, Possessive, 06

jective, and Absolute, or Nominative Absolute.

3. The Nominative Case is the use of a noun or pro

noun as the subject or the predicate of a proposition ;
as, Boys skate ; Horses are animals.

4. The Possessive Case is the use of a noun or pro

noun to denote ownership, authorship, origin, or kind ;
as, John's hat, Ray's Algebra, the sun's rays, men's
clothing .
Note .-For rules for forming the possessive case, see pp. 43 and 44.

5. The Objective Case is the use of a noun or pro

noun as the object of a transitive verb in the active
voice , or of a preposition ; as, “ Indians hunt buffa
loes ; ” “ They ran over the bridge ; ” “ John threw a
stone at the dog ."

6. The Absolute , or Nominative Absolute , Case is the

use of a nonn or pronoun independent of any govern
ing word ; as, “ Oh, my son ! ” “ Soldiers, attention ! ”
“ Washington Irving."

Rem .-A noun may be in the absolute case :

1. By direct address; as, “ James, bring me a book .”
2. By exclamation ; as, “ Oh, my daughter !”
3. By pleonasm ; i. e. , by placing it before a sentence in
which an affirmation is made concerning it ; as, “ Your fathers,
where are they ?”
 DECLENSION . 85

4. With a participle ; as, “ The sun being risen . ”

5. By position ; i. e. , by using it as the heading of a chapter,
as the superscription to a letter, etc .; as , “ The Noun, ” “ M. F.
Jones . ”

7. A noun limiting the meaning of another noun

denoting the same person or thing, is, by apposition ,
in the same case ; as, “ Washington the general became
Washington the statesman ."

55. DECLENSION.

The Declension of a noun is its variation to denote

number and case.

Rem .—The nominative absolute case always has the same

form as the nominative.
EXAMPLE .
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.
Nom ., Fly . Flies. Nom ., Goodness.
Poss., Fly's. Flies' . Poss ., Goodness'.
Obj., Fly . Flies. Obj. Goodness.

QUESTIONS . — What is case ? How many cases are there ? What is

the nominative case ? The possessive case ? The objective case ? The
absolute case ? How is the possessive case singular formed ? The pos
sessive case plural ? In how many ways may a noun be in the absolute
case ? Give examples.
What is declension ? Decline “ boy ,” “ girl," " farmer.”

56. PARSING.

Parsing consists ( 1 ) In naming the part of speech ;

(2) In telling its properties; (3) In pointing out its
relations to other words ; (4) In giving the rule for
its construction .
86 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

57. ORDER OF PARSING.

1. A noun, and why ? 2. Common or proper, and why ?

3. Gender, and why ? 4. Person, and why ? 5. Number, and 1
why ? 6. Case, and why ? 7. Rule for construction.

58. MODELS FOR PARSING .

I. “ Wheat is a vegetable.”

Wheat is a noun ; it is a name : common ; it can be applied to

any one of a kind or class : neuter gender ; it denotes neither
males nor females : third person ; it is spoken of: singular num
ber ; it denotes but one : nominative case ; it is used as the sub
ject of the proposition. Rule I. “ A noun or pronoun used
as the subject of a proposition , is in the nominative case.”
Vegetable is a noun ; common ; neuter ; third person ; singular
number ; nominative case ; it is used as the predicate of the
proposition. Rule II . “ A noun or pronoun used as the predi
cate of a proposition, is in the nominative case.”

II . “ Henry's uncle, the sheriff, was wounded .”

Henry's is a noun ; proper ; it is the name of a particular

person : masculine gender ; it denotes a male : third person ; singu
lar number ; possessive case ; it denotes possession, and modifies
“ uncle . " Rule III . “ A noun or pronoun used to limit the
meaning of a noun denoting a different person or thing, is in
1
the possessive case.”
Sheriff is a noun ; common ; masculine gender ; third person ;
singular number ; nominative case, in apposition with " uncle, "
which it modifies. Rule IV . “ A noun or pronoun used to
limit the meaning of a noun or pronoun by denoting the
same person , place, or thing, is in the same case . "
 PARSING . 87

11
III. “ Samuel, study your lesson with care.

Samuel is a noun ; proper ; masculine gender ; second person ; it

denotes the person addressed ; singular number ; it denotes but
one : nominative absolute case ; it is used independently. Rule V.
“ A noun or pronoun used independently is in the nominative
absolute case ."
Lesson is a noun ; common ; neuter gender ; third person ; singular
number ; objective case ; it is the object of the verb “ study. "
Rule VI . “ The object of a transitive verb in the active voice,
or of its participles, is in the objective case . ”
Care is a noun ; common ; neuter gender ; third person ; singular
number ; objective case ; it is used as the object of the preposi
66
tion with .” Rule VII . “ The object of a preposition is in
27
the objective case.'

Analyze the following sentences , and parse the nouns :

1. Borneo is a large - island. 2. Our father lives in Washing.
ton. 3. John's dog bit Clarence. 4. Johnson's farm is mort
gaged . 5. Mr. Trowel the mason is unwell. 6. 0 Helen !
father is coming. 7. The statue fell from its pedestal. 8. Gad,
a troop shall overcome him. 9. Jocko has stolen my specta
cles. 10. Susan's mother is my aunt. 11. Is the doctor's
office open ?
12. Next to sincerity, remember still
Thou must resolve upon integrity.
God will have all thou hast ; thy mind, thy will,
Thy thoughts, thy words, thy works. — Herbert.

Correct the following sentences :

1. Jane has two brother-in - laws. 2. Storms are interest
ing phenomenons . 3 Three chimnies were on fire. 4. The
Shaker's are industrious. 5. Did you attend Mr. Chance'
lecture. 6. I called at Coleman's the jeweler's. 7. She is
reading in her sister's Mary's book . 8. The boys coat is
torn . 9. How many of the Johnson's were there ? 10. The
mens' wages should be paid today . 11. He has quartoes
and folioes in his library ,
88 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

59. COMPOSITION .

Write a description of a squirrel, using the following

Plan .— 1 . Size, as compared with some other small animal.

2. Form, noting particularly its teeth, claws, and tail. 3. Hab
its , nest, and food. 4. Its disposition , whether timid or bold,
etc. 5. Different kinds , and their peculiarities. 6. Migrations.
7. Enemies.

Write descriptions of some of the following animals, using this

General Plan ,-1 . Size. 2. Form, noting marked features .
3. Color. 4. Food. 5. Habits. 6. Disposition. 7. Where
found. 8. Rem ks, anecdotes, etc.

Rem .—The pupil should be permitted and encouraged to

vary the order in which the topics are arranged in this plan,
and to introduce such other topics as seem necessary to com
plete the description of any animal.
The dog . The shark. The turkey . The elephant.
The owl. The horse. The pigeon . The muskrat.
The bee. The crow . The mouse. The mosquito.
Parse the nouns in your compositions.

60. PROPERTIES OF THE PRONOUN .

To pronouns belong Gender, Number, Person , and

Case.

61. PERSONAL PRONOUNS .

1. The Simple Personal Pronouns are 1, thou, he, she,

and it , with their declined forms we, our, us, my, mine,
ye, you, your, thy, thine, thee, his, him , her, its, they,
their , them .
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 89

2. The Compound Personal Pronouns are formed by

adding self or selves to some form of the simple per
sonals ; as, myself, yourselves, himself, themselves.

Remarks.—1 . You is used to represent both singular and

plural nouns.
2. We is used in place of I, in editorials, royal proclama
tions, etc.; as, “ We, George IV. , King of Great Britain and
Ireland; ” “ We were mistaken ."
3. It is sometimes used in the nominative, without refer
ence to any particular antecedent, and in the objective for
euphony alone, or to supply the place of some indefinite
object; as, “It thunders ; “ Come and trip it on the green .”
4. When pronouns of different persons are used, the second
should precede the third, and the third the first.

62. DECLENSION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS .

FIRST PERSON.

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.

Nom ., I. We . Nom ., Myself. Ourselves.
Poss ., My , mine. Our. Poss .,
Obj ., Me. Us. Obj., Myself. Ourselves.

SECOND PERSON .

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.

Nom ., Thou . Ye. Nom ., You. You.
Poss ., Thy , thine. Your. Poss ., Your. Your.
Obj., Thee. You. Obj., You . You.

Singular. Plural.
Thyself. Nom . and Obj., Yourselves.
Nom . and Obj ., { Yourself.
90 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

THIRD PERSON .

Singular. Plural.
MAS . FEN. NEUT . COM . OR NEUT.
Nom ., He. She. It. Nom ., They.
Poss., His. Her. Its . Poss., Their.
Obj ., Him. Her. It. Obj., Them.

Singular. Plural.
MAS .
Himself.
PEM . COM . OR NEUT .
Nom . and Obj ., Herself. Nom . and Obj., Themselves.
NEUT.
Itself.

63. ORDER OF PARSING .

1. A pronoun, and why ? 2. Personal, and why ? 3. What

is its antecedent ? 4. Gender, person, and number ? Rule.
5. Decline it. 6. Case, and why ? Rule.

64. MODELS FOR PARSING .

I. “ I see them on their winding way .”

I is a pronoun ; personal; it shows by its form that it is of

the first person : its antecedent is the name, understood, of
the speaker : gender, first person , singular number, to agree
with its antecedent. Rule IX . “ Pronouns must agree with
their antecedents in gender, person , and number.” Decline
it : nominative case : Rule I.
Them is a pronoun ; personal ; its antecedent is the name,
understood , of the person spoken of : gender, third person ,
plural number : Rule IX. Decline it : objective case ; it is the
object of the transitive verb “ see : ” Rule VI.
 POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 91

II. “ I myself told you so ."

Myself is a pronoun ; personal ; compound : its antecedent is

the name, understood, of the speaker : gender, first person ,
singular number : Rule IX . Decline it : nominative case, in appo
sition with “ I : " Rule IV.

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the nouns and personal
pronouns :
1. You and he are my friends. 2. I saw them in their
carriage. 3. The soldiers helped themselves. 4. Thou art the
man. 5. He saved thy money for thee. 6. Your father knows
us. 7. He himself hid your slate.
8. Where shall I see him ? angels tell me where.
You know him ; he is near you ; point him out.
Shall I see glories beaming from his brow,
Or trace his footsteps by the rising flowers ? — Young.

Write the first two sentences of a composition on the Eagle, and

parse the personal pronouns.

Finish the composition .

QUESTIONS. — What is a pronoun ? A personal pronoun ? What are

the simple personal pronouns ? The compound personal pronouns ?
What does “ you " represent ? How is “ we ” used ? How is “ it ” some
times used ? Give examples of the use of these pronouns. When pro
nouns of different persons are used , how should they be arranged ?
Decline the personal pronouns. Repeat the order of parsing personal
pronouns.

65. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

1. The Possessive Pronouns are mine, thine, his, hers,

ours, yours, theirs.

2. To denote emphatic distinction, my own is used

for mine, his own for his, thy own for thine, our own for
ours, your own for yours, their own for theirs.
92 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

66. ORDER OF PARSING .

1. A pronoun , and why ? 2. Possessive, and why ? 3. What

is its antecedent ? 4. Gender, person , number, and why ? Rule.
5. Case, and why ? Rule.

67. MODELS FOR PARSING .

I. That house is mine, not yours.”

FIRST METHOD.

Mine is a pronoun ; possessive ; it represents both the pos

11
sessor and the thing possessed : its antecedent is house :
neuter gender, third person, singular number, to agree with its an
tecedent : Rule IX : nominative case ; it is used as the predicate
of the proposition : Rule II . Parse “ yours ” in a similar
manner.
SECOND METHOD.

Mine is a pronoun ; possessive ; it is equivalent to . “ my house ."

Parse “ my” as a personal pronoun in the possessive case, ac
cording to Rule III , and “ house ” as a predicate nominative,
according to Rule II .

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the possessive pronouns:

1. That horse of yours is lame. 2. This sled is not yours :
it must be hers . 3. The money is your own. 4. Friend of
mine, you are welcome. 5. That garden of theirs is a very
fine one . 6. This book is not mine ; it must be his or hers.
7. She is an old friend of ours. 8. These books are yours ,
not theirs. 9. We love this land of ours. 10. The boy left
his hat, and took mine . 11. You should study your own
books, and not borrow hers .
QUESTIONS . — What is a possessive pronoun ? Name the possessive
pronouns. How is emphatic distinction denoted ? Repeat the order of
parsing possessive pronouns.
 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 93

68. RELATIVE PRONOUNS .

1. The Simple Relative Pronouns are who, which ,

what, and that
Rem . - That is a relative when who, which, or whom can be
used in its place. As is used as a relative pronoun after
such, many, and same.

2. The Compound Relative Pronouns are whoever,

whoso, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and
whatsoever.

3. Some relative pronouns not only connect clauses,

but also comprise in themselves both antecedent and
relative . These are called Double Relatives , and they
may be either simple or compound .
In the sentence, “ I got what I desired ,” what is a double
relative, and is used instead of the thing which— “ I got the
thing which I desired .” Thing," the object of “ got,” is the
antecedent, and is modified by “ the” and “ which I desired , "
both adjective elements.
In the sentence, “ Tell what you know , " what is a double
relative, and is equivalent to that which— “ Tell that which you
know .” That," the object of " tell, ” is the antecedent, and
is modified by “ which you know ," an adjective element.
In the sentence, “ Whatever is, is right,” whatever is a double
relative, and is equivalent to that which—“That which is, is
right." " That," the subject of the proposition, "That is right,"
is the antecedent, and " that, " the subject, is modified by
“ which is ,” an adjective element.
66
In the sentence, Whoever runs may read ,” whoever is
equivalent to he who, or any person who—“ He who runs may
read .” “ He, " the subject of the sentence, “ He may read ," is
the antecedent of “ who, ” and is modified by “ who runs, ” an
adjective element.
94 ELEMENTA GRAMMAR .
RY

In the sentence, “ Whichever road you may take, will lead

to the city , ” whichever is equivalent to any which— “ Any road
which you may take," etc. “ Any ” and “ which you may take "
are adjective elements, modifying " road , " the antecedent of
" which ."

69. DECLENSION.

Singular and Plural. Singular and Plural.

Nom ., Who. Nom ., Which .
Poss ., Whose. Poss., Whose.
Obj. Whom. Obj., Which.

70. ORDER OF PARSING .

1. A pronoun, and why ? 2. Relative, and why ? 3. Name

its antecedent. 4. Gender, person , and number ? Rule. 5. De
cline it. 6. Case, and Rule..

71. MODELS FOR PARSING.

I. “ Happy is the man that findeth wisdom .”

That is a pronoun ; relative ; it represents a preceding word

or phrase, to which it joins a limiting clause : its antecedent
is “ man : masculine gender, third person , singular number : Rule
IX : nominative case ; it is the subject of the relative clause,
“ That findeth wisdom : " Rule I.

II . “ Whoever perseveres will succeed .”

Whoever is a pronoun ; relative ; it is equivalent to he who, or
any one who— " he” being the antecedent, and " who " the rela
tive. Parse “ he" as a personal pronoun, subject of " will suc
ceed ," or " one " as an adjective used as a noun , subject of
“ will succeed ," and " who " as a relative, subject of " perse
veres,” according to Rule I.
 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 95

III. “ I remember what you said .”

What is a pronoun ; relative ; it is equivalent to that which

that ” being the antecedent part, and " which ” the relative.
Parse “ that” as an adjective used as a noun, in the objective
case after “ remember."
Which is a pronoun ; relative; its antecedent is " that :" neuten
gender, third person , singular number : Rule IX : objective case ;
object of the transitive verb “ said :" Rule VI .

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the pronouns :

1. He that hateth, dissembleth with his lips. 2. This is
the child that was lost. 3. The dog which you bought, was
stolen . 4. He will do what is right. 5. Ask for what you
want. 6. That is the man whose house was burned. 7. This
is the dog that worried the cat that killed the rat that ate
the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.
Write the first two sentences of a composition on the Quail, and
parse the nouns and pronouns.
Finish the composition .
QUESTIONS. — What is a relative pronoun ? What are the simple
relatives ? The compound relatives ? What are double relatives ? То
what is “ what ” equivalent ? “ Whatever ? " “ Whoever ? ” “ Which
ever ? ” “ Whoso " ad “ Whosoever ? ” Ans. - He who. Decline " who "
and “ which . " Repeat the order of parsing a relative pronoun .

72. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS .

1. The Interrogative Pronouns are who, which, and

what, when used in asking questions.
2. The Subsequent of an interrogative pronoun is
that part of the answer which it represents .
Rem .-An interrogative pronoun must agree with its sub
sequent in gender, person , and number. When the answer is
not given, or clearly implied, its gender and person are in
determinate , and it is in the singular number
96 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

Ex.-“ Who is hurt ? ” The answer to this question not be

ing given, it is evident that the gender and person of " who "
are indeterminate.
“ Who is hurt ?-Silas." The answer to this question is
given. “ Who” is masculine gender, third person , singular
number, agreeing with “ Silas,” its subsequent.
Apply Rule IX in parsing interrogatives, changing “ ante
cedent” to “ subsequent.”

73. ORDER OF PARSING .

1. A pronoun, and why ? 2. Interrogative, and why ? 3 .

Name its subsequent, if expressed. 4. Gender, person, and
number ? Rule. 5. Decline it. 6. Case, and Rule.

74. MODELS FOR PARSING .

I. “ Who invented gunpowder ? ”

Who is a pronoun ; interrogative ; it is used in asking a ques

tion : its subsequent is not expressed : gender, person , and number
indeterminate : nominative case ; it is used as the subject of the
proposition : Rule I.
II. “ What is that man ?-A lawyer.”
What is a pronoun ; interrogative ; its subsequent is “ lawyer ; "
masculine gender, third person , singular number : Rule IX : nominative
case ; it is used as the predicate of the proposition : Rule II.
Analyze the following sentences, and parse the pronouns :
1. Who came with you ? 2. Whose horse ran away ? 3.
Whom did you call ? --- Mary. 4. What did you say ? 5. What
is that ? —It is a velocipede. 6. Which will you have ?—The
large one. 7. Who told you how to parse “ what? ”
QUESTIONS. — What are the interrogative pronouns ? What is the sub
sequent of an interrogative ? With what must an interrogative agree in
gender, person , and number Repeat the order of parsing an interroge
tiva
 CAUTIONS . 97

75. FALSE SYNTAX .

False Syntax is any violation of the laws of good

usage, in the application of words or the construction
of sentences.

76. CAUTIONS .

Caution 1. - Do not omit the subjects of clauses or

declarative sentences .
Ex.-1 . Glad you have come. 2. Hope you will remain long
with us. 3. What say ? 4. ' T is a poor school can't keep it
self half an hour. 5. It was Johnson saved the drowning man.
6. After a long tramp, felt very much fatigued . 7. Read his
poems : like them very much. Think them sublime.

Caution II . —Do not use who as the object of a

transitive verb or preposition .
Ex.-1 . Do you know who you are talking to ? 2. He is a
fellow who I do not like. 3. Tell me who you work for.

Caution III . —The second person should precede the

third , and the third the first.
Ex. - 1 . He and you are in the same class. 2. I and you will
not whisper. 3. I and he went skating.

Caution IV. -Do not use a pronoun and its ante

cedent as subjects of the same proposition .
Ex.-1 . Mr. Kellogg he has bought our farm . 2. Many
words they darken speech . 3. The boys they all staid in at re
cess. 4. The horse he ran, and the man. he yelled “ whoa.”

Caution V. - Avoid the use of different kinds of pro

nouns in the same construction ,
. GI - 7 .
98 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

Ex.-1. If you will go , I will take care of thy farm . 2. I

hope you will put money into thy purse. 3. I will tell thee
what we have, and which will suit you. 4. Learn thy lesson,
then amuse yourself. 5. You may have my sled if you will
lend me thy skates.
Review Cautions ” on pages 56 and 57.

Correct the following sentences by reference to Rule IX :

1. Every person should mind their own business. 2. Each
day has their own anxieties . 3. If any one has n't voted, they
will rise in their places . 4. Many a youth have injured their
health by keeping late hours.
QUESTIONS. — What is false syntax ? Repeat the cautions.

77. DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES.

Most descriptive adjectives, by change of form or the addi

tion of modifying words, express quality in different degrees.
This is called Comparison.

1. Comparison is a variation of the adjective to

express different degrees of quality ; as, rich, richer,
richest.

2. There are three Degrees of Comparison : Positive,

Comparative, and Superlative.
3. The Positive Degree expresses the simple quality ,
or an equal degree of the quality ; as, “ An old man ;
“ She is as good as she is beautiful.”
Rem .—The suffix ish, and the words rather, somewhat, etc. , ex
press a small amount of the quality, as, saltish, having a little
taste of salt , rather warm, somewhat awkward.

4. The Comparative Degree ascribes to one of two

objects a higher or lower degree of the quality than
 DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES. 99

that expressed by the positive ; as, “ An older man ;

“ Charles is more studious than Mary .”
Rem .—The comparative of monosyllables is regularly formed
by adding r or er to the positive: the comparative of adjectives
of more than one syllable is formed by prefixing more or less
to the positive ; as, rough, rougher ; more honorable, less honorable.

5. The Superlative Degree ascribes the highest or

lowest degree of the quality to one of more than two
objects; as , “ The oldest man ; ” “ The least fertile farm
in the township . ”
Remarks . - 1. The superlative of monosyllables is regularly
formed by adding st or est to the positive : of adjectives of
more than one syllable, by prefixing most or least to the posi
tive ; as, roughest, most honorable, least honorable.
2. Some adjectives are compared irregularly ; as, good, better,
best; bad, worse, worst.
3. Some adjectives can not be compared ; as, square, infinite,
supreme.
4. Adjectives should not be doubly compared.

Compare the following adjectives :

Far. Holy Great. Honest. Cheerful.
Old . Loud. Proud . Narrow Studious.
Near . Much . Angry. Skillful . Agreeable.
Wise . Little. Young Sensible. Laughable.

Tell the degree of comparison of the following adjectives :

Most. Taller. Infirm . Most useful. Most hurtful.
Later. Eldest. Stormy. Rather nice. Very frightful
Better. Richer. Farthest. Less studious. Less confident.
Round. Perfect. Greenish. More hopeful. Least sensible.

QUESTIONS . — What is comparison ? How many degrees of compari

son are there ? What does the positive degree express ? The compara
tive ? The superlativc ? How are the comparative and superlative
degrees formed ?
100 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

78. DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES .

1. Pronominal , Adjectives are those definitives, most

of which may , without the article prefixed, represent
a noun understood .

The principal pronominals are :

1. The Demonstratives, this, that, these, those, former, latter.
both, same, yon , yonder.
2. The Distributives, each, every, either, neither.
3. The Indefinites, all, any, another, certain, divers, enough, few ,
little, many , much , no , none, one, own, other, several, some, sundry,
which, whichever, whichsoever, what, whatever, whatsoever .
Rem . 1.—The phrases such a, many a, what a, but a, only a,
etc., may be called pronominals, and be parsed as single words.
Rem . 2.—Some pronominals can be compared like descrip
tive adjectives; as , few , fewer, fewest; much, more, most.

2. Numeral Adjectives are those definitives which

denote number and order definitely ; as, two, fourth,
fourfold.
There are three classes of numeral adjectives: Cardinal, Or.
dinal, and Multiplicative.
1. Cardinals denote the number of objects ; as, two, four,
a thousand.
2. Ordinals mark the position of an object in a series ; as,
second, fourth , thousandth .
3. Multiplicatives denote how many fold ; as, twofold, fourfold.

79. ORDER OF PARSING.

1. An adjective, and why ? 2. Descriptive or definitive, and

why ? 3. Compare it, if it admits of comparison . 4. Degree of
comparison ? 5. What does it modify ? Rule.
 THE ADJECTIVE. 101

80. MODELS FOR PARSING .

I. “Fearful storms sweep over these islands."

Fearful is an adjective ; descriptive; it modifies a noun by de

noting some quality : compared, pos . fearful, com. more fearful,
66
sup. most fearful: positive degree, and belongs to ' storms.”
Rule XII . “ An adjective or participle belongs to some noun
or pronoun .”
These is an adjective; definitive; it defines without denoting
any quality : it can not be compared, and belongs to " islands :"
Rule XII .

II. " I have been there many a time. ”

Many a is an adjective ; definitive ; it can not be compared, and

belongs to " time: " Rule XII.

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the nouns, pronouns,

and adjectives :

1. I saw a large drove of cattle. 2. Jane is studying mod

ern history. 3. Fido is a Newfoundland dog. 4. You may
have the smallest lemon . 5. Every man received a penny.
6. Either road leads to town. 7. That course was most honor
able. 8. He took a twofold view of the subject. 9. What noise
is that ? 10. Two men wanted the fourth horse.
11. Alas for those who never sing,
But die with all their music in them . - Holmes.

12. With many a curve my banks I fret,

By many a field and fallow ,
And many a fairy foreland , set
With willow , weed , and mallow.— Tennyson.

QUESTIONS . — Define pronominal adjectives. Name the principal de

monstratives. Distributives. Indefinites What phrases may be re
garded as pronominals ? What pronominals can be compared ? What
are numeral adjectives ? Name and define the three classes of numeral
adjectives. Ropent the order of parsing an adjective.
102 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

81. CAUTIONS.

Caution 1.- Avoid double comparatives and superla

tives.
Ex.-1 . He is the most miserablest man in town. 2. No
man can't be more neutraler than I on the temperance ques
tion. 3. He seems more cheerfuller to-day. 4. Always choose
the lesser of two evils. 5. That is more preferable than to be
imprisoned.

Caution II . -Omit the article before a word used as

a title , or as a mere name .
Ex.-1 . They gave him the title of an emperor. 2. A rascal
formerly meant a servant. 3. Riches and honor are the gifts
of fortune. 4. He is a better sailor than a soldier. 5. They
elected him as a chairman.

Caution III . -Place ordinal adjectives before cardinals

in most constructions.

Ex.-1 . The four first houses on the right hand belong to

me. 2. Sing the two first and two last verses. 3. Read the
three first chapters .

Caution IV .– Plural adjectives should modify plural

nouns ; singular adjectives, singular nouns.
Ex.- 1 . I do not like these kind of apples. 2. These sort
of people don't amount to much. 3. These yoke of oxen cost
seventy -five dollars.

82. COMPOSITION.

Write a composition on the Peach -tree, using the following

Plan .—1 . Size, as compared with the apple-tree. 2. Form,
division of branches. 3. Color of leaves in spring and fall.
 THE VERB . 103

4. Appearance when in bloom. 5. Is it found wild ? If so,

where? 6. What part of the fruit is eaten ? 7. Different kinds
of peaches.

Write compositions on some of the plants named below , using the

following
General Plan.—1 . Size, as compared with some other plant.
2. Form, noting important parts. 3. Wild or cultivated—where
found wild . 4. If useful, how protected or cultivated. 5. If
worthless or noxious, how destroyed. 6. What parts are used
for food or for manufacturing purposes.

The pine. The violet. The hickory . The rose-bush.

The tulip. The beech . The chestnut. The wheat-plant.
The daisy. The maple. The dogwood. The tomato -plant.

QUESTIONS.- What is an adjective ? A descriptive adjective ? What

is comparison ? What is a definitive adjective ? What are pronomi
nal adjectives ? What are numeral adjectives ? Cardinals ? Ordinals ?
Multiplicatives ?
Repeat the cautions on page 102.

83. PROPERTIES OF THE VERB .

To verbs belong Voice, Mode, Tense, Number, and

Person .

Let the pupil now review sections 15, 16, and 25.

84. VOICE.

A verb may represent its subject as acting or as being acted

upon. In the sentence, “ John struck James,” “ John ,” the
subject, is represented as acting : in the sentence, “ James was
struck by John," " James,” the subject, is represented as be
ing acted upon. This property is called voice, and is peculiar
to transitive verbs.
104 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

1. Voice is that form of the transitive verb which

shows whether the subject acts or is acted upon .

2. Transitive verbs have two voices : an Active and

a Passive Voice.

3. The Active Voice represents the subject as acting

upon an object; as , “ The boy wrote a letter. ”

4. The Passive Voice represents the subject as being

acted upon ; as , “ The letter was written ."

5. The Passive Voice is formed by prefixing some

form of the verb to be to the perfect participle of a
transitive verb .

Rem .—When a verb in the active voice is changed into the

passive, the direct object in the active becomes the subject in
the passive ; as, “ The cat caught the mouse ” (active) ; “ The
mouse was caught by the cat ” ( passive) .

Tell which verbs are active and which passive in the following ex
ercises :

1. The girl sings . 2. Fire burns. 3. The mail was robbed.

4. Truants will be punished. 5. A meteor was seen. 6. He
should have told the truth . 7. Children love play . 8. He
has found his knife. 9. A watch was found in the street.
10. The burglar might have been arrested. 11. The bad boy
was whipped for stealing apples.
QUESTIONS.—What is a verb ? A transitive verb ? An intransitive
verb ? A copulative verb ?
What is a participle ? The present participle ? How does the present
participle always end ? What is the perfect participle ? How does it
usually end ? What is the compound participle ? How is it formed ?
What belong to verbs ? What is voice ? How many voices have
transitive verbs ? What is the active voice ? The passive voice ? How
is the passive voice formed ? Ilow is a verb in the active voice changed
into the passive ? Give examples.
 MODE. 106

85. MODE.

1. Mode is the manner in which the action, being,

or state is expressed.

2. There are five modes : Indicative, Subjunctive, Po

tential, Imperative, and Infinitive.

3. The Indicative Mode asserts a thing as a fact, or

as actually existing ; as, “ Fire burns ; ” “ A battle was
fought. ”

4. The Subjunctive Mode asserts a thing as doubtful,

as a supposition , or denies the fact supposed ; as, “ If
this be true, all will end well ; ” “ I shall go , if you
remain ."

5. The Potential Mode asserts the power, necessity,

liberty, duty, or liability of acting, or of being in a
certain state ; as, “ He can talk ; ” “ You must go ; ”
“ They should be more careful.”

Rem . — May, can , must, might, could, would , and should are the
signs of the potential mode.

6. The Imperative Mode expresses a command , an

exhortation, an entreaty, or a permission ; as, “ Go ; "
“ Do not hurt me."

7. The Infinitive Mode expresses the action , being,

or state, without affirming it ; as, “To go ; " " He wants
to speak.”

Rem . 1. — The infinitive may usually be known by the sign

to placed before it. This sign is omitted after the words bid,
106 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

dare, feel, help, let, make, need, see, and a few others; as, " Let
them (to] come on ; ” “ See him [to] run ;" “ Bid them (to] come.”
Rem . 2.-The indicative and potential modes may be used
in asking questions ; as, " Is he honest ? ” “ Has she arrived ? ”
“ May I go home? "

Tell the mode of the verbs in the following sentences :

1. The army encamped by the river. 2. Run for some
water. 3. You must recite your lesson. 4. I will recite my
lesson, if I can. 5. I like to play. 6. Hope thou in God.
7. Do let me go to the picnic. 8. He should have come
home. 9. Lift up your heads, O ye gates ! 10. Were I rich,
I would purchase that property .
Write a description of the Oak ,and tell the modes of the verbs used .
QUESTIONS . — What is mode ? How many modes are there ? Name
them . What is the indicative mode ? What is the subjunctive mode ?
What is the potential mode ? What are the signs of the potential mode ?
What is the imperative mode ? The infinitive mode ? What is the sign
of the infinitive mode ? What modes are used in asking questions ?

86. TENSE .

1. Tense denotes the time of an action or event.

2. There are six tenses : the Present, the Present

Perfect, the Past, the Past Perfect, the Future, and
the Future Perfect.

3. The Present Tense denotes present time ; as, “ I

write ; ” “ The wind is blowing. "
4. The Present Perfect Tense represents an action
or event as past, but connected with present time ; as,
“ I have written ; ” “ The wind has been blowing . "

5. The Past Tense denotes past time ; as, “ I wrote ;

« The wind blew . "
 TENSE SIGNS. 107

6. The Past Perfect Tense represents an act as

ended or completed in time fully past ; as, “ I had
written ; " “ The bridge had fallen before we reached
it. ”

7. The Future Tense denotes future time ; as , " I

shall write ; ” The lion shall eat straw like the ox ."

8. The Future Perfect Tense represents an act as

finished or ended at or before a certain future time;
as, “ I shall have written the letter before the mail
closes .”

87. SIGNS OF THE TENSES : ACTIVE VOICE.

INDICATIVE MODE .
Present, Simple form of the verb.
Past, When regular, add ed to the simple form .
Future, Prefix shall or will to the simple forni.
Present Perfect, have, hast, or has to the perfect participle.
06
Past Perfect, had or hadst to the perfect participle .
Future Perfect, shall have or will have to the perfect par
ticiple.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
If, though, except, unless, etc., placed before tense forms given
in the conjugation .

POTENTIAL MODE .
Present, Prefix may , can, or must to the simple form .
Past, might, could, would, or should to the sim
ple form .
Present Perfect, may have , can have , or must have to the
perfect participle.
Past Perfect, might have, could have, would have, or should
have to the perfect participle
108 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

IMPERATIVE MODE.
Present, Let, or a command.

INFINITIVE MODE .
Present, Prefix to to the simple form .
Present Perfect, to have to the perfect participle.

PARTICIPLES .
Present, Add ing to the simple form .
Perfect, . When regular, add ed or d to the simple form .
Compound, . Prefix having to the perfect participle, or having
been to the present active or perfect participle.

Tell the tense of the verbs in the following sentences :

1. Emma sings. 2. I went home 3. John ran. 4. Write .
5. Let him go. 6. The man shouted . 7. I had been taught.
8. They will succeed. 9. We shall be glad. 10. The letter
will have been written . 11. If you go, I shall stay. 12. You
might study . 13. He may have written.
Write a description of the Pine, and tell the modes and tenses of the
verbs used .

QUESTIONS.— What is tense ? How many tenses are there ? What is

the present tense ? The present perfect ? The past ? The past perfect ?
The future ? The future perfect ? Give the signs of the tenses .

88. PERSON AND NUMBER .

1. The Person and Number of verbs are the changes

which they undergo to mark their agreement with
their subjects.

2. A verb must agree with its subject in person and

number.
Rem .—The infinitive, having no subject, has neither person
nor number.
 CONJUGATION . 109

89. AUXILIARIES .

Auxiliary Verbs are those whic. are used in the con

jugation of other verbs. They are do , be, have , shall,
will, may , can, must.
Rem .-Do, be, have, and will are often used as principal
verbs ; as, “ He does well ;" " I am ;" " He has money ; ' “ He
wills it.”
QUESTIONS. — What is meant by the person and number of a verb ?
With what must a verb agree in person and number ? What are auxil
iary verbs ? Which of them are sometimes used as principal verbs ?

90. CONJUGATION.

1. The Conjugation of a verb is the correct ex

pression , in regular order, of its modes, tenses, voices,
persons, and numbers.

2. The Principal Parts of a verb are the present in

dicative, the past indicative, and the perfect participle.

91. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB " TO BE .”

PRINCIPAL PARTS .

Present Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Participle.

Be, or am . Was. Been.

INDICATIVE MODE .
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. I am , 1. We are .
2. Thou art , 2. You are .
3. He is ; 3. They are .
110 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

Singular. Plural.
1. I have been, 1. We have been ,
2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been,
3. He has been ; 3. They have been.

PAST TENSE.
1. I was, 1. We were,
2. Thou wast, 2. You were,
3. He was ; 3. They were .
PAST PERFECT TENSE.

1. I had been , 1. We had been,

2. Thou hadst been , 2. You had been,
3. He had been ; 3. They had been.

FUTURE TENSE.

1. I shall be, 1. We shall be.

2. Thou wilt be, 2. You will be,
3. He will be ; 3. They will be.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been,

2. Thou wilt have been, 2. You will have been,
3. He will have been ; 3. They will have been.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.

1. If I be, 1. If we be,
2. If thou be, 2. If you be,
3. If he be ; 3. If they be.

PAST TENSE.
1. If I were, 1. If we were ,
2. If thou wert, 2. If you were,
3. If he were ; 3. If they were
 THE VERB “TO BE . ” 111

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

Singular. Plural.
1. If I had been, 1. If we had been,
2. If thou hadst been, 2. If you had been,
3. If he had been ; 3. If they had been.

POTENTIAL MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.

1. I may be, 1. We may be,

2. Thou mayst be, 2. You may be,
3. He may be ; 3. They may be.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
1. I may have been, 1. We may have been,
2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been,
3. He may have been ; 3. They may have been.

PAST TENSE.

1. I might be, 1. We might be,

2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be,
3. He might be ; 3. They might be.
PAST PERFECT TENSE .

1. I might have been, 1. We might have been,

2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been ,
3. He might have been ; 3. They might have been.
Note . - In reviews, use the auxiliary can or must.

IMPERATIVE MODE .
PRESENT TENSE.
2. Be, or do thou be ; 2. Be, or do ye or you be.

INFINITIVE MODE.

Present, To be ; Present Perfect, To have been.

112 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

PARTICIPLES.

Present, Being ; Perfect, Been ; Compound, Having been ,

Note . - Shall, in the first person , and will, in the second and third,
future tenses, are used to denote futurity. When will is used in the
first person , or shall, in the second or third, determination or necessity,
as well as futurity, is represented.

A Synopsis of a verb shows its variations in form ,

through the different voices, modes, and tenses, in a
single person and number.
Write a synopsis of the verb “ to be ” in the first person,
singular number.

92. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB “ TO LOVE ."

ACTIVE VOICE.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

Present Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Participle.

Love. Loved. Loved .

INDICATIVE MODE .

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. Plural.
1. I love, 1. We love,
2. Thou lovest, 2. You love.
3. He loves ; 3. They love.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved,

2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved,
3. He bas loved . 3. They have loved
 THE VERB “TO LOVE ." 113

PAST TENSE.

Singular. Plural.
1. I loved , 1. We loved,
2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved,
3. He loved ; 3. They loved.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved,

2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved,
3. He had loved ; 3. They had loved.

FUTURE TENSE.

1. I shall love, 1. We shall love

2. Thou wilt love, 2. You will jove,
3. He will love ; 3. They wil love.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved,

2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved,
3. He will have loved ; 3. They will have loved

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

1. If I love, 1. If we love,
2. If thou love, 2. If you love,
3. If he love; 3. If they love.

PAST TENSE.

1. If I loved, 1. If we loved,
2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved,
3. If he loved ; 3. If they loved .
114 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

Singular. Plural.
1. If I had loved , 1. If we had loved ,
2. If thou hadst loved, 2. If you had loved,
3 If he had loved , 3. If they had loved .

POTENTIAL MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

1. I may love, 1. We may love,

2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love,
3. He may love ; 3. They may love.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved ,

2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved,
3. He may have loved ; 3. They may have loved .

PAST TENSE.

1. I might love, 1. We might love,

2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love,
3. He might love ; 3. They might love.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved ,

2. Thou mightst have loved , 2. You might have loved,
3. He might have loved ; 3. They might have loved.

IMPERATIVE MODE .

2. Love, or do thou love ; 2. Love, or do ye or you love.

INFINITIVE MODE .

Present To love; Present Perfect, To have lovod .

 THE PASSIVE VOICE . 115

PARTICIPLES .

Present, Loving; Perfect, Loved ; Compound, Having loved .

93. SYNOPSIS OF THE VERB “ TO LOVE."

PASSIVE VOICE.

The Passive Voice is formed by prefixing the various forms

of the verb to be to the perfect participle.

INDICATIVE MODE.

Present, I am loved.
Present Perfect, . I have been loved.
Past, I was loved .
Past Perfect, I had been loved.
Future, I shall be loved.
Future Perfect, I shall have been loved.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE .

Present, If I be loved. Past, If I were loved.

Past Perfect, . If I had been loved.

POTENTIAL MODE.

Present, . I may be loved.

Present Perfect, I may have been loved.
Past, . I might be loved .
Past Perfect, I might have been loved.

IMPERATIVE MODE .

Present, Be loved, or be thou loved.

INFINITIVE MODE.
Present, To be loved. Present Perfect, To have been loved.
PARTICIPLES.
Present, Being loved. Perfect, Loved. Compound, Having been loved ,
 116 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

94. COÖRDINATE FORMS OF CONJUGATION .

1. The Progressive , the Emphatic , and the Inter

rogative are called the Coördinate Forms of Conju
gation .

2. The Progressive Form is used to denote action,

being, or state in progress ; as, “ He was writing. ”

In the Progressive Form, the various forms of the verb to

be are prefixed to the present active participle.

3. The Emphatic Form represents an act with em

phasis; as, " I do write ; ” “ He did write.”

4. The Interrogative Form is used in asking ques

tions ; as, " Love I ? ” “ Did he write ? ”

PROGRESSIVE FORM . - SYNOPSIS.

INDICATIVE MODE .

Present, . I am loving
Present Perfect I have been loving.
Past, I was loving
Past Perfect, I had been loving .
Future, I shall be loving.
Future Perfect, I shall have been loving.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE .

Present, If I be loving Past, If I were loving

Past Perfect, . If I had been loving.
 CONJUGATION . 117

POTENTIAL MODE .
Present, I may be loving.
Present Perfect, 7 I may have been loving.
Past, I might be loving.
Past Perfect, I might have been loving.

INFINITIVE MODE.
Present, To be loving. Present Perfect, To have been loving.

IMPERATIVE MODE .
Present, Be thou loving.

PARTICIPLES .
Present, . Loving. Compound, Having been loving.

THE EMPHATIC FORM . - SYNOPSIS

INDICATIVE MODE .
Present, . I do love. Past, . . I did love.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE .
Present, If I do love. Past, If I did love.

IMPERATIVE MODE
Present, Do thou love.

INTERROGATIVE FORM - SYNOPSIS .

INDICATIVE MODE .
Present, . Love I ? Do I love ? Am I loving ?
Present Perfect,Have I loved ? Have I been loving ?
Past, Loved li Did I love ? Was I loving ?
Past Perfect, Had I loved ? Had I been loving ?
Future, .Shall I love ? Shall i be loving ?
Muture Perfect, Shall I have lovedi Shall I have been loving ?
118 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

POTENTIAL MODE .
Present, . Must I love ? 1
Present Perfect, Must I have loved ?
Past Might I love ?
Past Perfect, Might I have loved ?

Write a synopsis of the transitive verbs think, instruct, com

mand , punish, teach , and see, in the Indicative, Subjunctive, and
Potential Modes, Active and Passive Voices.

Tell the mode, tense, person, and number of each verb in the fol
lowing sentences :
1. He ran . 2. You teach. 3. They have seen. 4. If he go .
5. They may have written. 6. Has he departed ? 7. They will
command. 8. Emma will have recited. 9. The army will be
disbanded.
10. America was discovered. 11. The people should be con
tented. 12. He has invented a velocipede. 13. Attend to your
lesson. 14. He can go, if the carriage is not too full. 15. The
man loves to see it rain .
Write a description of the Currant-bush , and parse the verbs.
QUESTIONS . — What is conjugation ? What are the principal parts of
a verb ? What is the synopsis of a verb ? Give the synopsis of “to be."
Of “ to love,” in both the active and the passive voice. How is the pas
sive voice formed ? What are the coördinate forms of conjugation ?
What is the progressive form ? The emphatic form ? The interrogative
form ? Give the synopsis of each form .

95. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS .

1. A Regular Verb forms its past indicative and

perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present
indicative ; as, love, love- d, love- d ; count, count-ed
count-ed.

2. An Irregular Verb is one which does not form its

past tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed to
 VERBS. 119

the present indicative ; as, go, went, gone ; see, saw ,

seen ; do, did , done.
For list of Irregular Verbs see Appendix.

96. DEFECTIVE AND REDUNDANT VERBS .

1. Defective Verbs are those which want some of the prin

cipal parts. They are beware, from be and aware, ought, quoth,
quod, wit, and its derivatives, wot, wis, weet, wist, wote.
2. Redundant Verbs are those which have more than one
form for their past tense or perfect participle ; as, cleave, clove,
or clave ; cleft, cloven , or cleaved .

Correct the following sentences, using this

MODEL .

“ The man throwed a stone . "

This sentence is incorrect. The word 60 throwed ” should
be “ threw ," the past indicative of the verb “ throw .” The
sentence should read, “ The man threw a stone.”

1. I have saw some fine cattle to-day . 2. He ought to have

went home. 3. The beads were stringed on a silk thread.
4. He has brung some snow into the school-house. 5. The
cloth was weaved by hand. 6. The horse come cantering
along. 7. This coat has wore well.
8. The cars have ran off the track. 9. The bells ringed
when the news was got . 10. I clumb the tree and shaked
the apples off. 11. The candle should be blowed out. 12. I
laid down, and ris much refreshed. 13. Was the cow drove
to pasture ? 14. The plastering has fell from the ceiling.
Correct all errors in the use of irregular verbs you may notice
in your conversation with your school-mates.
QUESTIONS. - What is a regular verb ? An irregular verb ? A defect
Ive verb ? Which are the defective verbs ? What are redundant verbs ?
Give examples.
120 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

97. ORDER OF PARSING .

1. A Verb, and why ? 2. Regular or irregular, and why ?

3. Give its principal parts. 4. Copulative, transitive, or in
transitive, and why ? 5. Voice, and why ? 6. Mode, and why ?
7. Tense, and why ? 8. Person and number, and why ? Rule.

98. MODELS FOR PARSING .

I. “ Liberty is sweet. ”
Is is a verb ; it is a word which denotes being : irregular ; it
does not form its past tense and perfect participle by adding
d ed to the present indicative : principal parts are pres. am,
past ind. was, perf. part. been : copulative ; it asserts the predi
cate of the subject: indicative mode; it asserts a fact: present
tense ; it denotes present time : third person, singular number, to
agree with its subject “ liberty.” Rule XIII. “ A verb must
agree with its subject in person and number.”
II. “ I shall go, if you remain .”

Shall go is a verb ; irregular : give its principal parts ; intransi

tive ; it does not require an object to complete its meaning
indicative mode ; future tense ; it denotes future time : first person,
singular number. Rule XIII . “ A verb must agree with its sub
ject in person and number.”
Remain is a verb ; regular ; it forms its past indicative and
perfect participle by adding ed to the present indicative : give
the principal parts : intransitive; subjunctive mode ; it represents
an act as doubtful or conditional ; present tense ; second person,
singular or plural number : Rule XIII.

III. “ The boy caught the horse. "

Caught is a verb ; irregular ; give the principal parts : transi
tive ; it requires an object to complete its meaning : active voice ;
it represents its subject as acting : indicative mode ; past tense ;
third person , singular number : Rulo XIII.
 COMPOSITION . 121

IV. “ We heard the owl hooting."

Hooting is a participle ; it partakes of the properties of a verb

and an adjective: present participle ; it denotes continuance : it
belongs to “ owl.” Rule XII . “ An adjective or a participle be
longs to some noun or pronoun."

V. " I study to improve."

To improve is a verb ; regular; give the principal parts: tran
sitive; active voice ; infinitive mode ; it expresses action without
.affirming it : it depends upon “ study.” Rule XVI. “ An in
finitive not used as a noun, depends upon the word it limits."

99. COMPOSITION .

Read the following description a number of times, then reproduce

it from memory :
SUGAR.
Sugar is obtained from many plants. The sweet taste of all
kinds of fruit is owing to the sugar in their juices . Grapes
contain grape -sugar, which may be seen in small , white grains
in raisins, or dried grapes . The sap of the maple and some
other forest trees contains a large amount of sugar. In France,
it is made from beet-roots in large quantities.
The sugar-cane, however, contains so much sweet juice that
it is cultivated in preference to all other plants for the mak
ing of sugar. It is a tall grass-plant which grows in many
hot countries. When ripe, the stems are cut down and passed
between heavy rollers. The juice is thus squeezed out, and
is boiled as soon as possible. After being boiled to a syrup ,
it is skimmed and placed in large flat pans to cool.
While cooling, a curious change takes place. A part of the
syrup forms itself into small crystals ; the part that will not
crystallize is drained off, and is called molasses . The crystal
lized part is called raw or moist sugar. In this state it is put
iric hogsheads and shipped. The impurities which cause its
dark color and rank taste, are removed by a process called
refining
122 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

Describe the process of tapping the Maple - tree, gathering the sap ,
and making Maple Sugar.

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the nouns , pronouns,

adjectives , verbs, and participles :
1. The earth rings hollow from below . 2. We soon shall
reach the boundless sea. 3. The night was tempestuous.
4. He should be more industrious . 5. Remember thy Creator.
6. The poor must work in their grief. 7. I could not learn
that lesson. 8. He was beaten with many stripes.
9. Clarence has been chosen captain. 10. They might have
finished their task yesterday . 11. The crops were destroyed
by grasshoppers. 12. The girls were playing croquet. 13. He
did not return my umbrella. 14. Is he writing a letter ?
15. Help us to help each other. 16. Shake off the dust that
blinds thy sight.
17. No cheating nor bargaining will ever get a single thing
out of Nature's “ establishment” at half price. —Ruskin.
18. Think that day lost whose low descending sun
Views from thy hand no noble action done.
19. May is a pious fraud of the almanac,
A ghastly parody of real spring,
Shaped out of snow and breathed with eastern winds.
Lowell.
Write the first two sentences of a composition on Lazy Boys, and
parse the verbs .
Finish the composition .

100. FALSE SYNTAX .

Caution 1.-Never use will for shall , nor would for

should ,

Ex .- 1 . I was afraid I would be hurt. 2. If I would try,

I would learn fast. 3. I shall go ; no one will prevent me.
4. I would be very careless if I would leave my books at home.
5. Should I be punished if I would play truant ?
 CAUTIONS. 123

Caution 11. – Tense - forms should express time in har

mony with that indicated by other parts of the sen
tence.

Ex.-1 . They have visited us yesterday . 2. You may take

a walk after you finish your task . 3. He was tardy every day
this week. 4. I would help you, if you can't get some one
else to do so. 5. He was under obligations to have assisted
me.

Caution III . -General truths should be expressed in

the present tense .
Ex.-1 . I have heard that each star was a sun. 2 I always
thought that meteors were falling stars. 3. What did you say
was the capital of Indiana ? 4. I should think it was time for
school to be dismissed . 5. I always thought that dew fell.

Caution IV . -Do not use the perfect participle to

express past time , nor the past tense form instead
of the perfect participle .
Ex.- 1 . He come here last week. 2. He done it : I seen
him. 3. The tree had fell, and it was broke in two. 4. The
squirrel had ran up a tree. 5. He set down on a log. 6. I
have saw the man.

Caution V. - Avoid the inelegant use of participles

in place of other forms.
Ex.-1 . Going to Congress is no evidence of greatness. 2. I
do not like being punished. 3. He neglected the plowing of
his land. 4. Boys, be ashamed of being found in bad company.

Caution VI .—Do not use is n't or aint for is not ,

have n't or haint for have not, it aint for it is not,
might of for might have , etc.
124 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

Ex.-1 . ' Taint one swallow that makes a summer. 2. Jane

haint got her lesson . 3. Aint you going to the concert ?
4. Samuel might of done his task long ago. 5. He should of
taken the accommodation train . 6. Is n't it beautiful ?
Correct all inaccuracies in the use of verbs you may observe in your
own language or in that of your school-mates.

Correct the following sentences by reference to Rules XIII and XIV :

1. Henry and Charles was very much disappointed. 2. You
was there , I suppose. 3. The yoke of oxen were sold for a
bundred dollars. 4. Ellen are not at school to-day. 5. The
scissors is dull. 6. The fleet were seen off Hatteras. 7. Time
and tide waits for no man.

101. THE ADVERB . - CLASSES .

1. Adverbs are divided into five classes : Adverbs

of Time, Place, Cause, Manner, and Degree.

2. Adverbs of Time answer the questions, When ? How long ?

How often ?

Ex . - After, again , always, early , never, frequently, hereafter,

lately , immediately , now , often , seldom , then , when, etc.

3. Adverbs of Place answer the questions, Where ? Whither ?

Whence ?

Ex.-Above, below, hither, here, there, herein, whence, some

where, far, yonder, forth , aloof, away , backwards, first, etc.

4. Adverbs of Cause answer the questions, Why ? Wherefore ?

Ex.- Wherefore, therefore, then , why ?

5. Adverbs of Manner answer the question, How ?

Ex.-Amiss, anyhow , well , badly , easily , sweetly , indeed .
nay, no, perhaps, peradventure. percbance, etc.
 THE ADVERB. 125

6. Adverbs of Degree answer the questions, How much ?

How little ?

Ex . - Almost, enough, even , equally, much , more, little,,

wholly, partly, only, scarcely , nearly , too, chiefly , etc.
7. An Adverbial Phrase is a combination of words used and
parsed as a single adverb ; as, “ In general," " hand in hand, ” " no
more."

8. Conjunctive Adverbs are those which connect two propo

sitions, one of which is used as an adverbial element.
Ex.- " I shall see you when I return.” The conjunctive ad
verb “ when ” connects the two clauses, “ I shall see you ” and
“ I return ." The entire clause modifies " shall see " in the
first clause, and “ when ” modifies " return ” in the second.

102. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS .

1. Many adverbs admit of comparison .

2. Three adverbs are compared by adding er and est to the

simple form , viz.: fast, faster, fastest ; often, oftener, oftenest ; soon,
sooner, soonest.

3. Adverbs ending in ly are usually compared by prefixing

more and most, less and least to the simple form ; as, wisely, more
wisely, most wisely ; swiftly, less swiftly, least swiftly .

4. Some adverbs are compared irregularly ; as, well, better,

best; little, less, least.

103. ORDER OF PARSING.

1. An adverb, and why ? 2. Compare it. 3. Tell what it

modifies. Rule.
126 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

104. MODELS FOR PARSING .

I. “ The soldiers fought bravely ."

Bravely is an adverb ; it is used to modify the meaning of a
verb : compared, pos. bravely, com. more bravely, sup . most
bravely ; it modifies " fought.” Rule XVII. " Adverbs modify
verbs, adjectives, participles, and adverbs."

II. “ I will go whenever you wish .”

Whenever is an adverb; conjunctive; it connects two clauses;
it modifies “ wish : ” Rule XVII .

Analyze the following sentences , and parse the nouns, pronouns,

adjectives, verbs, and adverbs :
1. I saw him frequently. 2. You must call often. 3. How
rapidly the moments fly. 4. He has been reproved again and
again . 5. Perhaps he can tell you. 6. Doubtless, he is a wise
man. 7. Peradventure, the old dragon is asleep. 8. I have
not seen him since I returned from California . 9. The mys
tery will be explained by and by . 10. He visits us now and
then .
11 . Live and love,
Doing both nobly, because lowlily.
Live and work, strongly , because patiently.
Mrs. Browning.

105. COMPOSITION.

Write a description of an Apple, using the following

Plan .-1 . Form . 2. Parts—peel, pulp, etc. 3. Color. 4.
Taste. 5. Different kinds. 6. Uses—how eaten , made into
sauce, etc. 7. Process of making cider. 8. Where found .

Write a description of some of these products, using the following

General Han . - 1. What part of the plant growth is it ?
2. Brief description of the plant. 3. Where and how is the
 THE PREPOSITION . 127

plant raised ? 4. How procured and prepared for food or man

ufacture ? 5. How manufactured : products of manufacture ?
6. In what forms and for what purposes used ?

Нау.. Straw . Starch . A peach . Caoutchouc.

Flour. Paper. Vinegar. An orange. A strawberry .

Write the first two sentences of a composition on My Last Vacation ,

and parse the verbs and adverbs.
QUESTIONS . — What is an adverb ? How many classes of adverbs ?
What are adverbs of time ? Of place ? Ofcause ? Ofmanner ! Of degree ?
What is an adverbial phrase ? What are conjunctive adverbs ? Are ad
verbs ever compared ? How are three adverbs compared ? How are ad .
verbs ending in ly usually compared ? How are other adverbs compared ?
Repeat the order of parsing an adverb . Repeat the cautions.

106. THE PREPOSITION .

1. The relations between objects of thought are sometimes

so obvious that they need no expression . This occurs when
nouns denoting time, distance, measure, direction, or value follow
verbs or adjectives; as, 66 He left yesterday ; He lives south
of this town." Such words are said to be in the objective
case without a governing word.
2. The names of things following the passive forms of the
verbs ask, lend, teach, refuse, provide, and some others are usually
in the objective case without a governing word ; as, “ I was
asked a question ; ” “ I was taught grammar."
3. The words of some phrases need not be separated in
parsing; as, in vain, on high, round and round, in general, etc.
Such combinations may be parsed as single words.
4. Sometimes two prepositions are used together, forming a
complex preposition ; as, “ He came from over the sea."

107. ORDER OF PARSING.

1. A Preposition, and why ? 2. What relation does it show ?

3. Rule .
128 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

108. MODELS FOR PARSING .

“ They went aboard the ship."

Aboard is a preposition ; it shows the relation between its

object and some other word : it shows the relation between
" ship " and " went." Rule XVIII . " A preposition shows the
relation of its object to the word upon which the latter
depends."

Analyze the following sentences , and parse the nouns and prepo
sitions :

1. A lark reared her brood amid the corn. 2. They wan

dered in throngs down the valley. 3. Emma came from the
village, through the woods, to our house . 4. We have seen
the moon rising behind the eastern pines. 5. I came from
beyond Richmond to-day. ( Parse " to -day " in the objective
case without a governing word, by Rule VIII . ) 6. I went to
Detroit yesterday. 7. John came home last night. 8. They
allowed themselves no relaxation.

9. To me the meanest flower that blows, can give

Thoughts that do often lie too deep for tears.
Wordsworth .
10. The locust by the wall
Stabs the noon-silence with his sharp alarm .
A single hay-cart down the dusty road
Creaks slowly, with its driver fast asleep
On the load's top.— Whittier.
Write the first two sentences of a description of Spruce Gum , and
parse the prepositions.
Finish the composition .
QUESTIONS – What is a preposition ? Do the relations between ob
jects of thought always need expression ? When do they not need ex
pression ? What words are in the objective case without a governing
word ? What is a complex preposition ? Can the words in all phrases
be separated ? How should such combinations be parsed ?
Ropeat the order of parsing a proposition
 THE CONJUNCTION . 129

109. THE CONJUNCTION .

Conjunctions are divided into two general classes: Coördi

nate and Subordinate.

1. Coördinate Conjunctions are those which join ele

ments of the same rank or name.

Ex.-- And, also, moreover, but still, or, nor, however, otherwise,
then, therefore, for, because, etc.

Rem.-Some of these are also used as subordinate conjunc

tions.

2. Subordinate Conjunctions are those which join

elements of different rank or name .

Ex . — That, if, unless, as, because, since, though, for, lest, ere, after,
until, when, where, there, how, although, than, etc.

3. Correlative Conjunctions are coördinates or sub

ordinates used in pairs, one referring or answering to
the other.

Ex . - Both — and, as — as , 80 -as, 80 — that, either — or,

neither — nor, if — then, though — yet, nevertheless, not only
— but also, whether — or, or --- or, nor — nor.

Rem .-Such combinations as as if, as though, as well as, as

soon as, forasmuch as, in so much that, but also, but likewise, not
only, etc. , may be parsed as single conjunctions or conjunctive
adverbs.

110. ORDER OF PARSING.

1. A Conjunction, and why ? 2. Coördinate or subordinate,

and why ? 3. What does it connect ? Rule .
El Gr . - 9 .
130 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

111. MODELS FOR PARSING .

I. “ Ellen and Mary study algebra .”

And is a conjunction ; it connects words : coördinate ; it con.
nects words of the same rank or name : it connects Emma”
and C" Mary ." Rule XIX. “ Conjunctions connect words,
phrases, members, and clauses. ”

II. “Neither Ellen nor Mary learned the lesson . "

Neither ... nor ...
.. are conjunctions; correlative ; one refers or
answers to the other : neither ” introduces the sentence, and
“ nor " connects " . Ellen ” and “ Mary : " Rule XIX ,

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the conjunctions :

1. Cold and hunger awake not her care. 2. He came and
went like a pleasant thought. 3. Wisdom is the principal
thing ; therefore get wisdom. 4. We can not thrive unless we
are industrious. 5. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in
him 6. He was not only proud, but vain also.

112. COMPOSITION .

Read the following description three or four times, then reproduce

it from memory :
IRON.

Iron is a heavy, solid, incombustible metal, of a white color

when pure. Its most useful property is its hardness, which is
greater than that of any other metal . It can be made into
steel, which is next in hardness to the diamond.
Like most other metals, iron is rarely found in a pure
state, being associated with oxygen, sulphur, and other sub
stances. The mixture is called iron ore, and varies much in
quality and value. It is found in all countries, and is very
abundant in the United States, where valuable deposits of its
are found in the neighborhood of coal.
 THE INTERJECTION . 131

In the manufacture of iron , the ore is first roasted , usually

in the open air. Many of the substances associated with the
metal are driven off by this process. It is next subjected to
a very great heat in a blast furnace. This process is called
smelting. The metal is melted by the intense heat, and is
drawn off from the bottom of the furnace into channels made
in sand. It is then called pig iron.
Pig iron is converted into wrought iron by being again
smelted and stirred ; after which , while still hot, it is ham
mered and rolled into bars. Wrought iron is the strongest
and the most tenacious of all metals, and is therefore used
where great strain has to be resisted . Separate pieces can
also be welded, or beaten into one mass, better than pieces
of any other metal.
Parse all the conjunctions in three sentences of your reading lesson .
QUESTIONS.—What is a conjunction ? Into how many classes are
conjunctions divided ? What are coördinate conjunctions ? Subordi
nate conjunctions ? Correlative conjunctions ? How should as if, not
only, etc., be parsed ?
Repeat the order of parsing a conjunction .

113. THE INTERJECTION .

1. Interjections are expressions of emotion only .

They are called interjections because they are thrown
in between connected parts of discourse, though gen
erally found at the commencement of a sentence .
2. Most words when used as exclamations may be
treated as interjections; as, “What ! are you mad ? ”
“ Revenge ! ” cried he .

114. ORDER OF PARSING.

1. An Interjection , and why ? 2. Rule.

132 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

115. MODEL FOR PARSING .

“ Ehl are you sure of it ? "

Eh ! is an interjection ; it denotes some sudden emotion .
Rule XX. “ An interjection has no dependence upon other
words."11

Parse all the words in the following sentences :

1. Hah ! it is a sight to freeze one ! 2. Ah ! ha ! you
thought me blind , did you ? 3. Oh ! Oh ! ' t is foul! 4. O
excellent young man ! 5. Alas, what have I seen or known !
6. Mercy, how it burns ! 7. Fie upon thee ! 8. Soft! I did
but dream . 9. Tush ! tush ! man , I made no reference to you.
10. Don't you hear ? Do n't you see ?
Hush ! look ! In my tree
I'm as happy as happy can be !
QUESTIONS. - What is an interjection ? Why is it called an interjec
tion ? Repeat the order of parsing an interjection ,

116. COMPOSITION .

Write a description of Lead , using the following

Plan .–1 . Properties—weight, color, etc. 2. Describe its ore.
3. Where found in our country . 4. How obtained . 5. How
prepared for use. 6. Uses. 7. Describe the manufacture of
small shot.

Describe some of these substances, using the following

General Plan .- 1 . Properties — color, weight, transparency.
opacity , etc. 2. Where found . 3. With what associated. 4.
How obtained . 5. How prepared for use : separation of a
metal from its ore, refining, alloying, etc. 6. Uses.
Tin . Zinc. Glass. Brass. Copper. Arsenic .
Clay. Sand. Lime. Silver. Pewter. Mercury
 ELLIPSIS . 133

117. ELLIPSIS .

1. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words of

a sentence . The words omitted are said to be under
stood .

Rem .-- If required in analysis or parsing, the words omitted

must be supplied.

2. All but the most important part of a sentence

may be omitted .
66
1. Nouns may be omitted ; as, Ye are Christ's [ disciples ]."

2. Pronouns may be omitted ; as, “ Come [thou ].”

3. Adjectives may be omitted ; as, “ That kind of exercise
may be good for you, but not (good ] for me. ”

4. Articles may be omitted ; as, “ Henry has a slate and

[ a ] pencil."
66
5. Participles may be omitted ; as, This [being ] done, wo
resumed our journey ."

6. Verbs may be omitted ; as, “ I'll [ go ] hence to London ; "

" [ To be] England's friend [is to be ] Ireland's foe."

7. Adverbs may be omitted ; as, “ He acted honorably, but

you did not [act honorably ]."

8. Prepositions may be omitted ; as, “ He gave [to] me an

orange."

9. Conjunctions may be omitted ; as, “ A good, [and] wise,

and truthful friend.”
66
10. Entire Phrases and Clauses may be omitted ; as, You
have more to do than you can accomplish ; I, less [to do than I
can accomplish ]."
134 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS.

“ Forward I”

This is a sentence ; exclamatory. Its subject and predicate are

omitted by ellipsis . It is equivalent to “ March ye forward .”
Ye is the subject; march , the predicate, which is modified by
forward, an adverbial element.
QUESTIONS.- What is ellipsis ? When are words said to be under
stood ? What parts of a sentence may be omitted ?

118. ABRIDGMENT.

1. Complex Sentences are often changed into simple

ones by abridging their subordinate clauses.
Rem . -This is done by dropping the subject or changing its
case, and by changing the copula or verbal predicate to an
infinitive, a participial noun , or a participle.
2. A subordinate clause thus changed is called an Abridged
Proposition.
Rem . When the copula or principal verb is changed to the
infinitive mode, a noun or pronoun used as subject or predi
cate is changed to the objective case.
Ex .- " I knew that it was he " = “ I knew it to be him .”
3. When the copula or principal verb is changed to a parti
cipial noun , the subject is changed to the possessive case, but
a noun or pronoun used as the predicate, remains unchanged
in the nominative.
Ex .— “ I was not aware that it was he " = “ I was not aware
of its being he.”
4. When the copula or principal verb is changed to a partici.
ple, the subject is put in the nominative case absolute with it.
Ex.- " The fair was not held , because the weather was un
faverable " = “ The weather being unfavorable, the fair was not
held ."
 ABRIDGMENT. 136

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS.

I. “ I knew it to be him .”

This is a sentence ; declarative ; simple.

I is the subject; knew, the predicate, which is modified by
the abridged proposition it to be hlm , equivalent to that it
was he, an objective element. “ It ” is modified by “ to be
him ,” an adjective element.
it
I knew to be - him .

II . “ I was aware of its being he.”

This is a sentence , declarative ; simple.

I is the subject; aware, the predicate ; was, the copula.
“ Aware ” is modified by the abridged proposition of its being
he, equivalent to that it was he, an adverbial element. “ Being"
is modified by " its,” an adjective element.

I was : aware
of being he.
its

III. “ The snow being deep, we could not proceed .”

This is a sentence ; declarative; simple.

We is the subject ; could proceed , the predicate, which is
modified by not, an adverbial element, and by the abridged
proposition the snow being deep, equivalent to because the snow
was deep, an adverbial element. " Snow " is modified by “ the ”
and " being deep ,” both adjective elements.
we | could proceed.
not
snow
The
being deep
136 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

Analyze the following sentences :

1. Attention ! 2. On, Stanley, on ! 3. Magnificent! 4. A
rope to the side ! 5. How now, my old friend ? 6. Are you
cold ?—Somewhat. 7. Honest, my lord ? 8. Better late than
never.
9. I wished him to be a farmer. 10. His being a foreigner
is no disgrace. 11. No rain having fallen, the crops were de
stroyed. 12. There is no danger of his falling 13. The storm
continuing, we dropped anchor. 14. Having led an active life,
he could not endure confinement. 15. Being human, he is
not perfect. 16. Honor being lost, all is lost.

119. MODIFIED SUBJECT AND PREDICATE .

1. The Grammatical Subject of a proposition is the

unmodified subject.
06 Storm ” is the grammat
Ex .— “ A great storm is raging."
ical subject.

2. The Complex or Logical Subject is the gram

matical subject taken with all its modifiers .

Ex.— “ A great storm is raging." " A great storm ” is the

logical subject. “ He who runs may read .” “ He who runs"
is the logical subject.

3. The Grammatical Predicate of a proposition is

the unmodified predicate .

Ex.— “ The storm rages furiously .” “ Rages ” is the gram

matical predicate.

4. The Complex or Logical Predicate is the gram

matical predicate taken with all its modifiers.
 COMPOSITION . 137

66
Ex .— “ The storm rages furiously . " Rages furiously ” is the
logical predicate. “ The wind blows with great violence.”
“ Blows with great violence " is the logical predicate ; “ blows "
is the grammatical predicate.
Rem . - All the parts of a sentence may be simple or com
plex ; but it is not necessary , in analysis, to distinguish them
as such . The distinction , however, may be observed with the
subject and the predicate.
Point out the grammatical and logical subjects and predicates in
any of the preceding exercises in analysis.
QUESTIONS.—What is the grammatical subject of a proposition ? The
complex or logical subject ? The grammatical predicate ? The complex
or logical predicate ?

120. COMPOSITION .

Read the following description a number of times , then reproduce

it from memory :
A HURRICANE IN THE WEST INDIES.

A hurricane in the West Indies is generally preceded by an

awe-inspiring stillness in the atmosphere. The air becomes
close and heavy. The sun is red , and at night the stars seem
unusually large. The mercury in the barometer falls rapidly ,
and the thermometer usually indicates a rise in the tempera
ture. Darkness extends over the earth , but the upper atmos
phere is lighted up by flashes of lightning.
The coming storm is first observed on the sea. Huge waves
rise suddenly from its clear and motionless surface. The wind
blows with unrestrained fury, and its noise may be compared
to distant thunder. The rain descends in torrents ; shrubs
and lofty trees are borne down by the mountain streams ; the
rivers overflow their banks , and submerge the plains.
Terror and consternation seem to reign supreme. Land
birds are driven by the wind far out to sea ; sea -birds seek
refuge from the fury of the storm in the forests . The beasts
of the field roam wildly about, or herd together trembling
138 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

with fear. The elements seem to be thrown into confusion ,

and the stability of nature to be destroyed .
The next morning's sun shines upon a scene of utter deso
lation. Fertile valleys have been changed to dreary wastes.
Uprooted trees, branches torn from their trunks, dead ani
mals, and thė ruins of houses have been strewed over the
land. In some instances, the destruction is so complete that
planters are unable to distinguish the boundaries of their
estates.

Write a description of an Earthquake, using the following

Plan .- 1 . Definition . 2. Cause. 3. Movements - horizontal,
vertical , etc. 4. Duration of shocks. 5. Effects. 6. Where
most frequent. 7. Connection with volcanic eruptions.
Describe some of these phenomena, using the following
General Plan .- 1 . Indications of occurrence. 2. Cause. 3.
Progress from beginning to end. 4. Consequences or effects,
of whatever character.

Mirage. A hail-storm. Formation of dew.

A sunset. An avalanche. A volcanic eruption .
A snow-storm. A thunder-storm. An eclipse of the sun .

121. RULES OF SYNTAX .

1. Syntax is that part of grammar which treats of

the construction of sentences.
Rem .- All the exercises in the formation of sentences, in
this work , are exercises in syntax.

2. A Rule of Syntax is a statement of the manner

in which words should be used in sentences.

Rule 1. -A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a

proposition , is in the nominative case.
 RULES OF SYNTAX 139

Rule II . -A noun or pronoun used as the predicate

of a proposition , is in the nominative case .
Rule III . -A noun or pronoun used to limit the
meaning of a noun denoting a different person or
thing, is in the possessive case .
Rem . 1.-The limited noun is sometimes omitted ; as, “ We
visited St. Paul's [ church ]."
Rem . 2.-The limited noun need not be plural because the
possessive is plural ; as, “ Their intention was good .”

Rule IV . - A noun or pronoun used to limit the

meaning of a noun or pronoun denoting the same
person , place, or thing, is in the same case.

Rem . 1.-A noun may be in apposition with a sentence, and

a sentence with a noun ; as, “ He is dangerously ill — a fuct that
can not be denied ; " Remember Franklin's maxim, ‘ God helps
them that help themselves.'
Rem . 2.-A word in apposition with another, is frequently
introduced by as or or ; as, “ As mayor of the city, I feel ag.
grieved ;" " mayor" being in apposition with “ I : " " Maize, or
Indian corn, is extensively cultivated ."

Rule V. - A noun or pronoun used independently is

in the nominative absolute case.

Rule VI . —The object of a transitive verb in the act

ive voice, or of its participles, is in the objective case .
Rem. 1.-Some verbs have two objects, one representing a
person, the other a thing ; as, “ He asked me a question .” When
such verbs are used in the passive voice, if the thing is made
nominative , the person is governed by a preposition , expressed
or understood : if the person is made nominative, the thing is
in the objective case without a governing word.
Rem . 2.-A noun or pronoun following the infinitive to be, is
in the same case as a word which precedes it ; as, “ I did not
140 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

think it to be him ; " " him " is in the same case as “ it : "
" Whom do you take me to be ? " " whom ” is in the same case
as “ me." See section 118.

Rule VII . —The object of a preposition is in the

objective case.
Rule VIII . -Nouns denoting time, distance, measure ,
or value, after verbs and adjectives, are in the ob
jective case without a governing word.
Ex .- " He came home yesterday.” Both “ home” and “ yes
terday " are in the objective case without a governing word.

Rem.-Nouns and pronouns following the passive forms of

certain verbs, may be said to be in the objective case without
a governing word11 ; as, “ I was taught grammar ; " " He was
offered a situation .”

Rule IX . - Pronouns must agree with their anteced

ents in gender, person , and number.

Rem .-A pronoun used instead of a collective noun, denot

ing unity , should be in the neuter singular : one used instead
of a collective noun, denoting plurality, should be plural, tak
ing the gender of the individuals composing the collection.

Rule X. -A pronoun with two or more antecedents

in the singular connected by and, must be plural.
Rem . When the antecedents are the names of the same
person or thing , the pronoun must be singular : when they are
limited by each, every, or no, the pronoun must be singular :
when the antecedents , taken together, are regarded as a single
thing, the pronoun must be singular.

Ex .— “ The patriot and statesman “ Each

?? receives his reward ; ”
officer, each private, did his duty ; Bread and milk was brought
us, and we ate it."
 RULES OF SYNTAX. 141

Rule XI .-A pronoun with two or more antecedents

in the singular, connected by or or nor , must be
singular.

Rem.—When one of the antecedents is plural, it should be

placed last, and the pronoun should be plural ; as, “ Neither
the farmer nor his sons were aware of their danger.”

Rule XII .-- An adjective or participle belongs to

some noun or pronoun .
Rem .-An adjective used as a predicate, belongs to the
subject.

Rule XIII . —A verb must agree with its subject in

person and number.

Rule XIV . —A verb , with two or more subjects in

the singular connected by and, must be plural.
Rem .—When two or more subjects in the singular are but
different names for the same thing, the verb should be singu
lar ; as, “Descent and fall to us is adverse. " When two or
more singular subjects are emphatically distinguished, the
verb should be singular; as, “ Every bird and beast cowers
before the wild blast.”

Rule XV . -A verb , with two or more subjects in the

singular connected by or or nor, must be singular.
Rule XVI . - An infinitive not used as a noun, de
pends upon the word it limits .

Rule XVII . -Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, par

ticiples, and adverbs.
Rem.-Adverbs also modify phrases and entire propositions ;
as, “ He lives just around the corner ;" " Verily, ye are the
people."
142 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

Rule XVIII . —A preposition shows the relation of its

object to the word upon which the latter depends.

Rule XIX . — Conjunctions connect words, phrases,

clauses , and members.

Rule XX . — Interjections have no dependence upon

other words.

122. LETTER -WRITING .

ORAL LESSON. —I have a letter in my hand. You may look

at it. First, however, look at the superscription, or what is
written on the envelope. You see that it looks like this :

STAMP.

Neu.Jas Johnson,

Neadison,

Lake Co.,

Ohio.

This is a good form for the superscription of a letter ; but

other forms are allowable and in common use, Write the
name and title of the person to whom the letter is to be sent
 LETTER -WRITING . 143

a little below the middle of the envelope. Below this, and a

little to the right of the first letters of the name, write the
name of the post -office. This is usually the name of some
township, village, or city. The name of the county should be
written below and a little to the right of the name of the
post-office, and the name of the state in the lower right-hand
corner of the envelope. T'he name of the county is sometimes
written in the lower left -hand corner. If the letter is to be
sent to a foreign country, the name of that country forms the
last line of the superscription . A stamp should be placed on
the envelope, in the upper right-hand corner, before a letter
is sent to the post-office to be mailed .
I will now open my letter. You see that the name of the
city in which the writer lives, and the day of the month on
which the letter was written, are placed near the top of the
page. This part of a letter is called the date. ( See page 144. )
After writing the date, my friend wrote my name on the
next line beneath , beginning about half an inch from the left
side of the page, and the name of my post-office on the line
below that, and about half an inch to the right. The words
Dear Sir ” were written next, beginning about an inch and
a half from the left side of the page. This part of a letter is
5
called the address. Some call Dear Sir," etc. , when written
in this way, the introduction or the complimentary address. These
words are, however, only a part of the address.
The body of the letter, which contains what the writer wished
me to know, was then written ; after that, the signature. The
first word of the body of the letter was written under the last
word of the address. Some 66 begin this part of a letter farther
to the right. The words Yours truly " should begin a little
to the right of the center of the line. Instead of these words,
some prefer “ Yours faithfully ,” “ Very respectfully , ” etc. The
signature, and , in fact, every part of a letter, should be writ
ten as legibly as possible. Avoid all attempts at " flourishes.”
A letter introducing a friend or an acquaintance 66 should
not be sealed ; and it is customary to write Introducing
A. B. , Esq.,” or some similar expression, in the lower left
hand corner of the envelope.
144 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

(DATE. )

, Neay 1, 1880.
Boston, Meass.
( ADDRESS . )

New Jus.Johnson.

Neadison ,

Dear Sit
( BODY OF LETTER .)

l write this to inform

you than it is my intention to travel

for my health the coming summer, and

sed soon in
they shall pabudly you

you western homey

Yours truly
(SIGNATURE.)

Renvy Rimess

I have told you how to write a letter. When you have

written one, bring it to me, and I will show you how to fold
it and put it into an envelope. You may now write me a
letter in which you shall tell me what you intend to do next
Saturday afternoon .
 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 145

123. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES .

1. She saw a glory in each cloud. 2. Still waters are com

monly deepest. 3. To -morrow may be brighter than to -day.
4. Few days pass without some clouds. 5. She made acquaint
ance with the birds that fluttered by. 6. It was a harper,
wandering with his harp.

7. How long didst thou think that his silence was slumber ?
8. At length the sun departed, setting in a sea of gold . 9. The
smooth sea, the serene atmosphere, the mild zephyr, are the
proper emblems of a gentle temper and a peaceful life.

10. ' T is greatly wise to talk with our past lives,

And ask them what report they bore to heaven.

11. The night, methinks, is but the daylight sick . 12. Evils
have been more painful to us in the prospect than in the
actual pressure . 13. A written or printed paper, posted in
a public place, is called a placard . 14. Few are qualified
to shine in company ; but it is in most men's power to be
agreeable.

15. How often have I blessed the coming day,

When toil remitting lent its turn to play,
And all the village train , from labor free,
Led up their sports beneath the spreading tree.
Goldsmith.
16. Alas, we think not that we daily see
About our hearths, angels that are to be,
Or may be if they will . — Leigh Hunt.

17. The insect tribe are here : the ant toils on

With its white burden ; in its netted web
Gray glistening o'er the bush , the spider lurks,
A close-crouched ball , out-darting as a hum
Tells its trapped prey , and looping quick its threads,
Chains into helplessness the buzzing wings.—Street.
El. Gr . - 10 .
146 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

18, Princes have but their titles for their glories ;

An outward honor for an inward toil. — Shakespeare.

19. My soul is an enchanted boat,

Which , like a sleeping swan, doth float
Upon the silver waves of thy ' sweet singing ;
And thine doth like an angel sit
Beside the helm conducting it,
While all the winds with melody are ringing. --Shelley .

20. The year leads round the seasons in a choir

Forever charming and forever new,
Blending the grand, the beautiful, the gay ,
The mournful and the tender in one strain.— Percival.

21. King David's limbs were weary . He had fled

From far Jerusalem ; and now he stood,
With his faint people, for a little rest
Upon the shores of Jordan. The light wind
Of morn was stirring, and he bared his brow
To its refreshing breath ; for he had worn
The mourner's covering, and he had not felt
That he could see his people until now. - Willis.

22. One hour beheld him since the tide he stemmed ,

Disguised, discovered, conquering, ta'en , condemned ;
A chief on land, an outlaw on the deep,
Destroying , saving, prisoned , and asleep . - Byron .

23. Who e'er, amidst the sons

Of reason, valor, liberty , and virtue,
Displays distinguished merit, is a noble
Of Nature's own creating. – Thomson.

24. He that attends to his interior self,

That has a heart, and keeps it ; has a mind
That hungers, and supplies it ; and who seeks
A social, not a dissipated life,
Has business. --Oowper.
 QUOTATIONS. 147

25. The timid it concerns to ask their way,

And fear what foe in caves and swamps may stay ;
To make no step until the event is known,
And ills to come, as evils past, bemoan.
Not so the wise ; no coward watch he keeps,
To spy what danger on his pathway creeps.
Go where he will , the wise man is at home
His hearth the earth , his hall the azure dome. — Emerson.

26. Every worm beneath the moon

Draws different threads, and late or soon
Spins toiling out his own cocoon.— Tennyson .

27. Sweet is the breath of morn , her rising sweet,

With charm of earliest birds ; pleasant the sun,
When first on this delightful land he spreads
His orient beams, on herb, tree, fruit, and flower,
Glistening with dew.— Milton .

28. The day hath gone to God ,

Straight - like an infant's spirit, or a mocked
And mourning messenger of grace to man . - Bailey.

29. It is a little thing to speak a phrase

Of common comfort, which, by daily use,
Has almost lost its sense ; yet on the ear
Of him who thought to die unmourned, ' t will fall
Like choicest music. — Talfourd .

30. A song to the oak , the brave old oak,

Who hath ruled in the greenwood long ;
Here's health and renown to his broad green crown,
And his fifty arms so strong. — Chorley.

31. Labor is life ! ' Tis the still water faileth ;

Idleness ever despaireth, bewaileth ;
Keep the watch wound, for the dark rust assaileth ;
Flowers droop and die in the stillness of noon.
Frances S. Osgood.
 PART III .

PUNOTUATION .

124. DEFINITION.

1. Punctuation is the art of dividing written dis

course into sentences and parts of sentences, by means
of points and marks.

2. The principal marks used in punctuation are the

following :
Comma, Exclamation Point, !
Semicolon , Dash ,
Colon , Curves, ()
Period , Brackets, . []
Interrogation Point, ?

125. THE COMMA.

The Comma denotes the slightest degree of separa

tion between the parts of a sentence .
Rule 1.-Two or more nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, or
adverbs, in the same construction, should be separated by
commas.
Ex.- 1 . Spring, summer, autumn, and winter are called the
seasons. 2. You, he, and I were boys together. 3. David was
a brave, wise, and pious man. 4. In a letter, we may advise,
exhort, comfort, request, and discuss. 5. Success depends upon
our acting prudently , steadily, and vigorously.
(148 )
 PUNCTUATION . 149

Rule 11.—The members of a compound sentence, when

short, and connected by conjunctions, should be separated
by commas .
Ex.—He was not fond of the technical language of meta- .
physics, but he had grappled, like the giant he was, with its
most formidable problems.— Everett.

Rule III .-Two correlative clauses should be separated by

commas.
Ex.-As in Adam all die, so in Christ shall all be made
alive.

Rule IV.-Each couplet of words arranged in pairs should

be set off by. commas .
Ex.—Sink or swim, live or die, I give my hand and my
heart to this vote.

Rule V.-Words placed in opposition to each other should

be separated by commas.
Ex . - Though deep , yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull.

Rem.—This rule applies, also, to phrases and clauses placed

in opposition or antithesis to each other.

Rule VI .—When a verb is omitted, its place is usually sup

plied by a comma.
Ex.—War is the law of violence ; peace, the law of love.

Rule VII .—Transposed words, phrases, and clauses are usu

ally set off by commas.
Ex.-1 . Integrity is, no doubt, the first requisite. 2. Whom
ye ignorantly worship, Him declare I unto you.

Rule VIII .- Adverbs used independently, or modifying an

entire proposition , should be set off by commas.
Ex . — Indeed, you must wait a while.
150 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

Rule IX.—Nouns and pronouns in the nominative absolute

case by pleonasm or direct address, should be separated from
the rest of the sentence by commas.

Ex.- 1 . Our souls, how heavily they go, to reach immortal

joys. 2. Take, O boatman, thrice thy fee !

Rule X.—Nouns in apposition, modified by other words than

the, should be set off by commas .
Ex . — The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun

Rem . - Nouns in apposition , introduced by or or as, should

be set of by commas .

Rule XI .-A direct quotation should be set off by commas .

Ex.—Quoth the raven , “ Nevermore."

Rule XII .—Words repeated for emphasis should be set off

by commas.
Ex . - Verily, verily, I say unto you.

126. THE SEMICOLON.

The Semicolon denotes a degree of separation greater

than that denoted by the comma .

Rule 1.—The semicolon should be used before as, namely,

etc. , introducing an example or an illustration .
Ex.-There are four seasons ; namely, spring summer,
autumn, and winter.

Rule 11.-Clauses having a common dependence should be

separated by semicolons.
Ex.-Experience teaches us , that an entire retreat from
worldly affairs is not what religion requires ; nor does it even
enjoin a long retreat from them.
 PUNCTUATION . 151

Rule III . - Semicolons should separate the members of com

pound sentences, if the connective is omitted, or if their parts
are separated by commas.
Ex.- ) . Straws swim upon the surface; pearls lie at the
bottom. 2. Philosophers assert that nature is unlimited in
her operations ; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve ;
that knowledge will always be progressive ; and that all future
generations will continue to make discoveries, of which we
have not the least idea.

127. THE COLON.

The Colon denotes a degree of separation greater

than that indicated by the semicolon .
Rule 1.—The colon should precede an example or a lengthy
quotation, and follow the introduction to a speech .
Ex . — The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of
the Deity in these words : “ God is love . "

Rule 11.—The members of a compound sentence, whose parts

are set off by semicolons, should be separated by colons.
Ex . — We do not say that his error lies in being a good
member of society ; this, though only a circumstance at pres
ent, is a very fortunate one : the error lies in his having dis
carded the authority of God as his legislator ; or, rather, in
his not having admitted the influence of that authority over
his mind , heart, or practice.

128. THE PERIOD.

The Period denotes the greatest degree of separa

tion .

Rule 1.—The period should be placed at the end of a de

clarative or an imperative sentence.
152 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

Ex . - 1. Evil communications corrupt good manners. 2,

Walk quietly .

Rule 11.—The period should be used after every abbreviated

word.

Ex.-H. G. Lloyd, Esq.; Mich . , Ind. , ill. ; Ps. lxxv, 6, 7 ;

Chap. XIV.

129. INTERROGATION POINT.

The Interrogation Point denotes that a question is

asked .

Ex.-1 . Where is Singapore ? 2. Do you own this farm ?

130. EXCLAMATION POINT.

The Exclamation Point denotes passion or emotion

Rule 1. — The exclamation point should be placed after ex

pressions denoting strong emotion.
Ex . - 1. Alas, poor Yorick ! 2. Fie on youl

131. THE DASH .

The Dash is a straight, horizontal line, placed be.

tween the parts of a sentence .
Rule 1.—The dash should be used where a sentence breaks
off abruptly, or where there is a change in its meaning or
construction .
Ex .- 1 . Dim-dim-I faint - darkness comes over me. 2. If
thou art he, so much respected once , but oh ! how fallen !
how degraded !
 PUNCTUATION . 153

Rule II.—The dash is frequently used before and after a

parenthesis — the curves being omitted .
Ex.—They see three of the cardinal virtues of dog or man
courage, endurance, and skill-in intense action.

Rem . — The dash is frequently used where there is an omis

sion of letters or figures ; as, L — d N-h ; i. e. , Lord North :
Ps. xxxv, 6—10 ; i. e. , Ps. xxxv, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10.

132. THE CURVES .

The Curves include an expression which has no

necessary connection , in sense or construction , with
the sentence in which it is inserted .

Rem . - Such an expression is called a parenthesis.

Rule 1. —The curves should include those words which may

be omitted without injury to the sense.
Ex.— 1 . My gun was on my arm ( as it always is in that
district), but I let the stoat kill the rabbit.
2. Know, then, this truth ( enough for man to know ),
Virtue alone is happiness below . — Pope.

Rem .—The curves sometimes include letters or figures used

to enumerate subjects or divisions of a subject; as, “ (a ) What
it does ; (6) What it is . "

133. THE BRACKETS.

Brackets are used to include words , phrases, or

clauses explaining what precedes them , or correcting
an error.

Ex.-1 . They [ the Indians] are fast disappearing. 2. I dif

fer with [ from ] you in opinion .
154 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

134. OTHER MARKS USED IN WRITING .

1. The Apostrophe [ ' ] is used to denote the omission of one

66
or more letters, or to mark the possessive case ; as, You ' re
mistaken ; " “ The Queen's English .”

II . The Hyphen [ - ] is used ( 1 ) to join the parts of com

pound words and expressions ; as, “ Nut -brown maid ; ” (2) to
divide words into syllables ; as , con- fu -sion ; " (3 ) after a syl
lable at the end of a line, when the rest of the word is carried
to the next line.

III . Quotation Marks [ " " ] are used to show that a passage
is taken verbatim from some author ; as, “ Shakespeare says,
'All the world's a stage. '

IV . The Index [ 1 ] and Asterism [ *** ] point out a pas

sage to which special attention is called ; as, “ 19 Be punctual
in your attendance at school."

V. The Asterisk [ * ] , the Obelisk , or Dagger [ + ] , the Double

Dagger [ $ ] , the Section [ ? ] , the Parallels [ ll ] , and the Para
graph [ 1 ] , refer to notes in the margin, or at the bottom of
the page .

VI . The Brace [ an ] connects a number of words with a

common term.

VII . The Paragraph [ 1 ] denotes the beginning of a new

subject.

VIII , The Section [?] denotes the division of a treatise.

IX . The Caret [ ^ ] is used in writing to show that some

thing has been omitted.
a not countries
Ex.—The sesons are alike in all of the same region.
 PUNCTUATION . 155

X. The Tilde [ o ] annexes to n the sound of y ; as, cañon,

pronounced canyon : the Cedilla ( ç ] gives to c the sound of s ;
as, façade : the Macron [ - ] marks a long sound, as in tone:
the Breve [ - ] , a short sound, as in tón : the Dieresis ( • ) sep
arates two vowels into two syllables ; as, aëriform .
XI. The Acute Accent [' ] commonly denotes a sharp sound ;
the Grave Accent [ \] a depressed sound ; the Circumflex Ac
cent [ r or 7 ] , a broad sound .

Rem . - In most reading books, the acute accent denotes the

rising inflection ; the grave accent, the falling inflection ; the
circumflex , a union of the acute and the grave.
Suggestion to Teachers. — Require pupils to give rules for
the use of all the points found in their reading lesson. Se
lect passages from good authors, and pronounce the words in
consecutive order, as in a spelling lesson , without indicating
the grammatical construction by tone of voice or inflections .
Let the pupils write these as pronounced, and separate them
into sentences and parts of sentences by the proper points.

Punctuate properly the following example, and observe the rules

for the use of capitals :
his personal appearance contributed to the attraction of his
social intercourse his countenance frame expression and pres
ence arrested and fixed attention you could not pass him un
noticed in a crowd nor fail to observe in him a man of high
mark and character no one could see him and not wish to
see more of him and this alike in public and private.
edward everett,

QUESTIONS. — What is punctuation ? Define the principal marks used

in punctuation . Repeat the rules for their use .
What does the apostrophe denote ? For what purposes is the hyphen
used ? The quotation marks ? The index and asterism ? The asterisk,
etc. ? What does the brace connect ? What does the paragraph denote ?
The section ?
For what purpose is the caret used ? What does the tilde denote ?
The cedilla ? The macron ? The breve ? The dieresis ? What does the
acute accent denote ? The grave accent ? The circumflex accent ? What
do these denote in most reading books ?
 APPENDIX .

IRREGULAR VERBS .

The following list contains the Principal parts of most of

the irregular verbs. Those marked R have also the regular
forms.

PRESENT. PAST. PERFECT PRESENT. PAST. PERFECT

PARTICIPLE . PARTICIPLE .
Abide, abode, abode. bid , bid,
Bid,
Am , was, been . { bade, bidden.
Arise, arose , arisen. Bind , bound , bound .
awoke,r . { awaked,
awoke. bitten ,
Awake , Bite, bit, { bit.
Bear , Bleed , bled , bled.
{ bore, born.
(bring forth ) l bare, blessed, blessed ,
Bless, bl
{ est,
Bear,(carry),bore, borne. blest.
beaten, broke, broken,
Beat, beat, Break ,
beat. brake, broke.
Become, became, become. Breed, bred , bred .
Befall, befeli, befallen . Bring, brought, brought.
begotten, Build , built, R. built, R.
Beget, begat,
{begot
, begot. Burn , burnt, R. burnt, R.
Begin , began, begun. Burst, burst, burst.
Behold , beheld , beheld. Buy , bought, bought.
Belay, belaid , R. belaid, R. Cast, cast, cast.
Bend , bent, R. bent , R. Catch, caught, R. caught, R
Bereave , bereft , R bereft, R.
Chide, chid , { ch idden
Beseech , besought, besought. chid. ,
Bet, bet , R. bet, R. Choose, chose, chosen .
Cleave, cleaved,
Betide, { betide,
d betided, { cleaved , cleaved .
betid . ( adhere ). clave,
( 168)
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 157

PRESENT. PAST. PERFECT PRESENT. PAST . PERFECT

PARTICIPLE. PARTICIPLE .
( cleft, cleft, Freeze, froze, frozen .
Cleave, clove, cloven, Freight, freighted , fraught, R.
(split ,) ( clave, cleaved.
Get, got, {got
sot,
Cling, clung, clung. gotten .
clothed, clothed, Gild, gilt, R. gilt, R.
Clothe,
clad, clad . Gird, girt, R. girt, R.
Come, came, come. Give, gave, given.
Cost, cost, cost. Go, went, gone.
Creep,, crept, crept. Grave, graved, graven , R.
Crow , crew , R. crowed. Grind , ground , ground .
Cut, cut, cut. Grow , grew, grown.
Dare, durst, R. dared. Hang , hung, R. hung, R.
Deal, dealt, dealt. Have, had , had.
Dig , dug, R. dug, R. Hear, heard , heard.
Do, did, done. Heave, hove, R. hoven, R.
Draw , drew, drawn. Hew, hewed , hewn, R.
Dream, dreamt, R. dreamt, R. hidden,
Hide, hid, { hid.
Dress, drest, R. drest, R.
Hit, hit, hit.
Drink , drank, { arunken.
Hold, held , {held,
Drive, drove, driven . holden.
Eat, ate, eaten . Hurt, hurt, hurt.
Fall, fell, fallen . Keep , kept, kept.
Feed, fed , fed. Kneel, knelt, R. knelt.
Feel, felt, felt. Knit, knit, R. knit, R.
Fight, fought, fought. Know, knew, known .
Find, found, found. Lay, laid, laid .
Flee, fled , fled . Lead, led , led.
Fling, flung, flung . Lean, leant, R. leant, R.
Fly , flew , flown. Leap, leapt, R. leapt, R.
Forbear, forbore, forbore. Learn, learnt, R. learnt, R.
forgotten, Leave , left, left.
Forget, forgot, lent.
forgot. Lend, lent,
Forsake, forsook , forsaken. Let, let, let.
158 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

PRESENT . PAST . PERFECT PRESENT. PAST . PERFECT

PARTICIPLE . PARTICIPLE
Lie, Seethe, sod, R. sodden, R.
lain.
( redine), { lay, Shake, shook , shaken .
Light, lit, R. lit, R. Shape , shaped, shapen, R.
Load, loaded . laden , R. Shave, shaved , shaven , R.
Lose, lost, lost. Shear, shore, R. shorn, R.
Make, made, made. Shed , shed, shed .
Mean, meant, meant. Shine, shone, R. Shone, R.
Meet, met, met. Shoe, shod , shod.
Mow , mowed , mown, R. Shoot, shot, shot .
Pass, past, R. past. Show, showed , shown.
Pay , paid, paid . Shred, shred, shred .
Pen , Shut, shut, shut.
pent, R. pent, R.
( inclose ), sang,
Sing, sung
plead, R. plead, R. - sung,
Plead,
pled , pled. sank,
Sink , sunk.
Put, put, put. sunk ,
Quit, quit, R. quit , R. Sit, sat, sat.
Rap, rapt, R. rapt, R. Slay, slew , slain.
Read , read, read . Sleep, slept, slept.
Reave, reft, reft. Sling , slung, slung.
Rend, rent, rent. Slink , slunk, slunk.
Rid, rid, rid. Slit, slit, R. slit, R.
ridden, Smell , smelt, R. smelt, R.
Ride, rode,
rode.
Smite, smote, itten,
smsmit.
rang,
Ring, rung
rung, Sow , sown , R.
Rise, rose, risen. (scatter ),
Rive, rived, riven, R. Speak, spoke, spoken.
Run, ran , run. Speed, sped , R. sped, R.
Saw , sawed, sawn , R. Spell, spelt, R. spelt, R
Say, said , said. Spend , speni, spent.
See , saw , seen . Spill, spilt, R. spilt, Rob
Seek , sought, sought. spun,
Set, Spin, spun .
set, set. span ,
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 159

PRESENT . PAST . PERFECT PRESENT . PAST PERFECT

PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE .
spit, swam ,
Spit, { spit, Swim , { swum swum.
spat, spitten .
Split, split, R. split, R. Swing, swung, swung.
Spoil, spoilt, R. spoilt, R. Take, took, taken.
Spread , spread , spread . Teach , taught, taught.
Tear , tore, torn .
Spring, sprang , sprung.
Tell, told , told.
sprung,
Stand, stood, stood . Think , thought, thought.
Stave, stove, R. stove, R. Thrive , throve, R. thriven, R.
Stay , staid, R. staid, R. Throw , threw , thrown.
Steal, stole, stolen. Thrust, thrust, thrust.
Stick, stuck , stuck. trodden ,
Tread, trod, trod .
Sting, stung, stung:
strid, strid , Wake , woke, R. woke, R.
Stride, strode, stridden . Wax , waxed , waxen , R.
struck , Wear, wore, worn .
Strike, struck,
stricken. Weave, wove, R. woven , R.
String, strung, strung. Wed, wed, R. wed , R.
Strive, strove, striven. Weep , wept, wept.
Wet , wet, R. wet, R.
Strow , strowed , { Strowed,
strown. Whet, whet, R. whet, R.
Win , won, won.
Swear, Sworn .
{ swore
sware,: Wind , wound , wound.
Sweat, sweat, R. sweat, R. Work, wrought,R.wrought, R.
Sweep, swept, swept. Wring, wrung, wrung.
Swell , swelled, swollen, R. Write, wrote, written .

UNIPERSONAL VERBS .

A Unipersonal Verb is one by which an act or state is

asserted. independently of any particular subject ; as , “ It
snows ; ' It behooves us to be watchful. ” In each of these
sentences, " it " represents an indefinite subject. The term
" unipersonal" need not be used in parsing
160 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

CAPITAL LETTERS, ITALICS, ETC.

I. The first word of every sentence should begin

with a capital letter.

II . The first word of every line of poetry should

begin with a capital letter.

III . Proper names of persons, places, days, etc.,

should begin with capital letters.

IV . Titles of honor or distinction should begin

with capital letters.

V. All appellations of the Deity should begin with

capital letters.

VI. Words denoting races or nations should begin

with capital letters.

VII . Most words derived from proper names should

begin with capital letters.

VIII . Words of special importance may begin with

capital letters .

IX . I and O , used as single words, should be capi

tals.

X. Emphatic words, phrases, and clauses are fre

quently printed in capitals.

Rem . I. - Italicized words in the Bible are those supplied by

translators to explain the original .
Rem. 2.-In manuscripts, one line drawn under a word indi.
cates italics, two lines, SMALL CAPITALS ; three lines, CAPITALS.
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