INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING

CHAPTER 4: SOFTWARE IN GENERAL

LESSON 2 – PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS, AND INTERNET ARCHITECTURE

Protocols and Standards

Before we go deeper to the different Protocols and Standards under the Data
Communication and Networking, let us first define what a protocol is and
what is a standard?

When we say Protocol? This are set of rules that governs a communication or
exchange of information. This can be the step by step procedure or can be the
guidelines to follow in communicating or exchanging information. According
to Computerhope.com “Protocol is a standards used to define a method of
exchanging data over a computer network such as local area network, Internet,
Intranet, etc. Each protocol has its own method of how data is formatted when
sent and what to do with it once received, how that data is compressed or how
to check for errors in data.”

We have different types of protocols and let’s us discuss some of the most
common protocols in the Data Communication that is based on
WikiBooks.com.

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol) is a set of

communication protocols used for the Internet and other similar networks.
The Internet Protocol suite, like many protocol suite, may categorized in a set
of layers.

ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) is a communication protocol that is used

to resolve the Logical Address into Physical Address. Meaning using this
protocol network layer address are converted into data link layer addresses.

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a network protocol used by

IP networks to dynamically distribute network configuration paramters like IP
address for interface and services.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a telecommunication protocol used to transfer

files or data from one device to another device over the TCP/IP Connection.

ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is one of the main protocols of the
Internet Protocol Suite used by network devices to send error message and
relay query messages.

POP 3 (Post Office Protocol 3) is an Internet Standard protocol used by E-

mail clients to retrieve information/data from an E-mail server through
TCP/IP connection.

SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) – VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) is

another communication protocol that is designed for Voice over Internet
Protocol. It is used for signaling and controlling multimedia communication
sessions.
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING
CHAPTER 4: SOFTWARE IN GENERAL
LESSON 2 – PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS, AND INTERNET ARCHITECTURE

Actually there are lots of different protocols that is associated with data
communication but i prefer not to tackle it here as it will also be tackled in
your Data Communication and Networking 1 subject in the future. So now,
let’s proceed in the discussion of the different standards that is used to allow
different devices or equipment from different manufacturer to communicate
with one another.

Let us first, define the reason why there’s a need for Standard or Standard
giving body? According to an article at what-when-how.com website
“Standards are necessary in almost every business and public service entity.
The primary reason for standards is to ensure that hardware and software
produced by different vendors can work together. Without networking
standards, it will be difficult – if not impossible – to develop networks that
easily share information. Standards also mean that customer are not locked
into one vendor. They can buy hardware and software from any vendor whose
equipment meets the standard.”

Imagine, if there are no standards or standard giving bodies then different

device coming from the different vendors can’t communicate with one another
and there will be no communication or transmission at all. Here are some of
the Standard giving bodies that is known in networking or data
communication:

International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is an organization that is

based in Geneva, Switzerland. It promotes worldwide, proprietary, industrial
and commercial standards. One of the biggest contribution of this standard
giving body is the OSI or the Open System Interconnect that is widely used in
the Networking world.

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineer (IEEE) is a professional

organization that is composed of computer scientist, software developers,
information technology professional, physicist and even medical doctor. This
organization is focused in the advance technological innovation and
excellence. The greatest contribution of IEEE in the Data Communication is
the 802 which is the LAN/WAN Standards.

Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is an international community of

network designers, operators, vendors and researcher that is focused in the
evolution of the internet architecture and the enhancement of the internet
Figure 4.9 – Different operation. IETF uses the RFC or the Request for Comment in their standards.
Standard Giving
Organizations International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is an agency under the United
Nations (UN) that is tasked to oversee and address the issues when it comes to
Information and Communication Technologies.

American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is a private organization that is

responsible for the development of consensus standards for services, products,
systems, processes and even personnel in the United State of America.
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING
CHAPTER 4: SOFTWARE IN GENERAL
LESSON 2 – PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS, AND INTERNET ARCHITECTURE

This are just some of the standard giving body that is much known or very
popular in the Networking field. Now let us discuss the two different standard
model that is used nowadays. OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) and TCP/IP
(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol) are the two well known
model in computer network.

Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) Model is one of the greatest contribution

of the ISO in the computer networking industry. This model is used by
company as reference because it characterizes and standardizes the internal
functions of a communication system into different layers.

According to Wikipedia.com “Open System is a set of protocols that allow

any two different systems to communicate regardless of their underlying
structure. The purpose of OSI model is to show how to facilitate
communication between different systems without requiring changes to the
logic of the underlying hardware and software. The OSI model isn’t just a
protocol but a model for understanding and designing a network architecture
that is flexible, robust and interoperable.”

Figure 4.10 – Open Systems Interconnect Model

OSI Model is divided into 7 layers namely: Physical Layer, Data Link Layer,
Network Layer, Transport layer, Session Layer, Presentation Layer and
Application Layer. Let us somehow discuss each layer briefly because deeper
discussion of this topic will be in your Data Communication and Networking
1: Networking Fundamentals.
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING
CHAPTER 4: SOFTWARE IN GENERAL
LESSON 2 – PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS, AND INTERNET ARCHITECTURE

Physical layer, according to Wikipedia.com is the layer that defines the

electrical and physical specifications of the data connection. It defines the
relationship between a device and a physical transmission medium. This
include the layout of pins, voltage, line impedance, cable specifications, signal
timings, hubs, repeaters, network adapters, host bus adapters and others. This
layer also defines the protocol to establish and terminate a connection between
two directly connected nodes plus it also define the protocol for flow control.

Data Link layer, provides node-to-node transfer (reliable link between two
directly connected nodes), by detecting and possibly correcting errors that
may occur in the physical layer. This layer is divided into two sublayer which
is Media Access Control (MAC) and the Logical Link Control (LLC).

Network Layer, is another layer that is responsible in providing functional and

procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences (called
datagrams) from one node to another connected to the same network. It
translates logical network address into physical machine address. A Network
is a medium to which many nodes can be connected, on which every node has
an address and which permits nodes connected to it to transfer message to
other nodes connected to it by merely providing the content of message and
the address of the destination node and letting the network find the way to
deliver (“Route”) the message to the destination node. Datagram delivery at
the network layer is not guaranteed to be reliable.

Transport Layer, provides the functional and procedural means of transferring

variable-length data sequences from a source to a destination host via one or
more networks, while maintaining the quality of service functions. This layer
controls the reliability of a given link through flow control,
segmentation/desegmentation and error control.

Session Layer, controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It

establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and
remote applications. It provides for full duplex, half duplex or even simplex
operations. Session Layer establishes checkpointing, adjournment, and
termination and restart procedure.

Presentation Layer, is a layer of the OSI that will establish context between
application-layer entities, in which the application-layer entities may use
different syntax and semantics if the presentation services provides a big
mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation service data
units are encapsulated into session protocol data units, and passed down the
protocol stack.

And last but not the least is the Application layer. It is the layer among the 7
OSI layer that is closest to the end user, which means both the OSI application
layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer
interacts with the software applications that implement a communicating
component. Application-layer functions typically include identifying
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING
CHAPTER 4: SOFTWARE IN GENERAL
LESSON 2 – PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS, AND INTERNET ARCHITECTURE

communication partners, determining resource availability and synchronizing

communications.

And those are seven OSI layers, you will be learning more of that in your Data
Communication and Networking 1. Now, let’s proceed to the discussion of
another known model / standard in networking that is the TCP/IP Model.

As I previously said OSI model is conceived and maintained by International

Organization of Standardization and TCP/IP model is maintained by the
Internet Engineering Task Force. TCP/IP is almost the same as with OSI but
TCP/IP is much simpler because instead of 7 layers TCP/IP is divided into 4
layers.

According to Wikipedia.com, TCP/IP Model provides end-to-end

connectivity specifying how data should be packetized, addressed,
transmitted, routed and received at the destination. Indeed, this functionality is
organized into four abstraction layers which are used to sort all related
protocols according to the scope of networking involved.

Figure 4.11 – TCP/IP Model

Like what I said a while ago, TCP/IP Model is divided into 4 different layers.
From lowest to highest, the layers are the Network Layer, Internet Layer,
Transport Layer and Application Layer.

Network Layer, is used to move packets between the Internet layer interface of
two different host on the same link. The process of transmitting and receiving
packets on a given link can be controlled both in the software device drivers
for network cards, as well as on firmware or specialized chipsets.

Internet Layer, has the responsibility of sending packets across potentially

multiple networks. Internetworking requires sending data from the source
network to the destination network. This process is called routing. Internet
Layer protocols performs two basic functions; 1) Host addressing and
identification: This is accomplished with a hierarchical IP Addressing system.
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING
CHAPTER 4: SOFTWARE IN GENERAL
LESSON 2 – PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS, AND INTERNET ARCHITECTURE

2) Packet routing: This is the basic task of sending packets of data (datagrams)
from source to destination by forwarding them to the next network router
closer to the final destination.

Transport Layer, establishes a basic data channel that an application uses in

its task-specific data exchange. The layer establishes process-to-process
connectivity, meaning it provides end-to-end services that are independent of
the structure of user data and the logistics of exchanging information for any
particular specific purpose.

Application Layer, includes the protocols used by most applications for

providing user services or exchanging applications data over the network
connections established by the lower level protocols, but this may include
some basic network support services, such as many routing protocols, and
host configuration protocols. And that is the 4 different layers of TCP/IP
Model.

And that is the two common model or standard that we are using for Data
Communication. In the next lesson, we will be discussing some of the internet
architectures.

Internet Architecture
What is Internet Architecture? According to livinginternet.com, is a meta-
network, a constantly changing collection of thousands of individual networks
intercommunicating with a common protocol. This architecture is based in the
very specification of the standard TCP/IP protocol, designed to connect any
two network which may be very different in internal hardware, software, and
technical design. Once two networks are interconnected, communication with
TCP/IP is enabled end-to-end, so that any node on the Internet has the near
magical ability to communicate with any other no matter where they are. This
openness of design has enabled the Internet Architecture to grow to a global
scale. Here are some terminologies that is related to Internet Architecture.

Routers is a specialized hardware that does the routing of data. This hardware
is commonly known as the Layer 3 Hardware because it uses logical addresses
to route the information from the sender to its destination. According to
Webopedia, A Router is a device that forwards data packets along networks.
A Router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or
WANs or a LAN and its ISP's network. Routers are located at gateways, the
places where two or more networks connect.
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING
CHAPTER 4: SOFTWARE IN GENERAL
LESSON 2 – PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS, AND INTERNET ARCHITECTURE

Figure 4.12 – Picture of a Router

Routers use headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path for
forwarding the packets, and they use protocols such as ICMP to communicate
with each other and configure the best route between any two hosts.

There are several brands of router like Cisco Systems, Juniper Networks,
Hewlett-Packard, Huawei Routers, Nokia Networks, ZyXEL, ZTE and more.

Domain Name Services is another terminology in the Internet Architecture

wherein using this service. DNS Servers translates the public IP addresses into
Domain Names. For example, if you will type http://www.facebook.com at
the web browser the DNS Server will be resolving this IP and will convert it
to 69.171.230.5 which is the public IP Address of Facebook.com.

According to NetworkSolutions.com, “Domain Name Servers (DNS) are the

Internet's equivalent of a phone book. They maintain a directory of domain
names and translate them to Internet Protocol (IP) addresses. This is necessary
because, although domain names are easy for people to remember, computers
or machines, access websites based on IP addresses. Information from all the
domain name servers across the Internet are gathered together and housed at
the Central Registry. Host companies and Internet Service Providers interact
with the Central Registry on a regular schedule to get updated DNS
information.”

Internet Service Providers depends on what country you are in but in

principles, Internet Service Providers are the companies that allows every
household or companies to access the World Wide Web or the Internet.

According to Wikipedia.com, “Internet service provider (ISP) is an

organization that provides services for accessing, using, or participating in the
Internet. Internet service providers may be organized in various forms, such as
commercial, community-owned, non-profit, or otherwise privately owned.
Internet services typically provided by ISPs include Internet access, Internet
transit, domain name registration, web hosting, Usenet service, colocation.”
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING
CHAPTER 4: SOFTWARE IN GENERAL
LESSON 2 – PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS, AND INTERNET ARCHITECTURE

Figure 4.13 – Internet Service Provider Diagram