Chapter 10

Mechanical Properties of Fluids

Liquids and gases can flow and are therefore, called fluids.
The fluid does not have any resistance to change of its shape. Thus, the
shape of a fluid is governed by the shape of its container.

Basic difference between Liquids and Gases

A liquid is incompressible and has a free surface of its own. A gas is
compressible and it expands to occupy all the space available to it. Gas has
no free surface.
Pressure
The normal force(F) exerted by a fluid on an area A is called pressure.
𝐅
Pressure, P =
𝐀
Pressure is a scalar quantity.
Its SI unit is Nm−2 or pascal (Pa)
Dimensional formula is ML−1 T −2
A common unit of pressure is the atmosphere (atm). It is the pressure
exerted by the atmosphere at sea level.
1 atm = 1.013 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 Pa.
Density
Density ρ for a fluid of mass m occupying volume V is given by
𝐦
ρ=
𝐕
It is a positive scalar quantity.
Its SI unit is kg m−3 .
The dimensions of density are [ML−3 ].

The density of water at 𝟒𝟎 C (277 K) is 1000 kg 𝐦−𝟑 .

A liquid is incompressible and its density is therefore, nearly constant at all
pressures. Gases, on the other hand exhibit a large variation in densities
with pressure.

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Relative Density
The relative density of a substance is the ratio of its density to the density of
water at 40 C.
𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐮𝐛𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞
Relative density=
𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐚𝐭 𝟒𝟎 𝐂

It is a dimensionless positive scalar quantity.

Variation of Pressure with Depth

A fluid is at rest in a container. Consider a cylindrical element of fluid having

area of base A and height h.
In equilibrium, the resultant vertical forces should be balanced.
P2 A = P1 A+mg
P2 A - P1 A =mg
(P2 - P1 )A =mg
But m= ρV
V = hA
m=ρhA
(P2 - P1 )A = ρhA g
P2 - P1 = ρ gh
If the point 1 at the top of the fluid , which is open to the atmosphere, P1 may
be replaced by atmospheric pressure (Pa ) and we replace P2 by P
Gauge pressure, 𝐏 - 𝐏𝐚 = ρ gh
The excess of pressure, P - Pa , at depth h is called a gauge pressure at that
point.
Absolute Pressure, 𝐏 = 𝐏𝐚 + ρ gh
Thus, the absolute pressure P, at depth below the surface of a liquid open to
the atmosphere is greater than atmospheric pressure by an amount ρgh.

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Hydrostatic paradox.

The absolute pressure depends on the height of the fluid column and not on
cross sectional or base area or the shape of the container. The liquid
pressure is the same at all points at the same horizontal level (same depth).
The result is appreciated through the example of hydrostatic paradox.
Problem
What is the pressure on a swimmer 10 m below the surface of a lake?
h = 10 m
ρ = 1000 kg m−3 Take g = 10 m s−2
P = Pa + ρ gh
= 1.01 × 105 + 1000 × 10 × 10
= 1.01 × 105 + 1 × 105
= 2.01 × 105 Pa
≈ 2 atm
(This is a 100% increase in pressure from surface level. At a depth of 1 km the increase in pressure is
100 atm. Submarines are designed to withstand such enormous pressures.)

Atmospheric Pressure
It is the pressure exerted by the atmosphere at sea level.
The pressure of the atmosphere at any point is equal to the weight of a
column of air of unit cross sectional area extending from that point to the
top of the atmosphere.
1 atm = 1.013 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 Pa

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Mercury barometer
Mercury barometer is used to measure Atmospheric Pressure. Italian
scientist Evangelista Torricelli devised mercury barometer.

(The space above the mercury column in the

tube contains only mercury vapour whose
pressure P is so small that it may be neglected.)

The pressure inside the column at point A =The pressure at point B, which is

at the same level.

Pressure at B = Pa (atmospheric pressure)

Pressure at A = ρgh
Pa = ρgh
where ρ is the density of mercury and h is the height of the mercury column
in the tube.
At sea level h= 76 cm and is equivalent to 1 atm.

Open-tube manometer
An open-tube manometer is a used for measuring Guage pressure or
pressure differences.

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 It consists of a U-tube containing a suitable liquid i.e. a low density liquid
(such as oil) for measuring small pressure differences and a high density
liquid (such as mercury) for large pressure differences.
One end of the tube is open to the atmosphere and other end is connected to
the system whose pressure we want to measure .
The pressure at A = pressure at point B
P= Pa + ρ gh
P - 𝐏𝐚 = ρ gh
The gauge pressure is proportional to manometer height h.

Problem
The density of the atmosphere at sea level is 1.29 kg/m3. Assume that it
does not change with altitude. Then how high would the atmosphere extend
Pa = ρ gh
Pa
h=
ρg

1.01×105
h=
1.29 × 9.8

h = 7989 m ≈ 8 km
Problem
At a depth of 1000 m in an ocean (a) what is the absolute pressure?
(b) What is the gauge pressure? (c) Find the force acting on the window of
area 20 cm × 20 cm of a submarine at this depth, the interior of which is
maintained at sea-level atmospheric pressure.
(The density of sea water is 1.03 × 103 kg m−3 , g = 10m s −2 )

h = 1000 m , ρ = 1.03 × 103 kg m−3

(a) Absolute pressure, P = Pa + ρgh
= 1.01 × 105 + 1.03 × 103 × 10 × 1000
= 1.01 × 105 + 103 × 105
= 104.01 × 105 Pa
≈ 104 atm

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(b) Gauge pressure , P −Pa = ρgh
= 1.03 × 103 × 10 × 1000
= 103 × 105 Pa
≈ 103 atm
(c)The pressure outside the submarine is P = Pa + ρgh and the pressure
inside it is Pa .
Hence, the net pressure acting on the window is gauge pressure, ρgh.
Since the area of the window is A = 0.04 m2 , the force acting on it is
F = Gauge Pressure x A
= 103 × 105 × 0.04
= 4.12 ×10 N
Pascal’s law for transmission of fluid pressure
Whenever external pressure is applied on any part of a fluid contained in a
vessel, it is transmitted undiminished and equally in all directions.
Applications of Pascal’s law
1.Hydraulic lift

The pressure on smaller piston

F1
P= --------------(1)
A1
This pressure is transmitted equally to the larger cylinder with a larger
piston of area A2 producing an upward force F2 .
F2
P= --------------(2)
A2
F1 F2
From eq(1) and (2) =
A1 A2
𝐀𝟐
𝐅𝟐 = 𝐅𝟏 𝐀𝟏
A2
Thus, the applied force has been increased by a factor of and this factor is
A1
the mechanical advantage of the device.

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Problem
Two syringes of different cross sections (without needles) filled with water
are connected with a tightly fitted rubber tube filled with water. Diameters
of the smaller piston and larger piston are 1.0 cm and 3.0 cm respectively.
(a) Find the force exerted on the larger piston when a force of 10 N is
applied to the smaller piston. (b) If the smaller piston is pushed in through
6.0 cm, how much does the larger piston move out?
A2
F2 = F1
A1
π x (1.5 x 10−2 )2
F2 = 10 x
π x (0.5 x 10−2 )2
= 10 x9
=90 N
(b) Volume covered by the smaller piston is equal to volume moved by the
larger piston.
L1 A1 = L2 A2

A1
L2 = L1
A2
2
−2 π x (0.5 x 10−2 )
= 6 x10 x =0.54m
π x (1.5 x 10−2 )2
= 6 x10−2 x0.111
= 0.67 x10−2 m
= 0.67cm

Problem
In a car lift compressed air exerts a force F1 on a small piston having a
radius of 5.0 cm. This pressure is transmitted to a second piston of radius 15
cm . If the mass of the car to be lifted is 1350 kg, calculate F1 . What is the
pressure necessary to accomplish this task? (g = 9.8 ms −2 ).
A1
F1 = F2 ( )
A2
F2 = mg = 1350 x 9.8
=13230N
2
π x (5 x 10−2 )
F1 = 13230 x
πx (15 x 10−2 )2
25
= 13230 x
225
=1470 N
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 The air pressure that will produce this force is
F1
P=
A1

1470
P=
3⋅14 x (5 x 10−2 )2

=1.9 x105 Pa
2.Hydraulic brakes
When we apply a force on the pedal with our foot the master piston moves
inside the master cylinder, and the pressure caused is transmitted through
the brake oil to act on a piston of larger area. A large force acts on the piston
and is pushed down expanding the brake shoes against brake lining. In this
way a small force on the pedal produces a large retarding force on the wheel.
The pressure set up by pressing pedal is transmitted equally to all cylinders
attached to the four wheels so that the braking effort is equal on all wheels.

Streamline Flow (Steady Flow)

The study of the fluids in motion is known as fluid dynamics.
The flow of the fluid is said to be steady if at any given point, the velocity of
each passing fluid particle remains constant in time.
The velocity of a particular particle may change as it moves from one point
to another.

The path taken by a fluid particle under a steady flow is a streamline.

Streamline is defined as a curve whose tangent at any point is in the
direction of the fluid velocity at that point.
No two streamlines can cross, for if they do, an oncoming fluid particle can
go either one way or the other and the flow would not be steady.

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Equation of Continuity

Consider a region of streamline flow of a fluid. The points P, R and Q are

planes perpendicular to the direction of fluid flow . The area of cross-
sections at these points are AP , AR , AQ and speeds of fluid particles are vP ,
vR and vQ .
The mass of fluid crossing at P in a small interval of time Δt = ρP AP vP Δt
The mass of fluid crossing at Q in a small interval of time Δt = ρQ AQ vQ Δt
The mass of fluid crossing at R in a small interval of time Δt = ρR AR vR Δt
The mass of liquid flowing out = The mass of liquid flowing in
ρP AP vP Δt = ρQ AQ vQ Δt = ρR AR vR Δt
If the fluid is incompressible ρP = ρQ = ρR
𝐀𝐏 𝐯𝐏 = 𝐀𝐐 𝐯𝐐 = 𝐀𝐑 𝐯𝐑

Av = constant
This is called the equation of continuity and it is a statement of conservation
of mass in flow of incompressible fluids.
Thus, at narrower portions where the streamlines are closely spaced,
velocity increases and its vice versa.
Turbulent Flow
Steady flow is achieved at low flow speeds. Beyond a limiting value, called
critical speed, the flow of fluid loses steadiness and becomes turbulent.

A jet of air striking a flat plate placed perpendicular to it is an example of

turbulent flow.

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Bernoulli’s Principle
Bernoulli’s principle states that as we move along a streamline, the sum of
the pressure , the kinetic energy per unit volume and the potential energy
per unit volume remains a constant.
𝟏
𝐏 + 𝛒𝐯 𝟐 + 𝛒𝐠𝐡= constant
𝟐
The equation is basically the conservation of energy applied to non
viscous fluid motion in steady state.

Proof

Consider the flow of an ideal fluid in a pipe of varying cross section, from
region (1) to region (2). The fluid in the two region is displaced a length of
v1 Δt and v2 Δt in time Δt.

The work done on the fluid at left end (BC) is

W1 =F1 Δx1 = P1 A1 (v1 Δt) (A1 v1 Δt = ΔV ,volume)
W1 = P1ΔV.
The work done by the fluid at the end (DE) is
W2 = F2 Δx2 = P2 A2 (v2 Δt)
W2 = P2ΔV.
(or)The work done on the fluid at the end (DE) is
W2 = −P2ΔV.

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The total work done on the fluid is
W1 + W2 = P1 ΔV - P2 ΔV
𝐖𝟏 + 𝐖𝟐 = (𝐏𝟏 - 𝐏𝟐 )ΔV-------------(1)
Part of this work goes into changing the kinetic energy of the fluid, and part
goes into changing the gravitational potential energy.
The change in its kinetic energy is
𝟏
ΔK =. 𝐦(𝐯𝟐𝟐 − 𝐯𝟏𝟐 ) -------------(2)
𝟐

The change in gravitational potential energy is

ΔU= mg(𝐡𝟐 -𝐡𝟏 ) ----------------(3)

By work – energy theorem

W1 + W2 = ΔK + ΔU

Substituting from eq(1),(2) and (3)

𝟏
(𝐏𝟏 - 𝐏𝟐 )ΔV = 𝐦(𝐯𝟐𝟐 − 𝐯𝟏𝟐 )+ 𝐦𝐠(𝐡𝟐 -𝐡𝟏 )-------------(4)
𝟐

m=ρΔV
m
Divide each term by ΔV to obtain , ρ=
ΔV
1
P1 - P2 = ρ(v22 − v12 )+ ρg(h2 -h1 )
2
1 1
P1 – P2 = ρv22 − ρv12 + ρgh2− ρgh1
2 2
1 1
P1 + ρv12 + ρgh1 = P2 + ρv22 + ρgh2
2 2
𝟏
𝐏 + 𝟐 𝛒𝐯 𝟐 + 𝛒𝐠𝐡= constant----------(5)
This is Bernoulli’s theorem
When a fluid is at rest i.e. its velocity is zero everywhere, Bernoulli’s
equation becomes
𝐏𝟏 + 𝛒𝐠𝐡𝟏 =𝐏𝟐 + 𝛒𝐠𝐡𝟐
Note:-Bernoulli’s theorem is applicable only to the streamline flow of non
viscous and incompressible fluids.

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Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle
1.Speed of Efflux: Torricelli’s Law
The word efflux means fluid outflow
Torricelli’s law states that the speed of efflux of fluid through a small hole at
a depth h of an open tank is equal to the speed of a freely falling body
i.e, √ 𝟐𝐠𝐡

Consider a tank containing a liquid of density ρ with a small hole in its side
at a height y1 from the bottom.
According to Bernoulli principle
1 1
P1 + ρv12 + ρgh1 = P2 + ρv22 + ρgh2
2 2

Consider regions 1 and 2

According to equation of continuity ,since (A2 >>A1 ), v2 = 0.
1
Pa + ρv12 + ρgy1 = P+ ρgy2
2
1
ρv12 = ρg(y2 − y1 ) + P − Pa
2
y2 − y1 = h
1
ρv12 = ρgh + P − Pa
2
2(P−Pa )
v12 = 2gh +
ρ
𝟐(𝐏−𝐏𝐚 )
𝐯𝟏 = √ 𝟐𝐠𝐡 + 𝛒

If the tank is open to the atmosphere, then P = Pa

𝐯𝟏 = √ 𝟐𝐠𝐡
This equation is known as Torricelli’s law.
This is the speed of a freely falling body.

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2.Venturi-meter
The Venturi-meter is a device to measure the flow speed of incompressible
fluid.

According to Bernoulli principle

1 1
P1 + ρv12 + ρgh1 =P2 + ρv22 + ρgh2
2 2
For points 1 and 2,
h1 = h2
By equation of continuity , Av1 =av2
A
v2 = v1
a
1 1 A 2
P1 + ρv12 =P2 + ρ ( v1 )
2 2 a
1 A 2 1
P1 − P2 = ρ ( v1 ) - ρv12
2 a 2

1 A 2
P1 − P2 = ρv12 [ ( ) – 1]
2 a

But P1 − P2 = ρm gh
h= height difference in manometer tube
ρm = density of liquid in manometer
1 A 2
ρm gh= ρv12 [( ) − 1]
2 a
2ρm gh
ρ
v12 = A 2
[( a ) −1]

𝟏
−𝟐
𝟐𝛒𝐦 𝐠𝐡 𝐀 𝟐
𝐯𝟏 = √ [( 𝐚 ) − 𝟏]
𝛒

The speed of fluid at wide neck can be calculated using the above equation.

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Venturimeter principle is used in,
• The carburetor of automobile has a Venturi channel (nozzle) through
which air flows with a large speed. The pressure is then lowered at the
narrow neck and the petrol (gasoline) is sucked up in the chamber to
provide the correct mixture of air to fuel necessary for combustion.
• Filter pumps or aspirators
• Bunsen burner
• Atomisers
• Sprayers used for perfumes or to spray insecticides

The spray gun. Piston forces air at high speeds causing a lowering of
pressure at the neck of the container.
3.Blood Flow and Heart Attack
The artery may get constricted due to the accumulation of plaque on its
inner walls. The speed of the flow of the blood in this region is raised which
lowers the pressure inside and the artery may collapse due to the external
pressure. The heart exerts further pressure to open this artery and forces
the blood through. As the blood rushes through the opening, the internal
pressure once again drops due to same reasons leading to a repeat collapse.
This may result in heart attack.
4.Dynamic Lift
(i)Ball moving without spin:

The velocity of fluid (air) above and below the ball at corresponding points
is the same resulting in zero pressure difference. The air therefore, exerts no
upward or downward force on the ball.
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(ii)Ball moving with spin:Magnus Effect

The ball is moving forward and relative to it the air is moving backwards.
Therefore, the relative velocity of air above the ball is larger and below it is
smaller. This difference in the velocities of air results in the pressure
difference between the lower and upper faces and there is a net upward
force on the ball. This dynamic lift due to spining is called Magnus effect.
(iii)Aerofoil or lift on aircraft wing

Aerofoil is a solid piece shaped to provide an upward dynamic lift when it

moves horizontally through air.
When the aerofoil moves against the wind, the orientation of the wing
relative to flow direction causes the streamlines to crowd together above the
wing more than those below it. The flow speed on top is higher than that
below it. There is an upward force resulting in a dynamic lift of the wings
and this balances the weight of the plane.
Viscosity
The internal frictional force that acts when there is relative motion between
layers of the liquid is called viscosity.

When liquid flows between a fixed and moving

glass plates, the layer of the liquid in contact with
top surface moves with a velocity v and the layer
of the liquid in contact with the fixed surface is
stationary. The velocities of layers increase
uniformly from bottom to the top layer.

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 When a fluid is flowing in a pipe or a tube, then velocity of
the liquid layer along the axis of the tube is maximum and
decreases gradually as we move towards the walls where
it becomes zero.
Coefficient of viscosity( 𝛈)

Due to viscous force, a portion of liquid, which at some instant has the shape
ABCD, take the shape of AEFD after short interval of time (Δt).
F
Shearing stress =
A

𝛥𝑥
Shearing strain =
𝑙
𝛥𝑥
(𝑙) 𝛥𝑥 𝑣
Strain rate= = =
𝛥𝑡 𝑙 𝛥𝑡 𝑙
The coefficient of viscosity( η)for a fluid is defined as the ratio of shearing
stress to the strain rate.
F
Shearing stress A
η= = 𝑣
Strain rate
𝑙
𝐅𝒍
𝛈=
𝐯𝐀
The SI unit of coefficient viscosity is poiseiulle (Pl).
Its other units are N s m−2 or Pa s.
The dimensions are [ML−1 T −1]
Generally thin liquids like water, alcohol etc. are less viscous than thick
liquids like coal tar, blood, glycerin etc.
The viscosity of liquids decreases with temperature while it increases in the
case of gases.

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Stokes’ Law
Stokes’ law states that the viscous drag force F on a sphere of radius a
moving with velocity v through a fluid of coefficient of viscosity η is,
F = 6πηav
Terminal velocity
When an object falls through a viscous medium (raindrop in air), it
accelerates initially due to gravity. As the velocity increases, the retarding
force also increases. Finally when viscous force plus buoyant force becomes
equal to the force due to gravity(weight of the body), the net force and
acceleration become zero. The sphere (raindrop) then descends with a
constant velocity clalled terminal velocity.
Expression for Terminal velocity

Consider a raindrop in air. The forces acting on the drop are

4
1. Force due to gravity(weight,mg) acting downwards , FG = πa3 ρg
3
4
2. Buoyant force acting upwards, FB = πa3 σg
3
3. Viscous force, FV = 6πηav
In equilibrium,
4 4
6πηav + πa3 σg = πa3 gρ
3 3
4
6πηav = πa3 (ρ −σ)g
3

Terminal velocity ,
𝟐𝐚𝟐 (𝛒 −𝛔)𝐠
𝐯𝐭 =
𝟗𝛈
So the terminal velocity vt depends on the square of the radius of the sphere
and inversely on the viscosity of the medium.
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Problem
The terminal velocity of a copper ball of radius 2.0 mm falling through a
tank of oil at 200 C is 6.5 cm s−1 . Compute the viscosity of the oil at 200 C.
Density of oil is 1.5 × 103 kg m−3 , density of copper is 8.9 × 103 kg m−3 .
vt = 6.5 × 10−2 ms −1 ρ = 8.9 × 103 kg m−3
a = 2 × 10−3 m σ =1.5 ×103 kg m−3
g = 9.8m s −2 ,
2a2 (ρ −σ)g
vt =
9η

2a2 (ρ −σ)g
η=
9vt
2
2 x (2 × 10−3 ) (8.9 × 103 −1.5 ×103 )x9.8
η=
9 x 6.5 × 10−2

η =9.9 × 10−1 kg m−1 s−1

Reynolds Number
Osborne Reynolds defined a dimensionless number, whose value gives one
an approximate idea whether the flow would be turbulent . This number is
called the Reynolds number( R e )
𝛒𝐯𝐝
𝐑𝐞 =
𝛈
where ρ is the density of the fluid ,v is the speed of fluid, d stands for the
dimension of the pipe, and η is the viscosity of the fluid.
𝐑 𝐞 <1000 – The flow is streamline or laminar.
𝐑 𝐞 > 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 − The flow is turbulent .
𝐑 𝐞 between 1000 and 2000-The flow becomes unsteady .
The critical value of Reynolds number at which turbulence sets, is known as
critical Reynolds number.
• Turbulence dissipates kinetic energy usually in the form of heat. Racing
cars and planes are engineered to precision in order to minimise
turbulence.
• Turbulence is sometimes desirable. The blades of a kitchen mixer
induce turbulent flow and provide thick milk shakes as well as beat
eggs into a uniform texture.

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Surface Tension
The free surface of a liquid possess some additional energy and it behaves
like a stretched elastic membrane. This phenomenon is known as surface
tension.
Surface tension is concerned with only liquid as gases do not have free
surfaces.
Surface Energy

For a molecule well inside a liquid the net force on it is zero. But the
molecules on the surface have a net downward pull. So work has to be done
against this downward force and this work is stored as energy in suface
molecules. Thus, molecules on a liquid surface have some extra energy in
comparison to molecules in the interior,which is termed as surface energy.
A liquid thus tends to have the least surface area inorder to reduce surface
enegy.
Surface Energy and Surface Tension

Consider a horizontal liquid film ending in a movable bar. Due to surface

tension the bar is pulled inwards .
Inorder to keep the bar in its original position some work has to be done
against this inward full.
W = F x d----------(1)
This work done increases surface energy.

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If the surface energy of the film is S per unit area, the extra area is 2d l (film
has two sides),
The extra surface energy = S x 2d l ------------(2)
The extra surface energy = work done
S x2dl =Fd
𝐅
S = 𝟐𝒍
This quantity S is the magnitude of surface tension.
Definition of Surface tension
Surface tension is a force per unit length (or surface energy per unit area)
acting in the plane of the interface between the plane of the liquid and any
other substance. It is the extra energy that the molecules at the interface
have as compared to the interior
Force
Surface Tension, S= Length

The SI Unit is Nm−1

Dimensional formula is MT −2
The value of surface tension depends on temperature.
The surface tension of a liquid decreases with temperature.
Some effects of surface Tension
Oil and water do not mix.
Water wets you and me but not ducks.
Mercury does not wet glass but water sticks to it.
Oil rises up a cotton wick, inspite of gravity.
Sap and water rise up to the top of the leaves of the tree.
Hairs of a paint brush do not cling together when dry and even when dipped
in water but form a fine tip when taken out of it.

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Angle of Contact
The angle between tangent to the liquid surface at the point of contact and
solid surface inside the liquid is termed as angle of contact(θ)
The value of θ determines whether a liquid will spread on the surface of a
solid or it will form droplets on it.
When Angle of contact is Obtuse:

When θ is an obtuse angle(greater than 90) then molecules of liquids are

attracted strongly to themselves and weakly to those of solid, and liquid
then does not wet the solid.
Eg: Water on a waxy or oily surface, Mercury on any surface.
When Angle of contact is Acute:

When θ is an acute angle (less than 90), the molecules of the liquid are
strongly attracted to those of the solid and liquid then wets the solid.
Eg: Water on glass or on plastic, Kerosene oil on virtually anything .
Action Soaps and detergents
Soaps, detergents and dying substances are wetting agents. When they are
added the angle of contact becomes small so that these may penetrate well
and become effective.
Action of Water proofing agents
Water proofing agents are added to create a large angle of contact between
the water and fibres.

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Drops and Bubbles
Why are small drops and bubbles spherical?
Due to surface tension ,liquid surface has the tendency to reduce surface
area. For a given volume sphere has minimum surface area. So small drops
and bubbles are spherical.
For large drops the effect of gravity predominates that of surface tension
and they get flattened.

Excess Pressure inside a spherical drop

Due to surface tension the liquid surface experiences an inward pull and as
a result the pressure inside a spherical drop is more than the pressure
outside. Due to this excess pressure let the radius of drop increase by Δr
Work done in expansion= Force x Displacement
=Excess pressure x Area x Displacement
W = (𝐏𝐢 - 𝐏𝐨 ) x 4π𝐫 𝟐 x Δr ------------------(1)

This workdone is equal to the increase in surface energy

Extra Surface energy = Surface tension x Increase in surface area
Increase in surface area of drop=4π(r + Δr)2 - 4πr 2
=4π (r 2 + 2rΔr + Δr 2 − r 2 )
=8πrΔr (neglecting higher order terms)
Extra surface energy = 𝐒 𝐱𝟖𝛑𝐫𝚫𝐫 ---------------(2)
The workdone = extra surface energy
(𝐏𝐢 - 𝐏𝐨 ) x 4π𝐫 𝟐 xΔr = 𝟖𝛑𝐫𝚫𝐫 𝐒 --------------(3)
𝟐𝐒
(𝐏𝐢 - 𝐏𝐨 ) =
𝐫

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Excess Pressure Inside a Liquid Bubble
A bubble has two free surfaces.
2S
(Pi - Po ) = 2x
r
𝟒𝐒
(𝐏𝐢 - 𝐏𝐨 ) =
𝐫
Capillary Rise
Due to the pressure difference across a curved liquid-air interface, water
rises up in a narrow tube in spite of gravity. This is called capillary rise.

Consider a vertical capillary tube of circular cross section (radius a) inserted

into an open vessel of water.
The excess pressure on the concave meniscus
2S
(Pi - Po ) =
r
a
cosθ =
r
a
r=
cosθ
2S
(Pi - Po ) = a
cosθ
2Scosθ
(Pi - Po ) = ----------------(1)
a

Consider two points A and B in the same horizontal level i.e, the points are
at the same pressure.
Pressure at A = Pi
Pressure at B = Po + h ρ g
Pi =Po + h ρ g
Pi - Po = h ρ g----------------(2)
From eq(1) and (2)
2Scosθ
h ρ g=
a
𝟐𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉
h=
𝛒 𝐠𝐚

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Thus capillary rise is a consequence of surface tension.
Capillary rise is larger, for capillary tube with smaller radius a.
Note:
If the liquid meniscus is convex, as for mercury, angle of contact θ will be
obtuse . Then cos θ is negative and hence value of h will be negative. it is
clear that the liquid will lower in the capillary and this is called capillary fall
or capillary depression.
Problem
Find the capillary rise when a capillary tube of radius 0.05 cm is dipped
vertically in water. Surface tension for water is 0.073N𝑚−1 .Density of water
is 1000 kg𝑚−3 .
2Scosθ
h= ρ ga

For water-glass angle of contact θ = 0, cos 0 =1

2S
h=
ρ ga
2𝑥 0.073
h=
1000 𝑥 9.8 𝑥 0.05 𝑥10−3

h = 2.98 × 10−2 m = 2.98 cm.

Detergents and Surface Tension
Washing with water does not remove grease stains. This is because water
does not wet greasy dirt; i.e., there is very little area of contact between
them.
The molecules of detergents are hairpin shaped, with one end attracted to
water and the other to molecules of grease, oil or wax .Thus water-oil
interfaces are formed which reduces the surface tension S (water-oil) and
dirt can be removed by running water.

Seema Elizabeth
MARM Govt HSS Santhipuram

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