Chapter 2 B
Chapter 2 B
dA = − SdT − pdV + μ dn
δ V = 0 = δ V (1) + δ V ( 2)
Suppose
δ n(1) = δ n( 2) = 0
(1) ( 2)
⎛ ∂2 A ⎞ ⎛ ∂2 A ⎞
(δ A ) (δ V ) (δ V )
2
( 2)
=⎜ 2 ⎟ +⎜ 2 ⎟
2 2
⎝ ∂V ⎠ ⎝ ∂V ⎠
T ,n
⎡⎛ ∂ 2 A ⎞(1) ⎛ ∂ 2 A ⎞( 2) ⎤
( )
2
= ⎢⎜ 2 ⎟ + ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥ δ V ( )
1
⎢⎣⎝ ∂V ⎠ ⎝ ∂V ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡⎛ ∂p ⎞(1) ⎛ ∂p ⎞( 2) ⎤ (1) ⎤ 2
= ⎢⎜ − ⎟ + ⎜ − ⎟ ⎥⎣ ⎡δ V
⎝ ∂ ⎠ ⎝ ∂ ⎠T ,n ⎥⎦ ⎦
⎢⎣ V T ,n V
(increase pressure →
⎛ ∂p ⎞
⇒ −⎜ ⎟ ≥0 < volume at const T)
⎝ 2V ⎠T ,n
1 ⎛ ∂V ⎞ KT ≥ 0
KT = − ⎜ ⎟ = isothermal compressibility
V ⎝ ∂p ⎠T ,n
1 ⎛ ∂V ⎞
KS = − ⎜ ⎟ = adiabatic compressibility KS ≥ 0
V ⎝ ∂p ⎠ S ,n
2
⎛ ∂p ⎞ ⎡⎛ ∂V ⎞ ⎤
C p − CV = −T ⎜ ⎟ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝ ∂V ⎠T ,n ⎢⎣⎝ ∂T ⎠ p ,n ⎥⎦
2
T ⎡⎛ ∂V ⎞ ⎤
C p − CV = ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥
VKT ⎢⎣⎝ ∂T ⎠ p ,n ⎥⎦
⇒ C p > CV
⎛ ∂p ⎞
⎜ ⎟ =0
⎝ ∂υ ⎠T
If (δ 2 A )T ,V ,n = 0 subject to
δ n(1) = δ n( 2) = 0
−δ V (1) = δ V ( 2)
⇒ (δ 3 A ) ≥0
T ,V , n
several ⎡⎛ ∂ 3 A ⎞(1) ⎛ ∂ 3 A ⎞ 2 ⎤
( )
3
⎛∂ p⎞ 2
steps 0 ≤ δ V (1) ⎢⎜ 3 ⎟ − ⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎥
⇒⎜ 2 ⎟ =0 ⎢⎣⎝ ∂V ⎠T ,n ⎝ ∂V ⎠T ,n ⎥⎦
⎝ ∂υ ⎠T
Let Φ = Energy or a Legendre transform of E
which is a function of X1, …, Xr extensive variables
Ir+1, …, In intensive variables
r n
d Φ = ∑ I i dX i − ∑ X dI j j
i =1 j = r +1
⎛ ∂I i ⎞ stability criteria
0≤⎜ ⎟
∂
⎝ i ⎠ x1 , xi−1 , xi+1 ,... xr I r +1 ,...I n
X
⎛ ∂p ⎞ ⎛ ∂μi ⎞
−⎜ ⎟ ,⎜ ⎟ ,Cp are all > 0
⎝ ∂V ⎠ S ⎝ ∂ni ⎠T ,V ,n j
Phase Equilibria
ν phases in equilibrium
μi(α ) = μi(γ ) , μi(α ) = mole fraction of i in phase α
1 ≤ α < γ ≤ v, 1 ≤ i ≤ r i.e., for all phases and components
# degrees of freedom =
r (ν − 1 ) equations that couple
f = 2 + v(r − 1) − r (v − 1) 2 +ν ( r − 1) intensive variables
T, p
f = 2+r −v
Gibbs phase rule
• 1 phase, one species
f = 2 → e.g., T , p
• 2 phases, one species
f = 1 (line) ⇒ e.g., T, p not indep.
• 3 phases, one species
f = 0 (point)
• 1 phase, two species
f = 3, e.g., T , p, x1 , x2
• impossible for > 3 phases for a
one‐component system
consider a one‐component system with 3 possible phases
α, β, γ
μ α ( p, T ) , μ β ( T , p ) , μ γ ( T , p )
stable phase has lowest Gibbs free energy
coexistence
μ
⎛ ∂μ ⎞ ⎛ ∂μ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ =υ ⎜ ⎟ = − s for phase charge p
⎝ ∂p ⎠T ⎝ ∂T ⎠ p
μ(α) T
μ(β)
if surfaces join smoothly, then
υ and s are continuous ⇒ 2nd (or higher) for one‐component system
order phase transition 2nd ‐ order transition can
υ
if and s discontinuous ⇒ 1st order only happen at critical
phase transition point
p – T coexistence line obeys a diff. eq.
Equil. μ (α ) (T , p ) = μ ( β ) (T , p )
d μ = − sdT + υ dp
(α ) (α ) dp Δs (T )
(β ) (β )
− s dT + υ dp = − s dT + υ dp ⇒ =
dT Δυ (T )
Clausius ‐Clapeyron Equation
(not applicable to 2nd‐order
transitions)
α
α υ
, T not conjugate
T
υ α ‐ β equil υ variables ⇒ need not
β be monotonic function of
β T
p(T)
T
isotherm isobar p = 1 atm
T ≈ 0o C
for 1st order phase transitions ice has larger density than
dA = − sdT − pdV + μ dn water (less dense → floats
a
a = A / n, υ = V / n ice
υ
plot vs at const. T
a υ liquid
⎛ ∂a ⎞ υα υ β υ water
⎜ ⎟ = −p
⎝ ∂υ ⎠T
pure p
pure
α β
at equilibrium: p(
α)
( T , υ ( ) ) = p ( ) ( T ,υ ( ) )
α β β
Which means the slope
υ (α ) =
of α at slope
of α at υ ( β )
( ) (
a T ,υ (α ) − a T ,υ ( β ) )
= − p (T ) ⎡⎣υ (α ) − υ ( β ) ⎤⎦
( a + pυ )(
α) (β )
= ( a + pυ ) μ (α ) = μ ( β )
a − a( ) a( ) − α
α β
(α )
= (β )
υ −υ υ −υ
A
=
(
a ( β ) υ − υ (α ) )+ (
a (α ) υ ( β ) − υ )
n υ ( β ) − υ (α ) υ ( β ) − υ (α )
T
crit. pt.
⋅
Phase diagram
olid
for Argon gas liq.
s
d –
liq – gas
fl u i
equil solid
•
gas – solid triple pt.
1/ υ
Plane Interfaces
α
dividing surface z
(area σ)
β
E=E (α )
+E (β )
+E (s) E ( s ) = energy of interface
⎛ ∂E ⎞
let γ = ⎜ ⎟ = ≥ 0
⎝ ∂σ ⎠ S ,v ,n
dE = TdS − pdV + μ dn + γ dσ
surface tension (intensive quantity)
dE = TdS − pdV + μ dn + γ dσ
E ∝ N
γσ ∝ N 2/3
So would not expect surface tension
contribution to be important for bulk β Gibbs dividing
properties surface
∞ ρ
n (α )
= ∫ dz ρ d ( z ) α
zd
n( = ∫ dz ρ d ( z )
β) zd
z
−∞
zd
∞
n (S )
= ∫ dz [ ρ − ρ d ] choose zd s.t.
−∞ a real interface varies
n S ( zd ) = 0 smoothly rather than abruptly
dE ( S ) = TdS ( S ) + γ dσ
(S ) (S ) E ( S ) − TS ( S )
at zd E = TS + γσ → γ =
σ