CHAPTER 2

TIMSS 2023 Science Framework

Victoria A.S. Centurino
Dana L. Kelly

Overview
Innovations in technology and science constantly shape and reshape our daily life experiences: the
availability of clean water; the food we eat; the quality of the air we breathe; the vaccines, medicines, and
medical diagnostic tools available; the ways we communicate; the modes of transportation we use; and
more. Children in primary and lower-secondary grades today have lived all of their lives in a science-
and technology-enhanced world. Perhaps more than any previous generation, they have boundless
opportunities to engage in activities and experiences and with information that can satisfy their natural
curiosity about the world and their place in it. Science education in the primary grades capitalizes on
this curiosity and starts young students on a path of systematic inquiry about the world in which they
live. As their understanding of science develops, students in the lower-secondary grades are increasingly
able to make informed decisions about themselves and their world so that, as adults, they can become
informed and scientifically literate citizens capable of distinguishing scientific fact from fiction and
understanding the scientific basis of important social, economic, and environmental issues. Across the
world, there is an increased demand for those qualified to pursue the careers in science, technology,
and engineering to continue to drive the innovation necessary to solve global problems (e.g., mitigating
the environmental impacts of human activities, increasing access to clean water and nutritious food,
preparing next-generation medical therapies), grow economies, and improve quality of life. To meet this
demand, it is increasingly important to prepare students to enter advanced study in these areas.
This chapter presents the assessment framework for the two TIMSS 2023 science assessments:
• TIMSS Science—Fourth Grade
• TIMSS Science—Eighth Grade
The TIMSS 2023 Science Frameworks for the fourth and eighth grades extends the 28-year history
of TIMSS assessments, beginning in 1995 and taking place every four years since. TIMSS 2023 is the
eighth assessment in the series.
The TIMSS 2023 science frameworks are similar to those used in TIMSS 2019. However, there have
been minor updates to reflect countries’ evolving science curricula, frameworks, and learning goals as
reported in the TIMSS 2019 Encyclopedia.1 TIMSS 2023 completes the transition to digital assessment,
which began in TIMSS 2019. The science frameworks have been updated to reflect that TIMSS 2023 will
be developed in and for a digital environment, including capitalizing on innovative technology-based

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approaches to the assessment of inquiry and investigation in science. TIMSS 2023 will capitalize on the
benefits of digital assessment by:
• Incorporating a variety of technology-enhanced item formats to promote student
engagement.
• Including simulated real-world and laboratory situations where students can integrate
and apply process skills and content knowledge to perform scientific investigations or
experiments.
• Improving measurement of higher-order cognitive processes using interactive scenarios that
present students with adaptive and responsive ways to work through science problems.
• Collecting information about how students interact with the achievement items to learn
more about how students engage in the practice of science, their misconceptions, and their
test-taking strategies.
The Introduction to the TIMSS 2023 Frameworks provides further detail on the new interactive item
types and response types planned for TIMSS 2023. It also describes the initiative begun in TIMSS 2019
to develop and begin administering longer, scenario based Problem Solving and Inquiry Tasks (PSIs)
in the mathematics and science assessments, and the plans for incorporating the PSIs into the TIMSS
2023 assessments and beyond.
At each grade, the science assessment framework for TIMSS 2023 is organized around two
dimensions:
• Content dimension, specifying the subject matter to be assessed
• Cognitive dimension, specifying the thinking processes to be assessed
Exhibit 2.1 shows the target percentage of score points devoted to each content and cognitive domain
for the TIMSS 2023 fourth and eighth grade assessments.

Exhibit 2.1: Target Percentages of the TIMSS 2023 Science Assessment Devoted to Content and
Cognitive Domains at the Fourth and Eighth Grades

Fourth Grade
Content Domains Percentages
Life Science 45%
Physical Science 35%
Earth Science 20%

Eighth Grade
Content Domains Percentages
Biology 35%
Chemistry 20%
Physics 25%
Earth Science 20%

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Cognitive Domains Percentages
Fourth Grade Eighth Grade
Knowing 40% 35%

Applying 40% 35%

Reasoning 20% 30%

The content domains differ for the fourth and eighth grades, reflecting the nature and difficulty
of the science taught at each grade. There is more emphasis at the fourth grade on life science than its
counterpart, biology, at the eighth grade. At the eighth grade, physics and chemistry are assessed as
separate content domains and receive more emphasis than at fourth grade, where they are assessed as
one content domain (physical science). The Earth science content domain has the same level of emphasis
at both grades, but the objectives at the eighth grade are more sophisticated than at the fourth grade.
The three cognitive domains (knowing, applying, and reasoning) are the same at both grades,
encompassing the range of cognitive processes involved in learning science concepts, and then applying
these concepts and reasoning with them.
In 2023, TIMSS Science also will assess key science practices. These practices include skills from
daily life and school studies that students use in a systematic way to conduct scientific inquiry and
investigation and that are fundamental to all science disciplines. Increasing emphasis has been placed
on science practices and science inquiry in many countries’ current science curricula, standards, and
frameworks.2 Facility with science practices is essential for students to learn and understand science
concepts and to understand and appreciate the nature of science and scientific knowledge.
The practice of science is, by its very nature, strongly connected to the area of science under study
and, therefore, cannot be assessed in isolation. Some items in the TIMSS 2023 science assessment at
both the fourth and eighth grades will assess one or more of these important science practices together
with content specified in the content domains and thinking processes specified in the cognitive domains.
The science practices will primarily be assessed through the science PSIs, however. In the PSIs, students
conduct extended investigations and inquiries in a science content area and in doing so engage in one
or more of the science practices.
The next two sections of this chapter present the TIMSS 2023 science content domains for fourth
and eighth grades, followed by a description of the cognitive domains, which are applicable to both
grades. The chapter concludes with a description of the science practices.

Science Content Domains—Fourth Grade

Three major content domains define the science content for the TIMSS Science fourth grade assessment:
life science, physical science, and Earth science. Exhibit 2.2 shows the target percentages of testing time
for each of the three content domains in the TIMSS 2023 Science assessment.

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Exhibit 2.2: Target Percentages of the TIMSS 2023 Science Assessment Devoted to
Content Domains at the Fourth Grade

Fourth Grade Content Domains Percentages

Life Science 45%

Physical Science 35%

Earth Science 20%

Each of these content domains includes several major topic areas, and each topic area in turn
includes one or more topics. Each topic is further described by specific objectives that represent the
students’ expected knowledge, abilities, and skills assessed within each topic.
Across the fourth grade assessment, each objective receives approximately equal weight in terms
of the number of assessment items. The verbs used in the objectives are intended to represent typical
performances expected of fourth grade students, but are not intended to limit performances to a
particular cognitive domain. Each objective can be assessed drawing on any of the three cognitive
domains (knowing, applying, and reasoning). Some objectives include additional parenthetical
information. Illustrative examples appear after an “e.g.,” such as in “Relate major structures in animals
to their functions (e.g., bones support the body, lungs take in air, the heart circulates blood, the stomach
digests food, muscles move the body).” In some cases, the additional information indicates the scope of
the objective appropriate for fourth grade students and appears after an “i.e.,” such as in “Recognize that
matter can be changed from one state to another by heating or cooling; describe changes in the state of
water (i.e., melting, freezing, boiling, evaporation, and condensation).”

Life Science
The study of life science at the fourth grade provides students with an opportunity to capitalize on their
innate curiosity and begin to understand the living world around them. In TIMSS 2023, life science is
represented by five topic areas:
• Characteristics and life processes of organisms
• Life cycles, reproduction, and heredity
• Organisms, environment, and their interactions
• Ecosystems
• Human health
By the fourth grade, students are expected to be building a base of knowledge about general
characteristics of organisms, how they function, and how they interact with other organisms and with
their environment. Students also should be familiar with fundamental science concepts related to life
cycles, heredity, and human health that in later grades will lead to a more sophisticated understanding
of how the human body functions.

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Characteristics and Life Processes of Organisms
1. Differences between living and non-living things and what living things require to live:
A. Recognize and describe differences between living and non-living things (i.e., living things
can reproduce, grow and develop, respond to stimuli, and die; and non-living things
cannot).
B. Identify what living things require in order to live (i.e., air, food or nutrients, water, and an
environment in which to live).
2. Physical and behavioral characteristics of major groups of living things:
A. Compare and contrast physical and behavioral characteristics that distinguish major
groups of living things (i.e., insects, birds, mammals, fish, reptiles, and flowering plants);
distinguish groups of animals with backbones from groups of animals without backbones.
B. Identify or provide examples of members of major groups of living things (i.e., insects,
birds, mammals, fish, reptiles, and flowering plants).
3. Functions of major structures in living things:
A. Relate major structures in animals to their functions (e.g., bones support the body, lungs N
take in air, the heart circulates blood, the stomach digests food, muscles move the body).
B. Relate major structures in plants to their functions (i.e., roots absorb water and nutrients
and anchor the plant, leaves make food, the stem supports the plant and transports water,
food, and nutrients, petals attract pollinators, flowers produce seeds, and seeds produce
new plants).

Life Cycles, Reproduction, and Heredity

1. Stages of life cycles and differences among the life cycles of common plants and animals:
A. Identify stages of the life cycles of flowering plants (i.e., germination, growth and
development, reproduction, and seed dispersal).
B. Recognize, compare, and contrast the life cycles of familiar plants and animals (e.g., trees,
beans, humans, frogs, butterflies).
2. Inheritance and reproduction strategies:
A. Recognize that plants and animals reproduce with their own kind to produce offspring
with features that closely resemble those of the parents; distinguish between features of
plants and animals that are inherited from their parents (e.g., number of petals, color of
petals, eye color, hair color), and those that are not (e.g., some broken branches in a tree,
length of human hair).
B. Identify and describe different strategies that increase the number of offspring that survive
(e.g., a plant producing many seeds, mammals caring for their young).

Organisms, Environment, and Their Interactions

1. Physical features or behaviors of living things that help them survive in their environment:
A. Associate physical features of plants and animals with the environments in which they live

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 and describe how these features help them to survive (e.g., a thick stem, a waxy coating,
and a deep root help a plant survive in an environment with little water; the coloring of an
animal helps camouflage it from predators).
B. Associate behaviors of animals with the environments in which they live and describe how
these behaviors help them to survive (e.g., migration or hibernation helps an animal to stay
alive when food is scarce).
2. Responses of living things to environmental conditions:
A. Recognize and describe how plants respond to environmental conditions (e.g., amount of
available water, amount of sunlight).
B. Recognize and describe how different animals respond to changes in environmental
conditions (e.g., light, temperature, danger); recognize and describe how the human body
responds to changes in environmental conditions and how it reacts to physical activity
(e.g., exercise).
3. The impact of humans on the environment:
A. Recognize that human behavior has negative and positive effects on the environment
(e.g., negative effects of air and water pollution, positive effects of reducing air and water
pollution); provide general descriptions and examples of the effects of pollution on
humans, plants, and animals.

Ecosystems
1. Common ecosystems:
A. Relate common plants and animals (e.g., evergreen trees, frogs, lions) to common
ecosystems (e.g., forests, ponds, grasslands).
2. Relationships in simple food chains:
A. Recognize that plants need (sun)light, air, and water to provide energy for life processes
(i.e., growth and repair, movement, and reproduction); explain that animals eat plants or
other animals to get the food they need to supply energy for life processes (i.e., growth and
repair, movement, and reproduction).
B. Complete a model of a simple food chain using common plants and animals from
common ecosystems, (e.g., a forest, a desert, a river, an ocean).
C. Describe the roles of living things at each link in a simple food chain (e.g., plants produce
their own food; some animals eat plants, while other animals eat the animals that eat
plants).
D. Identify common predators and their prey and describe their relationships.
3. Competition in ecosystems:
A. Recognize and explain that some living things in an ecosystem compete with others for
resources (e.g., food, light, space).
E

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Human Health
1. Ways of maintaining good health:
A. Describe everyday behaviors that promote good health (e.g., a balanced diet, exercising
regularly, brushing teeth, getting enough sleep, wearing sunscreen); identify common food
sources included in a balanced diet (e.g., fruits, vegetables, grains).
B. Relate the transmission of common communicable diseases to human contact (e.g.,
touching, sneezing, coughing); identify or describe some methods of preventing disease
transmission (e.g., vaccination, washing hands, keeping a physical distance from people
who are sick).

Physical Science
At the fourth grade, students learn how many physical phenomena that they observe in their everyday
lives can be explained through an understanding of physical science concepts. The topic areas for the
physical science content domain at fourth grade are:
• Classification and properties of matter and changes in matter
• Forms of energy and energy transfer
• Forces and motion
Fourth grade students should have an understanding of physical states of matter (solid, liquid, and
gas), as well as common changes in the state and form of matter; this forms a foundation for the study
of both chemistry and physics in the middle and upper grades. At this level, students also should know
common forms and sources of energy and their practical uses, and understand basic concepts about light,
sound, electricity, and magnetism. The study of forces and motion emphasizes an understanding of forces
as they relate to movements students can observe, such as the effect of gravity or pushing and pulling.
Classification and Properties of Matter and Changes in Matter
1. States of matter and characteristic differences of each state:
A. Identify and describe three states of matter (i.e., a solid has a definite shape and volume, a
liquid has a definite volume but not a definite shape, and a gas has neither a definite shape
nor a definite volume).
2. Physical properties as a basis for classifying matter:
A. Compare and sort objects and materials on the basis of physical properties (e.g., weight/
mass, volume, state of matter, ability to conduct heat or electricity, ability to float or sink
in water, ability to be attracted by a magnet). [Note: Students in the fourth grade are not
expected to differentiate between mass and weight.]
B. Identify properties of metals (i.e., conducting electricity and conducting heat) and relate
these properties to uses of metals (e.g., a copper electrical wire, an iron cooking pot).
C. Describe examples of mixtures and how they can be physically separated (e.g., sifting,
filtration, evaporation, magnetic attraction).

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 3. Magnetic attraction and repulsion:
A. Recognize that magnets have two poles and that like poles repel and opposite poles attract.
B. Recognize that magnets can be used to attract some metal objects.
4. Physical changes observed in everyday life:
A. Identify observable changes in materials that do not result in new materials with different
properties (e.g., dissolving, crushing an aluminum can).
B. Recognize that matter can be changed from one state to another by heating or cooling;
describe changes in the state of water (i.e., melting, freezing, boiling, evaporation, and
condensation).
C. Identify ways of increasing how quickly a solid material dissolves in a given amount of
water (i.e., increasing the temperature, stirring, and breaking the solid into smaller pieces);
distinguish between weak and strong concentrations of simple solutions (e.g., water
sweetened with one versus two lumps of sugar).
5. Chemical changes observed in everyday life:
A. Identify observable changes in materials that make new materials with different properties
(e.g., decaying, such as food spoiling; burning; rusting).

Forms of Energy and Energy Transfer

1. Common sources and uses of energy:
A. Identify sources of energy (e.g., the Sun, flowing water, wind, coal, oil, gas), and recognize
that energy is needed for movement and transportation, manufacturing, heating, lighting,
and powering electronic devices.
2. Light and sound in everyday life:
A. Relate common physical phenomena (i.e., shadows, reflections, and rainbows) to the
behavior of light.
B. Relate common physical phenomena (i.e., vibrating objects and echoes) to the production
and behavior of sound.
3. Heat transfer:
A. Describe what will happen when a hot object and a cold object are brought into contact
(i.e., the temperature of the hot object decreases and the temperature of the cold object
increases).
4. Electricity and simple electrical systems:
A. Recognize that electrical energy in a circuit can be transformed into other forms of energy
(e.g., heat, light, sound).
B. Explain that simple electrical systems (e.g., a flashlight) require a complete (unbroken)
electrical pathway.

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Forces and Motion
1. Familiar forces and the motion of objects:
A. Identify gravity as the force that draws objects to Earth.
B. Recognize that forces (i.e., pushing and pulling) may cause an object to change its motion;
compare the effects of these forces (pushes and pulls) of different strengths in the same or
opposite directions acting on an object; and recognize that friction force works against the
direction of motion (e.g., friction working against a push or a pull makes it more difficult
to move an object along a surface).
2. Simple machines:
A. Recognize that simple machines, (e.g., levers, pulleys, gears, ramps) help make motion
easier (e.g., make lifting things easier, reduce the amount of force required, change the
distance, change the direction of the force).

Earth Science
Earth science is the study of Earth and its place in the Solar System, and at fourth grade focuses on the
study of phenomena and processes that students can observe in their everyday lives. While there is no
single picture of what constitutes an Earth science curriculum that applies to all countries, the three
topic areas included in this domain are generally considered to be important for students at the fourth
grade to understand as they learn about the planet on which they live and its place in the Solar System:
• Earth’s physical characteristics, resources, and history
• Earth’s weather and climates
• Earth in the Solar System
At this level, students should have some general knowledge about the structure and physical
characteristics of Earth’s surface, and about the use of Earth’s most important resources. Students also
should be able to describe some of Earth’s processes in terms of observable changes and understand the
time frame over which such changes have occurred. Fourth grade students should also demonstrate
some understanding about Earth’s place in the Solar System based on observations of patterns of change
on Earth and in the sky.
Earth’s Physical Characteristics, Resources, and History
1. Physical characteristics of the Earth system:
A. Recognize that Earth’s surface is made up of land and water in unequal proportions (more
water than land) and is surrounded by air; describe where fresh and salt water are found.
2. Earth’s resources:
A. Identify some of Earth’s resources that are used in everyday life (e.g., water, wind, soil,
forests, oil, natural gas, minerals).
B. Explain the importance of using Earth’s renewable and non-renewable resources
responsibly (e.g., fossil fuels, forests, water).

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 3. Earth’s history:
A. Recognize that wind and water change Earth’s landscape and that some features of Earth’s
landscape (e.g., mountains, river valleys) result from changes that happen very slowly over
a long time.
B. Recognize that some remains (fossils) of animals and plants that lived on Earth a long
time ago are found in rocks and ice and make simple deductions about changes in Earth’s
surface from the location of these remains.

Earth’s Weather and Climates

1. Weather and climates on Earth:
A. Apply knowledge of changes of state of water to common weather events (e.g., cloud
formation, dew formation, the evaporation of puddles, snow, rain).
B. Describe how weather (i.e., daily variations in temperature, humidity, precipitation in the
form of rain or snow, clouds, and wind) can vary with geographic location.
C. Describe how average temperature and precipitation can change with the seasons and
location; recognize that the average temperature on Earth has increased over the last
century and some effects of this increase on Earth’s physical characteristics (e.g., ocean
levels have increased, ice caps have melted, rivers have dried up, deserts have grown
bigger).

Earth in the Solar System

1. Objects in the Solar System and their movements:
A. Describe the Solar System as the Sun and the planets that revolve around it; recognize that
the Earth has a moon that revolves around it, and from Earth the Moon looks different at
different times of the month.
2. Earth’s motion and related patterns observed on Earth:
A. Explain how day and night are related to Earth’s daily rotation about its axis, and use the
changing appearance of shadows during the day as evidence of this rotation.
B. Recognize that seasons in Earth’s northern and southern hemispheres are related to Earth’s
annual movement around the Sun (and the tilt of Earth’s axis).

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Science Content Domains—Eighth Grade
Four major content domains define the science content for the TIMSS Science eighth grade assessment:
biology, chemistry, physics, and Earth science. Exhibit 2.3 shows the target percentages for each of the
four content domains in the TIMSS 2023 science assessment.

Exhibit 2.3: Target Percentages of the TIMSS 2023 Science Assessment Devoted to
Content Domains at the Eighth Grade

Eighth Grade Content Domains Percentages

Biology 35%
Chemistry 20%
Physics 25%
Earth Science 20%

Each of these content domains includes several major topic areas, and each topic area in turn
includes one or more topics. Each topic is further described by specific objectives that represent the
students’ expected knowledge, abilities, and skills assessed within each topic. Across the eighth grade
assessment, each objective receives approximately equal weight in terms of assessment items. The verbs
used in the objectives are intended to represent typical performances expected of eighth grade students,
but are not intended to limit performances to a particular cognitive domain. Each objective can be
assessed drawing on each of the three cognitive domains (knowing, applying, and reasoning). Some
objectives include additional parenthetical information. Illustrative examples appear after an “e.g.,” such
as in “Locate and identify major organs (e.g., lungs, stomach, brain) and the components of major organ
systems (e.g., respiratory system, digestive system) in the human body.” In some cases, the additional
information indicates the scope of the objective appropriate for eighth grade students and appears after
an “i.e.,” such as in “Describe the basic process of photosynthesis (i.e., requires light, carbon dioxide,
water, and chlorophyll; produces glucose/sugar; and releases oxygen).”

Biology
At the eighth grade, students build on the foundational life science knowledge they learned in the
primary grades, and develop an understanding of many of the most important concepts in biology. The
biology domain includes six topic areas:
• Characteristics and life processes of organisms
• Cells and their functions
• Life cycles, reproduction, and heredity
• Diversity, adaptation, and natural selection
• Ecosystems
• Human health

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 Concepts learned in each of these topic areas are essential for preparing students for more advanced
study. Eighth grade students are expected to understand how structure relates to function in organisms.
They also should have a foundational understanding of cell structure and function and the processes of
photosynthesis and cellular respiration. At this level, the study of reproduction and heredity provides a
foundation for later, more advanced study of molecular biology and molecular genetics. Learning the
concepts of adaptation and natural selection provides a foundation for understanding evolution, and
an understanding of processes and interactions in ecosystems is essential for students to begin to think
about how to develop solutions to many environmental challenges. Finally, developing a science-based
understanding of human health enables students to improve the condition of their lives and the lives
of others.
Characteristics and Life Processes of Organisms
1. Differences among major taxonomic groups of organisms:
A. Identify the defining characteristics that differentiate among major taxonomic groups of
organisms (i.e., plants, animals, fungi; mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and
insects).
B. Recognize and categorize organisms that are examples of major taxonomic groups of
organisms (i.e., plants, animals, fungi; mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and
insects).
2. Structures and functions of major organ systems:
A. Locate and identify major organs (e.g., lungs, stomach, brain) and the components of
major organ systems (e.g., respiratory system, digestive system) in the human body.
B. Compare and contrast major organs and major organ systems in humans and other
vertebrates (e.g., lungs in humans compared with gills in fish).
C. Explain the role of major organs and major organ systems in sustaining life (e.g., organs
involved in circulation and respiration).
3. Physiological processes in animals:
A. Recognize responses of animals that work to maintain stable body conditions under
external and internal changes (e.g., increased heart rate during exercise, feeling thirsty
when dehydrated, feeling hungry when requiring energy, sweating in heat, shivering in
cold).

Cells and Their Functions

1. The structures and functions of cells:
A. Explain that living things are made of cells that both carry out life functions and reproduce
by division.
B. Identify major cell structures (i.e., cell wall, cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm,
chloroplast, vacuole, and mitochondria) and describe the primary functions of these
structures.

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 C. Recognize that cell walls and chloroplasts differentiate plant cells from animal cells.
D. Explain that tissues, organs, and organ systems are formed from groups of cells with
specialized structures and functions.
2. The processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration:
A. Describe the basic process of photosynthesis (i.e., requires light, carbon dioxide, water, and
chlorophyll; produces glucose/sugar; and releases oxygen).
B. Describe the basic process of cellular respiration (i.e., requires oxygen and glucose/sugar;
produces energy; and releases carbon dioxide and water).

Life Cycles, Reproduction, and Heredity

1. Life cycles and patterns of development:
A. Compare and contrast the life cycles and patterns of growth and development of different
types of organisms (i.e., mammals, birds, amphibians, insects, and plants).
2. Sexual reproduction and inheritance in plants and animals:
A. Recognize that sexual reproduction involves the fertilization of an egg cell by a sperm
cell to produce offspring that are similar but not identical to either parent; relate the C
inheritance of traits to organisms passing on genetic material to their offspring.
B. Recognize that an organism’s traits are encoded in its DNA; recognize that DNA is genetic
information found in chromosomes located in the nucleus of each cell.
C. Distinguish inherited characteristics from acquired or learned characteristics.

Diversity, Adaptation, and Natural Selection

1. Variation as the basis for natural selection:
A. Recognize that variations in physical and behavioral characteristics among individuals
in a population give some individuals an advantage in surviving and passing on their
characteristics to their offspring.
B. Relate species survival or extinction to reproductive success in a changing environment
(natural selection).
2. Evidence for changes in life on Earth over time:
A. Draw conclusions about the relative lengths of time different organisms and groups of
organisms have existed on Earth using fossil evidence.
B. Describe how similarities and differences among living species and fossils provide evidence
of the changes that occur in living things over time, and recognize that the degree of
similarity of characteristics provides evidence of common ancestry.

Ecosystems
1. The flow of energy in ecosystems:
A. Identify and provide examples of producers, consumers, and decomposers; construct or
interpret food web diagrams.

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 B. Describe the flow of energy in an ecosystem (e.g., energy flows from producers to
consumers, and only a small part of the energy is passed from one level to the next);
construct or interpret energy pyramids.
2. The cycling of water, oxygen, and carbon in ecosystems:
A. Describe the role of living things in cycling water through an ecosystem (i.e., plants take
in water from the soil and give off water through their leaves (transpiration); and animals
take in water and release water during respiration and as waste).
B. Describe the role of living things in cycling oxygen and carbon through an ecosystem
(i.e., plants take in carbon dioxide from the air and release oxygen into the air as part of
photosynthesis and store carbon in their cells; and animals take in oxygen from the air and
release carbon dioxide into the air as part of respiration).
3. Relationships among populations of organisms in an ecosystem:
A. Describe and provide examples of competition among populations or organisms in an
ecosystem.
B. Describe and provide examples of predation in an ecosystem.
C. Describe and provide examples of symbiosis (e.g., mutualism and parasitism) among
populations of organisms in an ecosystem (e.g., birds or insects pollinating flowers, ticks
living on deer or cattle).
4. Factors affecting population size in an ecosystem:
A. Describe factors that affect the growth of plants and animals; identify factors that limit
population size (e.g., disease, predators, food resources, drought, competition).
B. Predict how changes in an ecosystem (e.g., changes in the water supply, the introduction of
a new population, hunting, migration) can affect available resources, and thus the balance
among populations.
5. Human impact on the environment:
A. Describe and explain how human behavior (e.g., re-planting forests, reducing air and water
pollution, protecting endangered species) can have positive effects on the environment.
B. Describe and explain how human behavior (e.g., allowing factory waste water to enter
water systems, burning fossil fuels that release greenhouse gases and pollutants into the
air) can have negative effects on the environment; describe and provide examples of the
effects of air, water, and soil pollution on humans, plants, and animals (e.g., water pollution
can reduce plant and animal life in the water system).

Human Health
1. Causes, transmission, prevention of, and resistance to diseases:
A. Describe causes, transmission, and prevention of common viral, bacterial, and parasite
diseases (e.g., influenza, measles, HIV, COVID-19, tetanus, malaria).
B. Describe the role of the body’s immune system in resisting disease and promoting healing
(e.g., antibodies in the blood help the body resist infection and white blood cells fight

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 infection); recognize that antibiotics can help the immune system suppress bacterial
infections and antibiotics may become less effective when bacteria change.
2. The importance of diet, exercise, and other lifestyle choices:
A. Explain the importance of diet, exercise, and other lifestyle choices in maintaining health
and preventing illness (e.g., heart disease, high blood pressure, diabetes, skin cancer, lung
cancer).
B. Identify the dietary sources and roles of nutrients in a healthy diet (i.e., vitamins, minerals,
proteins, carbohydrates, and fats).

Chemistry
At the eighth grade, students’ study of chemistry extends beyond developing an understanding of
everyday phenomena to learning the central concepts and principles that are needed for understanding
practical applications of chemistry and undertaking later, more advanced study. The chemistry domain
includes three topic areas:
• Composition of matter
• Properties of matter
• Chemical change
The composition of matter topic area focuses on differentiating elements, compounds, and mixtures
E
and understanding the particulate structure of matter. Included in this area also is the use of the
periodic table as an organizing principle for the elements. At a more macroscopic level, the properties
of matter topic area focuses on distinguishing between physical and chemical properties of matter and
understanding the properties of mixtures and solutions and the properties of acids and bases. The study
of chemical change focuses on the characteristics of chemical changes and the conservation of matter
during chemical changes.
Composition of Matter
1. Structure of atoms and molecules:
A. Describe atoms as composed of subatomic particles (i.e., negatively charged electrons
surrounding a nucleus containing positively charged protons and neutrons with no
charge).
B. Describe the structure of matter in terms of particles (i.e., atoms and molecules) and
describe molecules as combinations of atoms (e.g., H2O, O2, CO2).
2. Elements, compounds, and mixtures:
A. Describe the differences among elements, compounds, and mixtures; differentiate
between pure substances (i.e., elements and compounds) and mixtures (homogeneous and
heterogeneous) on the basis of their formation and composition.
3. The periodic table of elements:
A. Recognize that the periodic table is an arrangement of the known elements; recognize and

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 describe that the elements are arranged in order of the number of protons in the nuclei of
the atoms of each element.
B. Recognize that an element’s properties (e.g., metal or non-metal, reactivity) can be
predicted from its location in the periodic table (i.e., row, or period, and column, or group/
family) and that elements in the same group have some properties in common.

Properties of Matter
1. Physical and chemical properties of matter:
A. Distinguish between physical and chemical properties of matter.
B. Relate uses of materials to their physical properties (e.g., melting point, boiling point,
solubility, thermal conductivity).
C. Relate uses of materials to their chemical properties (e.g., tendency to rust, flammability).
2. Physical and chemical properties as a basis for classifying matter:
A. Classify substances according to physical properties that can be demonstrated or measured
(e.g., density, melting or boiling point, solubility, magnetic properties, electrical or thermal
conductivity).
B. Classify substances according to their chemical properties (e.g., reactivity, flammability).
3. Mixtures and solutions:
A. Explain how physical methods can be used to separate mixtures into their components.
B. Describe solutions in terms of substance(s) (i.e., solid, liquid, or gas solutes) dissolved in
a solvent and relate the concentration of a solution to the amounts of solute and solvent
present.
C. Explain how temperature, stirring, and surface area in contact with the solvent affect the
rate at which solutes dissolve.
4. Properties of acids and bases:
A. Recognize everyday substances as acids or bases based on their properties (e.g., acids
have pH less than 7; acidic foods usually have a sour taste; bases usually do not react with
metals; bases feel slippery).
B. Recognize that both acids and bases react with indicators to produce different color
changes.
C. Recognize that acids and bases neutralize each other.

Chemical Change
1. Characteristics of chemical changes:
A. Differentiate chemical from physical changes in terms of the transformation (reaction) of
one or more pure substances (reactants) into different pure substances (products).
B. Identify and describe evidence (i.e., temperature changes, gas production, precipitate
formation, color change, or light emission) that a chemical change has taken place.

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 2. Matter and energy in chemical reactions:
A. Recognize that matter is conserved during a chemical reaction and that all of the atoms
present at the beginning of the reaction are present at the end of the reaction, but they are
rearranged to form new substances.
B. Recognize that some chemical reactions release energy (heat) while others absorb it,
and classify common chemical reactions (e.g., burning, neutralization, the mixing of
substances in a chemical cold pack) as either releasing heat or absorbing energy (heat).
C. Recognize that chemical reactions occur at different rates and that the rate of reaction
can be affected by changing the conditions under which the reaction is taking place (i.e.,
surface area, temperature, and concentration).
3. Chemical bonds:
A. Recognize that a chemical bond results from the attraction between atoms in a compound
and that the atoms’ electrons are involved in this bonding.

Physics
As in the chemistry domain, students’ study of physics at the eighth grade extends beyond understanding
the scientific basis of common everyday observations to learning many of the central physics concepts
that are needed for understanding practical applications of physics or for undertaking advanced study
later in their education. The physics domain includes five topic areas:
• Physical states and changes in matter
• Energy transformation and transfer
• Light and sound
• Electricity and magnetism
• Motion and forces
Eighth grade students are expected to be able to describe processes involved in changes in the state
of matter and relate states of matter to the distance and movement among particles. They also should
be able to identify different forms of energy, describe simple energy transformations, apply the principle
of conservation of total energy in practical situations, and understand the difference between thermal
energy (heat) and temperature. Students at this level also are expected to know some basic properties of
light and sound, relate these properties to observable phenomena, and solve practical problems involving
the behavior of light and sound. In the topic area of electricity and magnetism, students should be
familiar with the electrical conductivity of common materials, current flow in electric circuits, and the
difference between simple series and parallel circuits. They also should be able to describe properties and
uses of permanent magnets and electromagnets. Students’ understanding of motion and forces should
include knowing general types and characteristics of forces and how simple machines function. They
should understand the concepts of pressure and density and be able to predict qualitative changes in
motion based on the forces acting on an object.

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Physical States and Changes in Matter
1. Motion of particles in solids, liquids, and gases:
A. Recognize that atoms and molecules in matter are in constant motion and recognize the
differences in relative motion and distance between particles in solids, liquids, and gases;
apply knowledge about the movement of and distance between atoms and molecules to
explain the physical properties of solids, liquids, and gases (i.e., volume, shape, density, and
compressibility).
B. Relate changes in temperature of a gas to changes in its volume and/or pressure and
changes in the average speed of its particles; relate expansion of solids and liquids to
temperature change in terms of the average spacing between particles.
2. Changes in states of matter:
A. Describe changes of state (i.e., melting, freezing, boiling, evaporation, condensation, and
sublimation) as resulting from an increase or decrease of thermal energy; explain that mass
remains constant during changes of state.
B. Relate the rate of change of state to physical factors (e.g., surface area, the temperature of
the surroundings).

Energy Transformation and Transfer

1. Forms of energy and the conservation of energy:
A. Identify different forms of energy (e.g., kinetic, potential, light, sound, electrical, thermal,
chemical).
B. Describe the energy transformations that take place in common processes (e.g.,
combustion in an engine to move a car, photosynthesis, the production of hydroelectric
power); recognize that the total energy of a closed system is conserved.
2. Thermal energy transfer and thermal conductivity of materials:
A. Recognize that temperature remains constant during melting, boiling, and freezing, but
thermal energy increases or decreases during a change of state.
B. Relate the transfer of thermal energy from an object or an area at a higher temperature to
one at a lower temperature to cooling and heating; recognize that hot objects cool off and
cold objects warm up until they reach the same temperature as their surroundings.
C. Compare the relative thermal conductivity of different materials.

Light and Sound

1. Properties of light:
A. Describe or identify basic properties of light (i.e., speed; transmission through different
media; reflection, refraction, absorption, and splitting of white light into its component
colors); relate the apparent color of objects to reflected or absorbed light.
B. Solve practical problems involving the reflection of light from plane mirrors and the
formation of shadows; interpret simple ray diagrams to identify the path of light.

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 2. Properties of sound:
A. Describe or identify some basic properties of sound (i.e., is a wave phenomenon caused
by vibrations, is characterized by loudness (amplitude) and pitch (frequency), requires a
medium for transmission, is reflected and absorbed by surfaces, and has a relative speed
through different media, which is always slower than light).
B. Relate common phenomena (e.g., echoes, hearing thunder after seeing lightning) to the
properties of sound.

Electricity and Magnetism

1. Conductors and the flow of electricity in electrical circuits:
A. Classify materials as electrical conductors or insulators; identify electrical components or
materials that can be used to complete circuits.
B. Identify diagrams representing complete circuits.
2. Properties and uses of permanent magnets and electromagnets:
A. Relate properties of permanent magnets (i.e., two opposite poles, attraction/repulsion,
and strength of the magnetic force varies with distance) to uses in everyday life (e.g., a
directional compass).
B. Describe the properties that are unique to electromagnets (i.e., the strength varies with
current, number of coils, and type of metal in the core; the magnetic attraction can be
turned on and off; and the poles can switch) and relate properties of electromagnets to uses
in everyday life (e.g., doorbell, recycling factory).

Motion and Forces

1. Motion:
A. Recognize the speed of an object as change in position (distance) over time and
acceleration as change in speed over time.
2. Common forces and their characteristics:
A. Describe common mechanical forces (e.g., normal, friction, elastic, buoyant); recognize
and describe weight as a force due to gravity.
B. Recognize that forces have strength and direction; recognize that for every action force
there is an equal and opposite reaction force; recognize and describe the difference in the
force of gravity on an object when it is located on different planets (or moons).
3. Effects of forces:
A. Describe the functioning of simple machines (e.g., levers, inclined planes, pulleys, gears).
B. Explain floating and sinking in terms of density differences and the effect of buoyant force.
C. Describe pressure in terms of force and area; describe effects related to pressure (e.g., water
pressure increasing with depth, a balloon expanding when inflated).

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 D. Predict qualitative one-dimensional changes in motion (speed and direction) of an object
based on the forces acting on it; recognize and describe how the force of friction affects
motion (e.g., the contact area between surfaces can increase friction and impede motion).

Earth Science
Topics covered in the teaching and learning of Earth science draw on the fields of geology, astronomy,
meteorology, hydrology, and oceanography, and are related to concepts in biology, chemistry, and physics.
Although separate courses in Earth science covering all of these topics are not taught in all countries, it
is expected that understandings related to Earth science topic areas will have been included in a science
curriculum covering the physical and life sciences or in separate courses such as geography and geology.
The TIMSS 2023 Science Framework identifies the following topic areas that are universally considered
to be important for students at the eighth grade to understand as they learn about the planet on which
they live and its place in the universe:
• Earth’s structure and physical features
• Earth’s processes, cycles, and history
• Earth’s resources, their use, and conservation
• Earth in the Solar System and the universe
Eighth grade students are expected to have some general knowledge about the structure and physical
features of Earth, including Earth’s structural layers, and the atmosphere. Students also should have a
conceptual understanding of processes, cycles, and patterns, including geological processes that have
occurred over Earth’s history, the water cycle, and patterns of weather and climate. Students should
demonstrate knowledge of Earth’s resources and their use and conservation, and relate this knowledge to
practical solutions to resource management issues. At this level, the study of Earth and the Solar System
includes understanding how observable phenomena relate to the movements of Earth and the Moon,
and describing the features of Earth, the Moon, and other planets.
Earth’s Structure and Physical Features
1. Earth’s structure and physical characteristics:
A. Describe the structure of the Earth (i.e., crust, mantle, inner core, and outer core) and the
physical characteristics of these distinct parts.
B. Describe the distribution of water on Earth in terms of its physical state (i.e., ice, water, and
water vapor), and fresh versus salt water.
2. Components of Earth’s atmosphere and atmospheric conditions:
A. Recognize that Earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of gases; identify the relative abundance of
its main components (i.e., nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, and carbon dioxide), relate these
components to everyday life processes involving oxygen, water vapor, and carbon dioxide
(e.g., human lung function, photosynthesis).
B. Relate changes in atmospheric conditions (i.e., temperature and pressure) to changes in
altitude.

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Earth’s Processes, Cycles, and History
1. Geological processes:
A. Describe the general processes involved in the rock cycle (e.g., the cooling of lava, heat and
pressure transforming sediment into rock, weathering, erosion).
B. Identify or describe changes to Earth’s surface (e.g., mountain building), resulting from
major geological events (e.g., glaciation, the movement of tectonic plates and subsequent
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions).
C. Explain the formation of fossils and fossil fuels; use evidence from the fossil record to
explain how the environment has changed over long periods of time.
2. Earth’s water cycle:
A. Describe the processes in Earth’s water cycle (i.e., evaporation, condensation into clouds,
transportation, and precipitation) and recognize the Sun as the source of energy for the
water cycle.
B. Describe the role of cloud movement and water flow in the circulation and renewal of fresh
water on Earth’s surface.
3. Weather and climate:
A. Distinguish between weather (i.e., day-to-day variations in temperature, humidity,
precipitation in the form of rain or snow, clouds, and wind) and climate (i.e., long-term
typical weather patterns in a geographic area).
B. Interpret data or maps of weather patterns to identify climate types; relate the climate and
E
seasonal variations in weather patterns to global and local factors (e.g., latitude, altitude,
geography).
C. Identify or describe evidence for climate changes (e.g., changes related to ice ages, changes
related to global warming).

Earth’s Resources, Their Use and Conservation

1. Managing Earth’s resources:
A. Provide examples of Earth’s renewable and nonrenewable resources.
B. Discuss advantages and disadvantages of different energy sources (e.g., sunlight, wind,
flowing water, geothermal, oil, coal, gas, nuclear).
C. Describe methods of conservation of Earth’s resources and methods of waste management
(e.g., reduce, reuse, recycle).
2. Land and water use:
A. Explain how common methods of land use (e.g., farming, logging, mining) can affect land
and water resources.
B. Explain the importance of water conservation, and describe methods for ensuring that
fresh water is available for human activities (e.g., desalination, purification).

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Earth in the Solar System and the Universe
1. Observable phenomena on Earth resulting from movements of Earth and the Moon:
A. Describe the effects of the Earth’s annual revolution around the Sun, given the tilt of its axis
(e.g., different seasons, different constellations visible at different times of the year).
B. Recognize that tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon, and relate phases of
the Moon and eclipses to the relative positions of Earth, the Moon, and the Sun.
2. The Sun, stars, Earth, Moon, and planets:
A. Recognize that the Sun is a star and provides light and heat to each member of the Solar
System; explain that the Sun and other stars produce their own light, but that other
members of the Solar System are visible because of light reflected from the Sun.
B. Compare and contrast certain physical features of Earth with those of the Moon and other
planets (e.g., presence and composition of an atmosphere, average surface temperature,
presence of water, mass, gravity, distance from the Sun, period of revolution and rotation,
ability to support life); recognize that the force of gravity keeps planets and moons in their
orbits.

Science Cognitive Domains—Fourth and Eighth Grades

The cognitive dimension is divided into three domains that describe the thinking processes students
are expected to engage in when encountering the science items developed for TIMSS 2023. The first
domain, knowing, addresses the student’s ability to recall, recognize, describe, and provide examples
of facts, concepts, and procedures that are necessary for a solid foundation in science. The second
domain, applying, focuses on using this knowledge to compare, contrast, and classify groups of objects
or materials; relating knowledge of a science concept to a specific context; generating explanations;
and solving practical problems. The third domain, reasoning, includes using evidence and science
understanding to analyze, synthesize, and generalize, often in unfamiliar situations and complex contexts.
These three cognitive domains are used at both grades, however, the target percentages for each
domain vary between fourth and eighth grade in accordance with the increased cognitive ability,
instruction, experience, and breadth and depth of understanding of students at the higher grade level.
The percentage of items that involve knowing is higher at the fourth grade compared to the eighth
grade, while the percentage of items that ask students to engage in reasoning is higher at the eighth
grade compared to the fourth grade. While there is some hierarchy in the thinking processes across the
three cognitive domains (from knowing to applying to reasoning), each cognitive domain contains items
representing a full range of difficulty. Exhibit 2.4 shows the target percentages in terms of assessment
time for each of the three cognitive domains at the fourth and eighth grades.

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Exhibit 2.4: Target Percentages of the TIMSS 2023 Science Assessment Devoted to Cognitive Domains
at the Fourth and Eighth GradesCognitive

Cognitive Domains Percentages

Fourth Grade Eighth Grade
Knowing 40% 35%
Applying 40% 35%
Reasoning 20% 30%

For the fourth and eighth grades, each content domain includes items developed to address each of
the three cognitive domains. For example, the life science content domain includes knowing, applying,
and reasoning items, as do the other content domains. The following sections further describe the
thinking processes that define the cognitive domains.

Knowing
Items in this domain assess students’ knowledge of facts, relationships, processes, concepts, and
equipment. Accurate and broad-based factual knowledge forms a foundation that students can draw
upon to successfully engage in the more complex cognitive activities essential to the scientific enterprise.
Identify or state facts, relationships, and concepts; identify the
characteristics or properties of specific organisms, materials, and
Recognize processes; identify the appropriate uses for scientific equipment and
procedures; and recognize and use scientific vocabulary, symbols,
abbreviations, units, and scales.
Describe or identify descriptions of properties, structures, and functions
Describe of organisms and materials, and relationships among organisms,
materials, and processes and phenomena.
Provide or identify examples of organisms, materials, and processes that
Provide Examples possess certain specified characteristics; and clarify statements of facts or
concepts with appropriate examples.

Applying
Items in this domain require students to engage in applying knowledge of scientific facts, relationships,
processes, concepts, equipment, and methods in contexts likely to be common in the teaching and
learning of science.

Identify or describe similarities and differences between groups of

Compare/ Contrast/ organisms, materials, or processes; and distinguish, classify, or sort
Classify individual objects, materials, organisms, and processes based on
characteristics and properties.
Relate knowledge of an underlying science concept to an observed or
Relate
inferred property, behavior, or use of objects, organisms, or materials.
Use a diagram or other model to demonstrate knowledge of science
Interpret Models concepts, to illustrate a process, cycle, relationship, or system, or to find
solutions to science problems.

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 Use knowledge of science concepts to interpret relevant textual, tabular,
Interpret Information
pictorial, and graphical information.
Provide or identify an explanation for an observation or a natural
Explain
phenomenon using a science concept or principle.

Reasoning
Items in this domain require students to engage in reasoning to analyze data and other information, draw
conclusions, and extend their understandings to new situations. Scientific reasoning also encompasses
developing hypotheses as well as designing scientific models and investigations. In contrast to the
more direct applications of science facts and concepts exemplified in the applying domain, items in the
reasoning domain may involve less common or more complicated contexts. Answering such items can
involve more than one approach or strategy.

Formulate questions that can be answered by investigation and predict

results of an investigation given information about the design; use
scientific evidence and conceptual understanding to make predictions
Predict about the effects of changes in biological or physical conditions or about
the outcome of a dynamic situation; and formulate testable assumptions
based on conceptual understanding and knowledge from experience,
observation, and/or analysis of scientific information.
Develop models; plan investigations or procedures appropriate for
answering scientific questions or testing hypotheses; describe or recognize
the characteristics of well-designed investigations in terms of variables
Design
to be measured and controlled and cause-and-effect relationships; and
design a plan that applies scientific principles and appropriate technologies
to solve a problem.
Evaluate alternative explanations; weigh advantages and disadvantages to
make decisions about alternative processes and materials; evaluate models
Evaluate in terms of their merits and limitations; evaluate results of investigations
with respect to sufficiency of data to support conclusions; and evaluate
design plans in terms of criteria for success and constraints.
Make valid inferences on the basis of observations, evidence, and/or
understanding of science concepts; and draw appropriate conclusions
Draw Conclusions
that address questions or hypotheses, and demonstrate understanding of
cause and effect.
Identify the elements of a scientific problem and use relevant information,
Analyze concepts, relationships, and data patterns to answer questions and solve
problems.
Answer questions that require consideration of a number of different
Synthesize
factors or related concepts.
Make general conclusions that go beyond the experimental or given
Generalize
conditions; apply conclusions to new situations.
Use evidence and science understanding to support the reasonableness of
Justify
explanations, solutions to problems, and conclusions from investigations.

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Science Practices in TIMSS 2023
Scientific knowledge is developed through rigorous investigation of the natural world using key science
practices to answer questions and solve problems. Students of science must become proficient at these
practices to develop knowledge and understanding of scientific concepts. Engaging in science practices
also enables students to develop an understanding of how the scientific enterprise is conducted and, by
extension, understand and appreciate the nature of science and scientific knowledge. Science practices,
which are fundamental to all science disciplines, incorporate skills from daily life and school studies that
students use in a systematic way to conduct scientific inquiry.
TIMSS 2023 assesses a range of science practices in the context of the TIMSS science content
objectives and cognitive domain areas. While these practices are presented below as an ordered list,
the complexity of scientific inquiry means that the process of employing them is, in reality, most often
nonlinear and carried out in an iterative fashion.
Practice 1: Asking questions based on observations and theories
Observations of phenomena in the natural world, when considered together with scientific
theory, often lead to scientific questions. These questions are used to formulate testable
hypotheses that guide the development of investigations designed to help answer them.
Practice 2: Designing investigations and generating evidence
Testing hypotheses requires designing and executing systematic investigations and controlled
experiments in order to generate evidence to support or refute the hypothesis. Scientists create
models to relate their theories to properties that can be observed or measured in order to
determine the evidence to be gathered, the equipment and procedures needed to collect the
evidence, and the measurements to be recorded. They make choices about the factors to include
and exclude from their models.
Practice 3: Working with data
Once data are collected, scientists summarize it in various types of visual displays and describe
or interpret patterns in the data and explore relationships between variables.
Practice 4: Answering research questions
Scientists use evidence from observations and investigations, together with their theories and
models, to support or refute hypotheses and answer questions. They also recognize limitations
of their investigations, evidence, and answers.
Practice 5: Making arguments from evidence
Scientists use evidence together with science knowledge to construct explanations, justify and
support the reasonableness of their explanations and conclusions, and extend their conclusions
to new situations.

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 TIMSS assesses the science practices primarily with the science PSIs, in which students conduct
extended investigations and inquiries, and in doing so engage in one or more of the science practices.
However, regular items in TIMSS can also incorporate one or more of the science practices.

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References

1 Kelly, D., Centurino, V. A. S., Martin, M. O., & Mullis, I. V. S. (2020). TIMSS 2019 encyclopedia: Education policy
and curriculum in mathematics and science. Retrieved from Boston College, TIMSS & PIRLS International Study
Center website: https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2019/encyclopedia/

2 Kelly, D., Centurino, V. A. S., Martin, M. O., & Mullis, I. V. S. (2020). TIMSS 2019 encyclopedia: Education policy
and curriculum in mathematics and science. Retrieved from Boston College, TIMSS & PIRLS International Study
Center website: https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2019/encyclopedia/

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