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MEDIA LITERACY APPROACH

t
no

Key Idea: Media literacy is a set of perspectives that we actively use to expose ourselves
to the media and interpret the meaning of the messages we encounter.
It is multidimensional and a continuum.
o
D

Media literacy is the ability to access and process information from any kind of transmission.

13
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This work may not be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without express written permission of the publisher.
14  Part I  ■ Introduction

What Is Media Literacy? Advantages of Developing a Higher Degree

The Three Building Blocks of of Media Literacy
Media Literacy Appetite for a Wider Variety of Media
Skills Messages

e
Knowledge Structures More Self-Programming of
Personal Locus Mental Codes

ut
The Definition of Media Literacy More Control Over Media
The Development of Media Literacy Summary

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Further Reading
Exercise

t
is
A s you learned in the first chapter, we are constantly flooded with a huge number of

d
messages from the mass media. We must screen out all but a tiny percentage. To help
us do this screening with the least amount of mental effort, we default to automaticity,
where our minds quickly screen out messages without any conscious awareness of this

or
process. This automatic filtering process is governed by a set of procedures—much like a
computer program—that runs unconsciously until something in a media message trig-
gers our attention. While this filtering process is largely automatic, it is possible for us to
t,
gain greater control over it if we increase our media literacy.
s
po

WHAT IS MEDIA LITERACY?

The most standard use of the term literacy applies to a person’s ability to read the written
word. However, with the advent of technologies to convey messages in addition to print,
,
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the idea of literacy was expanded to also include things like visual literacy (the ability to
process flat two-dimensional pictures of our three-dimensional world), story literacy (the
ability to follow plots in books, television, and film), and computer literacy (the ability to
co

creates one’s own digital messages, to send them to others electronically, to search for mes-
sages, and to process meaning from electronic screens). In this book we do not focus on any
one particular type of literacy but instead take a broad approach that considers all media.
Another characteristic within the writings about media literacy is a focus on the mass
t

media as being harmful; that is, mass media messages expose people to risks of harmful
no

effects. While acknowledging that media messages have the potential to increase the risk
of harmful effects, this book attempts to show you that media messages also offer a great
potential for positive effects—if we are open minded. To illustrate this point, let’s con-
sider the belief that newer forms of technology have harmed people’s ability to write well.
o

An illustration of this belief is John Sutherland, an English professor at the University

College of London, who has argued that texting has reduced language into a “bleak, bald,
D

sad shorthand,” that Facebook reinforces narcissistic drivel, and that PowerPoint presen-
tations have taken the place of well-reasoned essays (quoted in Thompson, 2009). He
says that today’s technologies of communication that encourage or even require shorter
messages, like Twitter, have shortened people’s attention spans and therefore have limited

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 Chapter 2  ■  Media Literacy Approach  15

their ability to think in longer arcs, which is

required for constructing well-reasoned essays.
In contrast, other people regard these newer
formats for communication more positively.
For example, Andrea Lunsford, a professor of

e
writing and rhetoric at Stanford University,
argues that the newer information technolo-

ut
gies have actually increased literacy. She says,

iStock/ViewApart
“I think we’re in the midst of a literacy revo-

rib
lution the likes of which we haven’t seen since
Greek civilization” (quoted in Thompson,
2009). In addition, she argues that these new

t
technologies of communication are not killing Media literacy

is
stimulates us to
our ability to write well but instead are pushing it in new directions of being more per- adapt to changing
sonal, creative, and concise. She reached this conclusion after systematically analyzing communication

d
more than 14,000 student writing samples over a 5-year period. She explains that young technologies and
open our minds
people today are adept at understanding the needs of their audiences and writing mes- to new media
sages especially crafted to appeal to them. For today’s youth, writing is about discovering

or
messages.
themselves, organizing their thoughts concisely, managing impressions, and persuading
their readers.
When we open our minds, we see that there are both positive as well as negative effects
t,
of these newer forms of communication. The newer technologies of communication offer
s
fewer opportunities to develop certain skills but at the same time increase the opportuni-
ties to develop other kinds of skills. Thus it is careless to regard the media’s influence on
po

our skill set as being either all good or all bad.

In addition to encouraging us to open our minds, media literacy also stimulates us
to adapt to our changing world rather than to ignore those changes or to deny that those
changes are happening. We adapt by opening ourselves up to a wider variety of messages,
,

then by analyzing those messages for new elements and evaluating those elements so we
py

can appreciate their value.

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THE THREE BUILDING

BLOCKS OF MEDIA LITERACY
t
no

The three building blocks of media literacy are skills, knowledge structures, and
personal locus. The combination of all three is necessary to build your wider set of per-
spectives on the media. Your skills are the tools you use to build knowledge structures.
Your knowledge structures are the organizations of what you have learned. Your personal
o

locus provides mental energy and direction.

D

Skills
Many people who write about media literacy primarily consider it a skill, and the term
they use to refer to this skill is critical thinking. While the term critical thinking sounds
good, its use creates confusion, because everyone seems to have a different meaning for it.

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16  Part I  ■ Introduction

Some people regard critical thinking as a willingness to criticize the media; other people
define it as the need to examine issues in more depth; still others suggest a meaning of
being more systematic and logical when interacting with the media; others imply that
it means the ability to focus on the most important issues and ignore the rest; and the
list goes on. In order to avoid this conglomeration of meanings, I will not use this term;

e
instead, I will try to be clearer by showing you how media literacy relies on seven specific
skills. These are the skills of analysis, evaluation, grouping, induction, deduction, synthe-

ut
sis, and abstracting (see Table 2.1).
These skills are not exclusive to media literacy tasks; instead, we use these skills in all

rib
sorts of ways in our everyday lives. We all have some ability with each of these skills, so the
media literacy challenge is not to acquire these skills; rather our challenge is to get better at
using each of these skills in our encounters with media messages. In the remainder of this

t
section, I will define each of these skills and show how they are applied in a media literacy

is
context. (For a more detailed treatment of each of these skills, please see Potter, 2018.)
Analysis is the breaking down of a message into meaningful elements. As we encoun-

d
ter media messages, we can simply accept these messages on the surface or we can dig
deeper into the message itself by breaking it down into its components and examining the
composition of the elements that make up the message. For example, with a news story,

or
we can accept what a journalist tells us or we can analyze the story for completeness.
That is, we can break the story down into its who, what, when, where, why, and how to
determine if the story is complete or not. t,
Evaluation is making a judgment about the value of an element. This judgment is
s
made by comparing a message element to some standard. When we encounter opinions
expressed by experts in media messages, we could simply memorize those opinions and
po

make them our own. Or we could take the information elements in the message and
compare them to our standards. If those elements meet or exceed our standards, we
,

TABLE 2.1  ■  The Seven Skills of Media Literacy

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Skill Definition
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Analysis Breaking down a message into meaningful elements

Evaluation Judging the value of an element; the judgment is made by comparing a

message element to some standard
t

Grouping Determining which elements are alike in some way; determining how a
no

group of elements are different from other groups of elements

Induction Inferring a pattern across a small set of elements, then generalizing the
pattern to all elements in the set
o

Deduction Using general principles to explain particulars

D

Synthesis Assembling elements into a new structure

Abstracting Creating a brief, clear, and accurate description capturing the essence of
a message in a smaller number of words than the message itself

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 Chapter 2  ■  Media Literacy Approach  17

conclude that the message—and the opinion

expressed there—is good; but if the elements
fall short of our standard, then we judge the
message to be unacceptable.
There is a lot of evidence that people simply

e
accept the opinions they hear in media mes-
sages without making their own evaluations.

ut
iStock/media photos
One example of this is the now widespread
opinion that in the United States, the edu-

rib
cational system is not very good and a big
reason for this is that children now spend too
much time with the media, especially TV. To

t
illustrate, the National Center for Education Analysis, one

is
of the seven
Statistics is an agency of the U.S. federal government that uses standardized testing to skills of media
assess the level of learning of America’s youth in reading, science, and mathematics each literacy, breaks

d
year, then compares their levels of learning with youth in 65 other countries. The 2012 down a message
into meaningful
Program for International Student Assessment report says that adolescents in the United components.
States are ranked 24th in reading, 28th in science, and 36th in mathematics (National

or
Center for Education Statistics, 2012). Critics of the U.S. educational system use infor-
mation like this to argue that adolescents spend too much time with the media and this
makes their minds lazy, reduces their creativity, and turns them into lethargic entertain-
t,
ment junkies. If this happens, children will not value achievement and will not do well
s
in school.
This criticism is faulty for several reasons. One reason for its faulty nature is that it
po

blames the media exclusively and fails to acknowledge that academic performance is
influenced by a complex of favors, especially parents’ values for education and student
motivations. Another reason is that it focuses only on negative effects and recognizes no
potential for positive effects that continually accrue from media exposures of all kinds.
,

When we analyze this criticism in even a little depth, we can see that it is misleading.
py

To illustrate, let’s examine the often-heard criticism that television viewing is nega-
tively related to academic achievement. What makes this faulty is that this relationship is
explained better by something else—IQ. School achievement is overwhelmingly related
co

to IQ. Also, children with lower IQs watch more television. So it is IQ that accounts for
lower achievement and higher television viewing. Research analyses that take a child’s IQ
into account find that there is no overall negative relationship; instead, there is a much
t

more interesting pattern (see Potter, 1987a). The negative relationship does not show up
no

until the child’s viewing has passed the threshold of 30 hours per week. Beyond that
30-hour point, the more television children watch, the lower their academic achievement,
and that effect gets stronger with the more hours they watch beyond that threshold.
This means that academic achievement goes down only after television viewing starts
o

to cut into study time and sleep. But there is no negative effect for less than 30 hours
of viewing per week. In fact, at the lowest levels of television viewing, there is actually a
D

positive effect; that is, a child who watches none or only a few hours a week is likely to
do less well academically than a child who watches a moderate amount (around 12 to 15
hours per week). Thus, the pattern is as follows: Children who are deprived of the source
of information that television provides do less well in school than children who watch a

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 18  Part I  ■ Introduction

moderate amount of television; however, when a child gets to the point where the amount
of television viewing cuts into needed study time, academic performance goes down.
Television—as well as the Internet and all other forms of the media—has potentially
positive as well as negative effects. Television exposure can displace constructive behav-
iors such as studying, but television can expand our experience, teach us valuable social

e
lessons, and stimulate our imaginations. Preventing children from using television can
prevent a potentially negative effect but it also prevents positive effects as well.

ut
When we pose the question, “What effect does viewing television have on a child’s
academic performance?” we could give the simple, popular answer: There is a negative

rib
effect. But now you can see that this answer is too simple—it is simpleminded. It is also
misleading because it reinforces the limited belief that media effects are negative and that
the media are to blame.

t
The reason faulty beliefs are such a dangerous trap is because they are self-reinforcing.

is
By this, I mean that as people are continually exposed to faulty information, they feel
even more secure that their faulty beliefs are accurate. They feel less and less motivated

d
to challenge them. When someone points out that the information on which their beliefs
are based is faulty, they do not accept this criticism because they are so sure that they are
correct. Thus, over time, they are not only less likely to examine their beliefs but are also

or
less tolerant of the possibility that beliefs other than their own are correct.
Grouping is the determining of which elements are alike in some way, then deter-
mining how a group of elements are different from other groups of elements. This skill
t,
is so important that each of this book’s core instructional chapters, from this chapter on,
s
includes a Compare & Contrast illustration of key terms so that you can develop a greater
appreciation for how pairs of terms share similarities as well as illustrate differences that
po

are key to making them distinct from one another.

The key to applying the grouping skill well relies on employing the most useful
classification rules. The media tell us what classification rules are, so if we accept their
classification rules, we will end up with the
,

groups they want us to use. But if we make

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the effort to determine which classification

rules are the best ways for us to organize our
perceptions of the world, we will end up with
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groupings that have more meaning and more

value for us.
Induction is inferring a pattern across a
iStock/Wavebreakmedia

small number of elements, then generaliz-

no

ing the pattern to all elements in the larger

set. We see examples of induction all the
time, some good examples and some not so
good. One example is a public opinion poll.
o

Media exposure
Surveyors ask a few hundred people a ques-
tion then generalize the results to the entire population. If the surveyors use a sample
D

can have both

positive and of people that represent the entire population, then this use of induction is good.
negative effects
on children’s
However, if surveyors sample only one particular kind of person, then it is misleading
academic to generalize their findings to the entire population, which is composed of all kinds
performance. of people.

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 Chapter 2  ■  Media Literacy Approach  19

We use induction in our everyday lives when we make a few observations then gen-
eralize. For example, we might get sick and go to the emergency room for treatment and
have to wait several hours before being seen by a doctor. We get angry and claim that the
entire health care system is overburdened and that everyone has to wait too long to get
medical care.

e
Deduction is using general principles to explain particulars, typically with the use of
syllogistic reasoning. A well-known syllogism is as follows: (1) All men are mortal (gen-

ut
eral principle). (2) Socrates is a man (particular observation). (3) Therefore, Socrates is
mortal (conclusion reached through logical reasoning).

rib
The starting place for deductive reasoning is our general principles. If our general
principles are accurate, then we are likely to reach good conclusions. But when we have
faulty general principles, we will explain particular occurrences in a faulty manner.

t
One general principle that most people hold to be true is that the media, especially

is
television, have a very strong negative effect on other people. They have an unrealistic
opinion that the media cause other people to behave violently. Some people believe that

d
if you allow PSAs (public service announcements) on TV about using condoms, chil-
dren will learn that it is permissible and even a good thing to have sex. This is clearly
an overestimation. At the same time, people underestimate the influence the media

or
have on them. When they are asked if they think the media have any effect on them
personally, 88% say no. These people argue that the media are primarily channels of
entertainment and diversion, so they have no negative effect on them. The people who
t,
believe this say that they have watched thousands of hours of crime shows and have
s
never shot anyone or robbed a bank. Although this may be true, this argument does
not fully support the claim that the media have no effect on them; this argument is
po

based on the false premise that the media only trigger high-profile, negative, behavioral
effects that are easy to recognize. But there are many more types of effects, such as
giving people the false impression that crime is a more serious problem than it really is
or that most crime is violent.
,

Synthesis is the assembling of elements into a new structure. This is an essential

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skill we use when building and updating our knowledge structures. As we take in new
information, it often does not fit into an existing knowledge structure, so we must adapt
that knowledge structure to accommodate the new information. Thus the process of
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synthesis is using our new media messages to keep reformulating, refining, and updating
our existing knowledge structures.
Abstracting is creating a brief, clear, and accurate description capturing the essence
t

of a message in a significantly smaller number of words than the message itself. Thus
no

when we are describing a media message to someone else or reviewing the message in
our own minds, we use the skill of abstracting. The key to using this skill well is to be
able to capture the “big picture” or central idea of the media message in as few words
as possible.
o

These seven skills are the tools we use to create, alter, and update our knowledge
structures. We use these tools to mine through the flood of information to find those key
D

bits we need for some purpose, then transform those bits in some way (judge their worth,
look for a pattern, or draw a conclusion) so we can fit them into a meaningful knowl-
edge structure. Skills are like muscles; the more you exercise them, the stronger they get.
Without practice, skills become weaker.

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 20  Part I  ■ Introduction

Knowledge Structures
Knowledge structures are sets of organized information in your memory. If they were
simply unorganized piles of random facts, then they would not be very useful. Instead,
the information needs to be carefully organized into a structure that helps us see patterns
that organize our worlds. We use these patterns as maps to tell us where to get more infor-

e
mation and also where to go to retrieve information we have previously encoded into our

ut
knowledge structures. To help visualize this, think about your bedroom. Are your books,
papers, clothes, food wrappers, and everything else randomly scattered all over your bed,
desk, closet, and drawers? If so, is it difficult for you to find things?

rib
Information is the essential ingredient in knowledge structures. But not all infor-
mation is equally useful in the building of a knowledge structure. Some information is
rather superficial. If all a person has is the recognition of surface information, such as

t
lyrics to television show theme songs, names of characters and actors, settings for shows,

is
and the like, he or she is operating at a low level of media literacy, because this type of
information addresses only the question of “What?” The more useful information comes

d
in the form of the answers to the questions of “How?” and “Why?” But remember that
you first need to know something about the what before you can delve deeper into the

or
questions of how and why.
In everyday language, the terms information and knowledge are often used as syn-
onyms, but in this book they have meanings very different from one another. Information
t,
is piecemeal and transitory, whereas knowledge is structured, organized, and of more
enduring significance. Information resides in the messages, whereas knowledge resides in
s
a person’s mind. Information gives something to the person to interpret, whereas knowl-
po

edge reflects that which has already been interpreted by the person.
Information is composed of facts. Facts by
themselves are not knowledge any more than a
pile of lumber is a house. Knowledge requires
,

structure to provide context and thereby

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exhibit meaning. Think of messages as the raw

materials and think of skills as the tools you
use to build your knowledge structures.
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While I’m on the topic of distinguish-

ing information from knowledge, I also need
to define a few terms related to the idea of
information: message, factual information,
t

and social information. Messages are those

no
istock/scyther5

instruments that deliver information to us.

Information is the content of those messages.
Messages can be delivered in many different
o

media—computers, smartphones, television,

Knowledge radio, CDs, video games, books, newspapers,
D

structures help
to organize the magazines, websites, conversations, lectures, concerts, signs along the streets, labels on
different kinds of the products we buy, and so on. They can be large (an entire Hollywood movie) or small
social and factual (one utterance by one character in a movie).
information we are
exposed to every Messages are composed of two kinds of information: factual and social. Facts are dis-
day. crete bits of information, such as names (of people, places, characters, etc.), dates, titles,

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 Chapter 2  ■  Media Literacy Approach  21

definitions of terms, formulas, lists, and the like. For example, when you watch the news
and hear messages, those messages are composed of facts, such as the following: Donald
Trump was elected to the office of President of the United States in the fall of 2016. This
statement contains facts.
Social information is composed of accepted beliefs that cannot be verified by authori-

e
ties in the same way factual information can be. This is not to say that social information
is less valuable or less real to people. Social information is composed of lessons that people

ut
infer from observing social interactions. These lessons are inferred from the patterns of
actions and consequences we observe.

rib
COMPARE & CONTRAST

t
is
FACTUAL INFORMATION AND SOCIAL INFORMATION

d
Compare: Factual information and social infor- of information, such as names (of people,

or
mation are the same in the following ways: places, characters, etc.), dates, titles,
definitions of terms, formulas, lists, and the
• Both are things we learn from exposure to t, like.
media messages.
• Social information is composed of lessons
s
• Both are stored in our memories and that we infer from observing social
recalled when we have a need to use them. interactions both in real life as well as in
po

media messages; these are guidelines we

Contrast: Factual information and social informa- learn about how to dress, talk, and act in
tion are different in the following ways: order for other people in society to consider
us attractive, smart, athletic, hip, and so
,

• Factual information is raw, unprocessed, forth.

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and context free; facts are discrete bits

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With media literacy, we need strong knowledge structures in five areas: media effects,
media content, media industries, the real world, and the self. With good knowledge in
these five areas, you will be able to make better decisions about seeking out information,
t

working with that information, and constructing meaning from it that will be more
no

useful in serving your own goals. People who have had a wider range of experiences in
the real world have a broader base from which to appreciate and analyze media messages.
For example, those who have helped someone run for political office can understand and
analyze press coverage of political campaigns to a greater depth than those who have not
o

had any real-world experience with political campaigns. People who have played sports
D

will be able to appreciate the athletic accomplishments they see on television to a greater
depth compared to those people who have not physically tested themselves with those
challenges. People who have had a wide range of relationships and family experiences will
have a higher degree of understanding and more in-depth emotional reactions to those
portrayals in the media.

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22  Part I  ■ Introduction

Knowledge structures provide the context we use when trying to make sense of each
new media message. The more knowledge structures we have, the more confident we can
be in making sense of a wide range of messages. For example, you may have a very large,
well-developed knowledge structure about a particular television series. You may know
the names of all the characters in that TV show. You may know everything that has hap-

e
pened to those characters in all the episodes. You may even know the names and histories
of the actors who play the characters. If you have all of this information well organized so

ut
that you can recall any of it at a moment’s notice, you have a well-developed knowledge
structure about that television series. Are you media literate? Within the small corner

rib
of the media world where that one TV show resides, you are. But if this were the only
knowledge structure you had developed, you would have little understanding of the con-
tent produced by the other media. You would have difficulty understanding trends about

t
who owns and controls the media, about how the media have developed over time, about

is
why certain kinds of content are never seen while other types are continually repeated,
and about what effects that content may be having on you. With many highly developed

d
knowledge structures, you could understand the entire span of media issues and therefore
be able to see the “big picture” about why the media are the way they are.
Your level of media literacy is determined in large part by how well you have developed

or
knowledge structures in four areas: media industries, media audiences, media content,
and media effects. This book presents structures and information to help you with these.
To make a simple assessment of how well developed your knowledge structures are in
t,
these four areas of the media, do Exercise 2.1. Do the best you can in answering the ques-
s
tions in that exercise, but don’t be too shocked if you cannot come up with many answers.
Think of this exercise as a diagnostic to tell you where you need to add more information,
po

then keep those needs in mind as you actively read through the following chapters of this
book. Also, at this point, don’t worry about checking your answers for accuracy; you can
do that later as you read the book. For now, let this diagnostic exercise simply help you
assess where you think you have information.
,
py

Personal Locus
In order to develop and use the set of seven skills of media literacy to build useful knowl-
co

edge structures, you need one more element: a strong personal locus. Your personal locus
is composed of goals and drives. The goals shape the information processing tasks by
determining what gets filtered in and what gets ignored. The more you are aware of your
goals, the more you can direct the process of information seeking. And the stronger your
t

drives for information are, the more effort you will expend to attain your goals. However,
no

when your locus is weak (i.e., you are not aware of particular goals and your drive energy
is low), you will default to media control where you allow the media to exercise a high
degree of control over exposures and information processing.
The more you know about your personal locus and the more you make conscious
o

decisions to shape it, the more you can control the process of media influence on you.
The more you engage your locus, the more you will be increasing your media literacy.
D

Being media literate, however, does not require that your personal locus be fully
engaged every minute of every day. That would be an unreasonable requirement, because
no one can maintain a high a degree of concentration all the time. Instead, the process of
increasing media literacy requires you to activate your personal locus in bursts. During

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 Chapter 2  ■  Media Literacy Approach  23

these periods of high concentration, you can analyze your mental programs to make sure
that they are set up to achieve your own personal goals rather than the goals of the media
programmers or advertisers. These periods of analyses will generate new insights about
what is working well and where the glitches are. Then you can use those new insights to
reprogram your mental code and fix the glitches by correcting faulty information, repair-

e
ing uninformed opinions, and changing habits that are making you unhappy. Then once
these alterations are made to your mental codes, you can return to automatic processing

ut
where your newly programmed codes will better help you achieve your goals for informa-
tion and entertainment.

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THE DEFINITION OF MEDIA LITERACY

t
is
Now that I have laid the foundation for media literacy by setting out its three major
building blocks, it is time to present its formal definition. Media literacy is a set of per-

d
spectives that we actively use to expose ourselves to the mass media to process and interpret the
meaning of the messages we encounter. We build our perspectives from knowledge struc-

or
tures. To build our knowledge structures, we need tools, raw material, and willingness.
The tools are our skills. The raw material is information from the media and from the
real world. The willingness comes from our personal locus.
Notice that the definition begins with “a set of perspectives.” What is a perspective?
t,
I’ll illustrate this with an analogy. Let’s say you wanted to learn about the Earth. You
s
could build a 100-foot-tall tower, climb up to the top, and use that as your perspective to
study the Earth. This tower would give you a good perspective that would not be blocked
po

by trees so that you could see for perhaps several miles in any direction. If your tower
were in a forest, you would conclude that Earth is covered with trees. But if your tower
were in a suburban neighborhood, you would conclude that Earth is covered with houses,
roads, and shopping centers. If your tower were inside a large professional football sta-
,
py

dium, you would conclude something quite different. Each of these perspectives would
give you a very different idea about Earth. We could get into all kinds of arguments
about which perspective delivers the most accurate or best set of ideas about Earth, but
co

such arguments miss the point. None of these perspectives is better than any other. The
key to understanding Earth is to build lots of these towers so you have many different
perspectives to enlarge your understanding about what the Earth is. And not all of these
towers need to be 100 feet tall. Some should be very short so that you can better see what
t

is happening between the blades of grass in a lawn. And others should be hundreds of
no

miles away from the surface so that you can tell that Earth is a sphere and that there are
large weather formations constantly churning around the globe. The more perspectives
you have, the more you will be able to understand this planet. This principle also holds
with media literacy; that is, the more perspectives you have on the media, the better you
o

will be able to understand the phenomenon.

To illuminate this idea of media literacy further, I need to describe two of its most
D

important characteristics. First, media literacy is a multidimensional concept with many

interesting facets. Second, media literacy is a continuum, not a category.
Media literacy is multidimensional. When we build our set of perspectives, we need
to ensure that we construct different types of perspectives to maximize the value delivered

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 24  Part I  ■ Introduction

by a variety of perspectives. Thus it is useful to

think of our perspectives along four very differ-
ent dimensions: cognitive, emotional, aesthetic,
and moral. Each of these four dimensions
focuses on a different domain of understanding.

e
The cognitive dimension focuses our atten-
tion on factual information—dates, names,

ut
definitions, and the like. Think of cognitive
information as that which resides in the brain.
iStock/Audy_indy

rib
This is the most basic dimension for media lit-
eracy perspectives.
The emotional dimension focuses our

t
Media literacy is a attention on how we perceive the feelings of

is
set of perspectives people in media messages and how we read our own feelings that are triggered by those
that we actively use media exposures. Think of emotional information as that which lives in the heart—
to expose, process,

d
and interpret the feelings of happy times, moments of fear, and instances of embarrassment. Some people
meaning of the have little ability to experience an emotion during exposure to the media, whereas others
messages we are very sensitive to cues that generate all sorts of feelings in them. For example, we all

or
encounter.
have the ability to perceive rage, fear, lust, hate, and other strong emotions. Producers use
easy-to-recognize symbols to trigger these emotions, so they do not require a high degree
of literacy from audience members in order to perceive and understand those messages.
t,
But some of us are much better than others at perceiving the more subtle emotions such
s
as ambivalence, confusion, wariness, and so on. Crafting media messages about these
emotions requires more production skill from writers, directors, and actors. Perceiving
po

these subtle emotions accurately requires a higher degree of literacy from the audience.
The aesthetic dimension focuses our attention on the art and craft exhibited in the
production of media messages. When we look for aesthetic information in messages,
we orient toward making judgments about who are great writers, photographers, actors,
,

dancers, choreographers, singers, musicians, composers, directors, and other kinds of

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artists. It also helps us make judgments about other products of creative craftsmanship,
such as editing, lighting, set designing, costuming, sound recording, graphic layout,
and so forth. The ability to appreciate the aesthetic qualities in media messages is very
co

important to some scholars (Messaris, 1994; Silverblatt, Smith, Miller, Smith, & Brown,
2014; Wulff, 1997). For example, Messaris (1994) argues that viewers who are visually
literate should have an awareness of artistry and visual manipulation. By this, he means
t

an awareness about the processes by which meaning is created through the visual media.
no

What is expected of sophisticated viewers is some degree of self-consciousness about their

role as interpreters. This includes the ability to detect artifice (in staged behavior and
editing) and to spot authorial presence (style of the producer/director).
Think of aesthetic information as that which resides in our eyes and ears. Some of
o

us have a good ear for dialogue or musical composition. Some of us have a good eye for
lighting, photographic composition, or movement. The more perspectives we have con-
D

structed from this aesthetic dimension, the finer discriminations we can make between
a great actress and a good one, between a great song that will endure and a currently
popular “flash in the pan,” between a film director’s best and very best work, or between
art and artificiality.

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 Chapter 2  ■  Media Literacy Approach  25

The moral dimension focuses our attention on values. Think of moral information
as that which resides in your conscience or your soul. This type of information provides
us with the basis for making judgments about right and wrong. When we see characters
make decisions in a story, we judge them on a moral dimension—that is, the charac-
ters’ goodness or evilness. The more detailed and refined our moral perspectives are,

e
the more deeply we can perceive the values underlying messages in the media and the
more sophisticated and reasoned are our judgments about those values. It takes a highly

ut
media-literate person to perceive moral themes well. You must be able to think past indi-
vidual characters to focus your meaning making at the overall narrative level. You need

rib
to be able to separate characters from their actions—you might not like a particular
character, but you could still appreciate his or her actions in terms of fitting in with (or
reinforcing) your values.

t
When your set of media literacy perspectives is constructed across all four of these

is
dimensions, the more you can understand and appreciate the media. But if your perspec-
tives are limited to only one or two of these dimensions, then you will have a much lower

d
ceiling for media literacy. For example, you may be able to be highly analytical when you
watch a movie and quote lots of facts about the history of the genre, the director’s point
of view, and the underlying theme. But if you cannot evoke an emotional reaction, you

or
are simply going through a dry, academic exercise.
Media literacy is a continuum, not a category. The final characteristic of media literacy I
need to emphasize is that media literacy is not a category, like a box, where you are either
t,
in the category or you are not. For example, you are either a high school graduate or you
s
are not; you are either an American citizen or you are not. In contrast, media literacy is
best regarded as a continuum, like a thermometer, where there are degrees.
po

We all occupy some position on the media literacy continuum. There is no point below
which we could say that someone has no literacy, and there is no point at the high end of
the continuum where we can say that someone is fully literate; there is always room for
improvement. People are positioned along that continuum based on the strength of their
,

set of perspectives on the media. The strength of a person’s set of perspectives is reflected by
py

the number and quality of knowledge structures. And the quality of knowledge structures
is based on the level of a person’s skills and experiences. Because people vary substantially
on skills and experiences, they will vary on the number and quality of their knowledge
co

structures. Hence, there will be a great variation of media literacy across people.
People operating at lower levels of media literacy have fewer perspectives on the media,
and those perspectives are supported by knowledge structures that contain little infor-
t

mation and are less organized. Thus people at lower levels of media literacy have less
no

ability to understand the media, to appreciate their wonderful advantages, and to protect
themselves from dangerous risks. These people are also habitually reluctant or unwilling
to use their skills, which remain underdeveloped and therefore more difficult to employ
successfully.
o
D

THE DEVELOPMENT OF MEDIA LITERACY

Media literacy is a broad continuum, as you have seen from the previous section. It
involves personal locus, knowledge structures, and skills along the four dimensions of

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26  Part I  ■ Introduction

cognitive, emotional, aesthetic, and moral. In order to make sense of all this detail in
a way to illustrate how people can develop their media literacy, it is useful to think of
various levels or stages. Table 2.2 displays a scheme with eight developmental stages.
The first stage is Acquiring Fundamentals, which occurs during the first year of life.
Language Acquisition occurs during years 2 and 3, then Narrative Acquisition happens

e
during years 3 to 5. These are stages that are typically left behind by children as they age
into adolescence and adulthood.

ut
The Developing Skepticism stage occurs from about ages 5 to 9, and the Intensive
Development stage is shortly after. Many people stay in this stage the rest of their lives

rib
because this stage is fully functional; that is, people in this stage feel they are getting expo-
sure to the messages they want and getting the meaning out of those messages they want.
They feel they are fully media literate and that there is nothing more they need to learn.

t
The next three stages can be regarded as advanced, because they require the continual

is
use of higher-level skills and the active development of elaborate knowledge structures.
People in the Experiential Exploring stage feel that their media exposure has been very

d
narrow, and they seek exposure to a much wider range of messages. For example, people
who have watched only prime-time action/adventure and situation comedy programs
will begin to watch news, PBS documentaries, travelogues, MTV, science fiction, offbeat

or
sports, and so on. They will pick up niche magazines and books about unusual topics.
The thrill for these people is to see something they have never seen before. This makes
them think about the variety of human experience.
t,
People in the Critical Appreciation stage see themselves as connoisseurs of the media.
s
They seek out better messages that offer greater appeal along the four dimensions—
cognitively, emotionally, aesthetically, and morally. People in this stage exhibit strongly
po

held opinions about who are the best writers, the best producers, the best news reporters,
and so forth, and they have lots of evidence to support their well-reasoned opinions. They
can talk fluently and at length about what makes a good writer and how these elements
are exhibited in a particular writer’s body of work.
,

Social Responsibility is characterized by people having critical appreciation of all

py

kinds of media messages, but instead of having a primarily internal perspective (as with
the previous stage), the perspective here is external. The person at this stage not only asks
“What is best from my point of view and why?” but also is concerned with questions such
co

as “What types of messages are best for others and for society?”
Now think of these eight stages as neighborhoods. You have a home neighborhood
where you live, depending on your age, your personal locus, how well you have developed
t

your skills, and how elaborate your key knowledge structures are. You can move around
no

to other neighborhoods depending on your needs. We are usually able to move up a

stage or two from our home neighborhood. But moving up a stage requires a conscious
effort where we must expend more energy to apply higher-level skills. So we don’t move
up unless we are strongly motivated to do so. For example, when you are reading a book
o

that is considered a classic novel for a college course, you may be able to move up to the
Critical Appreciation level. But when you flick on the television and watch MTV’s Pimp
D

My Ride or The Hills to relax, you might sink down to the Intensive Development level.
There is nothing wrong with this dropping down a level or two, because there are times
when we just want to “veg out” and don’t want to spend the effort to stay at the highest

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 Chapter 2  ■  Media Literacy Approach  27

 evelopment of Media Literacy

TABLE 2.2  ■  D

Stage Characteristics
Acquiring •• Learn that there are human beings and other physical things apart from oneself; these
fundamentals things look different and serve different functions

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•• Learn the meaning of facial expressions and natural sounds

ut
•• Recognize shapes, form, size, color, movement, and spatial relations
•• Rudimentary concept of time—regular patterns

rib
Language •• Recognize speech sounds and attach meaning to them
acquisition •• Be able to reproduce speech sounds
•• Orient to visual and audio media

t
•• Have emotional and behavioral responses to music and sounds

is
•• Recognize certain characters in visual media and follow their movement

d
Narrative •• Develop understanding of differences:
acquisition fiction vs. nonfiction
ads vs. entertainment

or
real vs. make-believe
•• Understand how to connect plot elements:
by time sequencing t,
by motive-action-consequence
s
Developing •• Discount claims made in ads
po
skepticism •• Sharpen differences between likes and dislikes for shows, characters, and actions
•• Make fun of certain characters even though those characters are not presented as foils
in their shows

Intensive •• Have strong motivation to seek out information on certain topics

,

development •• Develop a detailed set of information on particular topics (sports, politics, etc.)
py

•• Develop high awareness of utility of information and quick facility in processing

information judged to be useful
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Experiential •• Seek out different forms of content and narratives

exploring •• Focus on searching for surprises and new emotional, moral, and aesthetic reactions

Critical •• Accept messages on their own terms then evaluate them within that sphere
appreciation •• Develop very broad and detailed understanding of the historical, economic, political, and
t
no

artistic contexts of message systems

•• Have the ability to make subtle comparisons and contrasts among many different
message elements simultaneously
•• Have the ability to construct a summary judgment about the overall strengths and
weaknesses of a message
o

Social •• Take a moral stand that certain messages are more constructive for society than others;
D

responsibility this is a multidimensional perspective based on a thorough analysis of the media landscape
•• Recognize that one’s own individual decisions impact society, no matter how minutely
•• Recognize that there are some actions an individual can take to make a constructive
impact on society

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28  Part I  ■ Introduction

stages. However, remember there is a difference between people who stay at the lower
stages because they are unable or unwilling to operate at higher stages and people who are
able to operate at all stages but who choose to take it easier at lower stages occasionally.

e
ADVANTAGES OF DEVELOPING A

ut
HIGHER DEGREE OF MEDIA LITERACY
There are primarily three advantages to developing a higher degree of media literacy.

rib
First, with increases in media literacy, your appetite for a wider variety of media messages
will grow. Second, with increases in media literacy, you learn more about how to program
your own mental codes. Third, with increases in media literacy, you are able to exercise

t
is
more control over the media.

Appetite for a Wider Variety of Media Messages

d
The media offer an incredible array of choices. The Internet contains websites on every
topic that humans can conceive. Books are published each year on an extremely wide

or
range of topics. Magazines, with their 7,200 titles published each year (Statista, 2018l),
offer a much wider range than any one person can consume. Cable television is a bit nar-
rower still, but with several hundred channels from most cable TV providers, the choice is
t,
much wider than any one person can keep up with. However, the mass media continually
s
try to direct our choices to a smaller set. For example, about 10,000 magazines are pub-
lished in this country. When you go into a magazine store, like in an airport, you will see
po

only about 100 magazines on the shelves. You likely do not scan through all 100 before
making your choice about which one to buy and take on the plane. Instead, you rely on
your automatic filtering to narrow your choice down to about three or four magazines
that you have found interesting in the past— that is, the media have conditioned you to
,

like these magazines. Do you have a choice? Yes, of course. But see how the media—first
py

through the bookstore, then through media conditioning—have narrowed your choice
down considerably; in other words, the decision you made was determined 99.99% by
factors other than you. The media have programmed you to think that you have choices
co

when in fact the degree of choice is greatly limited. It is rather like parents laying out two
pairs of dress pants, one black and the other dark blue, for their 4-year-old son and giving
him the total power to choose what he will wear today. Whether you regard this as a
t

real choice depends on how much you know about the real range of options. If the boy’s
no

perspective on pants is limited to dark dress pants, then he will view his parents’ offering
of two pairs as a real choice. However, if his perspective is broader to include knowledge
about jeans, cargo pants, skater shorts, bathing trunks, and football pants, then he will
think the two pairs of dress pants is not much of a choice.
o

The mass media continually try to constrain your choices so they can condition you
into habitual exposure to a few types of media vehicles. This makes you more predictable
D

from a marketing point of view.

The media literacy perspective encourages you to be more adventurous and explore
a wider range of messages, so that you can be more involved in your choices. When you
do so, you will likely find many of those messages are not interesting or useful to you;

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 Chapter 2  ■  Media Literacy Approach  29

however, you will also likely find a few types of messages that are highly useful, and these
surprises will allow you to expand your exposure repertoire in a way that better fulfills
your needs.

More Self-Programming of Mental Codes

e
The purpose of media literacy is to empower individuals to make more of their own
decisions about which messages to expose themselves to and to construct meanings from

ut
those messages to serve their own goals. When you operate at higher levels of media
literacy, you have more power in programming your mental codes. This means that you

rib
reduce the power of the media in programming those codes that limit your media expo-
sures to the habits they have built for you. You can reprogram your mental codes to open
yourself up to new experiences. Also, you examine your standards and beliefs to find

t
those that are faulty and replace them with standards and beliefs that are more of your

is
own making. Then when you apply those more personal standards, you are making eval-
uations that are more in line with your own goals.

d
More Control Over Media

or
Increasing your level of media literacy gives you more power to control media exposures
and their eventual effect on you. At lower levels of media literacy, you default to media
control; that is, the media will use you to achieve their own goals. The mass media are
t,
composed of businesses that are very sophisticated in knowing how to attract your atten-
tion and condition you for repeat exposures.
s
There are times when the media’s business goals and your personal goals are the same,
po

thus creating a win-win situation for both the media and you. But there are also many times
when your personal goals are different from the media’s goals; when this occurs, you need to
make a decision about whether to go along with the media-conditioned habits or break away
from those conditioned habits to pursue your own goals. Oftentimes, we do not realize there
,

is a decision to make because we are so firmly entrenched in those media-conditioned hab-

py

its. The media literacy perspective will help you recognize when you have choices, especially
in situations where the media’s goals are different from your own goals.
co

SUMMARY
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The chapter presents a definition of media literacy as a perspective from which we expose
no

ourselves to the media and interpret the meaning of the messages we encounter. Media
literacy is not a category; instead, there are degrees of media literacy. Media literacy is also
multidimensional, with development taking place cognitively, emotionally, aesthetically,
and morally.
o

Media literacy is composed of three building blocks: skills, knowledge structures, and
personal locus. The skills are the tools that we use to work on information in the media
D

messages to build strong knowledge structures. The direction and drive to do this work
lies in one’s personal locus.
People who are highly media literate are able to see much more in a given message.
They are more aware of the levels of meaning. This enhances understanding. They are

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30  Part I  ■ Introduction

more in charge of programming their own mental codes. This enhances control. They are
much more likely to get what they want from the messages. This enhances appreciation.
Thus, people operating at higher levels of media literacy fulfill the goals of higher under-
standing, control, and appreciation.

e
ut
Further Reading

rib
Jenkins, H., Purushotma, R., Weigel, M., Clinton, Assets. (224 pages, including references and
K., & Robison, A. J. (2009). Confronting the glossary)
challenges of participatory culture: Media edu- This book presents a detailed description of the

t
cation for the 21st century. Cambridge, MA: MIT

is
seven essential skills of media literacy along
Press. (128 pages) with exercises to help readers develop those

d
Funded by the John D. and Catherine T. skills.
MacArthur Foundation, this book focuses on the
Silverblatt, A., Smith, A., Miller, D., Smith, J., &

or
skills that are most important for dealing with
Brown, N. (2014). Media literacy: Keys to inter-
the new media culture, which is characterized
preting media messages (4th ed.). Westport,
by interactive media making it possible for peo-
CT: Praeger. (340 pages, including index)
ple to participate in society in ways not available t,
before. This is a mass media book that presents some
s
chapters with information about what is needed
Mackey, M. (2007). Literacies across media: Play- as far as knowledge about the media. It has
po

ing the text (2nd ed.). Abingdon, UK: Routledge. the feel of a textbook for an introductory-level
(224 pages) course with its use of photographs and exer-
This book describes an 18-month-long project cises for students to undertake.
,

that was designed to study how a group of boys

Tyner, K. (Ed.) (2010). Media literacy: New agendas
py

and girls, aged from 10 to 14, made sense of nar-

in communication. New York, NY: Routledge.
ratives in a variety of formats, including print,
(243 pages with index)
electronic book, video, DVD, computer game,
co

The 10 chapters in this edited volume deal with

and CD-ROM. The author’s analyses reveal how
how media literacy initiatives have taken place
those children developed strategies for inter-
in the past and what they should emphasize
preting narratives through encounters with a
going forward. These initiatives are organized
diverse range of texts and media.
t

into four contexts: community-based settings,

no

Potter, W. J. (2018). The skills of media litera- K–12 classrooms, higher education, and virtual
cy (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, CA: Knowledge environments.
o
D

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 Chapter 2  ■  Media Literacy Approach  31

EXERCISE 2.1
ASSESSMENT OF KNOWLEDGE STRUCTURES ABOUT MASS MEDIA

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Media Industries 5. How do media programmers identify niche

ut
audiences?
1. Can you list the different mass media
according to how old they are? Start with the 6. What are the key strategies media

rib
oldest and continue to the newest one. programmers use to attract and condition
audiences?
2. What does “convergence” mean within the
media industries?

t
7. How have children been treated as a special

is
audience?
3. What are the stages that structure the
development of each mass medium as an 8. How should young adults also be treated as a

d
industry? special audience?
4. What are the key characteristics of the media 9. How can you use the knowledge about

or
economic game? information processing tasks, exposure
5. How can you use your knowledge about the states, attention, niche audiences, and media
development of the mass media industries and programmers’ strategies to increase your level
how they play the economic game to increase
your level of media literacy?
s t, of media literacy?

Media Content
Media Audiences
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1. What is the next-step reality principle?

1. What are the key three information processing
2. In what ways are “reality” TV programs
tasks we perform when we encounter media
real?
messages?
,

3. How has the idea of “news” changed?

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2. What is the difference between exposure and

attention? 4. How should we go about the task of
3. In what four exposure states do we experience determining who should be regarded as a
co

media messages? journalist?

4. Why have media programmers shifted 5. What are the ways people use to judge
their view from a mass audience to niche the quality of news and which of these are
audiences? faulty?
t
no

(Continued)
o
D

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32  Part I  ■ Introduction

(Continued)

 6. What is the general formula for media news, standards for judging quality of media
entertainment? messages, and strategies used by media

e
programmers to increase your level of media
 7. Can you articulate patterns of how the

ut
literacy?
following topics are portrayed in the media:
character demographics, sexual activity,
Media Effects

rib
violence, and health?
 8. Can you explain in detail the strategies used  1. Explain how the four-dimensional perspective
by advertisers in designing overall campaigns broadens the view of media effects.

t
as well as copy platforms?
 2. What are the differences between baseline

is
 9. What strategies do electronic gamers use to and fluctuation effects in the process of
develop and market their games? influence?

d
10. How does the design of cooperative  3. What are the differences between process
experiences differ from competitive and manifest effects?

or
experiences on interactive electronic
 4. How can you use knowledge about the four-
platforms?
dimensional perspective and the process
11. How can you use the knowledge about the t, of influence to increase your level of media
principle of next-step reality, definition of literacy?
s
, po
py
t co
no
o
D

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 INTRODUCTION

e
TO THE CORE

ut
rib
KNOWLEDGE

t
is
STRUCTURE

d
or
CHAPTERS s t,
T he core of this book is composed of 12 knowledge structure chapters. Now that you
po

have read through the two introductory chapters, you know how saturated our cul-
ture is with a constant flow of media messages and you know the main features of the
media literacy approach. Now you are ready to start building more elaborate knowledge
structures in four areas.
,
py

The first of these four areas focuses on the audience. Chapter 3 focuses on the audi-
ence from the individual’s perspective, while Chapter 4 focuses on the audience from
the mass media industries’ perspective. Chapter 5 poses the question: Should children
co

be treated as a special audience? This chapter shows you that yes, children are a special
audience in some ways, but so too are adolescents, young adults, and the elderly.
The second knowledge structure area focuses on the media industries. Chapter 6
helps you see the media industries from a historical perspective so that you can appreci-
t

ate the challenges they have overcome to arrive at their current status. Using a life cycle
no

structure, it shows what is behind the innovation and development of the media indus-
tries. An economic perspective is used in Chapter 7 to show the business foundations of
the industries.
The third knowledge structure area focuses on media content and contains five chap-
o

ters. Chapter 8 introduces the idea of content and presents the major characteristic of all
D

media content—what I call “one-step remove” reality. Then, Chapter 9 focuses on news
content, Chapter 10 on entertainment content, Chapter 11 on advertising content, and
Chapter 12 on interactive content such as video games and social networking media.
The fourth knowledge structure area focuses on media effects. When we take a
broader perspective on effects, we can more accurately assess the influence of the media

33
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34  Media Literacy

in our lives. This also puts us in a much better position to manage the effects of the
media. Chapter 13 will help you expand your vision about what constitutes a media
effect. Effects are both long term as well as immediate. Although they can influence our
behavior, they also have profound influences on us cognitively, affectively, emotionally,
and physiologically. And they have positive as well as negative effects. Then the question

e
of how the effects processes work on us is explored in Chapter 14. Those processes are
hardly ever simple or direct. More often, the media work in concert with many other

ut
factors that each serve to increase the probability that an effect may occur.
When you read through each of these chapters, look first at the key idea; this is the

rib
most important thing you need to learn from a chapter. Then look at the outline that
shows the structure of the chapter. These outlines should also guide you in elaborating
your own knowledge structures on the topic. Use the key idea and the outline to stimulate

t
your own questions for the topic then let those questions guide your reading through the

is
chapter. If some of these questions become more important and interesting to you as you
read through a chapter, then continue your reading starting with the Further Reading

d
suggestions I provide. Also, the more you engage with the material and work with it, the
better you will learn and the more useful this learning will be in your everyday life.
The exercises will help with this. This book has a self-help tone as it presents guidance

or
and practical exercises to help you achieve higher levels of media literacy. Do not get
caught in the trap of thinking that it is sufficient to memorize the facts in each chapter
and then stop thinking about the material. Simply memorizing facts will not help you
t,
increase your media literacy much. Instead, you need to internalize the information by
s
drawing it into your own experiences. Continually ask yourself, “How does this new
information fit in with what I already know?” “Can I find an example of this in my
po

own life?” and “How can I apply this when I deal with the media?” The exercises at the
end of each chapter will help you get started with this. The more you think through the
exercises and the more you develop new exercises for yourself, the more you will be inter-
nalizing the information and thus making it more a natural part of the way you think.
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