Physical Layer

Presented by Tran Thanh Dien

 Contents

• Present core components of a data transmission

network
• Identify issues related to a computer based data
transmission network
• Introduce methods of digitization
• Present characteristics of communication channel
and cable features
• Introduction line coding methods
 Outcome

• List the issues related to a computer-based

data transmission network
• Describe different digitization methods
• Differentiate and calculate parameters of a
channel such as Bandwidth, Baud rate, Data
rate, Bruits, Channel Capacity, Traffic
• Encoding data using different line coding
methods
 Functions of Physical Layer

• Responsible for transmission and reception of

data bits through communication channel
• The foundation for building communication
networks
• The physical characteristics of electrical or
optical signaling techniques
• Bit representation: encode bits into electrical or
optical signal
• Transmission rate: Number of bits sent each
second
• Synchronizing the sender and receiver clocks
(bit rate)
• Transmission mode: Simplex, half-duplex, full
duplex
• Line configuration: connect devices to the media
(P2P, multipoint,…)
• Topology: How devices are connected (star,
ring, bus, mesh topology )
 A Simple data Communication
model

Issues related to data communication systems:

• Data and Signal
• How to digitize information
• Types of channel can be used for data transmission
• Connection schema of communication devices
• Methods for transmitting raw bit from hosts to hosts
Data and Signals
 Data

• Data: A set of recorded facts, numbers, or events.

• Data is meaningless until it is given relevance
• Data are propagated from one point to another by
means of electrical signals
• Data can be analog or digital.
– Analog data takes on continue values, e.g., voice,
video
– Digital data takes on discrete values, e.g., integers,
ASCII text
 Signals

• Signal: gesture, action, sound used to convey

information or instructions.
• It is the means used to transmit data.
• Signal can be analog or digital:
An analog signal has
infinitely many levels of
intensity over a period of time

A digital signal has limited

number of defined values
 Signals

• Analog signal: changes continuously.

• Digital signal: having discrete set of values, e.g.,
sequence of voltage pulses transmitted over a wire
medium.
• Digital data can be represented by analog signals using a
modem (modulator/demodulator).
• Analog data can be represented by digital signals using a
codec (coder-decoder).
 Four combinations of data and signals

Data Signal Encoding or Common Common Systems

Conversion Devices
Technique
Analog Analog AM and FM Radio tuner Telephone; AM and FM
TV tuner radio; Broadcast TV;
Cable TV
Digital Digital NRZ-L; NRZI; Digital Local area networks
Manchester; encoder Telephone systems
4B/5B
Digital (Discrete) Amplitude/Freque Modem DSL; Cable modems;
Analog ncy/Phase shift Digital Broadcast TV
keying
Analog Digital Pulse code and Codec Telephone systems;
Delta modulation Music systems
 Digital Signals

• Digital signaling is:

– Cheaper
– Less susceptible to noise interference
– Suffers more attenuation.
Digitization
 Digitization

• Conversion of analog data into digital data

• Digital data can be transmitted using digital signaling

technique (e.g., RZ, NRZI,…)

• Digital data can be

represented by analog signal.
 Digitalization

• Digitization model
 Digitization of Text

Morse Code
 Digitization of Text

• 8 bits code:
– ASCII - American Standard Code for Informatics
Interchange
– Mã EBCDIC - Extended Binary-Coded Decimal
Interchange Code
– Cannot represent symbols other than those found in
the English language
• 6 bits code: Unicode
– Provides a unique coding value for every character
in every language
 Digitization of images

• An image consists of number of lines

• Each line consists of number of pixels
• Example: An image of resolution 640x480 has 480
lines and each line has 640 pixels
 Digitization of images

• Black & White images : 0: Black, 1: White

• Images for 256 gray level : 8 bits / pixel
• Color images: 1 pixel = aR + bG +cB
• The size of color image is large => need methods
to reduce image size: Compression (GIF, JPEG,
PNG,…)
 Digitization of sound and movie

• Most voice, radio, and television communication

are analog data (signals)
• Analog data should be converted to digital
Digitization of sound and movie

• Sampling: measuring the

amplitude of the analog
waveform at equally spaced
discrete instants of time
• Quantization: each sampled
amplitude must be converted
to one of a finite number of
possible values, or levels.
• Bit mapping: Mapping levels
into a binary sequence and
then store or transmit them.
Communication Channels
 Wired communication media

• 3 popular cable:
– Twisted pair cable
– Coax cable
– Fiber optic cable
• Factors for choosing cable:
– Price
– Network diameter
– Number of hosts in network
– Requirement of bit rate
– Requirement of bandwidth
 Coax cable

 Resistence: 50 
 Ethernet 10-BASE5

 Connnector: AUI, BNC, T

 Length: 500 m
 Speed: 10Mbps

Thick coaxial cable (RG11)

 Coax cable

• Resistence: 50 
• Ethernet 10-BASE2 Thin coaxial cable (RG58)
• Connector: AUI, BNC, T
• Length: 185 m
• Speed: 10Mbps

AUI (15-pin) T-Connector BNC

Twisted pair cable

Mã length: 100m
Twisted pair cable
Twisted pair cable
EIA/TIA-568B Ethernet Cable Wiring
 Cách bấm dây UTP
Theo chuẩn EIA/TIA-568B (Bấm chéo)
Fiber optic cable
Fiber optic cable
 Fiber optic cable

ST SC
MT-RJ

LC
 Wireless communication media

• Using electromagnetics as the means to transfer

data
• 3 important parameters of wireless signal
– c : Speed of light
– f: Frequency of wave
– :Length of wave
=> c = f
 Wireless communication media

10 K 100K 1M 10M 100M 1G 10G 100G

Characteristics of Communication Chanel
 Analog and Digital Signal

•Data ( bits 0, 1) are transmitted from one device

to another using analog signals or digital signals.
Tín hiệu tuần tự & Tín hiệu số

An analog signal has infinitely

many levels of intensity over a
period of time

Time

A digital signal has limited

number of defined values
Time
 Sine wave

• Most fundamental form of periodic analog signal

• Not declined or ended after a period of time and can be
produced easily
• Mathematically Sine Wave signal described by the formula:
s(t) = Asin(2πft +ϕ)
- peak amplitude (A) – absolute value of signal’s highest
intensity – unit: volts [V]
- frequency (f) – number of periods in one second – unit:
hertz [Hz] = [1/s] – inverse of period (T)
- phase (φ) – absolute position of the waveform relative to
an arbitrary origin – unit: degrees [º] or radians [rad]
 Sine wave

• According to Fourier Analysis: Any composite

signal can be represented as a combination of
simple waves with different frequencies, phases,
and amplitudes.
• A periodic signal can be represented by a series of
sine waves with discrete frequencies.
• Any aperiodic signal can be represented as a
combination of simple waves with continue
frequencies.
 A Simple communication channel

• A Simple communication channel

vin(t) vout(t)

• vin(t) = Vin sin wt

• Vin: Amplitude of voltage at input
• w: Radian Frenquency; f = w/2pi : Frequency;
• T = 2pi/w = 1/f : Period.
• vout(t) = Vout sin (wt + F)
• Vout : Amplitude of voltage at Output
• F : Phase .
 Characteristics of communication channel

• According to Electromagnetism law, in simple

cases:
– Vout/Vin = (1 + R2C2w2)-1/2
– F = atan(-RCw
 Loss of signal

• Loss of signal = Pin/Pout

• Calculated in decibel:
• A(w) = 10 log10(Pin/Pout)

Tần số

• The nearer to f0 the frequency of the signal is , the

less the loss of signal is
 Bandwidth

• A0: Threshold of hearing

– Sine waves which
frequencies are lower than f1
or grater than f2 are
considered as lost
– Sine waves which
frequencies are between f1 Example: Bandwidth of a
and f2 can be received at telephone channel is about
output 3100 Hz because frequencies
– Range of frequencies from f1 of voice that people can hear
to f2 is called bandwidth of a are in range from 300 Hz to
physical channel. 3400 Hz
 Baud rate and Data rate

• Baud rate R: the number of distinct symbol changes

made to the transmission medium in a second
- R = 1/t (bauds),
- t: length of signal
• Data rate/bit rate D: the number of bet can be transmitted
in a second
- Each signal carries n bit
- D = nR (bits/s)
• Example: Given a transmission systems
R = 1200 bauds và D = 1200 bits/s.
→ each signal carriers only one bit
 Example of baud rate & data rate

R = 1/Δ D=R

R = 1/ Δ D = 2R

R = 1/ Δ D =3 R
 Increase data rate

• D=nR
• To increase D:
– Increase n (number of bits carried by one signal):
limited by noise.
– Or increase R( baud rate): limited by Rmax
• Nyquist (1928):
– In theory: Rmax = 2 W,
– In practical Rmax = 1,25 W
 Noise and channel capacity

• Three kinds of noise

– Determined noise: depended on channel characteristics
– Undetermined noise
– Thermal noise: from the electron motion
 Noise and channel capacity

• Rate between power of signal PS and power of

noise PB is calculated in decibel
S/B = 10log10(PS(Watt)/PB(Watt))
• Shannon Theorem (1948) determined the
maximum number of bits carried by a signal
 Channel capacity

• From Nyquist and Shannon:

• C is capacity of a channel, determines the

maximum bit rate supported by a channel
 Channel capacity

• Example : Telephone channel

– Bandwidth W = 3100 Hz
– Rate signal/noise S/B = 20 dB.
– What is channel capacity C = ?
We have:

S/B = 10log10(PS/PB)
 PS/PB = 10 (( S/B) / 10) =10 (( 20) / 10) =10 2
 C = W log2(1+PS/PB) = 3100 * log2(1+100) = 20600 b/s
 Traffic

• Traffic is the amount of data moving across a network at

a given point of time.
• Traffic presents efficiency of channel usage, a base for
choosing a appropriate channel (bandwidth)
• A communication is session having average duration T(s)
• Nc is the average number of session per hour
• E is traffic density, used to measure the usage of channel
in one second :
E = T Nc / 3600
 Traffic

• A session is composed from many transactions

having the average duration p bits, and separated
by silences.
• Supposing that Nt is the average number of
transactions per session.
• D is data bit of the channel, then the real data bit d
in this situation is:
𝑁𝑡𝑝
𝑑=
𝑇
 Traffic

D is data bit of the channel, then the real data bit d in this
situation is:

Efficency of channel usage:

 Traffic

• Example: In scientific computing, a user

connects to a remote Host via a channel with:
p = 900 bits, Nt = 200, T = 2700 s, Nc =0.8, D = 1200
b/s.
Then,
- Traffic density of channel E (2700*0.8)/3600=0.6
- Efficiency of channel usage θ = 0.05
d= (200*900)/2700 = 67
 = (67/1200) =0.06
Line Coding
 What is Line Coding

Using signal (analog or digital) to transmit bits “0”

and “1” over a communication channel
 Line code using digital signal

a) NRZ : A zero voltage represents a bit

0, a positive voltage represents a bit
"1“
b) RZ : A bit "1" is represented by a
transition from voltage V0 to 0
c) Bipolar NRZ : A bit "1" is presented
by a positive voltage, then a
negative voltage repeatedly
d) Bipolar RZ : A bit “1” is represented
by a transition from a non zero
voltage to zero. First value of none
zero voltage is positive, then a
negative voltage repeatedly
 Line code using digital signal

Biphase:

• Manchester : A bit "0" is

represented by a transition
from high to low and a bit
"1" is from low to high
• Differential Manchester: bit
1: → Forces transition at
beginning; bit 0 → Do nothing
 Line code using analog signal

a) NRZ
b) Amplitude modulation

c) Frequency modulation

d) Phase modulation

e) Bi-phase modulation
 Bài tập

1. Tính thời gian lan truyền của tín hiệu nếu

khoảng cách giữa 2 thiết bị là 12,000km. Giả sử
tốc độ lan truyền là 2.4x108m/s
2. Tính thời gian lan truyền và thời gian truyền
một email 2,5KB nếu:
– Băng thông của mạng là 1Gbps
– Khoãng cách giữa người gởi và người nhận là
12,000km
– Tín hiệu được truyền với tốc độ ánh sáng
(2.4x108m/s)
 Bài tập

3. Tính thời gian lan truyền và thời gian truyền

một một tập tin 5MB nếu:
– Băng thông của mạng là 1Mbps
– Khoãng cách giữa người gởi và người nhận là
12,000km
– Tín hiệu được truyền với tốc độ ánh sáng
(2.4x108m/s)