MODULE 2 WELDING 7 Welding is one of the fabrication processes widely used to join two or more metallic components to make a single part. The products obtained from the primary manufacturing processes like casting, rolling and extrusion are rarely used directly as products for final usage. These may be machined or joined together using fabrication processes. The metal joining processes are among the secondary manufacturing processes. These can be classified based on various criteria into the following broad categories. * Mechanical fastening using bolts, nuts, rivets. « Adhesive bonding using glues, resins * Welding * Soldering «Brazing The first two are temporary or semi-permanent joining methods. But, welding is a permanent joining method where, the joint is obtained by the metallurgical fusion process. In welding, the interface of the two components to be joined is heated to a temperature near or above the melting point and a joint is made. During the process, pressure may be applied in certain cases and filler materials may or may not be used. Welding Figure 2.1 Based on the source of heat input, whether pressure is applied or not, whether filler material is used or not and the type of filler material used, there are more than 50 different welding processes in use today. Two major groups of welding processes are fusion welding and solid state welding processes. Figure 2.1 shows a general classification of some of the popular welding processes.73 MANUFACTURING PROCESS The formal definition of welding is: A localised coalescence of metals, wherein coalescence is obtained by heating to suitable temperature, with or without application of pressure and with or without the use of filler material. Welding produces a solid connection between the two pieces, called a weld joint. The product obtained by the process of welding is called as weldment. Base metal refers to the pieces of metal which are being welded to form a weld joint. Welding is the process of joining two pieces of metal by fusing to produce a single piece of metal. The two pieces of metal are joined by the application of intense heat or pressure or both to melt the edges of metal so that they fuse to form a permanent joint. Weld joints can be classified into five basic types as butt, lap, corner, tee and edge joints. These are illustrated in figure 2.2. The relative positions of the two pieces being joined determine the type of joint in this classification. oy A Ab dG Figure 2.2 In a butt joint, the parts are placed in the same plane and joined along their edges. The parts in a corner joint are kept atMODULE 2 WELDING "9 right angles and are joined at the corner of the angle. In a lap joint, the parts are kept overlapping each other, and the joint in made between edges of one part and a surface of the other part. In the tee joint, the parts are kept perpendicular to each other forming a T shape and a joint is made along the contact area. The parts in an edge joint are kept parallel and one of their common edges welded. Welding positions Each of the above types of weld joints can be made in any one of the following forms of welding positions: flat, horizontal, vertical and overhead. For a butt joint, these positions are as shown in figure 2.3. Types of welds Two common types of welds are fillet weld and groove weld. In corner, lap and tee joints fillet weld is used. Here, minimum edge preparation is needed and the filler metal is used to create a cross section (of weld) approximately of a right angled triangle. Figure 2.4 shows examples of fillet welds. Fa, ah Figure 2.4so MANUFACTURING PROCESS In the case of groove welds, edges of parts need to be prepared to the shape of a groove. In butt joints, shapes like square, bevel, V, U and J shaped grooves are prepared with single or double sides as shown in figure 2.5. CF Pac Single bevel Single V Single U Double Square Double V Double bevel Double U Figure 2.5 Following are some of the terms associated with welded joints Base metal: The metal pieces being welded. Weld Pool/Puddle: The portion of weld joint melted by the heat of welding. Root: It is the point at which the two pieces being joined is nearest. Weld bead: The metal added during a single pass of welding, Weld face: It is the surface of weld metal open to atmosphere. Weld metal (weld): The metal solidified at the joint is called weld metal or simply as weld. It may be only base metal or a mixture of base metal and filler material.MODULE 2 WELDING a Weld pass: A single movement of welding torch or electrode along the length of joint resulting in a weld bead. Some of the above are shown in figure 2.6. Weldability is the capacity of a metal to be welded into a suitably designed structure and to perform satisfactorily in the intended service. The quality of weld and the ease with which the welding is carried out determines weldability. The factors that affect weldability are * Welding process * Properties of base metal * Properties of filler metal * Surface conditions. Some metals can be easily welded by one process, but may be difficult with some other process. Aluminium melts easily and is good for welding. Copper is having high thermal conductivity and the heat is transferred faster from the weld zone, making it hard to make a weld joint. In the past, weldability has been regarded as the ease with which a material can be welded. Weldability now includes how well the weldment performs in service. Thus, there are two main factors: service weldability and fabrication weldability. geometry. Factors affecting fabrication weldability include melting point of the base metal, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion and contraction, electrical resistance, and surface condition. In a typical weld joint obtained from a fusion welding process, three distinct zones can be identified. These zones are base metal, heat affected zone (HAZ) and weld metal as shown82 MANUFACTURING PROCESS in figure 2.7. When a filler material is used, the central zone consists of a mixture of base metal and the filler metal. This is called weld metal. When filler metal is not used, the central zone is composed of resolidified base metal. Fusion zone Weld Heat-affected Interface zone(HAZ) Unaffected base metal (a) Different zones Columnar grains in fusion zone Coarse grains in HAZ near weld interface Finer grains in HAZ away from weld interface Original cold-worked grains (a) Typical grain structure Figure 2.7 During the welding process, the intense heat will melt the base metal (and filler metal) in the fusion zone. This molten metal is later allowed to cool down to the room temperature and solidify. The solidification process is similar to casting and columnar grains are formed. These columnar grains grow parallel and opposite to the direction of heat flow. In general, the weld metal has a cast structure having coarse grains since the cooling occurs very slowly. Due to this, the weld metal has low strength, toughness and ductility. These properties can be modified properly by selecting a proper composition for filler metal or by proper heat treatments. Heat Affected Zone During the welding process, some portion of base metal is heated to higher temperature (that are below the melting point) and then slowly cooled. This region of base metal is called heat affected zone (HAZ). Due to the heating and cooling, the microstructural changes happen to the HAZ. But the portion of base metal far away from the weld zone does not undergo any such changes. The changes in microstructure lead tochanges in mechanicalMODULE 2 WELDING 3 properties. These changes depend on the temperature to which the zone is heated and also on the rates of heating and cooling. The mechanical properties of the HAZ also depend on how these properties were developed prior to welding. When a cold worked base metal is welded, the applied heat leads to recrystallisation of the grains of elongated shape. Grains closer to weld metal will grow into coarse and softer grains, while those away from weld metal recrystallize into fine equiaxed grains. Grain size and Hardness in Welding From the molten weld metal to the edge of the HAZ, there will be a wide variation of temperature. Some of the material has been melted and solidified, some are heated much above the upper critical temperature and recrystallised, some heated just at critical temperature, some not up to critical, and the unaffected base metal. Therefore, the grain size of the weld metal will be rather large, becoming gradually smaller until the recrystallization temperature is reached. Here, the grain size will be at a minimum and then will advance gradually larger again until it blends with the unaffected base metal. As the steels are hardenable, an increase in hardness appears in the zones that are heated above the upper critical temperature, due to the quenching effect or rapid heat transfer to the cold base metal. The minimum hardness is found in areas which were heated just above the lower critical temperature. The extent of preheating of the base metal and the heat input at the time the welding determine the location of maximum hardness and its value. Presence of defects in welded joints may reduce strength of joint and may lead to failure of the joint causing damages. Study about the defects is necessary to identify the reasons for defects and to take steps to eliminate defective joints. Basically various types of discontinuities are the defects that affect the quality of weld joints. These may be due to various reasons like: lack of skill of operator, improper usage of welding equipment or poor quality materials. Following are a few commonly observed welding defects. Porosity: This is caused by the entrapped gases during the solidification of weld metal. The gases may be developed84 MANUFACTURING PROCESS during melting of the weld area or by chemical reaction during welding. These gases may get entrapped within the liquid metal and upon solidification small spherical cavities may be formed. Slag inclusion: Slag is formed by the melting of fluxes and the purpose of slagin to protect the weld metal from atmospheric contamination. Slag is having lower density compared to metal and will float above the weld pool. But during the welding process, slag may get entrapped in weld pool and may not get enough time to float above the liquid metal. When the weld metal solidifies faster, slag inclusions may result. In a multi pass welding, if the solidified slag of the previous pass is not completely removed, slag inclusions would be there. Vv) om Figure 2.8 Incomplete fusion: When the weld joint is not properly melted and fused together, poor quality weld beads are obtained. Some examples are shown in figure 2.8. This can be avoided by preheating the base metal, cleaning the weld area before welding or by changing the joint design. Incomplete penetration: This defect results when the welding process is not able to create a weld bead to cover the complete thickness of base metal. (see figure 2.9). Here the depth of welded joint is not sufficient to cover thickness of base metal. This defect can be avoided by increasing the heat input, reducing the speed of welding or by changing the joint design. Under filling: Results when the joint is not filled with sufficient amount of weld metal as shown in figure 2.9.MODULE 2 WELDING as Under cutting: Some portion of base metal may get melted away during welding and a small groove or notch may be formed on the surface. This is called under cutting (see figure 2.9). Overlaps: This may be caused by poor welding practice and is a discontinuity on the welded surface. Underfill Inclusions rack Porosity Undereut Lack of penetration Figure 2.9 Cracks; Weld cracks are classified as hot cracks and cold cracks. Hot cracks occur in the weld and fusion zone as the metal solidifies. The main causes are: by: . Presence of elements, such as phosphorus and sulfur in the base plate. As the metal solidifies, a slightly convex bead will provide material for shrinkage, but a very convex bead will result in high tensile stresses that may result in longitudinal cracks. Joint restraint, which causes high stresses in the weld. A deep and narrow weld under conditions of high restraint may cause internal cracks. Higher hardness results from higher carbon and alloy content of the base metal, which may result in cracking. Moisture in the joint or electrode coating may cause hydrogen pickup and embrittlement of the weld deposit. Rapid cooling increases the effect of the last two and increase the occurrence of cracking. Cold cracks are usually observed in the HAZ and are caused High carbon or alloy content as affected by cooling.86 MANUFACTURING PROCESS. * Hydrogen embrittlement through migration of hydrogen liberated from the weld. + Rate of cooling, controls the above and faster cooling will lead to more cracks. Residual Stresses The high temperature developed during welding may cause complex thermal stresses and these lead to residual stresses and distortion in the welded structure. Residual stresses are defined as those stresses which remain in a structure when no external load is present. Presence of residual stresses may reduce the service life of the welded joint. Factors leading to residual stresses « Heat input to weldment * Cooling rate of the weldment * Type of joint and method of welding * Constraints to expansion and contraction of structure during and after welding * Stresses present in base metal before welding Heat or thermal treatments given to welded joints can be grouped as Preheating and Postheating treatments. Preheating Preheating of the base metal before welding is an effective method of reducing residual stresses and cracking of base metal. Preheating as high as 650°C is followed for ductile cast iron and upto 315°C is used for highly hardenable steels. Furnace heating is usually done to ensure uniform heating. (Other modes of heating are electric strip heaters and induction heating. The preheating retards the cooling rate after welding and reduces magnitude of shrinkage stresses. Preheating also helps in favorable metallurgical structure in HAZ. As the cooling rate is reduced, pearlite and bainite formation is promoted instead of martensite. Postweld Heat Treatment For stress relieving, the welded structure is subjected to uniform heating to a suitable temperature, holding at the temperature for a fixed period of time and the cooling at a uniform rate. The temperture will be always below the lower critical range, so as no microstructural changes are there.MODULE 2 WELDING a7 In stress relieving, the principle made use of is that the yield stress of a metal decreases as the temperature is raised. When the metal is heated to a higher temperature, localised plastic deformation occurs and the residual tensile stress are reduced. At the same time, the compressive stresses are also reduced to restore equilibrium. In practice, the temperature is raised until the yield stress has fallen to a low value at which residual stresses can no longer be supported. In addition to reduction and redistribution of residual stresses, post welding heat treatments at higher temperatures permits some tempering, precipitation or ageing effects to occur. These metallurgical changes can reduce the hardness of the welded structure, improving ductility and reducing the risks of brittle fracture. Inspection methods for weld joints can be broadly divided into two groups: destructive testing and non destructive testing (NDT) methods. Destructive testing methods commonly used to check the quality of welded joints are hardness, tensile, izod, bend and nick break tests. These tests make the welded joints unsuitable for end use. Hardness Tests Hardness testing is the best method for evaluating the weld and HAZ, without destroying the welded joint. For low carbon steels, Brinnel hardness number (BHN) of 110 to 150 and for high carbon steels, BHN of 212 to 322 are acceptable ranges. A weld is generally classified as acceptable if the hardness of cross section is within Rc 32 (Rockwell hardness). A maximum value of Rc 40 is generally good when the joints are loaded in compression. Guided Bend Tests Specimens of standard dimensions are cut from the welded joint and used along with jigs as per the ASTM standard test. The specimens should bend to 180° in order to satisfy the test. The test is used to check the quality of base metal and weld, as well the degree of penetration and fusion of the weld.88 MANUFACTURING PROCESS Nick Break Test A specimen prepared from the weld joint and slotted at its edges using a saw as shown in figure 2.10 is used for the test. The specimen is then positioned as shown and struck with a heavy hammer until the specimen fractures along the weld. A good joint should be completely fused and free of slag inclusions along the fractured weld surface. Saw Slots: Figure 2.10 Non destructive testing includes visual examination, liquid particle, eddy current, ultrasonic, liquid penetrant, magnetic, radiography, acoustic emission, thermal, and optical methods. These tests will not affect the end use of welded joint in any manner. Visual Inspection An experienced welder or inspector can detect most of the weld defects by careful examination. The following defects can be observed: undercut, overlap, surface cracks, slag inclusions, penetration, and the extent of reinforcement. Some of these defects are shown in figures 2.8 and 2.9. Liquid Penetrant Test The liquid penetrant test method involves flooding theMODULE 2 WELDING a9 surface with a light oil-like penetrant solution that is drawn into the surface discontinuity by capillary action. After the excess liquid has been removed from the surface, a thin coating of absorbent material is applied to draw the traces of penetrant from the defects to the surface for observation. Brightly colored dyes of fluorescent materials are added to the penetrant solutions to make the traces more visible. Magnetic Particle Inspection Magnetic particle inspection is based on the principle that ferromagnetic materials, when magnetized, will have distorted magnetic fields in which there are material flaws and that these can be clearly shown with the application of magnetic particles. The magnetic field can be set up by passing an electric current through all or a portion of the part. The current may be passed through the part or through a conductor in close proximity to the part. To be effective, the direction of the induced field should be almost perpendicular to the expected flaw. Either AC or DC power can be used to generate the magnetic field. Magnetization is better with AC for surface discontinuities, while DC is used to locate subsurface discontinuities or nonmetallic inclusions. The magnetic particles can be applied either when the current is applied, or after the current has been shut off. After the particles have been sprayed or sprinkled on the surface, the excess is gently removed by blowing or sweeping, leaving only the magnetic pattern. Magnetic particles are available in several colors or treated with fluorescent material for observation under ultraviolet light. Eddy-current Testing When electrically conductive material is subjected to an alternating magnetic field, small circulating electric currents are generated in the material. These eddy currents are affected by variations in conductivity, magnetic permeability, mass, and homogeneity of the material. Conditions that affect these characteristics can be sensed by measuring the eddy current response of the part. The eddy currents induced into the part interact with the magnetic field of the exciting coil, thereby influencing the impedance, which is the total opposition to the flow of current from the combined effect of resistance, inductance, and capacitance of the coil. By measuring the impedance of the exciting coil, eddy-current testing can detect cracks, voids,90 MANUFACTURING PROCESS inclusions, seams, and laps. The best results are obtained when the current flow is at right angles to the faw. Ultrasonic Inspection Ultrasonic inspection consists of sending a high-frequency vibration (beyond 20 kHz) through a component and observing what happens when the beam hits a discontinuity or a change in density. The altered ultrasonic signal can be used to detect flaws within the material. The sending transducer transforms a voltage change into ultrasonic vibration. The transducer is coupled to the workpiece by a liquid medium, such as water. A receiving transducer converts the received ultrasonic wave into a corresponding electrical signal. The signals are sent through the part, and the time intervals that elapse between the initial pulse and the arrival of the various echoes are displayed on an oscilloscope screen. A flaw is recognized by the relative position and amplitude of the echo. Radiography Radiography is essentially a shadow pattern created when certain types of radiation penetrate an object and are differentially absorbed depending on variations of thickness, density, or chemical composition of the material. A schematic ofa typical radiographic testing system is shown in figure 2.11. Film Defect Figure 2.11 The shadowgraph is recorded on a photographic film to provide a permanent record. Other methods of recording theMODULE 2 WELDING ca image include fluoroscopy, xerography, and closed circuit television scanning. Three types of penetrating radiation are presently used for industrial radiography: x-rays, gamma rays, and neutron beams. The x-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation similar to light, radio waves. A distinguishing feature of x-rays is their extremely short wavelength, and it is this characteristic that tenable x-rays to penetrate materials that absorb or reflect ordinary light. The x-rays are generated when electrons, traveling at high speeds, collide with matter. Gamma rays are emitted by disintegrating nuclei of radioactive substances. In industrial radiography, artificially produced radioactive isotopes, such as cobalt 60, are used almost exclusively. Acoustic Emission Monitoring Engineering materials undergoing stress or plastic deformation emit sound. The acoustic emission is in the form of short bursts or trains of fast impulses in the ultrasonic range. These acoustic emissions can be related to the physical integrity of the material or structure in which they are generated. The monitoring of these events permits detection and location of flaws as well as prediction of impending failure. The pulse rate and amplitude of acoustic emission bursts are usually very high compared to most natural or artificial noises, and therefore it is possible to isolate the significant signals by careful measurement of emission rates and amplitudes. Thermal Testing Temperature measurement can be used to detect defective components or devices that are themselves active heat sources; or components can be artificially heated, and the dynamic temperature distribution can provide significant data about flaws. In any event, NDT testing involves detecting atypical temperatures rather than the absolute temperature of the part. Contact methods of measuring, can be affected by coating the surface to be tested with a material that reacts to temperature changes by altering its color or appearance. For noncontact thermal testing, infrared detection systems are most frequently used. Infrared scanning systems produce a thermal picture of the part by representing various temperatures as different shades of gray or shades of significant colors.oz MANUFACTURING PROCESS Resistance welding is a group of fusion welding processes that uses a combination of heat and pressure to accomplish coalescence between workpieces in contact. The heat is being generated by electrical resistance to current flow at the junction to be welded. The metal at the contact surface is melted due to the heat generated by the electrical resistance. This results in the formation of a weld nugget at the weld junction. ‘Comparing with arc welding, resistance welding uses no shielding gas, filler metal or flux and the electrodes are not consumable. Since there is no arcing, no spatter is produced. As the metals are melted to form the joint, the resistance welding is grouped as a fusion welding process. The general arrangement for resistance welding is shown in figure 2.12. The variables which govern the resistance welding process are the heat and pressure applied. Heat is generated by the electrical resistance, while passing AC or DC current of 3000A to 40000A, with a voltage of | to 25 Volts though the two pieces of metal to be welded. Force Force Figure 2.12MODULE 2 WELDING -s The heat energy(H) developed can be determined from the relationship. HEPRt where J is the current in Ampere, R-electrical resistance in Ohms and ¢ is the time for which the current is passed in seconds. Temperature developed in resistance welding is regulated by the magnitude and duration of welding current, when other parameters are kept constant. When the current is low, it does not provide proper heating and fusion. If the current is too high, entire thickness of material will be heated to fusion temperature and the electrodes may get embedded into the work material. In the majority of resistance welding equipment, AC current is being used, though DC current also can be used for this purpose. The resistance (spot) welding process begins with positioning the work material (generally as lap joints) in between the electrodes. The upper electrode is moved downwards to apply pressure on the work material. After this, weld current is applied for a predetermined short duration. Now the welding takes place. The pressure applied by electrode is maintained for some more time and then withdrawn. Now the welded joint is ready. Resistance in the welding circuit is the sum of resistance of the electrodes (R,) resistance of work pieces (R,). contact resistance between electrodes and work pieces (R,), and contact resistance between the faying surfaces of the work material (R). The resistance of electrodes (R,) needs to be minimised by using materials like copper having low resistivities. The resistance between the faying surfaces (R,) contribute maximum towards the total resistance. And this is the region where the maximum heat is needed for the metal to be melted and joined.4 MANUFACTURING PROCESS The resistance of work pieces (R,) depends on the type of material and its thickness. The contact resistance between electrode and work piece (R) also needs to be minimised by keeping the surface cleaned and by maintaining proper pressure between the two. In short, the resistance of work pieces and the contact surfaces between them contribute highly to the heat generation. The temperature distribution in an ideal situation is shown in figure 2.13. Over heating of the electrodes is avoided by circulating water or a refrigerant. Figure 2.13 The welding cycle in resistance welding consists of four segments (sce figure 2.14). Squeeze time: During this period, the electrodes apply pressure on the work material and keeps it ready for welding. At the end of squeeze time the welding current is applied. Weld Time: During this period, the welding current is flowing through the circuit with the pressure applied. Now the work material gets heated up and at the contact surface a weld nugeet is formed as a result of localised melting.MODULE 2 WELDING .T3 Hold time: The hold time starts when electric current is switched off. During this period, the pressure continues to be applied, but is released at the end. The weld nugget solidifies during this period. ‘Off time: It is the period from the end of hold time to the start of squeeze time of next welding cycle. During this period, the welded joint is removed and a set of new workpieces are kept in between the electrodes. This is also the setup time for the next cycle. ‘ i) e 1 & 2 + t ‘ 38 #2 — — = = + ii 138 26 hb r) —> << a £ i = 7 3 8 ® y 2 a8 a —, a 3 + § * ae = [LO 2 J quaums ‘30104 The pressure applied by electrodes serve the following purposes. It helps maintain a firm metallic contact. It prevents expulsion of liquid metal from between the weld material and also helps in consolidation of liquid metal and nugget% MANUFACTURING PROCESS formation. Resistance welding process is implemented in many different ways. The most important types are spot, seam, projection and percussion welding. Advantages * Faster process * No filler material needed * Semi automatic operation. * Similar and dissimilar metals can be welded. * High reliability * Semi skilled workers are enough * Economical process * Suitable for mass production Disadvantages * Higher cost of equipment * Skilled person needed for maintenance * Larger thickness cannot be welded Applications * Used for joining sheets, bars, rods * Used for making tubes & furniture + Used for welding aircraft & automobile parts * Used for welding house hold applications * Used for making wire fabric, grids, grills, containers, weld metal etc. The resistance welding process explained so far is called resistance spot welding (RSW) or simply spot welding. This is the most commonly used resistance welding process. The steps involved in the process were illustrated earlier in figure 2.14. A typical resistance spot welding equipment is shown in figure 2.15. Hence, fusion of faying surfaces of a lap joint is achieved at one location by opposing electrodes. This process can be used to join two metal plates in lap joint by forming a small nugget at the interface of the plates.MODULE 2 WELDING 7 Low carbon steels, high speed steel, stainless steels, aluminium, copper, nickel and their alloys can be spot welded. Steel plates having thickness upto 12.5mm and copper plates upto 1.5mm can be successfully welded. In general, plate thickness upto 3.5mm is considered as suitable for spot welding. When a number of spot welds are made on the same pair of sheets, there will be a chance of completing the electric circuit through the already formed nuggets. This is called shunting effect. To overcome this problem, magnitude of current is increased for the second spot onwards. Another way is to maintain proper distance between consecutive spots. Electrodes in Spot Welding Functions of electrodes are to transmit current and force to the work materials. Another function is to dissipate heat from the weld zone. The properties needed for the electrode material are electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, strength and hardness at high temperatures and minimum tendency to join with the metal being welded. The materials suitable for these requirements are mainly copper and copper alloys with very low percentage of cadmium, chromium, beryllium and nickel as alloying elements. Alloys of copper with 58% tungsten are used for welding copper plates. Typical shapes of spot welding electrodes are pointed, dome shaped and flat ended (see figure 2.16). Pointed electrodes are widely used. Due to wear, the area of pointed end get enlarged98 MANUFACTURING PROCESS and flatten uniformly. This is called mushrooming. Even after mushrooming, the electrodes can continue to be used for welding. Domed electrodes can withstand high pressure and severe heating without mushrooming. As some region of the two sheets are heated to various temperatures during the welding process, some amount of heat affetced zone (HAZ) is unavoidable. The material within the HAZ undergoes microstructural changes due to the heating and cooling cycle. Some of the effects may be beneficial to the weld joint and some others may affect the properties of the weld joint. The goal in good resistance welding process is to The seam welding is much similar to spot welding, except that circular rolling electrodes are used to produce continuous seam of overlapping welds. Cooling of the electrodes and work are achieved by directing water jets on both sides of the work material, as shown in figure 2.17.MODULE 2 WELDING oF Seam welding produces a number of weld nuggets on the weld material. The motion of electrode wheels and the application of electric current are the parameters here. In continuous motion seam welding, the electrodes rotate at a uniform velocity. Along with this, the current may flow continuously to form a continuous weld seam as in figure 2.18(a). When the current is switched off and on quickly, a set of overlapping nuggets is obtained as in 2.18(b). This process is known as stitch welding. When the duration of switching off the current is increased, the spacing between individual nuggets, increases and will lead to independent nuggets at regular intervals. This process is known as roll spot welding. Resulting weld joint may look like as in 2.18(c). In all the above cases, the electrode wheels rotate at a uniform speed. The continuous motion welding is used for welding work materials upto 4.5mm thick. Continuous ( weld stream ee ———— fa) Electrode wheel ———. Overlapping ( weld nuggets Steel-metal >" —_enadesdl ( (b) Individual ( weld nuggets —~~e 6 6-6! _—_*-e- «4 (c) Figure 2.18100 MANUFACTURING PROCESS: For thicker materials, intermittent motion welding is used. Here the electrodes travel a distance necessary for each successive weld and stops there. Now the current is switched on and a weld is made. The intermittent process also can produce weld joints similar to that of stitch welding or roll spot welding as in figure 2.18(b) and (c). The materials which are satisfactorily welded by seam welding are plain carbon steels, alloy steels, stainless steels, aluminium, nickel, magnesium and their alloys. Main advantage is that the process can produce air tight joints. The seam welding can be used for the fabrication of gas and liquid tanks, transformers, refrigerators, evaporators and condensers. Major limitation is that the welding can be done along straight line or uniformly curved lines only. Projection welding uses the same equipment as spot weldin; The electrodes used in projection welding are flat on the ends and are slightly larger than those used in spot welding. Small projections or deformations are made on the surface of the material to be welded. The arrangement for projection welding is illustrated in figure 2.19. Flat electrode =z Projections Base metal Flat electrode Finished weld eS Weld nuggets Figure 2.19MODULE 2 WELDING 101 Proper surface preparation is important for the success of projection welding. The contact between the surfaces to be weld is obtained through the small projections on the surface. The circuit for current flow is completed through the projections. As the current flows, a weld nugget starts forming surrounding the projection or point of contact. These weld points soon reach plastic state and the force applied by the electrodes finishes the weld nugget. When the points reach the plastic state, the metal is compressed to obtain a finished weld similar to spot weld. There will be small indentations on the surface and this is the only difference we can see outside. Like spot welding, here also no protective atmosphere is needed for the welding process. One or more projections made on the surface of plates are the places where the contact occurs and these are the locations where fusion takes place. Projection welding needs lower current and pressure requirements to form a good joint between two surfaces. Due to these, the chances of distortion and shrinkage are lower in the areas surrounding the weld zone. One of the areas of application is in the fabrication of automobile body parts. The process is also used in fabrication of many household and industrial equipment. This is a specialised arc welding process for joining studs, threaded fasteners or similar components to another part, usually flat plates. Here, an electric arc is used to heat the components to be welded. The stud serves as one of the electrodes and the other component serves as another electrode to initiate an arc. A disposable ceramic ring called ferrule is placed around the weld area to prevent oxidation and to retain the molten metal in the weld zone. Work part Molten Metal ‘weld metal Figure 2.20102 MANUFACTURING PROCESS. Figure 2.20 shows the steps in stud welding process. The method is used for attaching handles to cookware, heat radiating fins in machinery, and similar applications in automobile, electrical and ship building industry. Unlike spot and seam welding, this process is usually used for butt joints. The two surfaces to be joined are brought into contact and an electric current is applied for an extremely short duration of 1-10minutes. After a short contact, one of the work pieces is retracted slightly to draw an arc. This arc heats the faces of both work pieces to welding temperature. Now, welding force is applied by moving the workpiece to come into contact again. The arc gets extinguished and the force is retained until the joint is formed and cooled down (see figure 2.21). The percussion of one work piece against the other immediately after arcing helps forming the weld joint. This is why the process has the name. - + Moving Contact Figure 2.21 The heating is very localised and is suitable for electronic applications, The process is suitable for similar and dissimilar metals. The process is limited to butt joints only. It is highly suitable for welding small wires to electrical components. Welding of copper, nickel, aluminium alloys and plain carbon steels can be done by this process. Example 2.1 Two steel sheets of 2mm thickness are resistance welded in a lap joint with a current of 10000A for 0.15 second. The effective resistance of the joint can be taken as 1500. The joint can be considered as a cylinder of 5mm diameter and 2 mm height. Heat required for melting steel can be taken as 10J/mm*. Determine the amount of heat generated and lost during the welding. Solution Current, I= 10000A Resistance, R= 150 yfMODULE 2 WELDING 103 Time of current flow, t=0.15 sec Heat supplied = /7Rt = 100007 x150 «10% «0.15 =2250J 2 Volume of the joint, V = en =39.25mm? Heat required for melting = 39.25 x10=392.5J Heat lost to surroundings =2250 — 392.5 =1857.5J Arc welding is a group of fusion welding processes wherein coalescence is produced by heating with an electric arc with or without the use of filler metal and mostly without application of pressure. There are many different types of arc welding processes in use. The appropriate one is selected based on the base metal dimensions, type of joint, weld position, quality of weld and many other factors. Following is the list of a few popular types of arc welding methods. * Shielded metal are welding (SMAW) * Submerged arc welding (SAW) + Metal inert gas welding (MIG) + Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG) * Plasma arc welding (PAW) * Carbon arc welding = Atomic hydogen welding. * Flux cored arc welding. + Electro slag welding. * Electro gas welding. In the electric are welding process, an arc is produced between the tip of an electrode and the base metal using an AC or DC power supply. This electric arc develops temperature of the order of 5000°C or higher sufficient to melt any metal and filler material. A pool of molten metal is formed near the electrode due to melting of base metal and filler metal. This molten metal solidifies as the arc is moved along the joint.MANUFACTURING PROCESS: The are welding process needs a source of electric power. This can be of alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) type. In AC machines, transformers are used to provide the power supply, while in DC machine, a transformer with rectifier is used to provide the DC power as per needs of welding process. The DC arc welding is generally preferred became it provides better control of heat input. In DC arc welding, about 70% of heat is liberated near the positive terminal (anode). While using DC, the electrode can be connected to the negative terminal (cathode) and work piece to the positive terminal. This arrangement is called straight polarity or direct polarity or DCSP. As already mentioned this will liberate more heat near the anode (work piece) and is suitable for thicker work pieces. DCSP will lead to higher penetration of heat as shown in figure 2.22. roe a) DC-straight polarity (OCSP} (Ft b) DC-reverse polarity (DCRP) r_ ey c) AC Figure 2.22 While using thinner materials, the polarity can be reversed and the electrode can be made positive (anode). This arrangement is called reversed polarity or DCRP. Hence the depth of penetration will be smaller.MODULE 2 WELDING 105 When using AC for welding, the polarities keep on changing continuously. As a result, the depth of penetration would be somewhere between the DCSP and DCRP modes. This is true only when other parameters like voltage, current, electrode diameter and arc length are kept constant. A voltage of 40-50V is needed to start an arc and for continuous welding 20 — 30V is enough. The current rating is in the range of 150-800A. In general, there are two types of electrodes used in electric arc welding processes, consumable and non-consumable types. Most of the arc welding processes make use of consumable type. Among this, the electrodes can be continuous or stick type; bare or flux coated, and of various sizes. The function of electrode is to provide heat input in arc welding process. When the electrode is consumable, it also supplies filler metal to the weld pool by melting its tip. Once the arc is initiated, the electrode is continuously consumed and hence it should be moved continuously towards work piece in order to maintain the arc at a constant length. Consumable electrodes are made of materials like steel, cast iron, copper, brass, bronze or aluminium to suit various metals to be welded. Non-consumable electrodes made of carbon, graphite or tungsten are also used in arc welding. The carbon and graphite electrodes are used in DC welding only, while tungsten is used for both AC and DC processes. Here the filler material is provided by a separate filler rod. Hence it is easy to control heat input and amount of filler material deposited separately. The consumable electrodes are of two types, bare or coated. The coated electrodes are usually of stick type or in the form of smaller sticks. The main ingredient of electrode coating is oxide based flux. In addition, the coating may contain some alloying elements that help improve physical properties of the weld metal. The stick electrodes are normally available in diameters 2.5 to 9.5mm and length of 250 to 450mm. Functions of flux electrode coating 1. When heated, the coatings give off gases like carbon106 MANUFACTURING PROCESS dioxide which acts as a shielding around the molten metal and protects it from contamination by oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen from the atmosphere. 2. The oxide based fluxes upon melting mixes with oxides and other impurities present in the molten metal and forms a slag. Since the slag is lighter than molten metal it floats on top of the metal puddle or weld pool and protects it from further oxidation. The slag also helps in reducing cooling rate of molten metal. 3. The coating also contains materials to make the slag viscous. This would be helpful in making welds in vertical position, to cover the weld pool for a longer period of time. 4. Some elements which support arc stabilisation are also included in coatings. 5. Some alloying elements which will improve strength and physical properties of weld metal also are introduced through the coatings. 6. Spattering is reduced. This is an arc welding process wherein coalescence is produced by heating the work piece with an electric arc set up between a flux coated electrode and the work piece. This is the most extensively used arc welding process and about 50% industrial and maintenance welding is done by this process. The consumable electrode is in the shape of thin sticks and hence the process is also called as stick welding. Other names for the process are manual metal arc welding (MMAW) and flux shielded metal arc welding. The figure 2.23 shows the typical arrangement for SMAW process. The work piece is kept on a metallic table or the work piece itself is connected to one of the leads of the power source. The other lead is connected to the electrode holder into which the electrode is placed. The electrode is then moved towards the work piece to initiate an arc. Immediately it is slightly withdrawn to keep a constant length of arc. A high current with a smaller arc length produces intense heat. The arc melts the end of electrode and the work piece. Droplets of metal are transferred though the arc and deposited along the joint. TheMODULE 2 WELDING 107 molten metal at the joint and these droplets of metal together forms a weld pool at the joint. The fux coating also melts and produces a gascous shield around the weld region and a molten slag to cover the molten weld metal. The edges of workpiece are to be cleaned prior to welding to remove rust, scales, grease, paint and other foreign matters. Butt joints with single V, double V, single U and double U are used with SMAW. Other types of joints like lap corner, tee are also possible. Though the flat position is the best, overhead and vertical positions also can be done by SMAW. The electrode used is always much similar in composition to the base metal. Size of electrode varies from 2.5 to 9.5mm in diameter and 250 to 450 mm in length. The electrode coating contains cellulose mixed with oxides and carbonates bonded together by a silicate binder. Typical voltages used range from 15 to 45V and currents in the range 30 to 300A. The power parameters are selected based on type of base metal, electrode size, and depth of weld penetration required. Advantages * SMAW is the simplest of all the arc welding processes. * Equipment is portable and low cost. * Wider range of metals and their alloys can be welded. * Welding in any position can be done with highest quality. * Wide variety of electrodes available for numerous applications.108 MANUFACTURING PROCESS Disadvantages * Mechanisation is difficult due to the limited length of electrodes. * Stick electrodes make it slower and prone to defects. + Chances for slag entrapment is more as compared to TIG and MIG + Control of welding process is not easy as in TIG or MIG Applications * Almost all commonly used metals and alloys can be welded. * Used for fabrication, maintenance and repair works. « Used for fabrication of pressure vessels, ships, bridges, automobiles, air crafts, pipes and penstocks. In submerged arc welding (SAW) process, instead of a flux coated electrode, a continuous bare electrode and granular flux are used. The arc between the electrode and job is the heat source which is submerged under a blanket of the granular flux. The heat of arc melts the electrode and the flux near to it. ‘The molten fiux acts as a shield for the molten metal. Figure 2.24 shows the arrangement for SAW process. The weld region including the end of electrode is completely under the cover of granular flux. This cover prevents sparks, spatter and radiation of heat as in other arc welding processes. When the electrode is brought closer to base metal, the arc is initiated. The heat thus generated will melt the electrode and some portion of granular flux. The molten flux is electrically conductive and it helps maintain the arc inside. But the solid granular flux in the outer layer is non conductive and acts asa protective barrier. The electrode together with the hopper and ‘vacuum system are moved slowly in the direction of welding at a predetermined speed. The weld area is completely shielded by the granular flux from outside. This ensures slow cooling of the weld metal and a high quality weld with good ductility and toughness is obtained. Heat loss to atmosphere is very limited.MODULE 2 WELDING 109 Granular flux from hopper Continuous ‘Vacuum system for Figure 2.24 The power source used may be AC or DC, with constant current or constant voltage. Typical range of current is 300A to 2000A with a voltage rating of 440V. When higher current is used, depth of penetration and deposition rate increases. For thicker plates, higher current is used. Electrode diameter is usually in the range 1.5mm to 10mm. Increasing the electrode diameter with the same current and arc length, leads to reduced depth of penetration. Advantages * Cleaner welds are obtained due to the protecting and refining action by the granular flux. » Less spatter and heat loss to surrounding. * Thicker work pieces can be welded. + Alloying elements can be added to granular flux as metal powders. * Welding is done without sparks, smoke or spatter. + Weld metal possesses good ductility, impact strength and corrosion resistance. * Higher heat concentration, welding speeds, and high metal deposition rates are achieved. Disadvantages. * Heat input is very high. Hence size of weld is larger and heat affected zone is larger. * Only flat and circumferential welding can be done.110 MANUFACTURING PROCESS + Cannot see the position of weld at the time of welding. (Close control of process is difficult * Thin sheets cannot be welded. Cast iron, aluminium, magnesium alloys, lead and zinc cannot be welded. + Requires proper edge preparation and accurate fit up on the joint. Applications * For welding metals like mild steel, medium and high carbon low alloy steels. * Fabrication of boilers, pressure vessels, structural shapes, railway coaches, locomotives, automobiles, ships, nuclear power equipment etc. Flux cored arc welding process uses continuous wire electrodes, which are flux cored. The cross section of the flux cored tubular electrode wire is shown in figure 2.25. The flux will get melted during the welding process and will form a slag coating over the molten weld metal. Figure 2.26 shows the schematic diagram of the process. Nozzle (optional) Gas (optional) Flux-cored electrode Molten Metal Figure 2.26MODULE 2 WELDING ain Two variants of the FCAW are in use, with gas shield and without gas shield. Carbon dioxide is used as shielding gas which will cover the area of welding from contamination by atmospheric air. When gas shielding is not used, the flux will contribute sufficient gas shielding to the area of welding. Advantages * High deposition rates can be achieved with small diameter welding wires. It is nearly twice as that of SMAW of a comparable setup. * High quality weld metal deposit and excellent appearance due to smooth and uniform welds. * Can be used for a wide range of metal thicknesses, starting from the thinnest of 1.57mm. * Can be used in any position using smaller diameter wires. * Alloying elements and deoxidisers can be added to the joint by including them with fiux. Disadvantages * Large amount of fumes generated by the flux cored wires. * Usage is limited to welding ferrous metals and nickel based alloys. + Equipment and electrode wire are expensive. Applications + For fabricating structures using carbon and low alloy steels. * Gas shielded process is preferred for field use, while both are used in shop fabrication work. * Used in the construction of pressure vessels and Piping for chemical processing, petroleum and power generation industries. * Alsoused by automotive and heavy equipment industries for the fabrication of axle housings, wheel rims, frames and other parts. This is a modified version of submerged arc welding for joining thick materials in vertical position. As in the submerged arc welding, granular flux and a consumable wire electrode11z MANUFACTURING PROCESS are used here. Actually, this cannot be considered as an arc welding process. The heat necessary to melt the filler material and base metal are obtained from the electrical resistivity of the molten flux. A schematic diagram of the process is given in figure 2.27. The granular flux is placed in the gap between the plates to be welded before switching on the electric current. The gap between the two vertical thick plates to be welded is covered by two water cooled copper shoes (dams) on both sides. The process is initiated by starting an electric arc between the electrode and a starting block, tack welded to the bottom of joint. As the flux melts, a blanket of slag of around 3cm thickness forms. Now the arc goes out and the electric current passes directly from the electrode wire through the slag. The high resistance of the slag causes further heating of slag and contributes the heat to continue the welding process. Consumable electrode from wire reel Copper shoe Weld pool Solid weld metal Figure 2.27 The copper shoes are used on both sides of the weld region, to retain the molten metal and slag in position. A temperature sensitive mechanism is used to move the copper plates upward as the welding progresses. The process is usually used to weld plates of thickness ranging from 3.81 cm to 38.1 cm.MODULE 2 WELDING 113 Advantages + The process is automatic, and will continue until the job is completed or runs out of wire. + Joint preparation is not needed, except cleaning and descaling. + Metal deposition rates are high, upto 20kg per hour. + Can weld very thick metal plates in a sigle pass. + Consumption of flux is very low. * No weld spatter and minimum distortion. « Fastest process for large size and thick metal plates Disadvantages * Suitable only for thicker plates. « Not suitable for materials thinner than 19mm. * Can weld only carbon and low alloy steels, and some stainless steels. * Can weld in vertical or near to vertical positions only. Applications * Can be used to weld hot rolled carbon steels, high strength low alloy steels and harderned low alloy steels. * Can be used for structural fabrication of heavy components of steel. * Can be used in ship building industry for in-shop and on-ship applications. * Can be used to join cast components without affecting Electrogas welding operates on the same general principle as electroslag welding, with the addition of some of the principles of submerged arc welding. The major difference between electroslag welding and electrogas welding is that an inert gas, such as carbon dioxide, is used to shield the weld from oxidation, and there is a continuous arc, such as in submerged arc welding, to heat the weld pool.114 MANUFACTURING PROCESS The joints and the use of flux to cleanse the weld are the same as in the electroslag process. The shoes that are used to form the weld, as in the electroslag process, are also used in the electrogas process to control the weld zone through water cooling. The flux is either provided to the weld zone through a hopper mechanism, or is incorporated within the electrode itself in the form of a cored wire (Figure 2.28). The process is used on thinner materials than those associated with electroslag welding. Consumable electrode from wire reel Guide tube Gas Gas Cooling ter Are ware Shielding gas Copper shoe Weld pool Solid weld metal Figure 2.28 This is generally considerd as a machine welding process, as the process uses automatic feeding of electrode wire, upward movement of shoes, supply of shielding gas to the arc region and cooling water supply to the shoes. Applications * Can be used for the fabrication of storage tanks, ship hulls, structural members and pressure vessels. * Suitable for welding in vertical position for various materials of thickness 10 to 100mm.MODULE 2 WELDING 15 (Goats Beit ac em imenen meme meee) This is an arc welding process wherein coalescence is produced by heating the job with an electric are struck between a tungsten electrode and the work piece. No flux is used here, but the welding is done under the shielding of gases like argon, helium, nitrogen ete. The process is also known as tungsten inert gas welding (TIG). As the electrode is non consumable one, filler material is provided separately as bare wires. While welding thin sheets, filler materials may not be required. The base metal melts and forms the joint autogenously. Filler rods are used when welding thicker plates with edge preparation. Shielding Gas Direction of Travel —_ Shielding Gas Solidified weld metal Base metal Molten weld metal Figure 2.29 A typical set up for GTAW is shown in figure 2.29. The tungsten electrode is positioned at the centre of the welding torch. The shielding gas is supplied to the welding zone through the gas nozzle surrounding the electrode. During the welding process, the electrode may get heated up. Usually the welding torches are provided with arrangement for water circulation for cooling. Working Welding current, gas and water supply are turned on. The arc is struck by touching the electrode with a scrap tungsten piece and then broken by increasing arc length. This procedure is repeated twice for warming up the electrode. Finally an arc is struck between electrode and the work piece. Once the arc116 MANUFACTURING PROCESS impinges on job, it is melted and a weld pool is developed. The torch is now moved as in the gas welding to continue the welding. At the end of welding, arc is broken by increasing the arc length. Both AC and DC machines are in use. DC with straight polarity is preferred for welding of stainless steel, nickel, copper and copper alloys. AC or DCRP is used for welding magnesium, aluminium and their alloys. Electrodes of tungsten are coated with thorium or zirconium to increase current carrying capacity of electrodes. Uncoated electrodes are suitable for currents upto 150A while coated electrodes can be used for currents of 220-250A. Shielding gases used are argon, helium and their mixtures, argon-oxygen mixture, and argon-hydrogen mixture. The GTAW process is being used to weld carbon and alloy steels, stainless steels, heat resisting alloys, refractory alloys, alloys of aluminium, copper, nickel etc. All types of joints like butt, lap, cornor, edge and tee can be made with GTAW process. Single V joints are used for thickness upto 10mm. Double Vis used for base metals thicker than this. Advantages * Aclean weld is obtained, without any slag coating or flux entrapment. + Contamination by oxygen and nitrogen is low. * Since the arc and job are clearly visible, operator can exercise better control on the process. * Can be used to weld in all positions. * Suitable for high quality welding of thin materials. + The weld joints are stronger, more ductile and corrosion Tesistant than made by SMAW. «Thin plates of 2-3mm thickmess can be welded autogenously (without filler material). * Heat affected zone is smaller. Disadvantages. * Slow process as compared to gas metal arc welding where continuous consumable electrode is used. * If tungsten inclusion happens it is hard and brittle. « Equipment cost is higher than SMAW.MODULE 2 WELDING 117 + Limited depth of penetration. « Not suitable for thicker plates. Applications + Can be used to weld sheet metal and thinner sections. + Can be used to weld aluminium, magnesium, copper, nickel and their alloys, carbon alloy and stainless steels, zirconium, titanium, inconel etc. + Precision and high quality welds for atomic energy, aerospace and chemical industries. This process is much similar to GTAW except that the electrode is consumable and is fed from a continuous reel or spool. In addition to argon and helium, carbon dioxide also is used as shielding gas. The limitations of GTAW are overcome by this process, As a consumable electrode is used, the process is faster and hence productivity is high. The process is also called as metal inert gas welding or MIG welding. The typical arrangement for GMAW is shown in figure 2.30. Feed from spool ‘Solidified weld metal Base metal Figure 2.30 Before igniting the arc, gas and water flow are switched on. Then the current is switched on and electrode is scratched118 MANUFACTURING PROCESS: against the job to strike the arc. The electrode tip projects out of the torch by 10-12mm and the arc length is kept at 1.5 to 4mm. The arc length is maintained constant during welding. The torch is moved in a steady manner usually following forehand welding technique. Once completed, the arc is broken by increasing the arc length. The power source can be AC or DC, but AC is generally not recommended. DCSP produces weld with shallow penetration and is suitable for thinner sections. DCRP is preferred for welding aluminium and magnesium as it gives better cleaning action and deeper penetration. A wire feed mechanism delivers electrode to welding torch at a definite speed. Electrode wires are available in various diameters like 0.8, 1.2, 1.6mm etc. Electrodes used are having similar composition as that of work pieces being welded. Table 2.1 Popularly used shielding gases The MIG welding can be used with all the types of joints like butt, lap, tee, cornor and edge joints. Advantages + GMAW is faster as compared to GTAW or SMAW, since a continuous electrode is used. * Can produce joints with deep penetration. * Both thin and thick plates can be welded effectively. + Large deposition rates achieved. * Process can be easily mechanised. * Smooth, clean and spatter free welded surfaces obtained since no flux is used.MODULE 2 WELDING 119 Disadvantages * Process is complex as compared to GTAW or SMAW, since a number of variables are to be controlled. + Equipment is more complex, costly and not easily portable. * Outdoor welding is not easy. * Weld metal cooling rates are high. Applications * Can be used for welding a wide variety of metals and alloys like: * Plain carbon steels * Low alloy steels * Stainless steels * Aluminium, Magnesium, Copper, Nickel and their alloys * Titanium * Tool steels * Can be used for manufacture of + Dies + Refrigerator parts + Automobiles + Aircrafts + Pressure vessels + Ship building Plasma is the state of matter present in between electrodes in any electric arc. It is obtained when the gas is partially ionised to make it a conductor of electric current. Plasma arc welding (PAW) is an arc welding process wherein the coalescence is obtained by the heat from a constricted arc between a tungsten electrode and the job. Inert gas is used for the formation of plasma and also as shielding gas. Filler material may or may not be used. But pressure is not employed.i120 MANUFACTURING PROCESS The PAW is having similarities with the GTAW process. Both processes use non consumable tungsten electrode, and shielding gas is used to protect the weld metal. Major difference is in the construction of welding torch. The torch has a water cooled small diameter nozzle which constricts the arc coming out of it. The details of a typical arrangement for PAW process is shown in figure 2.31. The nozzle has separate passages for gases for producing plasma and for shielding gas. Surrounding the electrode, there is provision for supply of argon gas at low pressure. This gas will be moving out of the nozzle through the small constricted opening. There is an outer shielding ring for the inner nozzle. Though the outer ring, the same or different gas is fed at higher pressure. This gas comes out through the outer nozzle and acts as shielding gas to protect the weld metal from contaminations. Solidified weld metal ‘Base metal Figure 2.31 To initiate the arc in PAW, a low current pilot arc is struck between the tungsten electrode and the nozzle around it. This arc ionises the gas flowing through the inner nozzle and forms plasma. This plasma gas moving out through the constricted nozzle reaches a very high temperature and helps initiate a welding arc between the electrode and workpiece. DCSP is normally used for PAW process with currents of 50 to 350A at low voltage of 27 to 30V. Typical gas flow rates are 2 to 40 litres per minute, with lower rates for orifice gas and higher rates for shielding gas.MODULE 2 WELDING azn Argon is the commonly used as orifice and shielding gas. Same or different gases are used as orifice gas and shielding gas. In addition to argon, helium, argon+hydrogen, argon+helium are also used in this process. Base metals welded by PAW are carbon and alloy steels, stainless steels, copper alloys, titanium alloys, aluminium alloys, nickel and cobalt alloys. Depending on plate thickness, butt joints are prepared as square groove, single or double U and V. In addition, fillet, tee and edge welds are also made as per needs. Advantages + Improved input heat distribution in the job as compared to GTAW. * Greater control over penetration by controlling arc current and orifice gas flow. * Better stability of arc, * Excellent weld quality even at high speeds. * Can weld steel plates upto 12mm thickness as square butt joints in single run without filler material. Disadvantages: * Infrared and ultraviolet radiations. * Unpleasant, disturbing and damaging noise. + Electrical hazards. + Limited to 25mm thickness for butt welds. + Equipment is complicated and costly. * Gas consumption is high. Applications * Circumferential pipe welding. * Cryogenic, aerospace and high temperature corrosion resistant alloys. + Welding rocket motor cases made of steel. * Welding of stainless steel tubes and titanium plates upto 8mm thick. + Nickel and nickel alloys. * Welding of high melting point metals.1mm MANUFACTURING PROCESS The electron beam is characterised by its intense localised heating. Electron beam welding (EBW) utilises the kinetic energy of electrons travelling at high velocity in vacuum, to heat up the metal pieces to be joined. When the electrons strike the surface of metal, they give up the bulk of their energy as heat, and this energy is used to melt the metal. Thus, electron beam welding needs free electrons suitably concentrated and accelerated to an energy sufficient to produce welding heat as they come to a sudden stop on hitting the metal. The EBW is a fusion joining process that produces joint of materials using the heat obtained by impinging a beam composed primarily of high energy electrons onto the joint to be welded. a To vacuum pump pC apply Cathode {electron emiting heated filament) Electron beam Figure 2.32 Free electrons are supplied by a thermionic cathode, when heated to a certain temperature such a cathode to act as an electron emitter. The free electrons are then accelerated by an electric field in which a considerable potential differenceMODULE 2 WELDING 123 is maintained between cathode and anode. The electrons are concentrated, or focused, into a beam by magnetic fields. The electron beam is suddenly stopped as it strikes the metal. The electron beam is generated from a heated filament called cathode, shaped and concentrated to the welding point. Placed at some distance from the cathode is an accelerating anode, with an opening. The cathode focuses the electrons into a narrow beam with a diameter equal to that of the opening in the anode. The positive potential at the accelerating anode will accelerate the electrons emitted by the cathode to a considerable velocity and energy on their way towards the anode, The electron beam then travels through the positioning diaphragm and focusing lens, causing the electrons to converge as a focused beam of greatly accelerated electrons. The fast moving electrons strike a bounded area on the work, and their kinetic energy is converted to heat which rapidly heats the metal to a very high temperature. The greater the kinetic energy, the greater the amount of heat released. Speed of electrons can be controlled by the voltage applied, thus controlling the amount of energy released. Electron beam welding units operate on either 220 or 440 volts, 3-phase, 60Hz alternating current. The intensity of electron beam also depends on the diameter of the beam and current applied. This welding process can be applied to every area where TIG welding is used. The usage is limited to edge, butt, fillet and spot welds. Advantages * The weld zone and heat affected zone are relatively small in electron beam welding. + Distortion affects only a small area, about 0.0025mm on each side of the weld bead. * Electron beam welding is extremely successful in achieving deep penetration with little distortion. + The depth to width ratio can go as high as 25:1 with electron beam welding. + Input power is small when it is compared to the power requirements of other electrical welding devices. * Eliminates contamination of both the weld zone and the weld bead because of the vacuum in which the weld isama MANUFACTURING PROCESS: done and because of the electrons doing the heating. * The process is extremely efficient because it directly converts electrical energy into beam output energy. + Dissimilar metals and metals with high thermal conductivity like copper can be welded. Limitations. + Equipment is extremely expensive, and portable equipment is rare. * Some metals, such as zinc, lead, aluminum, and magnesium, cannot be welded easily by this method. « The usage is limited to edge, butt, fillet and spot welds. « Radiation shielding is a must to ensure safety of welder from the x-ray radiation generated. * Precision machining, exact joint alignment and good fit are needed for welds with high depth to width ratio. Applications * Electron beam machining finds application in high precision and high production needs. * Nuclear, aircraft, aerospace and electronic industries use EBW to produce welded joints free from oxygen and nitrogen contaminations. + Products like nuclear fuel elements, jet engine components, pressure vessels for rockets are some high precision applications. * Production of gears, frames, steering columns, thin walled tubing, band saw and hack saw blades make use of the high production rate and reliability of the process. Laser Beam Welding (LBW) utilize the energy from the coherent light beams called LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation). The basic principle utilized in LBW is that, under proper conditions, light energy of a particular frequency is used to stimulate the electrons in an atom to emit additional light, with exactly the same characteristics of the original light source.MODULE 2 WELDING 125 The LBW is a fusion joining process that produces joint of materials using the heat obtained by impinging a concentrated beam of laser onto the joint to be welded. The first laser was invented in 1960. Following this, a number of lasers were invented. Uranium laser by IBM labs, helium neon laser by Bell Laboratories, semiconductor laser by Robert Hall, Nd:YAG (Neodymium doped Yttrium Aluminium Garnet) laser and CO, laser by Bell Laboratories, and a number of others. One of the important properties of laser is the coherency, with a diverging angle of less than 1 to 2 milli radians. This low divergence helps in achieving high intensity of energy. In addition, if a focusing lens is used, then it is possible to get energy enough for melting the workpiece material. The Nd:YAG system is a solid state laser. The neodymium atoms are responsible for the laser action and are held in suspension in a low percentage mixture within the YAG synthetic crystal. This type of laser develops about 40W of laser energy per cubic centimeter of crystal volume, with an efficiency between 2 to 4%. CO, gas lasers use a mixture of CO,, helium and nitrogen gases in a laser tube to create laser beam. The laser action is created by the CO, molecule. The helium is utilised to cool the gas mixture by transferring the energy to water cooled walls of the flow system. The nitrogen acts as a catalyst to enhance the CO, laser action. The laser welding system is composed of an electrical storage unit, a capacitor bank, a triggering device, a flash tube wrapped with a wire, the lasing material, a focusing lens mechanism and a 3-axis worktable. The capacitor bank when triggered, injects energy into the wire that surrounds the flash tube. This wire establishes an imbalance in the material inside the flash tube. Thick xenon is often used as the material for the flash tube, producing high power levels for a very short period of time. The flash tubes or lamps are designed for operation at a rate of thousands of flashes per second. By operating in this manner, the lamp becomes an efficient device for converting electrical energy into light energy, the process of pumping the12 MANUFACTURING PROCESS laser. The laser is then activated. The beam is emitted through the coated end of the lasing material. It goes through a focusing device where it is pin pointed on the workpiece. Fusion takes place and the weld is accomplished (Figure 2.33). leer or rs i fate > | Mirror — Power |= f supply Flash tube i 4 Lh | atone Coolant in»: | —_ » Coolant out Laser beam A Vv Shielding gas Advantages + As many lasers pulse appproximately 10 times per second, the workpiece does not even get hot except at one point and the heat affected zone is narrow. + In laser welds on stainless steel, the heat affected zone is virtually non existent. + The laser has sufficient temperatures to easily melt and weld refractory metals like molybdenum, tantalum and titanium even in small areas. « Laser beams can penetrate a quartz tube to weld the metal inside it without harming the tube.MODULE 2 WELDING 127 + The intense heat produced by the process affects only a small area. + The process can be used to weld dissimilar metals with entirely different physical properties also. * High degree of precision is obtained even in welding very small components. + As the heat affected zone is smaller, thermal distrotion and + No vacuum or x-ray shielding is required. Limitations * The major drawback of laser beam welds is the slow welding speeds, resulting from the pulse rate and puddle sizes at the fusion point. * Cost of laser welding is extremely high. * Energy losses with any laser system are high. * Accurate positioning of joints under the beam is important to ensure good results. * Maximum joint thickness is limited to 20mm. Applications + Laser beam welding is used for welding refractory metals as well for dissimilar metals. * Laser welded joints are used for structural, assembly, scaling and similar purposes. * It is used for an extensive variety of applications like production of automotive transmissions, air conditioners, relays and relay containers. * Other applications include sealing of electronic devices like pacemakers. + Continuous welding of aluminium tubing for thermal windows and refrigerator doors is another area. * A popular application is in welding of razor blades. Automated equipment can produce welds of 0.5mm diameter at a rate of 3 million welds per hour.128 MANUFACTURING PROCESS Thermit welding produces joint of metals by heating them with superheated molten metal from an exothermic reaction between a metal oxide and aluminium. Filler material is obtained from the liquid metal formed by the reaction. Commonly used materials for welding steel and cast iron are fine particles of iron oxide (Fe,O,) and aluminium. When the mixture is brought to its ignition temperature of 1200°C, the thermit reaction starts. The exothermic reaction generates a temperature around 3000°C in less than a minute. The large amount of heat generated melts the ingredients of the thermit mixture into a very fluid state. As aluminium has greater affinity towards oxygen, it reduces the iron oxide to liberate iron and oxygen. Due to the difference in densities, aluminium oxide will float above the molten steel. Thermit crucible Liquid metal Flow Workpiece Figure 2.34 For welding different materials, other types of thermit mixtures are used. Oxides of copper and aluminium are used for thermit welding copper cables.MODULE 2 WELDING 129 Thermit welding is basically a casting process, the molten metal obtained from the thermit reaction is poured into a mould prepared around the joint as shown in figure 2.34. A crucible is used for burning the thermit mixture and the molten steel produced by the reaction is collected in the crucible. Once the reaction is completed, the bottom plug in the crucible is opened and the liquid metal flows by gravity into the refractory mould constructed around the joint. Once the joint solidifies, the mould is removed and the joint is cleaned. Applications * Common application is in the welding of rail sections into continuous lengths. « Repair of broken machine beds of large sections, reinforement bars in concrete beams and joining of heavy copper cables are other typical applications. In all the welding processes explained earlier, external sources supplied the energy required for heating the joint. But in friction welding the heat is generated through friction at the interface of the workpieces being welded. Friction welding is another solid state welding process wherein coalescence is produced by the heat generated from mechanically induced sliding motion between rubbing surfaces, while the parts are held together under pressure. The welding equipment is much similar to a lathe. The two components to be welded are held in axial alignment. One component is held in the chuck coupled to the rotating spindle of machine, and rotated at a specified speed. The other component is held in a non-rotating chuck which can be moved axially towards the rotating component. The non rotating workpiece is moved forward and pressed against the rotating work piece. Rotation and pressure are maintained until the parts are heated up and deformed plastically at the contact surface. Now, a brake is applied to stop rotation and the axial pressure is applied from both sides to weld the two pieces together. This produces a slight upsetting at the weld region. Figure 2.35 illustrates the steps.130 MANUFACTURING PROCESS: Here, no melting occurs at the contact surfaces. The weld joint is obtained without using any filler material, fux or shielding gas. Rotating chuck Figure 2.35 Friction welding can be done with only one type of joint and it is the butt joint. Moreover, one of the parts to be welded. must be round in shape and be rotating. Inertia welding or inertia friction welding is a modified form of friction welding. A flywheel supplies the energy required for the frictional heating in this process. ‘One of the workpieces is attached to the flywheel which is rotating at a specified speed. The other work piece is brought into contact with the rotating one and an axial force is applied. As the axial force is gradually increased, heat is generated and the weld is formed. The weld is completed when the flywheel comes to a stop (see figure 2.36). Linear friction welding makes use a frictional heat generated from the work piece subjected to a linear reciprocating motion. Here, one part is moved across the face of the other using a balanced reciprocating mechanism. Unlike the conventional friction welding, the parts to be joined need not be of circular or tubular in cross section. This process can join round, square or rectangular cross sections of metals or plastics.MODULE 2 WELDING isn <+—__ Ply wheel bi | eres kinetic energy — es “seer — eo oon Completed Figure 2.36 Advantages Simplicity in operation. Lower power requirements. Good quality welds at lower cost. Narrow heat affected zone. No imperfection in welds No flux, gases, filler materials or slag. No smoke, spatter or fumes. Disadvantages Use is restricted to butt welds. Applicable to small pieces of bar stock. Heavy flash is formed. Difficult to remove flash from high carbon steel and other hard materials. Applications Can weld steels, super alloys, non ferrous metals, combination of metals. Can replace brazing, arc welding and resistance butt welding. Used in the production of steering shafts, axle shafts, engine valves, worm gears etc.* Production of drills, taps, reamers etc. steel transition joints etc. Solution Given data Voltage, V= 20V Current, = 300A Heat transfer efficiency 1 = 0.85 (Cross sectional area of steel plate, a=25mm? Melting efficiency = 0.35 Heat required to melt steel = 10J/mm* Net heat supplied = Vx Jx1 = 20 3000.85 =5100W Let vbe the travel speed. Heat required for melting/ sec = Volume of metal melted/sec * heat required to melt steel = Cross sectional area = travel speed « heat required to melt steel = 25xvx10 = 250xv ‘ iency = Heat Tequired for melting Melting efficiency = Hestreauire form 0.35 = 250%" 5100MODULE 2 WELDING Solution Volt - amp characteristics of power source is given by Vv —+—e=l V=244+15L =244+1.5x5=31.5V 38,1 140 31.5 r=r40(1-385 =)- =72.15A Power consumed=V x J = 31.5x72.15 =2272.7W Heat input to workpiece = 9) 2272.7 = 0.86 2272.7 =1954.5W Solution Voltage V=25V Current I= 200A Total heat supplied = 0.86 V x J =0.86x 25 x 220=4730W Volume of base metal melted per second = travel speed * cross sectional area =6x20=120mm"/sec Heat required for melting =120mm*/secx12J/mm* =1440J/sec134 MANUFACTURING PROCESS Melting efficiency = “ =0.3044 This is a fusion welding process where the heat is derived from the combination of a fuel gas and oxygen mixture. The edges of joint are completely melted by the heat and are fused together to obtain a joint. Suitable filler metal is also added. The fuel gases used along with oxygen are acetylene, propane, hydrogen and natural gas. Among these acetylene is the most popular and the process is called oxy-acetylene welding. The maximum temperature developed by the oxy- acetylene flame is 3200°C and this is sufficient to melt most of the metals and alloys used commercially. The gas welding process does not require any external force to be applied for the welded joint to be formed. In oxy-acetylene welding, flame is the most important tool. Certain amount of oxygen is required for the combustion to take place. When the supply of oxygen varies, appearance and characteristics of flame also varies. Based on the ratio of oxygen and acetylene in the gas mixture, flames can be classified into three types. Neutral flame For complete combustion, approximately equal quantity of oxygen and acetylene are mixed in the welding torch and burnt at the torch tip. This flame is called neutral flame and it produces a maximum temperature upto 3200°C. The neutral flame has a small light blue inner cone near to the torch tip and an outer envelope of darker blue colour surrounding the inner cone, as in figure 2.37. In a neutral flame the acetylene is completely burnt and this is the most desirable flame in oxy acetylene welding. Inner cone ight blue) Torch' ti orem "P Outer blue flame Figure 2.37MODULE 2 WELDING 135 The neutral flame is preferred for the welding of mild steel, stainless steel, cast iron, copper and aluminium. The neutral flame, as the name says is neutral to the molten metal. It will not oxidise or carburise the metal. Oxidising flame When oxygen is supplied in excess of acetylene, the flame is called oxidising flame. The appearance is similar to neutral flame with a smaller inner core of dark blue color, more pointed than neutral flame. The outer flame envelope is much shorter and not sharper like neutral flame. But it is much hotter and the temperature is upto 3300°C (see figure 2.38) Inner'cone (dark blue) Outer blue flame Figure 2.38 The excess amount of oxygen causes oxidization of weld metal. Hence oxidizing flame has limited use in welding. It is not used to weld steels. But a flame having slightly oxidizing nature is used to weld copper base metals, zinc base metals, manganese steels and cast iron. The presence of excess oxygen causes formation of an oxide film which acts as a protective cover over the weld metal in welding of zinc and copper based alloys. Carburising flame On the other side, volume of oxygen can be reduced and the mixture will become rich in acetylene. The resulting fame will be carburising or reducing nature. The flame is similar to neutral flame with an additional intermediate reddish flame feather in between the inner cone and outer flame envelope. The smaller inner cone is white in colour and the outer envelope is larger and blue in colour. The size of reddish feather is an indication of the excess acetylene present. Inner white cone Intermediate flame feather Outer blue flame Figure 2.39136 MANUFACTURING PROCESS The carburising flame is not suggested for general use. As the acetylene is not completely burnt, the temperature of the flame is slightly lesser than the other flames and the maximum is around 3000°C. This flame ensures the absence of oxidizing condition. It is suitable for welding high carbon steel, cast iron and copper alloys. In general, neutral flame is usually used in gas welding. For specific requirements of certain materials, oxidising or carburising flames are sometimes used. The basic equipment for gas welding is shown in figure 2.40. The main parts are the following. Regulator Figure 2.40 Oxygen gas cylinder: Solid cylinder made of mild steel or alloy steel, painted in black. The cylinder needs to be kept upright always. It is provided with a pressure regulator and appropriate safety measures. Oxygen is stored at high pressure inside the cylinder. The pressure regulator helps in supplying oxygen at regulated pressure for the welding purpose. Acetylene gas cylinder: This is also a solid steel cylinder, but painted in maroon colour. Due to safety reasons, it is to be kept upright always. In addition, there are several safety measures provided in the cylinder. The gas is kept at higher pressure inside the cylinder. A pressure regulator attached to the cylinder is used to reduce the pressure and regulate supply of acetylene gas for welding. Connecting hoses: Blue colored hoses are used for oxygen gas and red hose is used for acetylene gas supply to the gasMODULE 2 WELDING 137 torch. The hoses used here should be strong, non porous and flexible. Usually rubber hoses reinforced with canvas are preferred for this purpose. Welding torch: From the pressure regulators on the cylinders, the gases are carried to the welding torch though the hoses. The pressure regulators supply the gases at reduced pressures and the welding torch mixes and controls the flow of gases to the welding nozzle. As the gas mixture comes out of the torch tip it is ignited to produce a flame for the welding process. A high pressure welding torch used for this purpose is shown in figure 2.41. The welding torch is also called as blow- pipe. Both oxygen and acetylene are fed to the torch at equal pressures and are mixed prior to being fed to the nozzle tip. The welding nozzle enables the welder to guide the flame and direct it towards the welding spot easily. Acetylene Oxygen control needle valve Figure 2.41 Using gas welding, joints like butt, lap, edge, tee and corner joints can be made. Both fillet and groove welds can be used depending on work piece and strength requirements. The edges of work piece needs to be made free from rust, grease or oil prior to welding. There are two techniques of welding followed in gas welding, namely, forehand welding and backhand welding. The difference between these two depends on the ways in which the welding torch and filler rod are positioned during welding. Forehand or Leftward technique Here the welder holds welding torch in his right hand and filler rod in the left hand. This method is also called as leftward. technique. Welding begins at the right hand end of the joint and proceeds towards the left hand side. As indicated by figure 2.42, the welding flame is directed away from the finished weld. It is directed towards the unwelded part of the weld. This helps in preheating the edgesi368 MANUFACTURING PROCESS: to be welded. This technique is usually used for metals having thickness less than 5mm. For thicker work pieces, V joints are used, but for thicker materials, weld quality may be poor. £9 Figure 2.42 Backhand or Rightward technique Here also the welding torch is held in the right hand and filler rod in the left hand. But welding starts at the left hand end of the joint and proceeds towards the right. The direction of welding is opposite to that when employing leftward technique. The flame is directed towards the completed weld and the filler rod is in between the torch and the welded region, as in figure 2.43. Additional material is usually added to the weld pool to help filling the weld joint. This material is called filler metal. The filler metal melts due to the heat of welding and forms an integral part of weld joint. Filler metals are made of the same metal or compatible metals as that of base metal. It is generally available in the form of small rods which are called filler rods. The filler rods are available in various sizes ranging from 1.5mm to 6.3mm diameter, and are selected depending on the thickness of base metal. ‘When metals are heated or melted in air, atmospheric oxygen combines with metal to form oxides. Formation of oxides result in poor quality welds and it needs to be prevented.MODULE 2 WELDING 139 Flux is the material used to prevent and retard oxidation of metal surfaces. The flux is a fusible material and it generates a gaseous shield around the weld zone and hence reduces the chances of oxidation. If some oxides are formed, the flux reacts with the oxides and a slag is formed which floats above the molten metal pool and protects it from further oxidation. Flux is available in powder, paste or liquid form. It can be applied directly on to the surface of the base metal or the heated end of filler is dipped into the flux. No fluxes are used while welding steel. But for stainless steel, cast iron, aluminium, copper and their alloys suitable fluxes are used. Some of the commonly used ingredients of fluxes are borax, boric acid, lime, magnesium silicate, sodium chloride, potassium fluoride etc. Advantages * Can be applied to a wide variety of manufacturing and maintenance cases. * The welder can control temperature of metal at weld zone. Hence the flame can be properly co-ordinated with speed. of welding. * The equipment is low cost, versatile and generally portable. * Maintenance cost of equipment is low compared with other welding processes. Disadvantages: * Heavy sections cannot be joined + Refractory metals and reactive metals cannot be welded. * Certain fluxes produce fumes which are irritating to eyes, nose, throat and lungs. + Gas flame takes more time to heat up the metal than an are. * Safety problems are associated with the handling of gases. Applications * For joining thin materials. * For joining most ferrous and non ferrous materials. + In automobile and aircraft industries + In sheet metal fabrication * In repair and maintenance work.140 MANUFACTURING PROCESS ‘Brazing is defined as a group of joining processes wherein coalescence is produced by heating to a temperature and by using a filler metal having melting point (liquidus) above 427°C and below the melting point (solidus) of the base metals. Main difference with welding is that the base metal is not melted here, but only the filler metal is melted and used to form the joint. Figure 2.44 illustrates this difference in respect of penetration of weld metal into base metal in welding. The filler materials used in brazing are non-ferrous alloys having lower melting point than the base metals. When melted, the filler material is distributed between the surfaces of base metals by way of capillary action. Penetration i im No penetration - 5 A Figure 2.44 Table 2.2 Difference between brazing and fusion welding. [Brazing (Fusion Welding Molten filler material | Molten filler material mixes spreads by capillary action |with molten base metal and solidifies there itself. Filler materials are low|Filler materials are having melting point alloys different | nearly the same composition from base metals as that of base metal dimension can be brazed welding process Brazing procedure includes the following steps * Cleaning and preparing the surfaces to be brazed. * Fluxing both the base metal and filler metal surfaces.MODULE 2 WELDING 141 + Aligning the base metal parts to be joined. + Heating the base metal parts. + Applying brazing filler material into the joint. + Cooling the brazed joint. + Removing flux residue from the completed joint. The joint types used for brazing include butt, lap, scarf, stepped butt, tee, sandwiched lap etc. Figure 2.45 shows a few conventional and modified types of joints used in brazing. (3 oor ON —E— Lap Butt Stepped Butt Tee Sandwiched lap Figure 2.45 Following is a list of base metals which are joined by brazing process. * Aluminium and aluminium alloys. * Magnesium and magnesium allows + Copper and copper alloys + Beryllium * Low carbon and low alloy steels * Nickel and nickel alloys * Stainless steel and cast iron * High carbon steels, carbides, cermets and ceramics. * Dissimilar metals. An alloy used as filler material (brazing alloy) in brazing process should possess certain characteristics. Some of these are the following. * Melting temperature must be compatible with the base metal.