Psychological

Assessment
Psychological Enhancement
Course
Ma. Isabel S. Lemen, PhD, Rpsy
Chapter 1: Psychological
Testing and Assessment
 • Alfred Binet (1905) and the Paris schoolchildren
• Binet’s test was exported and introduced in the
Roots of US
Contemporary • World War I: the need for more efficient ways

Psychological to screen large numbers of recruits (intellectual

and emotional problems)
Testing and • World War II: Army’s dependence on

Assessment psychological tests for screening was even

more pronounced
• The rest is history
Psychological Testing

• Term used to refer to

everything from administration
of a test to interpretation of a
test score
• WWI: referred to group testing
of military recruits
Psychological
Testing and WWII
• Semantic distinction between testing
and assessment began to emerge
• Office of Strategic Services (CIA today):
used a variety of procedures and
measurement tools for highly
specialized positions (espionage)
Contexts That Entail Behavioral Observation

• Military Setting
• Clinical Setting
• Educational Setting
Psychological Assessment vs. Psychological
Testing

Psychological Assessment: Psychological Testing:

gathering and integration of Process of measuring
psychology-related data for psychology-related
the purpose of making a variables by means of
psychological evaluation devices or procedures
accomplished through the designed to obtain a sample
use of different tools of behavior
Distinctions Between
Testing and Assessment

• Objectives
• Process
• Role of Evaluator
• Skill of Evaluator
• Outcome
Varieties of Assessment

• Educational Assessment
• Therapeutic Psychological
Assessment
• Retrospective Assessment
• Remote Assessment
• Ecological Momentary
Assessment
 Process of Assessment

Start

Referral Meet with the Prepares for

Assessment
Question Assessee Assessment

Relay Report to Writing up the

End
the Assessee Report

End
Different Ways to Approach
the Assessment Task

• Collaborative Psychological Assessment

• Therapeutic Psychological Assessment
• Dynamic Assessment (Pretest-Intervention-Posttest)
TOOLS OF
PSYCHOLOGICAL
ASSESSMENT
• Test
• Interview
• Portfolio
• Case History Data
• Role-Play Tests
Test

• Measuring device or
procedure
Psychological Test

• Devide or procedure
designed to measure
variables related to
psychology
• Intelligence, personality,
aptitude, interests, attitudes,
or values
How Tests Differ

• Format
• Content
• Administration Procedures
• Scoring and Interpretation
Procedures
• Technical Quality
Interview
• Face-to-face interview
• May include the conduct of a Mental
Status Examination
• Verbal and nonverbal cues are
observed
Types of Interviews

• Panel Interview: helps HR professionals make

informed decisions; hiring, firing, and advancement
• Motivational Interview: therapeutic dialogue; uses
cognition altering techniques designed to positively
affect motivation and effect therapeutic change
Portfolio

• Sample of one’s work products

• Sample drawings, reports,
previous work
Case History Data

• Records, transcripts, and other

accounts
• Written, p8ictorial or other
form that preserve archival
information
• Files/Excerpts from institutions
and agencies
Case Study/Case
History
• Report or illustrative account
concerning a person or an
event that was compiled on
the basis of a case history data
Behavioral Observation

• Observing behavior in a
particular situation
• Monitoring actions of others
or oneself by visual or
electronic means while
recording quantitative and/or
qualitative information
regarding those actions
• Naturalistic observation
Role-Play Tests

• Acting an improvised part in a

simulated situation
• Role-Play Test: tool of
assessment wherein assesses
are directed to act as if they
were in a particular situation
Computers as Tools

• Play a role in contemporary

assessment in the context of
generating simulations
• Help in measurement of
variables that were difficult to
quantify
Where Scoring May be Done Using Computer Based
Testing

01 02 03
Local Processing: Central Teleprocessing:
Onsite Processing: Sent Done through a
to and returned phone line
by a Central
Location
Types of Reports
• Simple Scoring Report
• Extended Scoring Report
• Interpretive Report
• Consultative Report
• Integrative Report
Other Psychological Assessment Tools

• Penile plethysmograph
• Biofeedback Equipment
Psychological
Assessment’s 5 Questions

• Who
• What
• Why
• How
• Where
Who are the parties?

Developers and People who are

Publishers of Users of tests evaluated by Society at large
tests means of tests
What Types of Settings are Assessments Conducted
and Why?

• Educational Settings
• Clinical Settings
• Counseling Settings
• Geriatric Settings
• Business and Military Testing
• Government and
organizational credentialing
• Academic Research Settings
• Other Settings
 How Assessments Are Conducted

Safeguard
Start Administer Test
protocols

Ensure that
Ensure tests are Give scoring is based
secured instructions on
preestablished
criteria

Familiarize Explain the

Feedback with
oneself with the nature of the
client
tests test

Build rapport for

Select
one-on-one or End
appropriate tests
smaller groups

Ensure that the

Ensure materials testing room is
are complete conducive to
testing
Assessment of people with disabilities

• They are assessed for the

same things as others
• Accommodation: adapting a
test, procedure, or situation or
substituting one test for
another
• Alternate assessment:
evaluative/diagnostic
procedure that varies from the
usual way a standardized
instrument is derived
Where to go for Authoritative
Information about Tests
• Test Catalogues
• Test Manuals
• Professional Books
• Reference Volumes
• Journal Articles
• Online Databases
• Other Sources
 PSYCHOLOGY ENHANCEMENT COURSE
Psychological Assessment
Worksheet #1

Name: _________ ___________

Date: _________ __________

KEY TERM EXERCISE: THE CONCEPTS YOU SHOULD KNOW

Fill out the blanks with either definitions or Key Terms, depending on what’s missing.

Key Term Definition

This is the gathering and integration of psychology-

related data for the purpose of making a psychological
evaluation that is accomplished through the use of
tools.

This is the process of measuring psychology-related

variables by means of devices or procedures designed
to obtain a sample behavior

Broadly refers to the use of tests and other tools to

evaluate skills and abilities relevant to success or
failure in a school or pre-school context

The use of evaluative tools to draw conclusions about

psychological aspects of a person as they existed at
some point in time prior to assessment

The use of tools of psychological evaluation to gather

data and draw conclusions about a subject who is not
in physical proximity to the person or people
conducting the evaluation.

Ecological Momentary Assessment

Collaborative Psychological Assessment

Therapeutic Psychological Assessment

Dynamic Assessment

Test

A device or procedure designed to measure variables

related to psychology

Form, plan, structure, arrangement, and layout of test

items as well as related considerations such as time
limits

A code or summary statement, usually not necessarily

numerical in nature, that reflects an evaluation of
performance on a test, task, interview, or some other
sample of behavior

Process of assigning evaluative codes or statements to

performance on tests, tasks, interviews, or other
behavioral samples

A reference point, usually numerical, derived by

judgment and used to divide a set of data into two or
more classifications

Technical quality of tests

The science of psychological measurement

A professional who uses, analyzes, and interprets

psychological test data.

Usefulness or practical value of a test

Other tool of assessment has for a particular purpose

Interview
Panel Interview/Board Interview

Motivational Interviewing

Portfolio

Case History Data

Report or illustrative account concerning a person or

an event that was compiled on the basis of case
history data.

Arises as a result of the varied forces that drive

decision-makers to reach a consensus.

Monitoring of actions of others or oneself by visual or

electronic means while recording quantitative and/or
qualitative information regarding those actions.

Observing behavior of humans in a natural setting

Acting in an improvised or partially improvised part in

a stimulated situation

Role-Play Test

Local Processing

Central Processing

Teleprocessing

Simple Scoring Report

Extended Scoring Report

Distinguished by its inclusion of numerical or narrative

interpretive statements in the report
 High end report, usually written in language
appropriate for communication between assessment
professionals, may provide expert opinion concerning
analysis of the data

This technology allows test users to administer tests

by means of two iPads connected by blue tooth. An
example is the Q Interactive of Pearson Assessments

Reference to the computer’s ability to tailor the test to

the testtaker’s ability or test-taking pattern.

A reconstruction of a deceased individual’s

psychological profile on the basis of archival records,
artifacts, and interviews previously conducted with
the deceased assessee or the people who knew him or
her.

Evaluates accomplishment or the degree of learning

that has taken place

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Test

Informal Evaluation

Quality of Life

Dementia

Cognitive functioning that mimics dementia

Refers to the form or sheet or booklet on which a set

testtaker’s responses are entered

A working relationship between examiner and

examinee
 Evaluative or diagnostic procedure or process that
varies from the usual, customary, or standardized way
a measurement is derived either by virtue of some
special accommodation made to the assessee or by
means of alternative methods designed to measure
the same variable

KNOWING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TESTING AND ASSESSMENT: Indicate which is applicable to Testing by
putting (T) and Assessment by putting (A)

1. The objective is typically to answer a referral question, solve a problem, or arrive at a decision through
the use of evaluation.
2. The tester is not the key to the process.
3. Typically, the process yields a test score or a series of test scores.
4. This typically requires an educated selection of tools of evaluation, skill in evaluation, and thoughtful
organization and integration of data.
5. It may be done individually or in groups.
6. The assessor is the key to the process.
7. One tester may be substituted for another.
8. The process is done individually.
9. The focus is on how an individual processes rather than simply the results of that processing.
10. Entails logical problem-solving approach that uses different sources of data.
 COMPARING THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ASSESSMENT METHODS:

Fill out the table for each type of assessment method.

TYPE OF ASSESSMENT WHAT IT IS THE PROS THE CONS

METHOD

Test

Interview

Portfolio

Case History Data

Behavioral Observation

Role-Play Tests
 COMPARING THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF SCORING REPORT:

Differentiate reports by comparing each other.

Simple scoring report

Extended scoring report

Interpretive report

Consultative report

Integrative report

IDENTIFYING WHO, WHAT, WHY, HOW, AND WHERE OF THE ASSESSMENT ENTERPRISE

Fill out the table and put bullet points pertaining to the who, what, why, how, and where of the assessment
enterprise.

WHO WHAT WHY HOW WHERE

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. What are the pros and cons of CAPA? Focus on what you think are important.
2. What is the poorest source of information about tests? Why?
3. What is the best source of information about tests? Why?
Psychological
Assessment
P S YC H O L O G I C A L E N H A N C E M E N T
COURSE

C H APTE R 2 : H ISTORIC AL ,
C U LT U R A L , A N D L E G A L / E T H I C A L
C O N S I D E R AT I O N S

MA. ISABEL S. LEMEN, PHD, RPSY

Antiquity to Nineteenth Century

Twentieth Century

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
 Ancient China to the Post-Renaissance Period

Testing to select applicants

2200 BCEfor government positions
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
writing on individual
Tests Emphasized knowledge Who was in league with the differences sparked interest
960-1279 CEof classical literature devil in research on heredity

Post
Renaissanc
Ancient China Song Dynasty Greco Roman Middle Ages Renaissanc
e Period
e Period

Psychological assessment in
the modern sense began to
Attempts to categorize Christian von Wolff (1732-
emerge
people in terms of 1734) psychology as a
personality types science and psychological
measurement as a specialty
 From Galton to Present

Galton explored and

1869 quantified individual
difference between people 1892-1895
Emil Kraepelin early
1860-1944 experimenter of word
Developed the product- Coined the term “mental association technique
1857-1936 moment correlation test”

Emil
Wilhelm James Viktor Henri
Kraepelin &
Francis Galton Karl Pearson Max McKeen and Albert
Lightner
Wundt Cattell Binet
Witmer

Collaborated on papers to
1832-1920
measure higher mental
Established the first Lightner Witmer director of
processes
experimental psychology psychological laboratory at
library 1895 Upenn; first psychological
clinic
Twentieth
Century
Measurement of intelligence
Measurement of personality
Academic and Applied Traditions
Measurement of
intelligence
ALFRED BINET & VIKTOR HENRI
DAVID WECHSLER
Alfred Binet
Alfred Binet and Viktor Henri (1895) published several
articles which argued for measurement of abilities
(memory and comprehension)
Published 30-item measuring scale of intelligence
designed to help Paris schoolchildren with intellectual
disability
Launched the intelligence testing movement and clinical
testing movement.
David Wechsler
Clinical Psychologist at the Bellevue Hospital
Introduced a test to measure adult intelligence in 1939
Intelligence: aggregate or global capacity to act
purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively
with his environment
Best known for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
Measurement of
Personality
W O R L D WA R I & W O O D W O R T H ’ S P E R S O N A L D ATA S H E E T

PROJECTIVE TESTS
Robert S. Woodworth
Chairman of a governmental committee on Emotional
Fitness
Tasked to develop a measure of adjustment and
emotional stability that could be administered quickly
and efficiently to groups of recruits
Personal Data Sheet: yes or no answers
Developed Psychoneurotic inventory: first widely used
self-report measure
Self-Report
Measures
Tests where assessees themselves
supply assessment-related
information by responding to
questions, keeping a diary, or self-
monitoring thoughts or behaviors
Advantages
Respondents are the best-qualified people to
provide answers about themselves
Disadvantages
They might have poor insight
Some might be unwilling to reveal very personal
things about themselves
They don’t want to be put in a negative light
Projective
Tests
Assumption that an individual
projects onto some ambiguous
stimulus his or her own unique
needs, fears, hopes, and
motivation.
Thematic Apperception Test
(Henry A. Murray & Christiana
Morgan)
Rorschach Inkblot Method
(Hermann Rorschach)
Academic and
Applied
Traditions
Academic Tradition: Psychological
tests as part of research (Galton,
Wundt, and other scholars) to help
advance knowledge and
understanding of human and
animal behavior
Applied Tradition: Examinations
developed to help select
applicants for various positions on
the basis of merit
Culture &
Assessment
Culture: socially transmitted behavior patterns,
beliefs, and products of work of a particular
population, community, or group of people
What culture
encompasses
Evolving Interest in
Culture-Related Issues
Verbal Communication
Nonverbal Communication and Behavior
Standards of evaluation
Types of culture: Collectivistic or Individualistic
Legal & Ethical
Considerations
Laws: rules individuals must obey for the good
of society as a whole
Ethics: body of principles of proper and good
conduct
Code of Professional
Ethics
Psychological Association of the Philippines: has
its own code of ethics that was based on the
APA Code of Ethics
Ethical Standards
and Procedures
for Assessment
Bases for Assessment

Informed Consent in Assessment

Assessment tools

Obsolete and Outdated Test Results

Interpreting Assessment Results

Release of Test Data

Explaining Assessment results

Test Security

Assessment by Unqualified Persons

Test Construction
Rights of
Testtakers
Right of informed consent
Right to be informed of test
findings
Right to privacy and
confidentiality
Right to the least stigmatizing
label
 PSYCHOLOGY ENHANCEMENT COURSE
Psychological Assessment
Worksheet #2

Name: _________ ___________

Date: _________ __________

IDENTIFICATION EXERCISE: PEOPLE YOU SHOULD KNOW

The name of the person is provided. Please put each one’s major contribution to the field of psychological
assessment.

Person Major Contribution

Christian Von Wolff

Charles Darwin

Song Dynasty

Francis Galton

Karl Pearson

Wilhelm Max Wundt

James McKeen Cattell

Edward Boring

Emil Kraepelin

Person Major Contribution

Victor Henri
 E.B. Titchener

Stanley Hall

Lightner Witmer

Alfred Binet

David Wechsler

Robert S. Woodworth

Hermann Rorschach

Henry A. Murray

Christiana D. Morgan

KEY TERM EXERCISE:

Key Term Definition

Affirmative Action

Code of Professional Ethics

Collectivist Culture
 Confidentiality

The socially transmitted behavior patterns, beliefs,

and products of work of a particular population,
community, or group of people

Tests designed for use with people from one culture

but not another

Discrimination

Disparate Impact

Disparate Treatment

Ethics

The science of improving the qualities of a breed

through intervention with factors related to heredity

Individualist Culture

Informed Consent

Laws

Litigation

Privacy Right

Privileged Information

One in which an individual is assumed to “project” into

some ambiguous stimulus his/her own unique needs,
fears, hopes, and motivation

Psychoanalysis

Quota System

Reverse Discrimination

A process whereby assesses themselves apply

assessment-related information by responding to
questions, keeping a diary, or self-monitoring thoughts
and behaviors

The level at which the average, reasonable, and

prudent professional would provide diagnostic or
therapeutic services under the same or similar
conditions.

COMPARING AND CONTRASTING VERBAL AND NONVERBAL FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

 Please fill out the boxes with as many differences as you can between verbal and nonverbal forms of
communication. Also include examples.

DIMENSION VERBAL NONVERBAL

Definition

Examples

Cultural Differences

Language

THE RIGHTS OF TESTTAKERS

Please explain the each of testtakers’ right

Rights of Testtakers Explanation Action of psychologist for it

The right of informed

consent

The right to be informed

of test findings

The right to privacy and

confidentiality

The right to the least

stigmatizing label
ESSAY QUESTIONS

Which aspect do you consider that the psychologist mostly likely be concerned with in conducting various methods
of psychological assessment? Why?
NORMS AND
BASIC STATISTICS
FOR TESTING
CHAPTER 2:
KAPLAN &
SACCUZO

SENIORS’ IN-SERVICE TRAINING

WEEK 1
MA. ISABEL S. LEMEN, PHD, RPSY
Scientific Study

• Requires systematic
observations and an
estimation of the extent to
which observations could have
been influenced by chance
along
Why do we need statistics?

• Statistics are used for

purposes of description
• We can use statistics to make
inferences
• Statistics and the basic
principles of measurement lie
at the center of modern
science of psychology
 Careful
Study

Scientific Numerical Scientific

Analysis Statements
Statements

Data
gathering
Measurement Scales
Properties of scales

• Magnitude
• Equal Intervals
• Absolute Zero
Magnitude

• Property of “moreness”
• Present if we can say that a
particular instance of the
attribute represents more,
less, or equal amounts of the
given quantity than does
another isntance
Equal Intervals

• The difference between two

points at any place on the
scale has the same meaning
as the difference between two
other points that differ by the
same number of scale units
• Relationship between
measured units and outcome
can be described in a straight
line
Absolute 0

• When nothing of the property

being measured exists
• How about shyness?
In a nutshell
Frequency Distribution

• Displays scores on a variable

or a measure to reflect how
frequently each value was
obtained
• Occurs frequently in our
practice
Frequency
Polygon
Skewness
Skewness
Kurtosis

he outliers in a sample, therefore, have even more effect on the kurtosis

than they do on the skewness and in a symmetric distribution both tails
increase the kurtosis, unlike skewness where they offset each other.

Higher values indicate a higher, sharper peak; lower values indicate a

lower, less distinct peak

it’s the tails that mostly account for kurtosis, not the central peak
Kurtosis

A distribution with kurtosis <3 A distribution with kurtosis >3

A normal distribution has
(excess kurtosis <0) is (excess kurtosis >0) is
kurtosis exactly 3 (excess
called platykurtic. Compared called leptokurtic. Compared
kurtosis exactly 0). Any
to a normal distribution, its tails to a normal distribution, its tails
distribution with kurtosis ≈3
are shorter and thinner, are longer and fatter,
(excess ≈0) is
and often its central peak is and often its central peak is
called mesokurtic.
lower and broader. higher and sharper.
Kurtosis
Percentile Rank

• Answers the question: What

percent of the scores fall
below (Xi)
Illustration

• The percentile rank depends

absolutely on the cases used
for comparison
Percentiles
Describing
Distributions
• Mean
• Median
• Mode
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation

• Approximation of the average

deviation around the mean
• Problem is that it does not
convey enough information for
us to make meaningful
assessments or accurate
interpretations of data
Z Score
Z Score

• Deviation of a score from the mean in

standard deviation units

• (a) allows us to
calculate the
probability of a score
occurring within our
normal distribution
and (b) enables us to
compare two scores
that are from different
normal distributions
More about Z scores

•ü Has a value of 0, it is equal to the group mean.

•ü Is positive, it is above the group mean.
•ü Is negative, it is below the group mean.
•ü Is equal to +1, it is 1 Standard Deviation above the mean.
•ü Is equal to +2, it is 2 Standard Deviations above the mean.
•ü Is equal to -1, it is 1 Standard Deviation below the mean.
•ü Is equal to -2, it is 2 Standard Deviations below the mean.
Standard
Normal
Distribution
Standard Normal Distribution

• Central to statistics and

psychological testing
• Symmetrical binomial
probability distribution
McCall’s T Score
T Score

• A system established by McCall to derive equal units on

mental quantities
• Mean was set to 50 and standard deviation is 10.
Transformation vs. Standardization

01 02 03
T scores standardize Transformations do If distributions of
scores by applying a not change the scores is skewed
linear transformation characteristics of the before transformation
distributions is applied, it will still
be skewed after the
transformation has
been used.
 Transformations
In a nutshell standardize but
do not normalize
Q1: 1st Quartile;
splits off the
lowest 25% of the
data from the
highest 75%
Q2: Cuts
data set in
half
Q3: Splits off
the highest
25% of data
from the
lowest 75%
Median and Quartile
Scores Illustrated
Norms
Norm:
performances
by defined
groups on
particular tests
Age-Related Norms

• Stanford –Binet Test to

determine mental age of a
person being tested
• The performance of a child is
compared against the
performance of children
his/her age
Tracking
• Common use of age-related norms
• Track growth through growth charts
Norm-
Referenced vs.
Criterion
Referenced
Tests
Norm
Referenced vs.
Criterion
Referenced
Tests
 Psychology Enhancement Course
Psychological Assessment
Worksheet #3-1

Name: _________ ___________

Date: _________ __________

KEY TERM EXERCISE:

Key Term Definition

Logical deductions about events that cannot be

observed directly.

Methods used to provide a concise description of a

collection of quantitative information

Methods used to make inferences from observations

of a small group of people to a larger group of
individuals

The application of rules for assigning numbers to

objects.

A set of numbers whose properties model empirical

properties of the objects to which the numbers are
assigned.

Collective influence of all the factors on a test score or

measurement beyond those specifically measured by
the test measurement

The property of moreness; the ability to compare

Equal Intervals

Absolute Zero

Nominal Scales

Ordinal Scale

Interval Scale

A scale that has all three properties

A set of test scores arrayed for recording or study

Straightforward, unmodified accounting of

performance that is usually numerical
 Displays scores on a variable or a measure to reflect
how frequently each value was obtained. X axis would
contain the frequency of the scores while the Y axis
would contain the score.

A graph with vertical lines drawn at the true limits of

each test score, forming a series of contiguous
rectangles.

What percent of the scores fall below a particular

score?

Specific scores or points within a distribution; divide

the total frequency for a set of observations into
hundredths.

Arithmetic average score in a distribution

Standard Deviation

Variance

Z Score

Symmetrical Binomial Probability Distribution

McCall’s T/T Score

Points that divide the frequency distribution into

equal fourths

The 50th percentile

The most frequently occuring socre in a distribution

scores

Bounded by a range of scores that represents the

middle 50% of the distribution

Similar to quartiles except that they use points that

mark 10%

An indication of how the measurements is a

distribution are distributed.

Kurtosis

Stanine System

Coefficient of correlation

Correlatin

Scatterplot
 Meta-analysis

PROPERTIES OF SCALES

Based on Kaplan & Saccuzzo’s book on Psychological Testing, there are three properties of scales. As such, you are
to fill out the table below to familiarize yourselves with them.

Properties of Scales Definition/Description Examples other than what is in the

book

Magnitude

Equal Intervals

Absolute Zero

SCALES OF MEASUREMENT

To familiarize yourselves with the scales of measurement, please fill out the table below with the missing
information.

Scales of Measurement Magnitude, Equal Recommended measures What operations can you
Interval, Absolute Zero of central tendency do with this scale of
measurement; what type
(Just indicate M, EI, or of statistical analysis can
AZ) you make?

Nominal
 Ordinal

Interval

Ratio

UNDERSTANDING THE STANDARD NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Please refer to the picture above and answer the following questions:
 1. If on a Depression test, your client had a T-score of 70, what would this indicate?

2. A person has an IQ score of 55. What does that imply?

3. What is a simple way to explain percentage of cases in the 8 portions of the curve?

4. If a person has a Z score of 3.0, what does that mean?

5. Based on the illustration above, describe what a percentile, a cumulative percentage, and a stanine
score would tell us.

UNDERSTANDING THE SKEWNESS AND KURTOSIS

Read the graph and explain it.

Skewness

Read

Explain

Read the graph and describe it.

Kurtosis

A= B= C=
Chapter 3: Correlation
and Regression
(Kaplan and Saccuzo)
 § Express the extent to which two measures are
associated
§ Explain what a scatter diagram is and how it is used
§ Define a positive correlation and a negative correlation
§ Discuss some of the differences between correlation
and regression
What We Will § Tell how a regression line describes the relationship

Learn between two variables

§ Discuss under which circumstances you would use the
point biserial correlation, the phi correlation, and the
tetrachoric correlation
§ Outline the procedure you would use to predict one
score from the linear combination of several scores
§ Explain factor analysis and how it is used
 Indexes of § Correlation

Associations § Regression

Used in testing § Multiple Regression

 § Have two scores for each individual
§ When people have two scores like test scores and
classroom performance
Bivariate § Visual displays need to form part of data analysis when
Distributions working with variables

§ They are a way to see whether two variables are

associated
Scatter Diagram
 § Continuous
Characteristics § Artificial Dichotomous
of variables § True Dichotomous
Categorical Vs. Continuous variables
 True § Variables that naturally form two categories
Dichotomous
 Scatter Diagram

Picture of relationship between two variables

X and y axes that represent scores where a particular

individual scored on X and Y
 Do two variables
covary?

Correlation Does Y get larger as

Analysis X gets larger?

Does Y get larger as

X gets smaller?
How Variables are
presented
 § Mathematical index that describes the direction and
magnitude of a relationship

§ Correlation does not imply causation

Correlation § There are many ways to calculate a correlation

Coefficient coefficient; all involve pairs of observation of the same

person

§ All methods of calculating a correlation coefficient are

mathematically equivalent
Positive Vs. Negative Correlation
 § Used to make predictions about scores on variable from
knowledge of scores on another variable

Regression § Gives predicted value of Y’ for each value of X

Regression Equation
 Pearson
Product
Moment
Correlation
 § Spearman Rho: method of correlation for finding the
Other association between two sets of ranks

Correlation § Biserial Correlations: expresses the relationship

between a continuous variable and an artificial
Coefficients dichotomous variables
 § True Dichotomous: they naturally form two categories
Dichotomous § Artificially Dichotomous: reflect an underlying
variables continuous scale forced into a dichotomy
 § Spearman Rho: method of correlation for finding the
association between two sets of rank

§ Biserial Correlation: expresses the relationship

between a continuous variable and an artificial

Correlation dichomotous variable

§ Phi Coefficient: When both variables are dichotomous

Coefficients and at least one of the dichotomous is “true”

§ Tetrachoric Correlation: both dichotomous variables

are artificial
 Types of
Relationships
between
Dichotomous and
Continuous
Variables
Terms in the Use of
Correlation
Residual
§ Residual: Difference between the predicted and the
observed values

§ The sum of the residuals always equals 0

Standard Error
of Esitmate
 § Standard deviation of the residuals
§ Measure of the accuracy of the prediction
Standard Error § Prediction is most accurate when the standard error of

of Estimate estimate is relatively small

§ As the Standard error of estimate becomes larger, the

prediction becomes less accurate
 statistical measurement that examines how
differences in one variable can be explained
by the difference in a second variable, when
predicting the outcome of a given event.
In other words, this coefficient, which is more
commonly known as R-squared (or R2)

Coefficient of
Determination assesses how strong the linear relationship is
between two variables

is heavily relied on by researchers when

conducting trend analysis
 Represents the proportion
of variance in the
dependent variable that is
not accounted for by the
independent variable
Coefficient of
Alientation Coefficient of
determination’s
counterpart
 § Amount of decrease observed when a regression
equation is created for one population and then applied
Shrinkage to another

§ SAT scores of one population vs. another

 § The use of a standard error of estimate to valiade the

Cross Validation relationship between the values predicted by the

equation and the values actually observed
Cross Validation Process
Issues with
Correlation
 Correlation-Causation Problem

§ Just because two variables are correlated, does not

necessarily imply that one has caused another.

§ There are many examples of misinterpretation of correlations

§ It might lead to other research that is designed to establish
the casual relationships between variables
Third Variable § An external variable that might explain a relationship
between two variables
Explanation
Do cities with a
greater number § However, more churches do not lead to more crime, but
instead the third variable, population, leads to both more
of churches
churches and more crime.
have a higher
crime rate?
 § Correlation and regression use variability on one
variable to explain variability on a second variable.

Restricted § Under certain conditions, these ranges of variability are

restricted
Range
 § Elite students cannot be differentiated from one another
GRADUATE § Correlation requires variability.
RECORD § If variability is restricted, then significant correlations
EXAMINATION are difficult to find
 Multivariate Analysis

Considers the relationship among combinations of three or

more variables

Multiple regression is typically used for this to find the linear

combination among the three

Predictors of law school success: law school GPA,

undergraduate GPA, Professor rating plus age
 § Determine categorization in more than 2 categories
§ Identify two groups of people who represent two
distinct categories of somet rait

Discriminant § Used to find a linear combination of items that best

accounts for differences between two groups
Analysis § Develop new test to help diagnose a particular disorder
§ Provide insight into the nature of the problem and
eventually lead to better treatments
Factor Analysis
§ Used to study the interrelationships among a set of
variables without reerence to a criterion

§ Data reduction tenchnique

 Psychology Enhancement Course
Psychological Assessment
Worksheet #3-2

Name: _______________________
Date: ________________________

KEY TERM EXERCISE:

Key Term Definition

Scatter Diagram
Correlation Coefficient
Correlation
Positive Correlation
Negative Correlation
Regression Line
Slope of the regression line
Value of Y when X is 0
The difference between the observed and the
predicted score.
Pearson r
Method of correlation for finding the association
between two sets of ranks
Scatterplot
They naturally form two categories
Artificially dichotomous variables
Biserial Correlation

Key Term Definition

Tetrachoric r
Phi
Standard Error of Estimate
Coefficient of Determination
 Coefficient of Alienation
The amount of decrease observed when a
regression equation is created for one population
and then applied to another.
Ensuring that proper references are being made
through the use of the regression equation to
predict performance in a group of subjects other
than the ones to which the equation was applied
and obtaining a standard error of estimated for
the relationship between the values predicted by
the equation and the values actually observed

IDENTIFYING DIFFERENT CORRELATIONAL RELATIONSHIPS

Based on the illustrations below, indicate whether the correlation relationship for each scatterplot is
strong, moderate, or weak. Additionally, indicate whether the relationship is positive or negative.
 Answer Answer Answer

0=
-0.5 =
-0.9=
-1=

REGRESSION

This is the regression equation with an indication of what each variable means in the equation.
 SPEARMAN’S RHO
Fill in the blanks.

The Spearman rank correlation coefficient, rs, is the nonparametric version of the Pearson correlation
coefficient. Your data must be ordinal, interval or ratio. Spearman’s returns a value from -1 to 1, where:

+1 = a _________________________ correlation between ranks

-1 = a ____________________________ correlation between ranks
0 = ________________________ correlation between ranks.

KNOWING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRUE DICHOTOMOUS AND ARTIFICIALLY DICHOTOMOUS

VARIABLES
Indicate whether a variable is True Dichotomous by putting (TD) or Artificially Dichotomous (AD) in each
example.

1. Male and Female

2. Pass and Fail
3. Rich and Poor
4. Heads and Tails
5. High and Low Achiever

FAMILIARIZING YOURSELF WITH APPROPRIATE CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR RELATIONSHIPS

BETWEEN DICHOTOMOUS AND CONTINUOUS VARIABLES

In the table below, please fill in the blank among “pearson r, Biserial r, Point biserial r, Tetrachoric r, Phi”

Variable X
Variable Y Continuous Artificial Dichotomous True Dichotomous
Continuous
Artificial Dichotomous
True Dichotomous
 In the table below, please provide an example of a variable for each category.

Variable X
Variable Y Continuous Artificial Dichotomous True Dichotomous
Continuous
Artificial Dichotomous
True Dichotomous

ESSAY QUESTIONS:

1. Explain the correlation-causation problem.

2. What is the third variable explanation?

3. What is the problem with restricting the range of scores?