Basic Concepts of Structural Design for

Architecture Students
Basic Concepts of
Structural Design
for Architecture
Students
ANAHITA KHODADADI
Basic Concepts of Structural Design for Architecture Students by Anahita
Khodadadi is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, except where
otherwise noted.
 Contents

About vii
Accessibility Statement ix

PART I.  MAIN BODY

1. Loads on Structures 3

2. Forces and Vector Analysis 14

3. Equilibrium 28

4. Catenary Cables and Arches 40

5. Trusses 57

6. Lattice Domes 75

7. Material Properties 91

8. Cross-sectional Properties 100

9. Shear and Bending Stress in Simple Beams 109

10. Deflection in Simple Beams 118

11. Buckling in Columns 127

12. Load Tracing 132

PART II.  BIBLIOGRAPHY
About

ABOUT THE BOOK

Welcome!
This textbook is prepared explicitly for students seeking a degree
in an Architecture program and taking an introductory course in
structural engineering. It is assumed that students referring to this
textbook have a minimum background in math and physics.
Therefore, principal concepts are explained using visual
demonstrations, videos, graphics, and jargon-free descriptions.
Wherever a minimum knowledge of trigonometry and math is
required, additional materials are introduced for review. Unlike a
standard textbook, this textbook aims to support student’s self-
exploration of foundational topics on structural design rather than
providing them with a script to assimilate and repeat. Therefore, it
contains a collection of visual materials and interactive resources
readily available online developed by research groups and public
agencies. In addition, examples are included to clearly explain the
theories and math problems.
I hope this textbook is an accessible and enjoyable resource to
support your learning about fundamental concepts of structural
design. I acknowledge that this textbook will never really be
finished. It can always be better. The readers’ perspectives on both
content and style are valued as I revise and improve this book.

vii
viii ABOUT

Please do not hesitate to contact me with your critics via email

[email protected].

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Anahita Khodadadi is an assistant professor at Portland State

University. She teaches structures, building science, and tectonics
courses, mentors architecture design studios, and advises graduate
design and research projects. Khodadadi received her doctoral
degree in Architecture (Building Technology) at the University of
Michigan. Her research interests include performance-based
design, configuration processing of spatial structures using Formex
algebra, interactive multi-objective optimization, development of
parametric design tools, and STEM education for non-STEM
students. Khodadadi is a registered architect in Tehran, Iran. She
is a LEED Green Associate and received the Excellence in Teaching
Sustainability Award in 2021. Khodadadi’s significant fields of
expertise are geometrical modeling of spatial forms, object-
oriented programming, and understanding and analyzing the
structural performance of buildings.
Accessibility Statement

Portland State University believes that education must be available

to everyone which means supporting the creation of free, open,
and accessible educational resources. We are actively committed
to increasing the accessibility and usability of the textbooks we
produce.
Accessibility features of the web version of this resource
The web version of this resource has been designed to meet Web
Content Accessibility Guidelines 2.0, level AA.

• It has been optimized for people who use screen-reader

technology.
◦ all content can be navigated using a keyboard
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with screen readers
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• Information is not conveyed by colour alone.
• There is an option to increase font size (see tab on top
right of screen).

Other file formats available

In addition to the web version, this book is available in a number
of file formats including PDF, EPUB (for eReaders), and various
editable files. Here is a link to where you can download this book in
ix
x ACCESSIBILITY STATEMENT

another file format. Look for the “Download this book” drop-down
menu to select the file type you want.
This book links to a number of external websites. For those using
a print copy of this resource, the link text is underlined, and you can
find the web addresses for all links in the back matter of the book.
Please email accessibility questions and comments
to [email protected]. “Accessibility Statement” is a derivative
of Accessibility Statement by BCcampus, and is licensed under CC
BY 4.0.
PART I

MAIN BODY

1
CHAPTER  1

Loads on Structures

This chapter will discuss different types of loads and how you may
consider them in structural design. Before analyzing the statics and
mechanics of structures, it is essential to learn how much load a
structure may carry.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF LOADS ON STRUCTURES

• Static loads

“Static loads are assumed to be applied slowly to a structure until it

reaches its peak value without fluctuating rapidly in magnitude or
position. Under a static load, a structure responds slowly, and its
deformation reaches a peak when the static force is maximum.” [1]

• Dynamic loads

“Dynamic loads are applied suddenly to a structure, often with

rapid changes in magnitude and point of application. Under a
dynamic load, a structure develops inertial forces in relation to
its mass, and its maximum deformation does not necessarily
correspond to the maximum magnitude of the applied force. The
3
4 ANAHITA KHODADADI

two major types of dynamic loads are wind loads and earthquake
loads”. [1]

• Impact loads

An impact load, which is categorized as a dynamic load in some

references, acts rapidly on a structural system and causes
vibration. The created vibration hinders the structural system from
reaching the state of equilibrium.

Loads on structures are classified into the following categories:

• Dead load – D
• Floor live load – L
• Roof live load – Lr
• Snow load – S
• Wind load – W
• Earthquake loads – E
• Rain load – R
• Soil and Hydrostatic Pressure and Flood Loads – H
• Ice load
LOADS ON STRUCTURES 5

Figure 1-1: Some types of loads that act on a

typical building
The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) provides a
standard, SEI/ASCE 7-02, that addresses the definition of different
types of loads and determines minimum design loads for buildings.

Combinations of loads

Buildings are not designed for ALL the possible loads that may
affect them, but rather a reasonable combination of loads.
Buildings will rarely be impacted by the dead load, maximum of live
load, snow load, earthquake load, wind load, and an impact load
at a single moment. The reasonable combinations of the loads are
also defined in the ASCE 7 Standard. For example, the following
6 ANAHITA KHODADADI

load combinations may be studied, and whichever produces the

most unfavorable effect should be taken into account for structural
design.

1. D+ F
2. D + H + F + L + T
3. D + H + F + (Lr or S or R)
4. D + H + F + 0.7S(L + T) + 0.7S(Lr or S or R)
5. D + H + F + (W or 0.7 E)
6. D + H + F + 0.7S(W or 0.7E) + 0.7SL + O.7S(Lr or S or R)
7. 0.6D + W + H
8. O.6D + 0.7E + H

Dead load

Dead load is simply the self-weight of all major construction

materials, including the building structures, permanent walls, fixed
utilities, and equipment (e.g., HVAC systems). The weight of each
structural component can be measured by multiplying the volume
of components by their density (Mass = Volume x Density).
Density (pounds per cubic foot)=(Mass (lbs))/(Volume (cubic feet))
Dead load (lbs)= Density (pcf) x Volume (cf)
Dead load units:
Pounds per linear foot (plf) → plf is used for describing the DL
of beams and columns
Pounds per square foot (psf) → psf is used for describing the DL
of slabs
For example, the weight of the wood beam shown below can be
computed and described in pounds per linear foot (plf) by
LOADS ON STRUCTURES 7

multiplying its density of 35 pounds per cubic foot (PCF) and its
volume.
DL = volume x density
(11.25/12 ft) X (3.5/12 ft) x 1
ft x 35 pcf = 9.57 plf
2
(3.5)/12 x (11.25)/12 ft x 35
lbs = 9.57 plf

Live load

Live load is based on

occupancy and includes the weight of the people, furniture,
machinery (e.g. in a factory), vehicles, and equipment being used
temporarily. There are two types of live loads:

• Floor live load

• Roof live load (e.g. the weight of roof garden or the
maintenance personnel and their equipment)

The live loads used in the structural analysis should not be less than
the minimum uniformly distributed unit loads required by building
codes. You may refer to the International Code Council (ICC) to
learn more about the estimated live loads in different spaces for
various occupancies (see table of minimum uniformly distributed
live loads and minimum concentrated live loads).

Wind load

The wind blowing against a building may be strong and cause

discomfort or may be extreme, such as a tornado, hurricane, or
heavy storm, and cause destruction. While wind load, like
earthquake load, is three-dimensional in nature, its horizontal
8 ANAHITA KHODADADI

component is considered more critical in structural design. Thus,

wind load is classified as a lateral load.
Wind load is a pressure load whose effect on buildings of regular
shape (e.g. cubic buildings) can be analyzed considering the basic
pressure equation. Wind speeds vary in different zones. For
example, the wind load in Portland, OR, is 16 psf. Wind loads on
every building should be determined in accordance with Chapters
26 to 30 of ACSE 7. See section 1609 and the map of basic design
wind speed, V, for risk category II, III, and other structures.

Figure 1-2: Wind zones in the United States of America (Source: USA
Natural Hazards Map, 2012, https://www.flickr.com/photos/konabish/
6810939678)
If the configuration of a building is complex or it has a high
importance factor, you may need to conduct a wind tunnel test.
There are not many laboratories around that do the wind tunnel
test because it is expensive to have the facilities. You can send
your design to those labs, and they will send back the pressure
data to you. Then, engineers can design a suitable structure. Watch
video 1-1 (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UEgk2Bgz16s&t=1s)
LOADS ON STRUCTURES 9

to see flow visualization around simple building shapes in a wind

tunnel. In the following, video 1-2 (https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=tHMPR7flpf4&t=250s) shows how tall buildings tame the
wind.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text.
You can view them online here: https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/
archistructures/?p=5#oembed-1

Video 1-1: Flow visualization around simple building shapes in the wind
tunnel 

One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text.
You can view them online here: https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/

archistructures/?p=5#oembed-2

Video 1-2: How tall buildings tame the windSome software systems
allow you to simulate the test. WIND CFD (Computational Fluid
Dynamics) software is one of them. You can use the results of these
simulation programs in the conceptual phases of design. But for
critical buildings such as towers, the outcome of the simulation
10 ANAHITA KHODADADI

programs is not sufficient for specifying the structural system, and

a wind tunnel test is still required.

Snow load

Snow loads result from the weight of snow accumulating on a flat

or sloped roof. Snow loads vary with geographic location, wind
condition, geometry and slope of the roof, building, and site
exposure. For example, a minimum of 54 psf snow load should be
considered for buildings constructed in Montréal, QC, while 10 psf
snow load is recommended for designing structures in Portland,
OR. See section 1608 and the map of ground snow loads for the
United States.

Earthquake load

The tectonic plates are always slowly moving, but they get stuck at
their edges due to friction. When the stress on the edge overcomes
the friction, an earthquake releases energy in waves that travel
through the earth’s crust and causes the shaking that we feel. An
earthquake is caused by a sudden slip on a fault and may consist of
a series of longitudinal and/or transverse waves known as P-wave
or S-wave, respectively. A P-wave is the fastest wave.
Although earthquake vibrations are three-dimensional, their
horizontal components are more critical in designing structural
systems. Thus, generally, we consider earthquake load as a lateral
force acting on a building. The earthquake load depends on how
close the building is to fault lines. To read more about earthquakes,
see “What is an earthquake and what causes them to happen?“. You
may explore the latest earthquakes map and list for the U.S. and
worldwide.
LOADS ON STRUCTURES 11

Figure 1-3: Tectonic plates

In addition to various types of damage to building structures,
there are three major ground failures caused by earthquakes:

• Landslides, particularly when the land is wet.

• Liquefaction: Sandy soils can be liquified by even a light
ground shaking when saturated by water.
• Subsidence: Non-uniform ground sink

In the following, video 1-3 (https://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=e7ho6z32yyo&t=1s) explains how earthquakes impact
buildings and our cities. Video 1-4 (https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=jhRuUoTnA6g&t=2s) discusses if the earthquakes are
predictable. Video 1-5 (https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=H4VQul_SmCg&t=2s) shows how earthquakes impact tall
buildings.
12 ANAHITA KHODADADI

One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text.
You can view them online here: https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/

archistructures/?p=5#oembed-3

Video 1-3: How earthquakes impact buildings and our cities.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text.

You can view them online here: https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/

archistructures/?p=5#oembed-4

Video 1-4: Are earthquakes predictable?

One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text.
You can view them online here: https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/
archistructures/?p=5#oembed-5
LOADS ON STRUCTURES 13

Video 1-5: How buildings fall in earthquakes.

TOPICS FOR CRITICAL THINKING

• Considering the reality of climate change, we have been

experiencing unexpected extreme weather conditions,
such as wildfire in mild and humid regions, floods in arid
areas, and snowstorms in semi-arid or marine west coast
regions. How do current load requirements for structural
design respond to unexpected weather conditions?
Should we reconsider load requirements in building
codes?
• Should we treat all buildings the same? For example,
should the structural design requirements be the same
for hospitals, fire or police departments, and warehouses?
• How does a tuned mass damper support building
resiliency against earthquakes?
• How does a base isolation system support building
resiliency against earthquakes?
CHAPTER  2

Forces and Vector Analysis

REPRESENTATION OF FORCES

In physics and mechanics, forces are represented by vectors.

Simon Stevin, a Flemish mathematician and physicist, was the first
one who explained the vector analysis.
A vector is a straight arrow pointing in the direction in which it
acts. A vector is defined by:

• Magnitude
• Direction
• Point of Application (position)

14
FORCES AND VECTOR ANALYSIS 15

Figure 2-1: A vector is defined by magnitude, direction and point of

application (position)
Forces may act on structural elements at one or multiple points.
For example, a column that sits directly on a concrete slab applies
a point load on a surface. Also, forces may be distributed uniformly
(like the self-weight of a beam) or non-uniformly (like fluid pressure
or snowdrift) along the length or surface of a structural element.

Figure 2-2: Distribution of load on a simple beam

The total magnitude of a distributed load can be represented
as a single (resultant) load applied at the center of gravity. In two
dimensions, the center of gravity is the same as the center of area
of the distribution pattern.
16 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 2-3: Equivalent point loads of two distributed loads

The image shown below represents different distribution
patterns and the location of their center of area.

 Figure 2-4: The center of gravity of different distribution patterns of

loads
FORCES AND VECTOR ANALYSIS 17

CHARACTERISTICS OF FORCES

Forces may cause:

• Tension: pulling apart.

• Compression: pushing together.
• Bending: applying equal and opposite couples in its own
plane to an element; Or applying transverse forces to an
element at some distance from its support.
• Torsion: twisting action from applying equal and opposite
couples to the ends of a similar element in planes at a
right angle to its axis.
• Shear: an action that tends to cause slipping of one part
of an element on another.
18 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 2-5: Different characteristics of loads.

FORCES AND VECTOR ANALYSIS 19

Note: The “Buckling” effect in long compression members will be

discussed in Chapter 11.

FORCE SYSTEMS

Force vectors may pass through a single point (concurrent) or be

parallel (non-concurrent). Furthermore, force vectors may lay in
a single plane (coplanar) or cannot be in a single plane (non-
coplanar). Therefore, four different force systems can be identified:

• Concurrent – Coplanar
• Non-concurrent – Coplanar
• Concurrent – Non-coplanar
• Non-concurrent – Non-coplanar

Figure 2-6: Different force systems

20 ANAHITA KHODADADI

FORCE ADDITION

1. Adding inline forces

If force vectors are all inline, you can simply add their magnitudes
to find the resultant. You can see an example of linear addition in a
tug-of-war rope contest.

Figure 2-7: When the two force vectors are applied in two different
directions and have the same magnitude the resultant equals to zero.

Figure 2-8: When the total of one set of force vectors are greater than
the other set the resultant will be applied to the direction of the set with
greater magnitude.

2. Adding orthogonal forces

Two orthogonal forces can be added together, simply by using the

Pythagorean Theorem. The resultant equals to the hypotenuse.
FORCES AND VECTOR ANALYSIS 21

You may refer to “Intro to the Pythagorean theorem” at Khan

Academy to review the Pythagorean equation.

Figure 2-9: The resultant of two orthogonal forces equals the

hypotenuse of the corresponding triangle

3. Adding two or more forces using graphic methods

You may add two or multiple force vectors by drawing either the
force polygon or force parallelogram to find the resultant. In
both cases, first, you should draw the force vectors to scale. Then,
if you draw the force polygon, add the forces head to tail, and the
resultant is the vector that closes the polygon tail to head.
22 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 2-10: Adding two or more forces using the method of force
polygon
You can draw the force parallelogram by pairing force vectors
and drawing the diagonal of the corresponding parallelogram.
Then, the resultant is the diagonal of the last parallelogram.

Figure 2-11: Adding two or more forces by drawing the force

parallelogram
FORCES AND VECTOR ANALYSIS 23

4. Adding two or more forces using an analytical method

When there are multiple force vectors, you may break each force
vector into its horizontal and vertical components, sum all
horizontal vectors together, sum all vertical components, and find
the resultant of the orthogonal vectors. For example, F1, F2, and F3,
shown below, are broken into their orthogonal components. Then,
all horizontal components are added together, and all the vertical
components are added together. Finally, the resultant of the two
horizontal and vertical vectors can be calculated by using the
Pythagorean theorem.

ΣFx = F1x + F2x + F3x ,

ΣFx = -3 +7-2= 2
ΣFy = F1y + F2y + F3y ,
ΣFy = 5 +3 -2 = 6
2 2
Ftotal = √(2 + 6 )= √40 = 6.32

If you would like to review

the fundamentals of vectors
analysis, see Khan Academy’s module on Vectors.
The basics of orthogonal triangle trigonometry are represented
below. Moreover, you may review right triangles & trigonometry at
Khan Academy.
24 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 2-12: Basic review on solving orthogonal right-angle triangles

EQUILIBRANT

The equilibrant is a vector that has the same size as the resultant
but is in exactly the opposite direction. Equilibrant balances the
forces and makes them not push.
FORCES AND VECTOR ANALYSIS 25

Figure 2-13: Resultant vs. equilibrant

Watch the following video in “Equilibrium of a Point”
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a2IX52UlCWE) to learn what
condition must a point in a structure satisfy to remain in
equilibrium.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text.
26 ANAHITA KHODADADI

You can view them online here: https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/

archistructures/?p=22#oembed-1

Video 2-1: Adding force vectors and equilibrium of a point

TOPICS FOR CRITICAL THINKING

• We want to hold a bucket of 50 lbs by a rope pulling it

from two sides. How much is the tension force in each
side of the rope?

• Do you think that you can flatten a clothesline?

FORCES AND VECTOR ANALYSIS 27

(Image source: Clothes Line, https://www.flickr.com/photos/

bmitd67/5045044902)

• Play around vector addition using PhET interactive

simulator provided by the University of Colorado Boulder.
• Practice application of principles of vector addition using
the Vector Guessing Game Interactive.
• What is the difference between deflection and bending?
CHAPTER  3

Equilibrium

MOMENT OF FORCE

Sometimes the reaction to a force is not in the same line with the
force and causes twisting. This twisting effect is called the moment
of the force. Moment of the force depends on two parameters:
• force
• its distance between the force path and the point about which
the moment is taken.
Thus, the moment of the force is defined as:
force × perpendicular distance between the force path and
the point about which the moment is taken

28
EQUILIBRIUM 29

Figure 3-1: Moment of the force = force × perpendicular distance

between the force path and the point about which the moment is
taken
There is a sign convention for rotational forces. This sign
convention does not relate to the direction of the force arrow but
the direction of the rotation.

Figure 3-2: Sign convention for moment of the force

NEWTON’S FIRST LAW

An object at rest will remain at rest unless acted upon by an outside

external net force.
30 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 3-3: Application of Newton’s first law in finding end reactions

of simple beams
The following video (https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=6zXkYjmvLuI) explains the two conditions a body must
satisfy to remain in equilibrium.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text.
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archistructures/?p=24#oembed-1

Video 3-1: Equilibrium of a body

You can see the rotational equilibrium in action in a balanced
seesaw (lever) at your local playground. In the following image, the
two individuals can determine the suitable length of the moment
EQUILIBRIUM 31

arm by adjusting their distances from the fulcrum to balance the

seesaw.

Figure 3-4: Equilibrium in a balanced seesaw

Rotational equilibrium requires: M1 + M2 = 0
M1 = F 1 × d 1 M1 = 25 × 4 = – 100
M2 = F 2 × d 2 M2 = 100 × 1 = +100

Stability against overturning 

Watch the following video (https://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=iDzp6xEAT2I) to learn how retaining walls work and how
they resist sliding and overturning. This is similar to how the
building as a whole needs to resist the hydrostatic and wind loads
mentioned in Chapter 1.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text.
32 ANAHITA KHODADADI

You can view them online here: https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/

archistructures/?p=24#oembed-2

Video 3-2: Stability of retaining walls

Resisting gravity must be greater than the overturning moment:
MR>  MO

Example:
A concrete wall with a density
of 150 pcf is expected to retain
a mass of soil on one side. The
distributed lateral load
affecting the wall is equivalent
to a point load of the soil at 24
psf. Study the wall stability
against overturning and see if
the wall stands the lateral load.
From the weight of the
concrete wall:
MR = F x d = 1500 × (3/12) =
375 lbs-ft
From the soil:
Mo = F x d = 240 × 2.5’ = – 600
Thus, the wall falls over!
EQUILIBRIUM 33

ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE OF THE LEVER

Archimedes’ principle of the level indicates that two forces will

balance at distances reciprocally proportional to their magnitudes.

Figure 3-5: Archimedes’ principle of the level

“Give me a place to stand, and I shall move the Earth.” To learn
more about Archimedes’ idea and the amazing implications and
uses of the lever, watch the following video
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YlYEi0PgG1g):

One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text.
You can view them online here: https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/
archistructures/?p=24#oembed-3

Video 3-3: How levers work

Archimedes principle is applicable in the determination of the
end reactions of beams at their supports.
34 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 3-6: Application of Archimedes’ principle of the level in finding

end reactions in simple beams.

DETERMINATION OF THE END REACTIONS IN SIMPLE

BEAMS

There can be three reaction vectors in simple beams upon the

support conditions: horizontal, vertical, and rotational.

Figure 3-7: Reactions in beams with different support conditions

EQUILIBRIUM 35

Figure 3-8: Hinged (pinned) connections in the structure of Renault

Center in Britain

Figure 3-9: Hinged (pinned) connections in the structure of George

Pompidou Center
36 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Example 1

Using Newton’s first law or Archimedes principle of the lever, we

can study the following simple beam and find the shares of the two
end supports of reacting to the point load P applied to the beam.
To proceed:

1. Label components of reactions. Consider the support

condition and see if you should include vertical,
horizontal, and rotational reactions.
2. Use the summation of moments about A to find RB.
3. Use the summation of moments about B to find RA OR
Find RA load by summing vertical forces.

Σ Fx = 0 All horizontal forces must balance out to zero. No

horizontal force!
Σ FY = 0 All vertical forces must balance out to zero.
RA+RB -10=0
RA+RB=10
Σ M1 = 0 All rotational forces must balance out to zero.
P × a – RB×L+RA×0 = 0
10 × 4 – RB×12+0= 0
RB = 40/12 =3.33 kip
EQUILIBRIUM 37

RA = 10 – 3.33 = 6.67 kip

Example 2

Find the end reactions at the supports of the simple beam shown
below:

The effect of the distributed load applied to the beam can be

studied by replacing it with its equivalent point load shown below:

Σ Fx = 0 All horizontal forces must balance out to zero.

No horizontal force!
Σ FY = 0 All vertical forces must balance out to zero.
P= w × d = 5 × 5 = 25 k
RA+RB -25 = 0
38 ANAHITA KHODADADI

RA+RB = 25
Σ M_A = 0 All rotational forces must balance out to zero.
25 × 6.5 – RB×12+RA×0 = 0
RB = 162.5 / 12 = 13.54 k
RA = 25 – 13.54 = 11.46 k

Example 3

Find the end reactions at the support of the cantilever beam shown
below:

Σ Fx = 0
Σ FY = 0
The length of the beam loaded uniformly = 12-5 = 7
P= w × d = 6 × 7 = 42 kips
The moment arm of the uniformly distributed load w = 5 + 7/2 =
8.5
RA-42=0
RA=42
Σ MA = 0 All rotational forces must balance out to zero.
42 × 8.5 – MA = 0
MA = 357 kips. ft
EQUILIBRIUM 39

TOPICS FOR CRITICAL THINKING

• Use a beam calculator interface to check your calculations

when solving the reactions at the supports of a beam.
CHAPTER  4

Catenary Cables and Arches

CATENARY CABLES

GEOMETRY AND BASIC PRINCIPLES

Cables are structural elements that can hold a great amount of

tensile force with a relatively small cross-sectional area. Thus,
cables are considered highly efficient structural components, and
one of the most economical ways to span a large distance is
employing a cable system. However, cables can resist only axial
tensile forces and not any compression or bending moment. Since
cables have a minimal cross-sectional area, they are flexible
elements and change their shapes under different load conditions
to reach equilibrium. For example, a cable under a simple point
load forms two straight lines meeting at the point of application
of the load. Cables under a uniformly distributed load sag in a
catenary shape or a parabola.

40
CATENARY CABLES AND ARCHES 41
42 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 4-1: Forms of cables under different load conditions

A catenary is a funicular shape for an unloaded cable and is
determined solely by the self-weight of the cable, which is
uniformly distributed along its length. A catenary cable sags under
such a uniformly distributed load along its length, and transfers the
load to its two supports in equal shares.
In contrast, a parabola is a funicular shape of a suspension cable
loaded uniformly across its span. Although, the self-weight should
be insignificant compared with the load to give a pure parabola
shape to a cable.

Figure 4-2: A catenary cable vs. a cable with a parabola shape

Where the sag-to-span ratio is greater than 5, the two shapes
are nearly identical, and mathematically, it is simpler to utilize a
parabola for analysis.
CATENARY CABLES AND ARCHES 43

Figure 4-3: The difference of a catenary shape and a parabola

The load and the sag-to-span ratio determine the tensile force
in a cable. Thus, in catenary cable structures, the sag-to-span ratio
is a primary structural design consideration. The sag-to-span ratio
influences:

• Cable forces: they are inversely proportional to sag.

• Inward thrust
• Cable length and the cable diameter: as the cable length
decreases, a greater diameter is required.
• The column or tower (mast) height and the compressive
forces
44 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 4-4: The relation between the horizontal thrust and the sag-
to-span ratio in a loaded cable
For a uniformly loaded parabolic cable, the optimum sag-to-span
ratio is 33%.
Most of the suspended roof structures (where cables are used
for building the roof) have a sag-to-span-ratio of 1:8 to 1:10.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE TOPOLOGY OF CABLE

STRUCTURES

Classification of cable structures allows a better understanding of

their behavior and the determination of suitable design
techniques. Cable structures can be classified into three main
categories:
CATENARY CABLES AND ARCHES 45

1. Single-curvature structures: A series of parallel catenary

cables span between primary supports and hold a deck
directly or hold a series of secondary vertical cables that
carry the deck. A well-known example of this type of cable
structure is the Dulles Airport Terminal. There are several
suspension bridges where single-curvature cables shape
the main configuration of the structural system. Akashi
Kaikyo Bridge in Japan, Nansha Bridge in China,
Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge in New York, Golden Gate
Bridge in San Francisco, and Mackinac Bridge in Michigan
are suspension bridges with single-curvature
configurations.
2. Double-cable structures: Some stabilizing cables are
added below the primary suspensions cabless to resists
the wind uplift. In Utica Memorial Auditorium, two layers
of pre-tensioned cables span between an outer
compression ring and a central tension ring.
3. Double-curvature structures: Some stabilizing cables are
added below the primary suspensions cables to resists
the wind uplift. Similar to a saddle shape, the primary
suspension cables sag between the supports and cover
the span. The stabilizing cables run in a perpendicular
direction with an opposite curvature. The roof of Dorton
Arena in Raleigh is composed of a double-curvature cable
structure and two compressive arches.
46 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 4-5: Different types of cable structures

Watch the following video (https://www.youtube.com/
watch?time_continue=1&v=caTaBeKUh-U&feature=emb_logo) on
suspension bridges and review what is discussed so far.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text.

You can view them online here: https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/

archistructures/?p=26#oembed-3

Video 4-1: Structural behavior of suspension bridges

MATERIALITY

Cables can be of mild steel, high strength steel, stainless steel,

polypropylene, fiberglass, and carbon. High-strength steel cables
are the most reliable and economical material for linear tensile
members. Structural cables are made of a series of small strands
CATENARY CABLES AND ARCHES 47

twisted or bound together to form a much larger cable. Usually, the

steel used in cable structures has breaking stresses that exceeds
200,000 psi which is 4 times the strength of structural steel sections
common in building construction.

THE PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS OF A CABLE-SUPPORTED

STRUCTURE

A cable-supported structural system includes main cables, vertical

supports or towers, anchorages, and stabilizers. Vertical supports
may be masts, diagonal struts, walls, vertical or sloping piers.
Vertical supports keep the cables above the ground and provide
essential reactions.
Since the main cables are not placed vertically, the carried axial
forces have a horizontal component. This horizontal thrust should
be resisted by a suitable anchorage system. Therefore:

1. The main cables of a suspension bridge may be attached

to the ground and be earth-anchored.

Figure 4-6: An earth-anchored suspension bridge

2. In a self-anchored suspension bridge, the main cables may
be attached to the end of the road deck.
48 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 4-7: A self-anchored suspension bridge

Another type of self-anchoring bridges is where multiple primary
cables hold the deck and their connection pattern may resemble a
harp, a fan, or a star.

Figure 4-8: Different patterns of connecting cables to the bridge deck

Cables must change shape whenever the loads shift in location or
amount. This flexibility brings practical difficulties. Thus, we must
stiffen the cables by means of a beam, truss and stabilizers.
Uneven loading such as wind, and vibration may be destructive.
Considering a clothes-line you may propose different ideas for
stabilization of the cable against wind loads.
CATENARY CABLES AND ARCHES 49

Figure 4-9: Different ideas for stabilizing a cable against wind loads
Usually, designers use the dead weight of the roof/deck
construction, a rigid surface that includes the main cables, a set of
pre-tension cables with reverse curvature from the main cable, or
restraining cables to stabilize cable-stayed structures. In the Dulles
Airport Terminal, you can see some of these thoughtful ideas are
applied to stabilize the cable-stayed roof structure.
50 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 4-10: Different ideas for stabilizing a cable-stayed roof

structure. Note: Primary cables carry gravity loads and secondary
cables stabilize the bridge against uplift forces.
Furthermore, stabilizers are employed to prevent structural
destruction due to probable resonance. All materials have a natural
molecular vibration or frequency range. If an outside force acts on
a material within that natural frequency range, it causes the outer
and inner forces to become tuned, and the material undergoes
destruction. Watch video 4-2 (https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=n9ULMIjvSIg) to learn more about the effect of resonance
on building structures.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text.
CATENARY CABLES AND ARCHES 51

You can view them online here: https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/

archistructures/?p=26#oembed-4

Video 4-2: The effect of resonance on structures

Tacoma Narrows Bridge was a suspension bridge in the state
of Washington that collapsed on November 7, 1940. The bridge
collapsed because normal speed winds produced aeroelastic
flutter that matched the bridge’s natural frequency. The collapse
of the bridge was recorded on film by Barney Elliott, owner of
a local camera shop. See the collapse of the Tacoma Bridge in
the following video (https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=XggxeuFDaDU&t=1s).

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Video 4-3: Tacoma Bridge destruction 

In addition to analyzing the principal elements, a cable-
supported structure should be finely studied regarding corrosion
protection, in-service inspection, fire resistance, and effects on the
52 ANAHITA KHODADADI

structure due to the removal and replacement of cables during the

lifetime of the structure.

CATENARY ARCHES

Arches have been used in many subtle historical constructions.

A catenary arch redirects forces into axial compression to span
an opening. How do arches work? Watch the following video
(https://www.youtube.com/
watch?time_continue=3&v=JlL6ZHChhQE&feature=emb_logo) to
learn about their behavior and discover an intriguing relationship
between arches and hanging chains.

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Video 4-4: Structural behavior of arches

As you learn from the video, a funicular arch is the inverted
compressive equivalent of a suspension cable. In the 17th century,
Robert Hooke studied the catenary forms of a hanging chain and
discovered this principle. A catenary arch is subject to carry only
axial compression and not bending forces.
CATENARY CABLES AND ARCHES 53

Figure 4-11: The relation between a funicular arch and its

corresponding funicular cable
Suppose the applied load is distributed uniformly along the
length of an arch. In that case, the funicular arch should be
equivalent to an inverted catenary cable to carry the loads only
in axial compression. On the other hand, if the load is distributed
uniformly along the span, the form of the funicular arch should be
equivalent to a parabola.
54 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 4-12: A catenary arch vs. an arch with a parabola shape

If the magnitude and direction of the forces on a cable change,
the resulting form of the cable changes to adjust to the new load
condition and to remain in tension. However, arches inherently
cannot be adjusted to the new load condition. If the loading
changes the shape of the arch will no longer be funicular. Thus,
arches and related structural systems usually experience
compression and bending at the same time (similar to thin shells).
CATENARY CABLES AND ARCHES 55

Figure 4-13: The relation between the horizontal thrust at the

supports of an arch and its rise-to-span ratio
56 ANAHITA KHODADADI

RULE OF THUMB TO DETERMINE THE PROPORTIONS OF

STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS

The economic span for using a cable-stayed structure is between

50 and 500 ft. The suitable sag to span ratio is better to be around
1:10. The cable diameter can be 1:8 into 3 ft based on the loads and
span.
Table 4-1: The economic span of a cable-stayed structure [2]
CHAPTER  5

Trusses

GEOMETRY AND BASIC PRINCIPLES

A truss represents a structural system whose elements are two-

force members arranged in a planar triangular pattern and each
member is either in tension or compression. The stability of a truss
relates to its triangular shape. By definition, trusses have pinned
joints and concurrent straight members and have to be loaded
through their joints. This means that a frame structure with rigid
joints is not considered a true truss. A Vierendeel frame is a well-
known example of such a frame structure with rigid joints that
cannot be considered as a true truss. In reality, a combination
of bolting and welding is used to make the joints. Thus, joints
become somewhat rigid connections that develop some moment
resistance. Bending stresses, however, are often relatively small in
comparison to those resulting from tension and compression.

57
58 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 5-1: Truss components’ nomenclature 

A center-loaded cable with pinned roller supports cannot resist

the horizontal thrust and is unstable. By adding a compressive
strut, the system resists the thrust internally to form a simple
truss.
TRUSSES 59

Figure 5-2: The process of creating a simple truss module

This simple truss module is used to form complex forms of
trusses where compressive elements are made of rigid struts (solid
lines), and tensile strengths are substituted by cables (dash lines).
60 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 5-3: A simple truss module can be used to form complex

forms of trusses where compressive elements are made of rigid struts
(double lines), and tensile strengths are substituted by cables (single
lines).

STABILITY AND DETERMINACY IN TRUSSES

The first step in designing a truss is the analysis of its stability,

its internal and external determinacy or indeterminacy. Stability
in trusses refers to their ability to maintain their configuration
while resisting loads applied to their joints. For a stable truss the
equilibrium conditions (∑Fx= 0, ∑Fy= 0, ∑M= 0) are always satisfied
regardless of the position or direction of the applied loads. In other
words, if we can find even a single loading case for which the
equilibrium equations cannot be satisfied, then we must conclude
that the truss is unstable.
A stable truss may be either statically determinate or
indeterminate. When a member is added to a stable truss or the
TRUSSES 61

number of support reactions is greater than the number of

equilibrium equations, the truss is still stable. But if the number
of unknown forces is greater than the number of equilibrium
equations, the truss is considered statically indeterminate. There is
a nifty method for the identification of stability and determinacy in
trusses.
For:
• j, joints
• m, members
• r, reactions (restraints)
• k, k= 2j-r
Then,
If m < k, the truss is unstable
If m = k, the truss is stable and determinate
If m > k, the truss is stable and indeterminate
62 ANAHITA KHODADADI
TRUSSES 63

Figure 5-4: Identification of stability and determinacy of trusses by

using the k= 2j-r equation

This equation is helpful to identify the internal stability and

determinacy of trusses. However, it is not sufficient to identify the
external stability and determinacy. Visual inspection and intuitive
sense must also be utilized to make the final assessment. For
example, in the truss shown in figure 5-5 (b), m=k=13 and is
expected to be stable and determinate. However, the truss is held
by three roller supports and is horizontally unstable.

Figure 5-5: Examples of indeterminate or externally unstable trusses

Watch the following video (https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=w7rAiqzlanQ) to further investigate stability and
determinacy in trusses.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text.
64 ANAHITA KHODADADI

You can view them online here: https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/

archistructures/?p=28#oembed-3

Video 5-1: Stability and determinacy in trusses

ZERO-FORCE MEMBERS

There are members in trusses that are designed for moving loads.
Thus, depending on the position of the external load, they may
carry no load. These members are often referred to as zero-force
members. Moreover, sometimes zero-force members are included
in the configuration of a truss to split long slender compression
members into two or shorter members (brace the long members)
and stabilize the truss against buckling. These bracing members
often carry no load.

Figure 5-6: Zero force members in trusses under moving loads

For trusses to be in the state of equilibrium, the sum of the forces
acting at each joint must be zero. By placing and rotating the
TRUSSES 65

coordinate system at a joint, we can study if there is only one

force acting in either x or y-direction. That single force must be
zero, and the member associated with it is a zero-force member.
Watch the following video (https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=xSEScMN6bpo&t=89s) to practice this method of
identification of zero-force members.

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You can view them online here: https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/
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Video 5-2: How to identify zero force members in trusses

Truss analysis by the method of joints
Resolution of joints is one of the first methods for truss analysis.
This method involves the following steps:

1. Solve reactions (all external forces)

2. Inspect for zero force members (T’s & L’s)
3. Cut a Free-body-diagram (FBD) of one joint. A free-body
diagram of a joint consists a diagrammatic representation
of the joint and all the forces acting on it.
4. Show forces as orthogonal components
5. Solve with ΣFx and Σ Fy (no Σ M)
6. Find resultant member forces (Pythagorean Formula)

Example:
Solve the following truss using the method of joints.
66 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Step 1: Check for horizontal, vertical and rotational equilibrium

ΣFx= 0 2- Rax = 0 Rax=2 kips
Σ Fy = 0 Ray + Rc – 5 = 0 Ray + Rc = 5
ΣM= 0
ΣM @A:
-Rc × (36+36) + 5 × 36 + 2×27 = 0 Rc = 3.25 kips
Ray = 5 – 3.25 = 1.75 kips

Step 2: Any zero-force member? No

Step 3: Solving joints by decomposing force vectors to their

horizontal and vertical components
TRUSSES 67

ΣFy= 0
-ABy+ 1.75 = 0 ABy= 1.75 downward
Σ Fx = 0 Abx+ AD – 2 = 0
ABx/ ABy= 36/27 => Abx = Aby × 36/27 = (-1.75) × 36/27= -2.33
kips
-2.33 + AD – 2 = 0
AD= 4.33 kips it is toward the positive direction of x axis
2 2 2 2
AB = √(ABx + ABy )=√(2.33) +(1.75) )= 2.91 kips
68 ANAHITA KHODADADI

ΣFy= 0
DB – 5 = 0 DB= 5 kips
Σ Fx = 0 DC – DA = 0 DC = 4.33 kips

ΣFy= 0
– CBy + 3.25 = 0 CBy = 3.25 kips downward
Σ Fx = 0
-CD + CBx = 0 -4.33 + CBx =0 CBx = 4.33 kips
2 2 2 2
CB = √(CBx + CBy )=√(4.33) +(3.25) )= 5.41 kips
At the end, the axial forces in truss members are as shown in the
diagram below:
TRUSSES 69

3D TRUSSES – SPACE FRAMES

Space frames are three-dimensional trusses where members are

in tension and compression only. By definition, true trusses should
have pinned connections while frames have rigid joints. Space
frames may have both pinned and rigid connections. While the
topology of space frames may be quite free of regular forms, the
half-octahedron and tetrahedron are the common modules for
creating a space frame structure.
70 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 5-7: A half-octahedron is one of the common modules for

creating a space frame structure (Image source: space frame, 2002,
wikipedia)

Figure 5-8: The free form of the space frame that covers the British
museum courtyard ((Image source: British Museum, 2014, 
https://www.flickr.com/photos/22087304@N07/15629080951)
TRUSSES 71

Figure 5-9: The pyramid of the Louvre entrance, designed by

Chinese-American architect I. M. Pei, 1984 (Image source: Louvre
Project (Pyramid), 1994, https://www.flickr.com/photos/
69184488@N06/11876617365)
Space frames are relatively efficient and safe structural systems
because even if a few members fail, the forces can reroute to
remaining members.

RULE OF THUMB TO DETERMINE THE PROPORTIONS OF

STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS

The economic depth-to-span ratio for steel trusses is 1:10 to 1:20,

and for timber trusses is 1:6 to 1:10. The spacing of trusses in roof
structures should be 20 to 30 ft for steel structures and 12 to 27
ft for timber trusses. The economic spans of different trusses are
shown in the following table.
The suitable depth to span ration of space frames is usually
between 1/10 to 1.20 of the span.
Table 5-1: The economic span ratio of trusses [3]
72 ANAHITA KHODADADI

TENSEGRITIES

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Video 5-3: What is a tensegrity structure (https://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=BzgxYpDyO0M&t=1s)

A tensegrity structure is a stable three-dimensional space frame

assembly of continuous cables and discontinuous struts where the
struts do not touch one another. In tensegrity structures, tension
elements stabilize the compression elements. One of the natural
examples of tensegrity structures is the human body, where
muscles (the tension elements) stabilize the compression elements
(the bones).
Tensegrities were invented by sculptor Kenneth Snelson in 1948
and developed and patented by Buckminister Fuller. Snelson and
Fuller’s tensegrity theory translated into practice when David
Geiger reduced the degree of indeterminacy.
TRUSSES 73

TOPICS FOR CRITICAL THINKING

• The best way to understand how tensegrity structures

work is to make a physical model. Let’s get started by
watching the following instructional video
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DQxNPhR20r0) on
making a tensegrity model!

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Video 5-4: How to make a tensegrity structure?

 

• Do you know any implications of tensegrity structures in

the building industry?
• Watch the following video (https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=Rxtf5wHXkTA&list=PLKPD9oscWijEdwZFVuGbER
olnw2auR1E6&t=778s) from its 11th minute to learn
about how pioneers of designing tensegrity structures
used symmetry in the design and analysis of spatial
structures.
74 ANAHITA KHODADADI

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You can view them online here: https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/

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Video 5-5: Using symmetry in the design and analysis of spatial

structures

• In the following video (https://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=U2lKx_FYXWo&list=PLKPD9oscWijEdwZFVuGbER
olnw2auR1E6), Professor Ken’ichi Kawaguchi, Architecture
Professor at the University of Tokyo discusses the
challenges of tensegrity construction. Move to the 11th
minute to learn more about his findings.

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Video 5-6: Challenges of tensegrity construction

CHAPTER  6

Lattice Domes

Have you heard about lattice domes? Even if not, you may have
heard of some outstanding projects, such as Eden Project, where
a lightweight dome structure is designed to create a translucent
space. Watch video 6-1 (https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=MWr67v620kY&feature=emb_logo) to learn about the
design of compounded geodesic domes in the Eden Project.

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Video 6-1: The geodesic dome of the Eden Project

A lattice dome consists of discrete and normally elongated
elements shaping a grid pattern. Lattice domes may include a
single layer or multiple layers, may have pinned or rigid joints,
and may work only in tension and compression or in tension,
75
76 ANAHITA KHODADADI

compression, and bending. Lattice domes are named according

to their grid patterns and the geometry of their curvature. Some
examples of lattice domes are illustrated below:

Figure 6-1: Different types of lattice domes (Image resource: [4])

Configuration processing of this type of spatial structure using
the Euclidian geometric system is usually complicated and requires
a great amount of time and effort. In the late 90s, Professor
Hoshyar Nooshin, University of Surrey, Guilford, UK, developed a
new geometric-algebraic system called Formex algebra. Formex
algebra allows a designer to define the geometrical formulation
of forms through concepts that affect movement, propagation,
deformation, and curtailment. The creation of any type of spatial
structure, such as space trusses, domes, vaults, hypar shells,
polyhedric and free forms, can be carried out by using this
mathematical system and its associated programming language,
Formian. This new algebraic system, along with its designated
software called Formian, allows convenient and accurate
LATTICE DOMES 77

configuration processing of spatial structures. In 2018, he won the

Torroja Medal – one of the highest honors in structural engineering
– in recognition of his outstanding contribution to the field of
spatial structures for over half a century.

Different types of lattice domes

Ribbed dome

A ribbed dome consists of several ribs and rings that intersect each
other at rigid joints. A rib is entitled to a group of elements that lie
along a meridional line, and a ring is entitled to a group of elements
that constitute a horizontal polygon.

Figure 6-2: Examples of ribbed domes (Image source: [5])

Schwedler dome

A Schwedler dome includes intersecting ribs, rings, and diagonal

elements. The name of this category of lattice domes is the
namesake of the German Engineer J W Schwedler, who built several
of this type in the 19th century. Sometimes due to the
overcrowding of the elements near the crown of a ribbed or
Schwedler dome, some elements are trimmed. In these cases, the
78 ANAHITA KHODADADI

dome will be called a trimmed ribbed dome or a trimmed

Schwedler.

Figure 6-3: Some examples of Schwedler domes (Image source: [5])

Lamella dome

A lamella dome consists of intersecting diagonal elements and may

or may not include one or more rings.
LATTICE DOMES 79

Figure 6-4: Examples of lamella domes (Image source: [5])

Diamatic dome

Diamatic domes consist of several sectors whose side boundaries

are along two meridians of the circumsphere of the dome, and
the bottom boundary is along a parallel of the circumsphere. An
important characteristic of diamatic domes is that they do not
present any problem regarding ‘element cluttering’ near the crown.
80 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 6-5: Some examples of diamatic domes (Image source: [6])

One of the well-known examples of a diamatic dome is the
Tacoma dome. Tacoma wooden dome is a multi-purpose arena in
Tacoma, Washington (1983). The arena has a 530-ft diameter and
152-ft height.
LATTICE DOMES 81

Figure 6-6: Tacoma dome, Washington, US (Image source: The Tacoma

Dome, seen from the Bridge of Glass, 2006, wikipedia)

Scallop domes

A scallop dome, similar to the marine creature scallop whose shell

has arched ribs, consists of arched sectors that are separately
arched. The dome itself had a general curvature, and the operation
of scalloping further improves the structural behavior of the dome.
82 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 6-7: Examples of sea shells that inspire the configuration of

scallop domes (Image source: Small sea shell, 2018,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Small_sea_shell.jpg)
LATTICE DOMES 83

Figure 6-8: Examples of scallop domes (Image source: [8])

Conical domes

The geometry of a conical dome simply relies on the geometry of

a cone and may be created by mapping different patterns onto its
surface.
84 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 6-9: Examples of conical domes (Image source: [7])

Mallow domes

Mallow domes, so-called because they resemble the mallow flower,

consist of a number of sectors with a hyperbolic paraboloidal grid.
LATTICE DOMES 85

Figure 6-10: An example of a mallow dome (Image source: [7])

Onion domes

Onion domes have a bulb-shaped body with a pointed crown and

may be created with different grid patterns.
86 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 6-11: An example of an onion dome (Image source: [7])

Geodesic domes

A geodesic dome is created by mapping a triangulated pattern

onto a number of faces of a polyhedron and projecting the results
onto a sphere that is concentric with the initial polyhedron. An
icosahedron (20-faced regular polyhedron) is one of the common
volumes used in creating geodesic domes.
LATTICE DOMES 87

Figure 6-12: Mapping a pattern on the faces of a polyhedron (Image

source: [9])

Figure 6-13: Mapping an icosahedron onto a hemisphere to gain a

geodesic dome (Image source: [9])
One famous geodesic dome is the US Pavilion in Expo 67,
designed by Buckminster Fuller and built in Montreal. The double-
88 ANAHITA KHODADADI

layer geodesic dome has a 250-ft diameter and 200-ft rise. The
initial cladding of the dome was made of a transparent acrylic layer
which was damaged in a major file in 1977. After the renovation
in 1994, the geodesic skeleton remained as an iconic monument in
Montreal.

Figure 6-14: Bio dome, by Buckminster Fuller, Montreal (Image source:

Biosphere Montreal, 2007, Wikimedia,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Biosphere_montreal.JPG)
Missouri Botanical Gardens Climaton is another example of
geodesic domes designed and built in double layers. The geodesic
dome is a quarter sphere spanning 175 ft and housing the plant
collection of the Missouri botanical garden. The dome is made of
aluminum tubes and steel cables. The rise of the dome is 70 ft, and
current cladding of the dome consists of freestanding glass panels.
LATTICE DOMES 89

Figure 6-15: Missouri Botanical Gardens Climaton (Image source: The

Climatron greenhouse at the Missouri Botanical Garden, 2004,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatron#/media/
File:Climatron,_Missouri_Botanical_Gardens.jpg)

TOPICS FOR CRITICAL THINKING

• Watch the following video (https://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=6a9ffR_tfd4&list=PLKPD9oscWijEdwZFVuGbERoln
w2auR1E6&t=2s) from timestamp 8:12 to learn about the
design of an innovative lattice dome in the Dutch Marine
Museum, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
90 ANAHITA KHODADADI

One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text.
You can view them online here: https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/

archistructures/?p=30#oembed-2

Video 6-2: The design of an innovative lattice dome in the Dutch

Marine Museum

• Are you interested in building a geodesic dome of your

own? Watch this video (https://www.youtube.com/
watch?time_continue=1&v=ryAGFPobYUY&feature=emb_l
ogo) and find a full list of videos on designing and
assembling a geodesic dome.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text.

You can view them online here: https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/

archistructures/?p=30#oembed-3

Video 6-3: Design and construction of a geodesic dome

CHAPTER  7

Material Properties

In the previous chapters, we have discussed the determination

of internal forces produced in structural members by externally
applied loads. In chapters 7 and 8, we will discuss the relationship
between loads applied to a non-rigid body and the resulting
internal forces and deformations induced in the body. These
analyses will be used to determine the required size of a structural
element to safely resist external loads.

STRESS AND STRAIN

Stress is a term that is used to describe the intensity of a force. By

definition, stress is force per unit area of a material and may be
described in psi (pounds per square inch), psf (pounds per square
2 2
foot), MN/m (Meganewton per square meter), kgf/cm (kilogram-
2
force per square centimeter), MPa (megapascal = N/mm ).
Therefore, the axial stress can be represented mathematically via
the following equation:

Where:
Stress = σ = load/area = P/A

91
92 ANAHITA KHODADADI

P = tensile/compression load or force

A = the area

Figure 7-1: Stress is force per unit area of a material 

Any structural member under load has some amount of
deformation. The member may be compressed or stretched due to
a compression or tension force. Some materials such as steel do
deform as well, even though their deformation is not significant.
We measure this deformation per unit length and call it strain.

Where:
Strain = ε= deformation/original length = D/L
D = deformation
L = original length
MATERIAL PROPERTIES 93

Figure 7-2: Any structural member under load has some amount of

deformation or change of shape. Strain is the deformation per unit
length

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

When a structural element is stretched on a molecular scale, the

molecules are pulled apart. The electromagnetic bond among the
molecules resists against the externally applied force and creates
the elastic behavior of the element. In the late 17th century, Robert
Hooke was the first fellow who discovered that there is a relation
between the stress in an element and the developed strain.
However, this relationship was formulated by Thomas Young in
the 19th century. The relationship between stress and strain is
a measure of the elasticity of the material and is called Young’s
Modulus or the Modulus of Elasticity (E).

Where:
E= Modulus of Elasticity
ε= Strain= deformation/original length = D/L
σ = Stress = load/area = P/A
94 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Structural elements cannot deform infinitely and should snap

back when the load is removed. All structural materials are elastic
to some extent; however, their behaviors during and after applying
the load are different. To study the elasticity of a material, we
can test its sample in tension and compression and measure their
elongation. When a load is progressively added to stretch the
material, we measure the load magnitude at the same time as the
amount the sample stretches.

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Video 7-1: Material properties and fundamental terms used to define

them (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BHZALtqAjeM)
During this test, you can see that there is a stress limit before
which the material returns to its original shape if the load is
removed. But beyond that stress limit, the material does not snap
back, and the deformation will remain permanent. This stress limit
is called the yield stress, and the corresponding elongation is called
inelastic or plastic deformation. Then, there is a stress limit, called
ultimate stress, where the maximum load can be placed before the
MATERIAL PROPERTIES 95

breaking of the element. Finally, beyond the ultimate stress, the

element deforms rapidly and breaks at the point of fracture.

Figure 7-3: A stress-strain plot of a material

The stress-strain diagram is unique for any given material.
Young’s modulus represents a measure of the stiffness of the
material. Thus, the slope of the straight line varies greatly for
different materials. When a material is referred to as “flexible,”
this just means a material has a low Young’s modulus. Moreover,
when some materials exceed their yield point, they may crack or
suddenly break into pieces. They may not have any plastic
deformation, and or their plastic range is remarkably limited. These
materials are brittle. In contrast, some materials such as low-
carbon steel, aluminum, or copper have a significant plastic range
that can warn of impending failure. This type of material behavior
is termed ductile.
96 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 7-4: Using stress-strain graph to compare properties of

different materials
MATERIAL PROPERTIES 97

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Video 7-2: Understanding Young’s modulus (https://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=DLE-ieOVFjI&feature=emb_logo)

Example

What is the minimum required cross-sectional area for the two

columns supporting the beam shown below?
Allowable stress:
Wood = 800 psi
Steel = 21 ksi
Concrete = 3000 psi
Clay Soil = 2000 psf
* Allowable stress is the maximum stress (tensile, compressive,
or bending) that is allowed to be applied on a structural material.
Building codes generally define the allowable stresses, which for
steel and aluminum are fractions of their yield stress.
98 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Σ Fx = 0
Σ Fy = 0 All vertical forces must balance out to zero.
R1+R2-5-5-5-5=0
R1+R2=20
We have a symmetric loading condition. So R1=R2
R1=R2 = 20/2 = 10 k

Allowable stress:  σ =\frac{P}{A}

For wood column :
2
800 = 10,000 / A => A = 10,000 / 800 = 12.5 in of wood
Each side should be greater than √12.5=3.54
For steel column
2
21,000 = 10,000 / A => A = 10,000 / 21,000 = 0.48 in of steel

Concrete Allowable stress σ = P / A

2
3000 = 10,000 / A => A = 10,000 / 3000 = 3.33 in steel base
plate

Soil Allowable stress σ = P / A

2
2000 = 10,000 / A => A = 10,000 / 2,000 = 5 ft of footing
surface
MATERIAL PROPERTIES 99

TOPICS FOR CRITICAL THINKING

• How can we use Allowable stress: σ =\frac{P}{A} for

calculating the shear stress in structural elements?
• Test a rubber band and find its Young’s Modulus. You may
watch this video (https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=aGS_tYML3HQ) to learn about similar
experiments.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text.

You can view them online here: https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/

archistructures/?p=32#oembed-3

Video 7-3: Determining Young’s modulus of a material

CHAPTER  8

Cross-sectional Properties

Designing Structural elements requires the knowledge of applied

external loads and internal reactions, material strengths, and cross-
sectional properties. The geometrical properties of a structural
element are critical in keeping axial, shear, and bending stresses
within allowable limits and moderating the amount of deflection.
The following demonstrations show how the shape of the cross-
sections affects their stiffness.

100
CROSS-SECTIONAL PROPERTIES 101

Figure 8-1: Relation between the cross-sectional depth (rise) of a

beam and its stiffness
Chapter 7 discussed that “area” is one of the cross-sectional
properties, which is important to reduce the amount of stress in
beams and columns. This chapter focuses on the shape of the
cross-sectional area and its distribution about the neutral axis of
102 ANAHITA KHODADADI

beams. In the following, some cross-sectional properties that will

be necessary to calculate beams and columns are introduced.

CENTER OF GRAVITY

The center of gravity of a body is the point about which the mass of
the body is balanced or the point through which the weight of the
body acts. When the density of a body is uniform throughout, the
center of gravity and the centroid (geometric center) of the body
are at the same point.

• The centroid of a rectangle is defined as the center point

where all the diagonals intersect each other.
• A centroid of a triangle is the point where the three
medians of the triangle meet.

Figure 8-2: The center of gravity of some basic geometrical shapes

Finding the center of gravity of the cross-section of a beam or
column can define the location of neutral axis of that body. In a
typical beam loaded by self-weight, every point above the neutral
CROSS-SECTIONAL PROPERTIES 103

axis is in compression and every point below the neutral axis is in

tension. At neutral axis the values of tension and compression is
equal to zero.

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Video 8-1: Neutral axis in a beam (https://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=BthnS6LJt8s&t=1s)
You can use the following equation to find the center of Gravity
of a compounded shape:

Example
104 ANAHITA KHODADADI

1ST MOMENT OF AREA

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Video 8-2: A demonstration of the moment of areas of two rods

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m9weJfoW5J0)
By definition, the tendency of an area alone to rotate about an
axis in the plane of that area.
Q=A
At the Neutral/Centroid axis:
A 1 x 1 = A 2x 2
CROSS-SECTIONAL PROPERTIES 105

Figure 8-3: The difference of 1st moment of area in two  beams with
different cross sections 

2ND MOMENT OF AREA/INERTIA

By definition, the 2nd moment of area is the distance of force

distribution from the neutral axis. The 2nd moment of area
106 ANAHITA KHODADADI

involved the first moment of area multiply by a second moment

arm. The second moment arm is the distance between the centroid
of the force distribution and the neutral axis.

Figure 8-4: The pattern of force distribution in relation to the

distance from the neutral axis
The second moment of area of a beam with a rectangular section
can be calculated using the following equation:
CROSS-SECTIONAL PROPERTIES 107

Ix =

Where:
Ix = Second moment of area
h = depth of the beam
b = with of the beam

SECTION MODULUS

By definition, the section

modulus (Sx) of a beam with a
symmetric section equals its
second moment of area divided by half its depth at the extreme
fiber.

Sx =

Where:
Sx = Section modulus
Ix = Second moment of area
c= h/2 at extreme fibers of a symmetric section
h = depth of the beam
The section modulus will help determine the cross-section shape
of a beam as discussed in the Chapter 9.

GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL BEAM

CROSS-SECTIONS

Tables of design dimensions, detailing dimensions, axial flexure,

strong-axis flexure, and weak-axis flexure of steel beams are
provided in the Steel Construction Manual published by the
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). You may find the
cross-sectional area (A), depth of the beam (d), Ix, and Sx.
108 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 8-5: Example of steel profiles listed in Steel Construction

Manual [15]
CHAPTER  9

Shear and Bending Stress in

Simple Beams

Before discussing shear and bending stress in simple beams, let’s

watch video 9-1 (https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=SZM0kGBote4&t=1s) and review what the role of beams
and columns are in a structural system and how they generally
behave under dead and live loads. At the end of this video an online
beam simulator is introduced that you can explore it further here.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text.

You can view them online here: https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/

archistructures/?p=36#oembed-1

Video 9-1: General behavior of beams and columns in a structural

system  

109
110 ANAHITA KHODADADI

SHEAR AND BENDING FORCES IN SIMPLE BEAMS

As we discussed in the previous chapters, the level of stress in a

structural element depends on the applied external loads as well
as its surface area or cross-sectional properties. Before addressing
the shear and bending stress in beams, let’s overview the
maximum shear and bending loads in a simple beam. The two
diagrams below show the end reactions, maximum values of the
shear load, and the bending moment in a simple beam supported
by a pinned joint and a roller. The first diagram shows the
maximum values for a beam under a point load, and the second
shows the respective amounts for a beam under a uniformly
distributed load.

Maximums in a simple beam

under a point load:
End reaction = P/2

Shear load = P/2

Bending moment = PL/4

SHEAR AND BENDING STRESS IN SIMPLE BEAMS 111

Maximums in a simple beam

under a uniformly distributed
load:
Equivalent point-Load = wL
End reaction R1=R2=wL/2

Shear load Vmax=wL/2

Bending moment Mmax=

Figure 9-1: The end reactions, maximum values of the shear load,
and the bending moment in a simple beam supported by a pinned joint
and a roller

Sign conventions

As you can see, in the two diagrams, there are sign conventions for
demonstrating the moment and shear in beams.
Sign Convention for Moment:
+ the top fibers in compression have positive curvature (holds
water)
– the top fibers in tension have negative curvature (spills water)
Sign Convention for Shear:
+ the sum of the vertical forces to the left of the cut is upwards
– the sum of the vertical forces to the left of the cut is downwards
Maximum shear and Bending forces in different types of beams
can be obtained by drawing a free-body diagram or referring to
the AISC Steel Construction Manual and using the provided tables
showing the shear and bending diagrams. Furthermore, online free
112 ANAHITA KHODADADI

beam calculators can be used to get maximum shear and bending

values. BeamGuru and SkySiv are two free online platforms that
can assist you in calculating beams.

BENDING AND SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS

Elastic bending stress

In a simple beam under a downward load, the top fibers of the

material are compressed, and the bottom fibers are stretched. The
change in fiber lengths at the top and the bottom of the beam
creates strain in the material. This strain is proportional to the
distance from the Neutral Axis. According to Hooke’s law, in a beam
where the Modulus of Elasticity is constant across the section, the
strain in the beam fibers is proportional to created flexure stress.
Flexure stress in beams can be computed using the following
equation:

Where:
M= Bending moment
I= 2nd Moment of Area
c = h/2 at extreme fibers of a symmetric section.
The above equation can be re-stated by replacing c/I with 1/S.
Where S is the section modulus of the beam. Thus:

Shear stress

Shear stress is created by a shear force distributed across the

section of the beam. Shear stress can be longitudinal or transverse.
Just like flexure stress, this distribution is not uniform across the
SHEAR AND BENDING STRESS IN SIMPLE BEAMS 113

section. Shear stress can be calculated by either simply dividing the

applied load by the area of the cross-section of the beam or using
the following equation:

Where:
fv = shear stress capacity
V= maximum shear stress
Q = 1st moment of area
I = 2nd moment of area
b = width of the beam
Shear stress will be maximum at locations
where:
• V is high, for example, at the supports of the beam
• Q is high, for example, at the neutral axis
• b is low, for example, where the web width is thin
• I is low, for example, in less stiff sections

To stabilize beams against the shear stress, stirrups are included in

reinforced concrete beams, or steel plates are bolted or welded to
steel beams where shear stress is critical.

Review

The following image represents axial, bending, and shear stresses,

as well as the corresponding equations for calculating the
respective values.
114 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 9-2: Corresponding equations for calculating axial, bending,

and shear stresses

ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN METHOD

There are different methods of designing beams. Allowable Stress

Design is a unique design practice that requires designers ensure
that the stresses imposed on the structures don’t exceed the elastic
limit of the structural element. The allowable stress is determined
by a factor of safety and the yield strength of the material. The
allowable stress for different building materials is defined in
building codes. For example, the allowable bending stress of
structural steel is calculated by multiplying 0.66 and the steel yield
stress. Likewise, the allowable bending stress of various species of
structural wood is between 1000 to 600 psi.
You can design a beam by the following steps:

1. Choosing a steel grade and allowable stress.

2. Determining the bending moment either by solving a
SHEAR AND BENDING STRESS IN SIMPLE BEAMS 115

free-body diagram or referring to design manuals or

online beam calculators.
3. Calculate the section modulus (Sx) using the following
equation:

Sx = M/Fb
Where:
Sx = section modulus = Ix/c (c = h/2 at extreme fibers of a
symmetric section)
M = maximum bending (bending at the extreme fiber)
Fb = allowable bending stress (determined based on the
material properties)
4. Choose a safe section with a suitable Sx from the tables provided
in design manuals

BEAM DESIGN – EXAMPLE 1

A cantilever beam is loaded by a 0.4 k/ft uniformly distributed load

along 8′ of its length as shown in the image below.
116 ANAHITA KHODADADI

The beam end reaction, shear and bending diagrams are

obtained using the the online beam calculator, BeamGuru. Find the
suitable wide-flange steel or glulam timber section regarding the
allowable bending stress limit.
Solving for a wide-flange steel beam:
First, we select a steel grade whose yield stress equals 50 ksi.
Fy = 50 ksi Fb = 0.6 Fy
Sx= Mmax/Fb
3
Sx= (32000 ×12)/(0.6×50000) = 12.8 in
Referring to the steel construction manual, any wide-flange section
3
whose Sx ≥ 12.8 in will be suitable.
SHEAR AND BENDING STRESS IN SIMPLE BEAMS 117

(Image source [15])

Solving for a glulam timber:
First, we select a glulam timber section with an 8 ¾” width and
allowable stress of 1250 psi ( DF grade L3). Note that the width of
the beam is usually determined based on the dimensions of the
columns that hold the beam.
Sx= Mmax/Fb
3
Sx= (32000 ×12)/1250 = 307.2 in

(Image source [16])

CHAPTER  10

Deflection in Simple Beams

Building structures are expected to be designed for strength,

stability, and serviceability. Therefore, when designing a structural
system with suitable strength, designers should consider tension
rupture, compression crushing, and flexure in structural
components. The stability of structural systems should be
addressed by controlling buckling in columns and lateral-torsional
buckling in beams. Finally, a structural system is expected to be not
only a safe construction but also provide the building occupants
a sense of comfort. Moreover, the structural system should not
impact the durability of other building assemblies, such as interior
finishing. Thus, beam deflection, building story drift, and cracking
should be prevented in structures. In this chapter, the deflection of
beams is discussed.

DEFINITION AND PRINCIPLES

In a simple beam, the compressive and tensile forces above and

below the neutral axis result in a shortening and lengthening of
the longitudinal fibers respectively above and below the neutral
axis. This effect causes bending in the beam and displaces the
beam fibers from their original positions. By definition, deflection is

118
DEFLECTION IN SIMPLE BEAMS 119

the displacement of the beam from its original horizontal position

when subjected to loads. Various guidelines have been derived to
determine maximum allowable deflection limits.
Typically, a floor system with a live load deflection in excess of
L/360 will feel bouncy or crack plaster. The maximum deflection
in a simple beam under a point load can be calculated using the
following equation:

Δ=

Where:
P = the magnitude of the point load in lbs or kips
L = length of the beam (usually in ft)
E = Young’s Modulus of the material
I = 2nd moment of area of the beam
120 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 10-1: Maximum deflection, shear and bending stresses, and end
reactions in a simple beam under a point load
The maximum deflection in a simple beam under a uniformly
distributed load can be calculated using the following equation:

Δ=

Where:
DEFLECTION IN SIMPLE BEAMS 121

w = the magnitude of the distributed load in linear foot

L = length of the beam (usually in ft)
E = Young’s Modulus of the material
I = 2nd moment of area of the beam

Figure 10-2: Maximum deflection, shear and bending stresses, and

end reactions in a simple beam under a uniformly distributed load
The maximum deflection in different types of beams can be
122 ANAHITA KHODADADI

obtained by drawing a free-body diagram or referring to the AISC

Steel Construction Manual and using the provided tables showing
the shear, bending, and deflection diagrams. Furthermore, online
free beam calculators can be used to get maximum shear and
bending values. ClearCalcs, and SkySiv are two free online
platforms that can assist you in calculating beams. The following
image shows a solved beam using the ClearCalcs online tool.

Figure 10-3: Diagrams of shear stress, bending stress and deflection

of a beam solved by the ClearCalcs online tool
By “superposition,” equations can be added for combination load
cases. Care should be taken that added equations all give
deflection at the same point, e.g. the centerline.
Note that if beam lengths and load (w) are entered in feet, a
conversion factor of 1728 in3/ft3 must be applied in order to
compute deflection in inches.
DEFLECTION IN SIMPLE BEAMS 123

UNDERSTANDING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE

MAXIMUMS

A series of relationships between forces and deformations along a

beam can be helpful in analysis. Using either the deflection or load
as a starting point, the following characteristics can be discovered
in a simple beam under a point load applied to the mid-span:

• Maximum slope occurs at the ends of the beam

• The point of zero slope occurs at the centerline. This is the
point of maximum deflection.
• The moment is positive for gravity loads.
• Shear and slope have balanced + and – areas.
• Deflection is negative for gravity loads.

The following characteristics can be discovered in a cantilever

beam under a point load applied to its free end:

• The fixed end has the maximum moment but has a zero
slope and deflection.
• The free end has the maximum slope and deflection but a
zero moment.

THE IDEA OF PRE AND POST-STRESSING

One of the methods of making the reinforced concrete beams

more efficient is using pre-stressing or post-tensioning, where a
beam is permanently loaded in a way that stresses are built up in
the member opposite to those developed by the external loads.

Post tensioning

For constructing a post-tensioned concrete beam, a framework

124 ANAHITA KHODADADI

is positioned, hollow sheaths containing unstressed cables are

draped into place, and concrete is cast around the sheaths. After
the concrete is cured, cables are tensioned by jacks at each end
of the beam. When the framework is removed, the cable force is
maintained by permanent anchors at each end.

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You can view them online here: https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/
archistructures/?p=38#oembed-1

Video 10-1: Post-tensioning system (https://www.youtube.com/

watch?time_continue=1&v=eQ2fJEbvJBs&feature=emb_logo)

Pre-tensioning

In a pre-stressed concrete beam, steel cables are pre-tensioned

between abutments using hydraulic jacks. Then, concrete is cast
around pre-tensioned cables and allowed to cure. After the
concrete is cured, cables are cut. Cables apply a compressive force
to the ends of the beam at the bottom level. This causes the beam
to bow up, and the created curve offsets the deflection once the
beam is loaded.
DEFLECTION IN SIMPLE BEAMS 125

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archistructures/?p=38#oembed-2

Video 10-2: Pre-stressing a reinforced concrete slab

(https://www.youtube.com/
watch?time_continue=1&v=0z6gjjrSn0M&feature=emb_logo)

TOPICS FOR CRITICAL THINKING

• Consider the location of the maximum deflection in

beams, and explain which of the following beams is
designed better?
126 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 10-4: Deflection in beams with different longitudinal shapes

CHAPTER  11

Buckling in Columns

Columns’ behavior in structural systems can be studied regarding

their geometrical properties, loading type, and construction
material. Following our discussion from the previous chapters, we
will discuss the effect of columns’ geometrical properties on
potential failure modes of columns in buildings. Columns can be
categorized into two contrasting groups of long and short columns.
When the ratio of the effective length of a column to its least lateral
dimension is equal to or less than 12, the column is considered
short. In general, short columns fail by crushing.

f c= Fc

Where:
fc = Actual compressive stress
2
A = Cross-sectional area of column (in )
P = Load on the column
Fc = Allowable compressive stress per codes
Long or slender columns are those whose ratio of effective length
to its least lateral dimension is more than 12. A long column fails
due to buckling where the structural component under
compression bows quickly. the buckling phenomenon in ling
columns is due to the inevitable eccentricities in loading and the

127
128 ANAHITA KHODADADI

likelihood of irregularities in materials’ resistance to compression.

Long columns generally fail by buckling before reaching their limit
of compressive stress. Accordingly, the load-carrying capacity of
long columns is less than short columns.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text.
You can view them online here: https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/
archistructures/?p=40#oembed-2

Video 11-1: Demonstration of buckling in long elements in

compression (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KjgOGw6SqIA&t=2s)
In 1757, a mathematician called Leonhard Euler derived a
formula that gives the maximum axial load that a long slender
column can carry without buckling. The Euler equation is given
below:

F=
Where:
F = Maximum allowable or critical compressive stress
2
A = Cross-sectional area (in )
E = Modulus of elasticity of the column material (psi)
K = Stiffness (curvature mode) factor; The K factor can be derived
from the following table.
L = Column length between ends (inches)
Table 11-1: K factor in columns (source: column effect length, 2006,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ColumnEffectiveLength.png)
BUCKLING IN COLUMNS 129

According to Leonhard Euler, the load under which a

compressive element (such as a column) may buckle depends on its
slenderness. The slenderness of a compressive element depends
on:

• The length of the element

• The cross-sectional area
• 2nd moment of area
• Young’s modulus of the element’s material
• The support condition (K factor).
130 ANAHITA KHODADADI

One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text.
You can view them online here: https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/

archistructures/?p=40#oembed-1

Video 11-2: How a column behaves under a compression force

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ONVGO-iU4g&t=1s)
You may prevent buckling of the columns by:

• Decreasing the column length by bracing.

• Increasing the 2nd moment of area of the column by
doubling the cross-sections or using box shapes.

TOPICS FOR CRITICAL THINKING

• Which of the following cross-sectional shapes will give a

more stable column? Why?
BUCKLING IN COLUMNS 131

Figure 11-2: The effect of a column’s cross-sectional shape on its

stiffness
CHAPTER  12

Load Tracing

Previous chapters have discussed loads as they pertain to the

major structural elements of beams and columns and this chapter
will discuss the structural systems as a whole.
Analysis of the paths along which the loads travel throughout a
structural system to reach the ground is called load tracing. This
chapter discusses the systematic process of determining loads and
support reactions of structural members as they affect the loading
condition of other structural elements.

LOAD PATH

Structural systems are designed to transfer loads top down to the

foundation and the ground. Loads travel throughout the structural
components from the uppermost roof elements and move
downward to the foundation system. This hierarchy can be
described in the following order:

1. Flooring spans between joists

2. Joists span between beams
3. Beams span between girders
4. Girders span between columns
132
LOAD TRACING 133

5. Columns carry load to the foundation system and then to

the ground

Every time the load travels from one element to another, a support
condition should be determined, and the loads and reactions at
each transfer should be analyzed.

TRIBUTARY AREA

Each member is associated with an area that can be used to find

the total load on that member. The tributary area is an area that
corresponds to the load on a member. The following image shows
a deck under a uniformly distributed live load. The deck is
supported in three different ways: by bearing walls, joists and load-
bearing walls, and a combination of joists, beams, girders, and
columns. In each case, you can see the tributary area of the
supporting walls and joists.
134 ANAHITA KHODADADI

Figure 12-1: Tributary area of beams and joists in a simple deck

system
The tributary area of one-way concrete slabs is calculated by
splitting the slab area across the direction of steel reinforcements.
In two-way concrete slabs, the tributary area divides at 45° from the
corners.
LOAD TRACING 135

Figure 12-2: The tributary area of a one-way concrete slab vs. a two-
way concrete slab

Example 1

The image below shows a one-way roof system with an area of

2
24×20 ft . The roof system is composed of two girders, seven
beams, and a 4-in thick concrete deck.
First, find the tributary area of Beam-1 and Beam-2.
Second, if:
Floor Live load = 40 psf
The weight of each beam is 31 plf
Weight of 1 cubic foot of the concrete = 150 lbs,
what type of and how much load do Beam-1, Beam-2, Girder-1
carry?
Third, four timber columns hold the roof system, and the
allowable stress of the timber is 5000 psf, find the required cross-
sectional area of a column using the following equation:
Allowable stress = P/A
Fourth, if the soil load-bearing capacity is 2000 psf, find the
required surface area of the footing.
136 ANAHITA KHODADADI

*Note: Assume the columns and foundation are weightless.

Solution:
Tributary area Beam-1 =
2
2×20 = 40 ft
Tributary area Beam-2 = 4 ×
2
20 = 80 ft
Dead load of deck = 150
×(4”)/12 = 50 psf

Beam-1
2
Live load = 40 psf × 40 ft =
1600 lbs
DL of beam weight = 31 plf ×
20 = 620 lbs
2
DL of deck = 50 psf × 40 ft =
2000 lbs
Beam-2
2
Live load = 40 psf × 80 ft = 3200 lbs
DL of beam weight = 31 plf × 20 = 620 lbs
2
DL of deck = 50 psf × 80 ft = 4000 lbs
Girder -1
DL of beam weight = 31 plf ×
24 = 744 lbs
Live load and DL of the deck
are applied to Girder-1 via
point loads P1 and P2.
P1 = end reaction in Beam-1
= (Total load on Beam-1)/2
= (1600 + 620 +2000)/2 = 4220 lbs/2 = 2110 lbs
P2 = end reaction in Beam-2 = (Total load on Beam-2)/2
= (3200 + 620 +4000)/2 = 7820 lbs/2 = 3910 lbs
Columns
Axial load on a column = (P1×2 + P2×5 + 744)/2 = (2110×2 + 3910
×5 + 744)/2 = 24514/2 = 12257 lbs
LOAD TRACING 137

Required cross sectional area A = P/ Allowable stress

2
A= 12257/5000 = 2.45 ft
Footing
Soil load bearing capacity = 2000 psf
Footing required cross sectional area A = P/ Allowable stress
2
A = 12257 / 2000 = 6.12 ft

Example 2

A concrete slab floor system spans in the directions shown. Find

load diagrams for B1, B2, B3, B4, G2, G1.
The dead load of the floor
slab is 70 psf.
The floor live load is 90 psf.
First, find the tributary area
for each beam.
Second, calculate the
distribution of the load on the
floor.
Third, draw the load diagram
for each beam.

Solution:
B1
Tributary area = 20×10/2 =
2
100 ft
Dead load = 70 psf × 100 =
7000 lbs
Floor Live load = 90 × 100 =
9000 lbs
B2
2
Tributary area = 20×10/2 = 100 ft
Dead load = 70 psf × 100 = 7000 lbs
Floor Live load = 90 × 100 = 9000 lbs
138 ANAHITA KHODADADI

B3
Tributary area = 20×10/2 =
2
100 ft
Dead load = 70 psf × 100 =
7000 lbs
Floor Live load = 90 × 100 =
9000 lbs
R1+R2-7000-9000= 0
R1+R2=16000
R1=R2 (symmetrical loading)
R1=R2 = 8000
B4
Tributary area = 20×10/2 =
2
100 ft
Dead load = 70 psf × 100 =
7000 lbs
Floor Live load = 90 × 100 =
9000 lbs
G1
Tributary area = 40×10/2 +
20×10/2 + 20×10/2
2
= 200 + 100 + 100 = 400 ft
Dead load = 70 psf × 400 =
28000 lbs
Floor Live load = 90 × 400 =
36000 lbs

TOPICS FOR CRITICAL

THINKING

What are the lateral force-resisting systems? Which of the three

main kinds of a braced frame, a shear wall, and a moment-resisting
frame is stiffer? Watch the following video
LOAD TRACING 139

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kaKUHU3YYzY&t=1s) to learn
about these systems.

One or more interactive elements has been excluded from this version of the text.
You can view them online here: https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/
archistructures/?p=42#oembed-1

Video 12-1: Lateral force-resisting systems

 PART II

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