EXPERIMENTAL LAWS AND

SIMPLE CIRCUITS
(RESISTANCE- CELLS AND BATTERIES)
LESSON 2.4
EE210 - BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Textbook:
C. K. Alexander and M. N. O. Sadiku, Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill
William H. Hayt, Jr., Jeck E. Kemmerly, and Steven M. Durbin, Engineering Circuit Analysis, 6th Edition.
Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, Alexander Sadiku, 3rd Edition
U.A. Bakshi and V.U. Bakshi, Basic Electrical Engineering, Rev. Ed. 2009
RESISTANCE
Resistance
The opposition to the flow of electron is called electrical resistance , R.
It is the property if electric circuit which opposes the flow of current.
LAWS OF RESISTANCE

The resistance of a conductor, such as wire, of uniform of cross-section depends on the following factors:
(a) Length : varies directly as its length, L
(b) Cross-section: varies inversely as the cross-section area, A
(c) Nature of material, resistivity of specific resistance, ρ
(d) Temperature of conductor: It almost varies directly with the temperature

ρ Ohm (m) Ohm (cm) Ohm Area in circular mils CM = 𝑑 2

(CM/ft) d = diameter in mils
1 mil = .001 inch
L m cm ft
A 𝑚2 𝑐𝑚2 CM
Resistance variation with Temperature
■ Over a wide range of temperature change, the resistance varies linearly wit
temperature

𝑅1 𝑇 + 𝑡1 1
= 𝑅2 = 𝑅1 [1 + α1 (𝑡2 −𝑡1 ) α1 =
𝑅2 𝑇 + 𝑡2 𝑇 + 𝑡1
𝑅1 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑡1 α1 = temp coeeficient of resistance at temperature 𝑡1
𝑅2 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑡2
T = inferred absolute zero resistance temperature of conductor

𝑅1 1 + α0 𝑡1
If the temperature coefficient of resistance at 0°C is given =
𝑅2 1 + α0 𝑡2
1
Conductance, 𝐺 = , mho or siemen
𝑅

The effect of temperature on resistance

- The resistance of metal conductors ‘increases’ (i.e. temperature coefficient of resistance being
positive) with rise of temperature;
- The resistance of semi-conductors such as carbon, and all electrolytes ‘decreases’ as the
temperature rises (being negative)
Linear and Non-linear Resistors
■ A linear resistor is one which obeys Ohm’s law. A circuit which contains only linear
components is called a linear circuit.
■ Such elements in which the V/I (volt-ampere) plots are not straight lines but curves are called
non-linear resistors or non-linear elements.

Two main characteristics of a resistor

■ Its resistance ( R ) in ohms . The resistors are available from a fraction of an ohm to many
mega ohms.
1
■ The wattage rating. The power may be as high as several hundred watts or as low as 10 watt.
Power rating indicates the maximum wattage the resistor ca dissipate without excessive
heat. (Too much heat can make the resistor burn open).
■ The resistor are classified as follows:
1. Fixed resistors. It is the simplest type of resistor. Fixed means that the unit is so constructed that its
resistance value is constant and unchangeable. These are made of a carbon composition and have
a cover of black or brown hard plastic.
2. Tapped resistors. It is a resistor which has a tap, or connection, somewhere along the resistance
material. These resistors are usually wire wound type. If they have more than one tap, they will have
a separate terminal for each.
3. Variable resistors. It has a movable contact that is used to adjust or select resistance value
between two or more terminal. A variable resistor is commonly called a controlled resistor.
4. Special resistors. The most common type of special resistors is the fusible type. It has a definite
resistance value and it protects the circuit much like a fuse. Another special resistor is the
temperature compensating unit. Such resistor are used to provide special control of circuit that
must be extremely stable in their operation.

■ The following types of resistors are used in electrical circuits:

1. Carbon resistors
2. Wire-wound resistors on ceramic or plastic forms (As in case of rheostat., etc)
3. Deposited carbon resistors on ceramic base.
4. Deposited metal resistors on ceramic base.
5. Printed, painted or etched circuit resistors.
Schematic Symbol of Resistors
Resistance in Series
■ Only one path (electron has no choice, must go through all components)
■ If one goes out, they all go out
■ The total voltage is the sum of all voltages of the series components.
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉𝑅1 + 𝑉𝑅2 +…+ 𝑉𝑅𝑛
■ The total resistance across the circuit is the sum of all resistance.
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 +…+ 𝑅𝑅𝑛
1 1 1 1 1
= + + ⋯+ 𝐺𝑇 =
𝐺𝑇 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺𝑛 1 1 1
+ + ⋯ +
𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺𝑛
■ The current across each components are equal.
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑅1 = 𝐼𝑅2 =…= 𝐼𝑅𝑛

■ The total power is the sum of all components in the circuit.

𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝑅1 + 𝑃𝑅2 +…+ 𝑃𝑅𝑛
 Resistance in Parallel
The figure below show the connection of parallel resistors.
■ Current has more then one path.
■ The voltage across every parallel components are equal.
■ The total resistance ( 𝑅𝑇 ) is equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the
reciprocal:
1 1 1 1 1
= + + ⋯+ 𝑅𝑇 =
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛 1 1 1
+
𝑅1 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑛

𝐺𝑇 = 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + ⋯ + 𝐺𝑛

■ The sum of all of the current in each branch

(𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 +…+ 𝐼𝑅𝑛 ) is equal to the total current (𝐼𝑇 ).
■ The total power is the sum of all components in the circuit.
Resistor Color Coding
■ Wire wound resistors normally have their values in ohms and tolerance in percent
stamped on them.
■ For carbon or composition resistors a color code is used.
■ The resistance values, for several years have been coded by three colored bands
painted around the body of the resistors. If the tolerance is either 5 or 10 per cent, a
forth color band is added.
The bands are read from the end of the resistor toward the middle.
- The first two colors tells the first two digits.
- The third band tells how many zeros follow the first two digits.
- Sometimes a fourth band is present. This band tells the tolerance
and will be either gold or silver. A gold band means 5% tolerance,
Silver 10% , and no fourth band , 20%. The tolerance band tells
how close the resistance should be to the value shown by the
other three bands.
- Resistors under 10 ohms have a third stripe of gold or silver have
fractional decimal multipliers. When the third stripe is gold
multiply the first two digits by 0.10. Silver is a multiplier of 0.01
The black-red-green bands signify 2 followed by five zero and would be read as
200,000 ohms ± 10% or 200kΩ ± 10%

Better Be Right Or Your Great Big Venture Goes Wrong

 EXPERIMENTAL LAWS AND
SIMPLE CIRCUITS
(CELLS AND BATTERIES)
LESSON 2.4
EE210 - BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Textbook:
C. K. Alexander and M. N. O. Sadiku, Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill
William H. Hayt, Jr., Jeck E. Kemmerly, and Steven M. Durbin, Engineering Circuit Analysis, 6th Edition.
Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, Alexander Sadiku, 3rd Edition
U.A. Bakshi and V.U. Bakshi, Basic Electrical Engineering, Rev. Ed. 2009
 CELLS AND BATTERIES
• Cell – a electrochemical device used to store • Battery – a combination of number of cells,
chemical energy which is converted to electrical connected in either series or parallel to obtain
energy. desired voltage level for practical applications.
- produces DC current and voltage - produces DC current and voltage

Schematic Diagram of a cell Schematic Diagram of a battery

Source: https://control.com/worksheets/pictorial-circuit-diagrams/

EE210 – Basic Electrical Engineering : ELECTROCHEMISTRY

 CELLS AND BATTERIES
• Two categories of conductors:
1. Non- electrolytes – these conductors are not affected by the flow of current through them, such as metals,
alloys, carbon and some other materials.
2. Electrolytes – these conductors undergo decomposition due to the flow of current through them, such as
various acids, bases, salt solutions and molten salts.

EE210 – Basic Electrical Engineering : CELLS AND BATTERIES

 CELLS AND BATTERIES
Types of CELLS
1. Primary Cells 2. Secondary Cells
These are non-rechargeable or single-use cells. The There are storage , accumulator or rechargeable
chemical action in such cells is irreversible. After the cells. The chemical action in such cells is reversible.
energy is exhausted, the cell must be replaced with a If the energy in the cell is drained, it can be
new one. They can only produce limited amount of charged to regain its original state. Used to
energy. Most of non-electrolytes are used as primary produced large amount of energy.
cells.
Examples: Lead-acid cell,
Examples : zinc-carbon dry cell , Nickel-cadmium alkaline, etc.
zinc chloride cell, Lithium cells ,
mercury cell, etc.

EE210 – Basic Electrical Engineering : CELLS AND BATTERIES

 BATTERY CAPACITY
• Battery capacity – indicates the amount of electricity which a battery can supply at the specified
discharge rate, till its voltage falls to a specific value.
• Specified in ampere-hours (Ah)
• Sometimes watt-hours (Wh) – the product of the average voltage during discharge and the ampere hour
capacity of a battery.

Battery capacity = 𝐼𝐷 𝑥 𝑇𝐷 (Ah)

where : 𝐼𝐷 = Discharge current in amperes
𝑇𝐷 = Time of discharge in hours till the voltage falls to a specified value.

EE210 – Basic Electrical Engineering : CELLS AND BATTERIES

 BATTERY CAPACITY
Factors that affects the battery capacity :

1. Discharge rate – It is inversely proportional to the battery

capacity. As it increases, the latter decreases. https://bit.ly/3DaWzxm

2. Specific gravity of electrolyte – This decides the internal Effects of temperature on battery capacity

resistance of the battery. The more the specific gravity of the

electrolyte means more battery capacity.
3. Temperature – It is directly proportional to the battery capacity.
As it increases, the latter also increases.
4. Size of the plates – This is related to the amount of active
material present in the battery
https://bit.ly/3Fq2IYL

EE210 – Basic Electrical Engineering : CELLS AND BATTERIES

 BATTERY EFFICINECY
• Battery efficiency is the ratio of the output during discharging to the input required during charging, to
regain the original state of the battery
Two ways to define battery efficiency
1. Ampere-hour efficiency or quantity efficiency 2. Watt- hour efficiency or energy efficiency
It is the ratio of output in ampere-hours during It is the ratio of output in watt-hours during discharging to
discharging to the input ampere-hour during charging. the input watt-hour during charging.

𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

𝜂 𝐴ℎ = 𝜂 𝑊ℎ =
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 (𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒)
% 𝜂 𝐴ℎ = x 100 % 𝜂 𝑊ℎ = x 100
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒郗𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 (𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒)

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

% 𝜂 𝑊ℎ = 𝜂 𝐴ℎ 𝑥
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
For lead-acid battery : % 𝜂 𝐴ℎ is between 80 % to 90 % ; while % 𝜂 𝑊ℎ is between 70 % to 80 %
It can be 𝜂 𝑊ℎ <𝜂 𝐴ℎ : the ave. voltage during discharge is less than the ave. voltage during charge.

EE210 – Basic Electrical Engineering : CELLS AND BATTERIES

 GROUPING OF CELLS
Single cell alone is not sufficient to supply different practical applications. In order to mean the required
voltage or current, cells are group in different ways:

1. Series grouping – the current capacity remains the same. The cells connected in series has the same
current from one end to the other. But the voltage can be increased by increasing the individual
number of cells (n) connected.
2. Parallel grouping - the voltage remains the same. The cells connected in parallel have the same
voltage across each cells. But the current can be increased by increasing the number of cells(n)
connected.
3. Series-parallel grouping – this is used to increased the current and the voltage required.

EE210 – Basic Electrical Engineering : CELLS AND BATTERIES

 GROUPING OF CELLS
1. Series grouping – 1 2 n-1 n battery

I E E E E
n cells in series
+ V -
Load
𝑅𝐿
Where: E = the E.M.F. of each cell
r = internal resistance of each cell
V = total voltage available = n x E volts
𝑅𝑇 = Total circuit resistance = load + cells = 𝑅𝐿 + n(r)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉 𝑛𝐸
𝐼𝑇 = = = A
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝐿 + n(r)

Note: for this type of grouping the current each cell must be the same.

EE210 – Basic Electrical Engineering : CELLS AND BATTERIES

 GROUPING OF CELLS
2. Parallel grouping
𝐼𝑇
+
𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼𝑛
𝐼𝑛−1

Load
battery
V 𝑅𝐿

1 2 n-1 n
-

Where: V = E = the E.M.F. of each cell

r = internal resistance of each cell
𝐼𝑛 = current through the nth branch
𝐼𝑇 = Total current
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + ... + 𝐼𝑛

Note: For this type of grouping the voltage of each cell must be same.

EE210 – Basic Electrical Engineering : CELLS AND BATTERIES

 GROUPING OF CELLS
3. Series-parallel grouping

Load
Series connection of 𝑅𝐿
cells in each group

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3

Groups in parallel

Note: For this type of connection, the cells connected in series must have the same current and the cells connected in parallel
must have the same voltage

EE210 – Basic Electrical Engineering : CELLS AND BATTERIES

Practice Problems on Resistance:
1. A copper wire of unknown length has a diameter of 0.25inch and a resistance of 0.28 ohm.
By successive passes through drawing dies, the diameter of the wire is reduced to 0.05
inch. Assuming that the resistivity of copper wire remains unchanged in the drawing
process, determine the resistance of the reduced-size wire.
2. It is found that the armature of a coil wire increases from 50ohms at 20°C to 60 ohms at
56°C. What is the temperature coefficient of resistance of the conductor material at 0°C?
3. The resistance of a given electric device is 46 ohms at 25°C. If the temperature coefficient
of resistance of the material is 0.004545 at 20°C. What is the temperature of the device
when its resistance is 92 ohms?
4. When two resistors are connected in series, the total resistance is 108 ohms. When
connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance is 24 ohms. What is the value of each
resistance?
5. A resistor of 40 ohms is in series with two resistors A and B in parallel. The resistance of A
is 100 ohms. The entire series-parallel circuit is connected across a 120-volt supply.
Determine the resistance of resistor B in order that the total current be 1.2A.
Practice Problems on Batteries:
1. One ampere hour charge is equivalent to ?
2. The open circuit e.m.f. of a storage cell is 2.2V. The terminal voltage
measured when current is 6A is found to be 1.98V. The internal resistance
of the cell is
3. A bank of 12 cells is connected into 3 parallel branches containing 4 cells in
series. What is the equivalent open circuit e.m.f of bank if the e.m.f of each
cell is 1.5 V.
4. A current of 2A is passed in the copper sulphate solution for a period of 40
minutes. Determine the mass of copper deposited on the substance if E.C.E.
of copper is 0.000329 gram per coulomb.
5. Six cells each of 1.5 volts e.m.f and 0.3 ohm internal resistance are
connected in series together with external resistance of 9 ohms. What is the
terminal voltage?
 THANK YOU
THAT’S ALL FOR NOW !

EE210 – Basic Electrical Engineering : Electricity Basic Principles