Physics Formulary

By ir. J.C.A. Wevers

© 1995, 2022 J.C.A. Wevers Version: November 22, 2022

Dear reader,
This document contains a 108 page LATEX file which contains a lot equations in physics. It is written
at advanced undergraduate/postgraduate level. It is intended to be a short reference for anyone who
works with physics and often needs to look up equations.
This, and a Dutch version of this file, can be obtained from the author, Johan Wevers
([email protected]).
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Johan Wevers
Contents

Contents I

Physical Constants 1

1 Mechanics 2
1.1 Point-kinetics in a fixed coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Polar coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Relative motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Point-dynamics in a fixed coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3.1 Force, (angular)momentum and energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3.2 Conservative force fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.3 Gravitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.4 Orbital equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.5 The virial theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Point dynamics in a moving coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.1 Apparent forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.2 Tensor notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Dynamics of masspoint collections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5.1 The centre of mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5.2 Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Dynamics of rigid bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6.1 Moment of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6.2 Principal axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6.3 Time dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7 Variational Calculus, Hamilton and Lagrange mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.7.1 Variational Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.7.2 Hamilton mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.7.3 Motion around an equilibrium, linearization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.7.4 Phase space, Liouville’s equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.7.5 Generating functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 Electricity & Magnetism 9

2.1 The Maxwell equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Force and potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Gauge transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 Energy of the electromagnetic field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5 Electromagnetic waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5.1 Electromagnetic waves in vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5.2 Electromagnetic waves in matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.6 Multipoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.7 Electric currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.8 Depolarizing field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.9 Mixtures of materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
II Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

3 Relativity 13
3.1 Special relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.1 The Lorentz transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.2 Red and blue shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.1.3 The stress-energy tensor and the field tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2 General relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2.1 Riemannian geometry, the Einstein tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2.2 The line element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2.3 Planetary orbits and the perihelium shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.4 The trajectory of a photon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2.5 Gravitational waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2.6 Cosmology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4 Oscillations 18
4.1 Harmonic oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.2 Mechanic oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.3 Electric oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.4 Waves in long conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.5 Coupled conductors and transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.6 Pendulums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

5 Waves 20
5.1 The wave equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.2 Solutions of the wave equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.2.1 Plane waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.2.2 Spherical waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.2.3 Cylindrical waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.2.4 The general solution in one dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.3 The stationary phase method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.4 Green functions for the initial-value problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.5 Waveguides and resonating cavities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.6 Non-linear wave equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

6 Optics 24
6.1 The bending of light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.2 Paraxial geometrical optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.2.1 Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.2.2 Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.2.3 Principal planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.2.4 Magnification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.3 Matrix methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.4 Aberrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.5 Reflection and transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.6 Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.7 Prisms and dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.8 Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.9 Special optical effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.10 The Fabry-Perot interferometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

7 Statistical physics 30
7.1 Degrees of freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.2 The energy distribution function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.3 Pressure on a wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.4 The equation of state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.5 Collisions between molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers III

7.6 Interaction between molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

8 Thermodynamics 33
8.1 Mathematical introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
8.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
8.3 Thermal heat capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
8.4 The laws of thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.5 State functions and Maxwell relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.6 Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
8.7 Maximal work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
8.8 Phase transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
8.9 Thermodynamic potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.10 Ideal mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.11 Conditions for equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.12 Statistical basis for thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8.13 Application to other systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

9 Transport phenomena 39
9.1 Mathematical introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
9.2 Conservation laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
9.3 Bernoulli’s equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
9.4 Characterising of flows by dimensionless numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
9.5 Tube flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
9.6 Potential theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
9.7 Boundary layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
9.7.1 Flow boundary layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
9.7.2 Temperature boundary layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
9.8 Heat conductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
9.9 Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
9.10 Self organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

10 Quantum physics 45
10.1 Introduction to quantum physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
10.1.1 Black body radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
10.1.2 The Compton effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
10.1.3 Electron diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
10.2 Wave functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
10.3 Operators in quantum physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
10.4 The uncertainty principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
10.5 The Schrödinger equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
10.6 Parity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
10.7 The tunnel effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
10.8 The harmonic oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
10.9 Angular momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
10.10 Spin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
10.11 The Dirac formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
10.12 Atomic physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
10.12.1 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
10.12.2 Eigenvalue equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
10.12.3 Spin-orbit interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
10.12.4 Selection rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
10.13 Interaction with electromagnetic fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
10.14 Perturbation theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
10.14.1 Time-independent perturbation theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
10.14.2 Time-dependent perturbation theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
IV Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

10.15 N-particle systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

10.15.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
10.15.2 Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
10.16 Quantum statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

11 Plasma physics 54
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
11.2 Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
11.3 Elastic collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
11.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
11.3.2 The Coulomb interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
11.3.3 The induced dipole interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
11.3.4 The centre of mass system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
11.3.5 Scattering of light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
11.4 Thermodynamic equilibrium and reversibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
11.5 Inelastic collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
11.5.1 Types of collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
11.5.2 Cross sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
11.6 Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
11.7 The Boltzmann transport equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
11.8 Collision-radiative models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
11.9 Waves in plasma’s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

12 Solid state physics 62

12.1 Crystal structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
12.2 Crystal binding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
12.3 Crystal vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
12.3.1 A lattice with one type of atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
12.3.2 A lattice with two types of atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
12.3.3 Phonons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
12.3.4 Thermal heat capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
12.4 Magnetic field in the solid state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
12.4.1 Dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
12.4.2 Paramagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
12.4.3 Ferromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
12.5 Free electron Fermi gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
12.5.1 Thermal heat capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
12.5.2 Electric conductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
12.5.3 The Hall-effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
12.5.4 Thermal heat conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
12.6 Energy bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
12.7 Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
12.8 Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
12.8.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
12.8.2 The Josephson effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
12.8.3 Flux quantisation in a superconducting ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
12.8.4 Macroscopic quantum interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
12.8.5 The London equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
12.8.6 The BCS model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers V

13 Theory of groups 71
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
13.1.1 Definition of a group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
13.1.2 The Cayley table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
13.1.3 Conjugated elements, subgroups and classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
13.1.4 Isomorfism and homomorfism; representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
13.1.5 Reducible and irreducible representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
13.2 The fundamental orthogonality theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
13.2.1 Schur’s lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
13.2.2 The fundamental orthogonality theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
13.2.3 Character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
13.3 The relation with quantum mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
13.3.1 Representations, energy levels and degeneracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
13.3.2 Breaking of degeneracy by a perturbation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
13.3.3 The construction of a base function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
13.3.4 The direct product of representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
13.3.5 Clebsch-Gordan coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
13.3.6 Symmetric transformations of operators, irreducible tensor operators . . . . . . 74
13.3.7 The Wigner-Eckart theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
13.4 Continuous groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
13.4.1 The 3-dimensional translation group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
13.4.2 The 3-dimensional rotation group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
13.4.3 Properties of continuous groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
13.5 The group SO(3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
13.6 Applications to quantum mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
13.6.1 Vectormodel for the addition of angular momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
13.6.2 Irreducible tensor operators, matrixelements and selection rules . . . . . . . . . 78
13.7 Applications to particle physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

14 Nuclear physics 81
14.1 Nuclear forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
14.2 The shape of the nucleus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
14.3 Radioactive decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
14.4 Scattering and nuclear reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
14.4.1 Kinetic model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
14.4.2 Quantum mechanical model for n-p scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
14.4.3 Conservation of energy and momentum in nuclear reactions . . . . . . . . . . . 84
14.5 Radiation dosimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

15 Quantum field theory & Particle physics 85

15.1 Creation and annihilation operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
15.2 Classical and quantum fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
15.3 The interaction picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
15.4 Real scalar field in the interaction picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
15.5 Charged spin-0 particles, conservation of charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
15.6 Field functions for spin- 12 particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
15.7 Quantization of spin- 12 fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
15.8 Quantization of the electromagnetic field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
15.9 Interacting fields and the S-matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
15.10 Divergences and renormalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
15.11 Classification of elementary particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
15.12 P and CP-violation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
15.13 The standard model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
15.13.1 The electroweak theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
15.13.2 Spontaneous symmetry breaking: the Higgs mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
VI Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

15.13.3 Quantumchromodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
15.14 Path integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
15.15 Unification and quantum gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

16 Astrophysics 96
16.1 Determination of distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
16.2 Brightness and magnitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
16.3 Radiation and stellar atmospheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
16.4 Composition and evolution of stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
16.5 Energy production in stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

The ∇-operator 99

The SI units 100

 Physical Constants

Name Symbol Value Unit

Number π π 3.14159265358979323846...
Number e e  n 2.71828182845904523536...

P
Euler’s constant γ = lim 1/k − ln(n) = 0.5772156649...
n→∞ k=1

Elementary charge e 1.602176634 · 10−19 C

Gravitational constant G, κ 6.67430(15) · 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2
Fine-structure constant α = e2 /2hcε0 ≈ 1/137
Speed of light in vacuum c 2.99792458 · 108 m/s (def)
Permittivity of the vacuum ε0 8.8541878128(13) · 10−12 F/m
Permeability of the vacuum µ0 4π · 10−7 H/m
(4πε0 )−1 8.9876 · 109 Nm2 C−2
Planck’s constant h 6.62607015 · 10−34 Js
Dirac’s constant ℏ = h/2π 1.054571817 · 10−34 Js
Bohr magneton µB = eℏ/2me 9.2740100783(28) · 10−24 Am2
Bohr radius a0 0.529177210903(80) Å
Rydberg’s constant Ry 13.605693122994(26) eV
Electron Compton wavelength λCe = h/me c 2.42631023867(73) · 10−12 m
Proton Compton wavelength λCp = h/mp c 1.32140985539(40) · 10−15 m
Reduced mass of the H-atom µH 9.1045755 · 10−31 kg
Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant σ 5.670374419 · 10−8 Wm−2 K−4
Wien’s constant kW 2.897771955... · 10−3 mK
Molar gasconstant R 8.31446261815324 J·mol−1 ·K−1
Avogadro’s constant NA 6.02214076 · 1023 mol−1
Boltzmann’s constant k = R/NA 1.380649 · 10−23 J/K
Electron mass me 9.1093837015(28) · 10−31 kg
Proton mass mp 1.67262192369(51) · 10−27 kg
Neutron mass mn 1.67492749804(95) · 10−27 kg
Elementary mass unit mu = 1 12
12 m( 6 C) 1.66053906660(50) · 10−27 kg
Nuclear magneton µN 5.050783699(31) · 10−27 J/T
Diameter of the Sun D⊙ 1392 · 106 m
Mass of the Sun M⊙ 1.989 · 1030 kg
Rotational period of the Sun T⊙ 25.38 days
Radius of Earth RA 6.378 · 106 m
Mass of Earth MA 5.976 · 1024 kg
Rotational period of Earth TA 23.96 hours
Earth orbital period Tropical year 365.24219879 days
Astronomical unit AU 1.4959787066 · 1011 m
Light year lj 9.4605 · 1015 m
Parsec pc 3.0857 · 1016 m
Hubble constant H ≈ (75 ± 25) km·s−1 ·Mpc−1
Chapter 1

Mechanics

1.1 Point-kinetics in a fixed coordinate system

1.1.1 Definitions
The position ⃗r, the velocity ⃗v and the acceleration ⃗a are defined by: ⃗r = (x, y, z), ⃗v = (ẋ, ẏ, ż),
⃗a = (ẍ, ÿ, z̈). The following holds:
Z Z Z
s(t) = s0 + |⃗v (t)|dt ; ⃗r(t) = ⃗r0 + ⃗v (t)dt ; ⃗v (t) = ⃗v0 + ⃗a(t)dt

When the acceleration is constant this gives: v(t) = v0 + at and s(t) = s0 + v0 t + 21 at2 .
For the unit vectors in a direction ⊥ to the orbit ⃗et and parallel to it ⃗en holds:

⃗v d⃗r v ⃗e˙t
⃗et = = ⃗e˙t = ⃗en ; ⃗en =
|⃗v | ds ρ |⃗e˙t |

For the curvature k and the radius of curvature ρ holds:

2
 
⃗k = d⃗et = d ⃗r =  dφ  ; 1
 
ρ=
ds ds2  ds  |k|

1.1.2 Polar coordinates

Polar coordinates are defined by: x = r cos(θ), y = r sin(θ). So, for the unit coordinate vectors holds:
⃗e˙r = θ̇⃗eθ , ⃗e˙θ = −θ̇⃗er
The velocity and the acceleration are derived from: ⃗r = r⃗er , ⃗v = ṙ⃗er + rθ̇⃗eθ , ⃗a = (r̈ − rθ̇2 )⃗er + (2ṙθ̇ +
rθ̈)⃗eθ .

1.2 Relative motion

⃗ × ⃗vQ
ω ⃗ = ⃗rD −⃗rQ and ω = θ̇.
For the motion of a point D w.r.t. a point Q holds: ⃗rD = ⃗rQ + with QD
ω2
Further holds: α = θ̈. ′ means that the quantity is defined in a moving system of coordinates. In a
moving system holds:
⃗v = ⃗vQ + ⃗v ′ + ω
⃗ × ⃗r ′ and ⃗a = ⃗aQ + ⃗a ′ + α
⃗ × ⃗r ′ + 2⃗
ω × ⃗v ′ + ω ω × ⃗r ′ )
⃗ × (⃗
′ 2 ′
with ω⃗ × (⃗ω × ⃗r ) = −ω ⃗r n

1.3 Point-dynamics in a fixed coordinate system

1.3.1 Force, (angular)momentum and energy
Newton’s 2nd law connects the force on an object and the resulting acceleration of the object where
the momentum is given by p⃗ = m⃗v :

d⃗
p d(m⃗v ) d⃗v dm m=const
F⃗ (⃗r, ⃗v , t) = = =m + ⃗v = m⃗a
dt dt dt dt
Chapter 1: Mechanics 3

Newton’s 3rd law is given by: F⃗action = −F⃗reaction .

For the power P holds: P = Ẇ = F⃗ · ⃗v . For the total energy W , the kinetic energy T and the
potential energy U holds: W = T + U ; Ṫ = −U̇ with T = 21 mv 2 .
Z
The kick S⃗ is given by: S
⃗ = ∆⃗
p = F⃗ dt

Z2 Z2
The work A, delivered by a force, is A = F⃗ · d⃗s = F cos(α)ds
1 1

The torque ⃗τ is related to the angular momentum L:⃗ ⃗τ = L⃗˙ = ⃗r × F⃗ ; and

⃗ = ⃗r × p⃗ = m⃗v × ⃗r, |L|
L ⃗ = mr ω. The following equation is valid:
2

∂U
τ =−
∂θ
P⃗ P
Hence, the conditions for a mechanical equilibrium are: Fi = 0 and ⃗τi = 0.
The force of friction is usually proportional to the force perpendicular to the surface, except when
the motion starts, when a threshold has to be overcome: Ffric = f · Fnorm · ⃗et .

1.3.2 Conservative force fields

A conservative force can be written as the gradient of a potential: F⃗cons = −∇U
⃗ . From this follows
⃗ ⃗
that ∇ × F = 0. For such a force field also holds:
I Zr1
⃗
F · d⃗s = 0 ⇒ U = U0 − F⃗ · d⃗s
r0

So the work delivered by a conservative force field depends not on the trajectory covered but only on
the starting and ending points of the motion.

1.3.3 Gravitation
The Newtonian law of gravitation is (in GRT one also uses κ instead of G):
m1 m2
F⃗g = −G 2 ⃗er
r
The gravitational potential is then given by V = −Gm/r. From Gauss law it then follows: ∇2 V =
4πGϱ.

1.3.4 Orbital equations

If V = V (r) one can derive from the equations of Lagrange for ϕ the conservation of angular momen-
tum:
∂L ∂V d
= = 0 ⇒ (mr2 ϕ) = 0 ⇒ Lz = mr2 ϕ = constant
∂ϕ ∂ϕ dt
For the radial position as a function of time can be found that:
 2
dr 2(W − V ) L2
= − 2 2
dt m m r
The angular equation is then:
Zr " 2 r #−1 1 1
!
mr 2(W − V ) L2 r −2 field r − r0
ϕ − ϕ0 = − 2 2 dr = arccos 1 + 1
L m m r r0 + km/L2z
0

If F = F (r): L =constant, if F is conservative: W =constant, if F⃗ ⊥ ⃗v then ∆T = 0 and U = 0.

4 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

Kepler’s orbital equations

In a force field F = kr−2 , the orbits are conic sections with the origin of the force in one of the foci
(Kepler’s 1st law). The equation of the orbit is:

ℓ
r(θ) = , or: x2 + y 2 = (ℓ − εx)2
1 + ε cos(θ − θ0 )

with
L2 2W L2 ℓ ℓ k
ℓ= ; ε2 = 1 + 2 =1− ; a= =
Gµ2 Mtot G2 µ3 Mtot a 1 − ε2 2W
a is half the length of the
√ long axis of the elliptical orbit in case the orbit is closed. Half the length
of the short axis is b = aℓ. ε is the excentricity of the orbit. Orbits with an equal ε are of equal
shape. Now, 5 types of orbits are possible:

1. k < 0 and ε = 0: a circle.

2. k < 0 and 0 < ε < 1: an ellipse.

3. k < 0 and ε = 1: a parabole.

4. k < 0 and ε > 1: a hyperbole, curved towards the centre of force.

5. k > 0 and ε > 1: a hyperbole, curved away from the centre of force.

Other combinations are not possible: the total energy in a repulsive force field is always positive so
ε > 1.
If the surface between the orbit covered between t1 and t2 and the focus C around which the planet
moves is A(t1 , t2 ), Kepler’s 2nd law is

LC
A(t1 , t2 ) = (t2 − t1 )
2m
Kepler’s 3rd law is, with T the period and Mtot the total mass of the system:

T2 4π 2
3
=
a GMtot

1.3.5 The virial theorem

The virial theorem for one particle is:
 
D E dU k
⟨m⃗v · ⃗r⟩ = 0 ⇒ ⟨T ⟩ = − 12 F⃗ · ⃗r = 1
2 r = 12 n ⟨U ⟩ if U = −
dr rn

The virial theorem for a collection of particles is:

* +
X X
1
⟨T ⟩ = − 2 ⃗
Fi · ⃗ri + ⃗
Fij · ⃗rij
particles pairs

These propositions can also be written as: 2Ekin + Epot = 0.

1.4 Point dynamics in a moving coordinate system

1.4.1 Apparent forces
The total force in a moving coordinate system can be found by subtracting the apparent forces from
the forces working in the reference frame: F⃗ ′ = F⃗ − F⃗app . The different apparent forces are given by:
Chapter 1: Mechanics 5

1. Transformation of the origin: For = −m⃗aa

2. Rotation: F⃗α = −m⃗
α × ⃗r ′
3. Coriolis force: Fcor = −2m⃗
ω × ⃗v
2
mv
4. Centrifugal force: F⃗cf = mω 2⃗rn ′ = −F⃗cp ; F⃗cp = − ⃗er
r

1.4.2 Tensor notation

Transformation of the Newtonian equations of motion to xα = xα (x) gives:

dxα ∂xα dx̄β

= ;
dt ∂ x̄β dt
The chain rule gives:

d dxα d2 xα ∂xα dx̄β ∂xα d2 x̄β dx̄β d ∂xα

   
d
= 2
= = +
dt dt dt dt ∂ x̄β dt ∂ x̄β dt2 dt dt ∂ x̄β
so:
d ∂xα ∂ ∂xα dx̄γ ∂ 2 xα dx̄γ
= =
dt ∂ x̄β ∂ x̄γ ∂ x̄β dt ∂ x̄β ∂ x̄γ dt
This leads to:
d2 xα ∂xα d2 x̄β ∂ 2 xα dx̄γ dx̄β
 
= +
dt2 ∂ x̄β dt2 ∂ x̄β ∂ x̄γ dt dt
Hence the Newtonian equation of motion

d2 xα
m = Fα
dt2
will be transformed into:
d2 xα dxβ dxγ
 
m 2
+ Γα
βγ = Fα
dt dt dt
dxβ dxγ
The apparent forces are taken from he origin to the effect side in the way Γα
βγ .
dt dt

1.5 Dynamics of masspoint collections

1.5.1 The centre of mass
⃗˙ The coordinates of the centre of mass are
⃗ is given by ⃗v − R.
The velocity w.r.t. the centre of mass R
given by: P
mi⃗ri
⃗rm = P
mi
In a 2-particle system, the coordinates of the centre of mass are given by:

⃗ = m1⃗r1 + m2⃗r2
R
m1 + m2

With ⃗r = ⃗r1 − ⃗r2 , the kinetic energy becomes: T = 12 Mtot Ṙ2 + 12 µṙ2 , with the reduced mass µ given
1 1 1
by: = +
µ m1 m2
The motion within and outside the centre of mass can be separated:

⃗˙ outside = ⃗τoutside ;
L ⃗˙ inside = ⃗τinside
L

p⃗ = m⃗vm ; F⃗ext = m⃗am ; F⃗12 = µ⃗u

6 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

1.5.2 Collisions
With collisions, where B are the coordinates of the collision and C an arbitrary other position, holds:
p⃗ = m⃗vm is constant, and T = 21 m⃗vm2 is constant. The changes in the relative velocities can be derived
from: S⃗ = ∆⃗ ⃗ C = CB
p = µ(⃗vaft − ⃗vbefore ). Further holds ∆L ⃗ × S,
⃗ p⃗ ∥ S⃗ =constant and L ⃗ w.r.t. B is
constant.

1.6 Dynamics of rigid bodies

1.6.1 Moment of Inertia
The angular momentum in a moving coordinate system is given by:
⃗ ′ = I⃗
L ⃗ ′n
ω+L

where I is the moment of inertia with respect to a central axis, which is given by:
X
I= mi⃗ri 2 ; T ′ = Wrot = 12 ωIij ⃗ei⃗ej = 12 Iω 2
i

or, in the continuous case: Z Z

m 2 2
I= r′ n dV = r′ n dm
V
Further holds: X
Li = I ij ωj ; Iii = Ii ; Iij = Iji = − mk x′i x′j
k
2
Steiner’s theorem is: Iw.r.t.D = Iw.r.t.C + m(DM ) if axis C ∥ axis D.

Object I Object I

Cavern cylinder I = mR2 Massive cylinder I = 12 mR2

Disc, axis in plane disc through m I = 14 mR2 Halter I = 12 µR2
Cavern sphere I = 23 mR2 Massive sphere I = 25 mR2
1
Bar, axis ⊥ through c.o.m. I= 12 ml
2
Bar, axis ⊥ through end I = 13 ml2
1 2
Rectangle, axis ⊥ plane thr. c.o.m. I= 12 m(a + b2 ) Rectangle, axis ∥ b thr. m I = ma2

1.6.2 Principal axes

Each rigid body has (at least) 3 principal axes which stand ⊥ to each other. For a principal axis
holds:
∂I ∂I ∂I
= = = 0 so L′n = 0
∂ωx ∂ωy ∂ωz
Ii − Ij
The following holds: ω̇k = −aijk ωi ωj with aijk = if I1 ≤ I2 ≤ I3 .
Ik

1.6.3 Time dependence

For torque of force ⃗τ holds:
⃗′
d′′ L
⃗τ ′ = I θ̈ ; = ⃗τ ′ − ω ⃗′
⃗ ×L
dt
⃗
The torque T⃗ is defined by: T⃗ = F⃗ × d.
Chapter 1: Mechanics 7

1.7 Variational Calculus, Hamilton and Lagrange mechanics

1.7.1 Variational Calculus
Starting with:

Zb  
du d
δ L(q, q̇, t)dt = 0 with δ(a) = δ(b) = 0 and δ = (δu)
dx dx
a

the equations of Lagrange can be derived:

d ∂L ∂L
=
dt ∂ q̇i ∂qi
When there are additional conditions applying to the variational problem δJ(u) = 0 of the type
K(u) =constant, the new problem becomes: δJ(u) − λδK(u) = 0.

1.7.2 Hamilton mechanics

P P
The Lagrangian is given by: L = T (q̇i ) − V (qi ). The Hamiltonian is given by: H = q̇i pi − L. In
2 dimensions holds: L = T − U = 21 m(ṙ2 + r2 ϕ̇2 ) − U (r, ϕ).
If the used coordinates are canonical the Hamilton equations are the equations of motion for the
system:
dqi ∂H dpi ∂H
= ; =−
dt ∂pi dt ∂qi
Coordinates are canonical if the following holds: {qi , qj } = 0, {pi , pj } = 0, {qi , pj } = δij where {, }
is the Poisson bracket:
X  ∂A ∂B ∂A ∂B

{A, B} = −
i
∂qi ∂pi ∂pi ∂qi

The Hamiltonian of a Harmonic oscillator is given by H(x, p) = p2 /2m + 21 mω 2 x2 . With new coordi-
p √
nates (θ, I), obtained by the canonical transformation x = 2I/mω cos(θ) and p = − 2Imω sin(θ),
with inverse θ = arctan(−p/mωx) and I = p2 /2mω + 12 mωx2 it follows: H(θ, I) = ωI.
The Hamiltonian of a charged particle with charge q in an external electromagnetic field is given by:
1  2
H= ⃗ + qV
p⃗ − q A
2m
This Hamiltonian can be derived from the Hamiltonian of a free particle H = p2 /2m with the
⃗ and H → H − qV . This is elegant from a relativistic point of view: this is
transformations p⃗ → p⃗ − q A
equivalent to the transformation of the momentum 4-vector pα → pα − qAα . A gauge transformation
on the potentials Aα corresponds with a canonical transformation, which make the Hamilton equations
the equations of motion for the system.

1.7.3 Motion around an equilibrium, linearization

For natural systems around equilibrium the following equations are valid:
   2 
∂V ∂ V
= 0 ; V (q) = V (0) + Vik qi qk with Vik =
∂qi 0 ∂qi ∂qk 0

With T = 21 (Mik q̇i q̇k ) one receives the set of equations M q̈ + V q = 0. If qi (t) = ai exp(iωt) is
substituted, this set of equations has solutions if det(V −ω 2 M ) = 0. This leads to the eigenfrequencies
aT V ak
of the problem: ωk2 = Tk . If the equilibrium is stable holds: ∀k that ωk2 > 0. The general solution
ak M ak
is a superposition if eigenvibrations.
8 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

1.7.4 Phase space, Liouville’s equation

In phase space holds:
!
X ∂ X ∂ X  ∂ ∂H ∂ ∂H

∇= , so ∇ · ⃗v = −
i
∂qi i ∂pi i
∂qi ∂pi ∂pi ∂qi

If the equation of continuity, ∂t ϱ + ∇ · (ϱ⃗v ) = 0 holds, this can be written as:

∂ϱ
{ϱ, H} + =0
∂t
For an arbitrary quantity A holds:
dA ∂A
= {A, H} +
dt ∂t
Liouville’s theorem can than be written as:
Z
dϱ
= 0 ; or: pdq = constant
dt

1.7.5 Generating functions

Starting with the coordinate transformation:

Qi = Qi (qi , pi , t)
Pi = Pi (qi , pi , t)

one can derive the following Hamilton equations with the new Hamiltonian K:
dQi ∂K dPi ∂K
= ; =−
dt ∂Pi dt ∂Qi
Now, a distinction between 4 cases can be made:
dF1 (qi , Qi , t)
1. If pi q̇i − H = Pi Qi − K(Pi , Qi , t) − , the coordinates follow from:
dt
∂F1 ∂F1 ∂F1
pi = ; Pi = − ; K=H+
∂qi ∂Qi ∂t

dF2 (qi , Pi , t)
2. If pi q̇i − H = −Ṗi Qi − K(Pi , Qi , t) + , the coordinates follow from:
dt
∂F2 ∂F2 ∂F2
pi = ; Qi = ; K=H+
∂qi ∂Pi ∂t

dF3 (pi , Qi , t)
3. If −ṗi qi − H = Pi Q̇i − K(Pi , Qi , t) + , the coordinates follow from:
dt
∂F3 ∂F3 ∂F3
qi = − ; Pi = − ; K=H+
∂pi ∂Qi ∂t

dF4 (pi , Pi , t)
4. If −ṗi qi − H = −Pi Qi − K(Pi , Qi , t) + , the coordinates follow from:
dt
∂F4 ∂F4 ∂F4
qi = − ; Qi = ; K=H+
∂pi ∂Pi ∂t

The functions F1 , F2 , F3 and F4 are called generating functions.

Chapter 2

Electricity & Magnetism

2.1 The Maxwell equations

The classical electromagnetic field can be described by the Maxwell equations. Those can be written
both as differential and integral equations:
ZZ
⃝ (D⃗ · ⃗n )d2 A = Qfree,included ⃗ = ρfree
∇·D
ZZ
⃝ (B⃗ · ⃗n )d2 A = 0 ⃗ =0
∇·B
I ⃗
⃗ · d⃗s = − dΦ
E ∇×E⃗ = − ∂B
dt ∂t
I
dΨ ⃗
⃗ · d⃗s = Ifree,included +
H ∇×H⃗ = J⃗free + ∂ D
dt ∂t
ZZ ZZ
For the fluxes holds: Ψ = ⃗ · ⃗n )d2 A, Φ =
(D ⃗ · ⃗n )d2 A.
(B

⃗ polarization P⃗ and electric field strength E

The electric displacement D, ⃗ depend on each other
according to:
2
⃗ = ε0 E
D ⃗ P⃗ = P p⃗0 /Vol, εr = 1 + χe , with χe = np0
⃗ + P⃗ = ε0 εr E,
3ε0 kT
⃗ the magnetization M
The magnetic field strength H, ⃗ and the magnetic flux density B
⃗ depend on
each other according to:

⃗ = µ0 (H
⃗ +M
⃗ ) = µ0 µr H,
⃗ ⃗ = P m/Vol, µ0 nm20
B M ⃗ µr = 1 + χm , with χm =
3kT

2.2 Force and potential

The force and the electric field between 2 point charges are given by:

Q1 Q2 ⃗
F⃗12 = ⃗er ; ⃗ = F
E
4πε0 εr r2 Q
The Lorentzforce is the force which is felt by a charged particle that moves through a magnetic field.
The origin of this force is a relativistic transformation of the Coulomb force: F⃗L = Q(⃗v ×B
⃗ ) = l(I×
⃗ B⃗ ).

The magnetic field in point P which results from an electric current is given by the law of Biot-Savart,
also known as the law of Laplace. In here, d⃗l ∥ I⃗ and ⃗r points from d⃗l to P :

⃗P = µ0 I ⃗
dB dl × ⃗er
4πr2
If the current is time-dependent one has to take retardation into account: the substitution I(t) →
I(t − r/c) has to be applied.
Z2
The potentials are given by: V12 = − ⃗ · d⃗s and A
E ⃗ = 1B⃗ × ⃗r.
2
1
10 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

Here, the freedom remains to apply a gauge transformation. The fields can be derived from the
potentials as follows:
⃗
E⃗ = −∇V − ∂ A , B
⃗ =∇×A ⃗
∂t
⃗ = ⃗v × E.
Further holds the relation: c2 B ⃗

2.3 Gauge transformations

The potentials of the electromagnetic fields transform as follows when a gauge transformation is
applied: 
 A ⃗′ = A⃗ − ∇f
∂f
 V′ =V +
∂t
⃗ ⃗
so the fields E and B do not change. This results in a canonical transformation of the Hamiltonian.
Further, the freedom remains to apply a limiting condition. Two common choices are:

⃗ + 1 ∂V = 0. This separates the differential equations for A

1. Lorentz-gauge: ∇ · A ⃗ and V :
c2 ∂t
ρ ⃗ = −µ0 J.
⃗
□V = − , □A
ε0
⃗ = 0. If ρ = 0 and J⃗ = 0 holds V = 0 and follows A
2. Coulomb gauge: ∇ · A ⃗ from □A
⃗ = 0.

2.4 Energy of the electromagnetic field

The energy density of the electromagnetic field is:
Z Z
dW
= w = HdB + EdD
dVol
The energy density can be expressed in the potentials and currents as follows:
Z Z
wmag = 21 J⃗ · A⃗ d3 x , wel = 1 ρV d3 x
2

2.5 Electromagnetic waves

2.5.1 Electromagnetic waves in vacuum
The wave equation □Ψ(⃗r, t) = −f (⃗r, t) has the general solution, with c = (ε0 µ0 )−1/2 :
f (⃗r, t − |⃗r − ⃗r ′ |/c) 3 ′
Z
Ψ(⃗r, t) = d r
4π|⃗r − ⃗r ′ |
⃗ r, t) = J(⃗
If this is written as: J(⃗ ⃗ r ) exp(−iωt) and A(⃗ ⃗ r, t) = A(⃗
⃗ r ) exp(−iωt) with:
′
⃗ r ′ ) exp(ik|⃗r − ⃗r |) d3⃗r ′ , V (⃗r ) = 1 r − ⃗r ′ |) 3 ′
Z Z
⃗ r) = µ
A(⃗ J(⃗ ρ(⃗
r ′ exp(ik|⃗
) d ⃗r
4π |⃗r − ⃗r ′ | 4πε |⃗r − ⃗r ′ |
A derivation via multipole expansion will show that for the radiated energy holds, if d, λ ≫ r:
2
k2
Z
dP  J⊥ (⃗r ′ )ei⃗k·⃗r d3 r′ 
 
= 2
dΩ 32π ε0 c  

The energy density of the electromagnetic wave of a vibrating dipole at a large distance is:
p20 sin2 (θ)ω 4 p20 sin2 (θ)ω 4 ck 4 |⃗
p |2
w = ε0 E 2 = sin2 (kr − ωt) , ⟨w⟩t = , P =
16π 2 ε0 r2 c4 2
32π ε0 r c 2 4 12πε0
Chapter 2: Electricity & Magnetism 11

The radiated energy can be derived from the Poynting vector S: ⃗ S

⃗=E ⃗ ×H ⃗ = cW ⃗ev . The irradiance
is the time-averaged of the Poynting vector: I = ⟨|S ⃗ |⟩t . The radiation pressure ps is given by
⃗ |/c, where R is the coefficient of reflection.
ps = (1 + R)|S

2.5.2 Electromagnetic waves in matter

The wave equations in matter, with cmat = (εµ)−1/2 the lightspeed in matter, are:

∂2 ∂2
   
2 µ ∂ ⃗ 2 µ ∂ ⃗
∇ − εµ 2 − E=0, ∇ − εµ 2 − B=0
∂t ρ ∂t ∂t ρ ∂t

give, after substitution of monochromatic plane waves: E⃗ = E exp(i(⃗k · ⃗r − ωt)) and B

⃗ = B exp(i(⃗k ·
⃗r − ωt)) the dispersion relation:
iµω
k 2 = εµω 2 +
ρ
The first term arises from the displacement current, the second from the conductance current. If k is
written in the form k := k ′ + ik ′′ it follows that:
v s v s
u u
1 1
q u q u
′ 1 ′′ 1
k = ω 2 εµ 1 + 1 +
t
2
and k = ω 2 εµ −1 + 1 +
t
(ρεω) (ρεω)2

This results in a damped wave: E ⃗ = E exp(−k ′′⃗n · ⃗r ) exp(i(k ′⃗n · ⃗r − ωt)). If the material is a good
r
µω
conductor, the wave vanishes after approximately one wavelength, k = (1 + i) .
2ρ

2.6 Multipoles
∞  ′ l
1 1X r Q X kn
Because = Pl (cos θ) the potential can be written as: V =
|⃗r − ⃗r ′ | r 0 r 4πε n rn
For the lowest-order terms this results in:
ˆ Monopole: l = 0, k0 = ρdV
R

ˆ Dipole: l = 1, k1 = r cos(θ)ρdV
R

ˆ Quadrupole: l = 2, k2 = 12 (3zi2 − ri2 )

P
i

1. The electric dipole: dipole moment: p⃗ = Ql⃗e , where ⃗e goes from ⊕ to ⊖, and F⃗ = (⃗ ⃗ ext ,
p · ∇)E
and W = −⃗ p·E⃗ out .
 
⃗ Q 3⃗p · ⃗r ⃗ out
Electric field: E ≈ − p⃗ . The torque is: ⃗τ = p⃗ × E
4πεr3 r2
√
2. The magnetic dipole: dipole moment: if r ≫ A: µ ⃗ = I⃗ × (A⃗e⊥ ), F⃗ = (⃗ ⃗ out
µ · ∇)B
2
mv⊥ ⃗ out
|µ| = , W = −⃗ µ×B
2B  
⃗ −µ 3µ · ⃗r ⃗ out
Magnetic field: B = −µ ⃗ . The moment is: ⃗τ = µ ⃗ ×B
4πr3 r2

2.7 Electric currents

∂ρ
The continuity equation for charge is: + ∇ · J⃗ = 0. The electric current is given by:
∂t
ZZ
dQ
I= = (J⃗ · ⃗n )d2 A
dt
12 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

For most conductors holds: J⃗ = E/ρ,

⃗ where ρ is the resistivity.
dΦ
If the flux enclosed by a conductor changes this results in an induced voltage Vind = −N . If
dt
the current flowing through a conductor changes, this results in a self-inductance which opposes the
dI
original change: Vselfind = −L . If a conductor encloses a flux Φ holds: Φ = LI.
dt
µN I
The magnetic induction within a coil is approximated by: B = √ where l is the length, R
l + 4R2
2
the radius and N the number of coils. The energy contained within a coil is given by W = 21 LI 2 and
L = µN 2 A/l.
The capacity is defined by: C = Q/V . For a capacitor holds: C = ε0 εr A/d where d is the distance
between the plates and A the surface of one plate. The electric field strength between the plates is
E = σ/ε0 = Q/ε0 A where σ is the surface charge. The accumulated energy is given by W = 12 CV 2 .
dV
The current through a capacity is given by I = −C .
dt
For most PTC resistors holds approximately: R = R0 (1 + αT ), where R0 = ρl/A. For a NTC holds:
R(T ) = C exp(−B/T ) where B and C depend only on the material.
If a current flows through two different, connecting conductors x and y, the contact area will heat up
or cool down, depending on the direction of the current: the Peltier effect. The generated or removed
heat is given by: W = Πxy It. This effect can be amplified with semiconductors.
The thermic voltage between 2 metals is given by: V = γ(T − T0 ). For a Cu-Konstantane connection
holds: γ ≈ 0.2 − 0.7 mV/K.
In an electrical net with only stationary
P P currents,
P Kirchhoff ’s equations apply: for a knot holds:
In = 0, along a closed path holds: Vn = In Rn = 0.

2.8 Depolarizing field

If a dielectric material is placed in an electric or magnetic field, the field strength within and outside
the material will change because the material will be polarized or magnetized. If the medium has an
ellipsoidal shape and one of the principal axes is parallel with the external field E ⃗ 0 or B
⃗ 0 then the
depolarizing is field homogeneous.

⃗
E⃗ dep = E ⃗0 = − N P
⃗ mat − E
ε0
⃗ dep = H
H ⃗ mat − H
⃗ 0 = −N M⃗

N is a constant depending only on the shape of the object placed in the field, with 0 ≤ N ≤ 1. For
a few limiting cases of an ellipsoid holds: a thin plane: N = 1, a long, thin bar: N = 0, a sphere:
N = 31 .

2.9 Mixtures of materials

The average electric displacement in a material which is inhomogenious on a mesoscopic scale is given
 −1
ϕ2 (1 − x)
by: ⟨D⟩ = ⟨εE⟩ = ε∗ ⟨E⟩ where ε∗ = ε1 1 − where x = ε1 /ε2 . For a sphere holds:
Φ(ε∗ /ε2 )
Φ = 31 + 32 x. Further holds:
!−1
X ϕi X
≤ ε∗ ≤ ϕi ε i
i
εi i
Chapter 3

Relativity

3.1 Special relativity

3.1.1 The Lorentz transformation
The Lorentz transformation (⃗x ′ , t′ ) = (⃗x ′ (⃗x, t), t′ (⃗x, t)) leaves the wave equation invariant if c is
invariant:
∂2 ∂2 ∂2 1 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 1 ∂2
+ + − = + + −
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 c2 ∂t2 ∂x′2 ∂y ′2 ∂z ′2 c2 ∂t′2
This transformation can also be found when ds2 = ds′2 is demanded. The general form of the Lorentz
transformation is given by:
 
′ (γ − 1)(⃗x · ⃗v )⃗v ′ ⃗x · ⃗v
⃗x = ⃗x + − γ⃗v t , t = γ t − 2
|v|2 c

where
1
γ=r
2
1 − v2
c
The velocity difference ⃗v ′ between two observers transforms according to:
  −1  
⃗v1 · ⃗v2 ⃗v1 · ⃗v2
⃗v ′ = γ 1− ⃗v2 + (γ − 1) ⃗
v 1 − γ⃗
v 1
c2 v12

If the velocity is parallel to the x-axis, this becomes y ′ = y, z ′ = z and:

x′ = γ(x − vt) , x = γ(x′ + vt′ )

x′ v
 
 xv  v2 − v1
t′ = γ t − 2 , t = γ t′ + 2 , v′ = v1 v2
c c 1− 2
c
If ⃗v = v⃗ex holds:  
βW
p′x = γ px − , W ′ = γ(W − vpx )
c
With β = v/c the electric field of a moving charge is given by:

⃗ = Q (1 − β 2 )⃗er
E
4πε0 r2 (1 − β 2 sin2 (θ))3/2

The electromagnetic field transforms according to:

!
⃗
⃗′ ⃗ + ⃗v × B
E = γ(E ⃗) , ⃗′
B =γ ⃗ − ⃗v × E
B
c2

Length, mass and time transform according to: ∆tr = γ∆t0 , mr = γm0 , lr = l0 /γ, with 0 the
quantities in a co-moving reference frame and r the quantities in a frame moving with velocity v
w.r.t. it. The proper time τ is defined as: dτ 2 = ds2 /c2 , so ∆τ = ∆t/γ. For energy and momentum
14 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

holds: W = mr c2 = γW0 , W 2 = m20 c4 + p2 c2 . p = mr v = γm0 v = W v/c2 , and pc = W β where

β = v/c. The force is defined by F⃗ = d⃗
p/dt.
4-vectors have the property that their modulus is independent of the observer: their components
can change after a coordinate transformation but not their modulus. The difference of two 4-vectors
dxα
transforms also as a 4-vector. The 4-vector for the velocity is given by U α = . The relation with
dτ
i i α i
the “common” velocity u := dx /dt is: U = (γu , icγ). For particles with nonzero restmass holds:
U α Uα = −c2 , for particles with zero restmass (so with v = c) holds: U α Uα = 0. The 4-vector for
energy and momentum is given by: pα = m0 U α = (γpi , iW/c). So: pα pα = −m20 c2 = p2 − W 2 /c2 .

3.1.2 Red and blue shift

There are three causes of red and blue shifts:
f′
 
v cos(φ)
1. Motion: with ⃗ev · ⃗er = cos(φ) follows: =γ 1− .
f c
This can give both red- and blueshift, also ⊥ to the direction of motion.
∆f κM
2. Gravitational redshift: = 2.
f rc
3. Redshift because the universe expands, resulting in e.g. the cosmic background radiation:
λ0 R0
= .
λ1 R1

3.1.3 The stress-energy tensor and the field tensor

The stress-energy tensor is given by:
1
Tµν = (ϱc2 + p)uµ uν + pgµν + Fµα Fνα + 14 gµν F αβ Fαβ


c2
The conservation laws can than be written as: ∇ν T µν = 0. The electromagnetic field tensor is given
by:
∂Aβ ∂Aα
Fαβ = α
−
∂x ∂xβ
⃗ iV /c) and Jµ := (J,
with Aµ := (A, ⃗ icρ). The Maxwell equations can than be written as:

∂ν F µν = µ0 J µ , ∂λ Fµν + ∂µ Fνλ + ∂ν Fλµ = 0

The equations of motion for a charged particle in an EM field become with the field tensor:

dpα
= qFαβ uβ
dτ

3.2 General relativity

3.2.1 Riemannian geometry, the Einstein tensor
The basic principles of general relativity are:

1. The geodesic postulate: free falling particles move along geodesics of space-time with the proper
time τ or arc length s as parameter. For particles with zero rest mass R (photons), the use of a
free parameter is required because for them holds ds = 0. From δ ds = 0 the equations of
motion can be derived:
d2 xα β
α dx dx
γ
+ Γ βγ =0
ds2 ds ds
Chapter 3: Relativity 15

2. The principle of equivalence: inertial mass ≡ gravitational mass ⇒ gravitation is equivalent

with a curved space-time were particles move along geodesics.
3. By a proper choice of the coordinate system it is possible to make the metric locally flat in each
point xi : gαβ (xi ) = ηαβ :=diag(−1, 1, 1, 1).
µ
The Riemann tensor is defined as: Rναβ T ν := ∇α ∇β T µ − ∇β ∇α T µ , where the covariant derivative
is given by ∇j a = ∂j a + Γjk a and ∇j ai = ∂j ai − Γkij ak . Here,
i i i k

g il ∂glj ∂ 2 x̄l ∂xi

 
∂glk ∂gj k
Γijk = k
+ j
− l
, for Euclidean spaces this reduces to: Γijk = ,
2 ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂xj ∂xk ∂ x̄l
µ
are the Christoffel symbols. For a second-order tensor holds: [∇α , ∇β ]Tνµ = Rσαβ Tνσ + Rναβ
σ
Tσµ ,
i i l i i l l l ij ij i lj j il
∇k aj = ∂k aj − Γkj al + Γkl aj , ∇k aij = ∂k aij − Γki alj − Γkj ajl and ∇k a = ∂k a + Γkl a + Γkl a .
α
The following holds: Rβµν = ∂µ Γα α α σ α
βν − ∂ν Γβµ + Γσµ Γβν − Γσν Γβµ .
σ

µ
The Ricci tensor is a contraction of the Riemann tensor: Rαβ := Rαµβ , which is symmetric: Rαβ =
Rβα . The Bianchi identities are: ∇λ Rαβµν + ∇ν Rαβλµ + ∇µ Rαβνλ = 0.
The Einstein tensor is given by: Gαβ := Rαβ − 21 g αβ R, where R := Rα
α
is the Ricci scalar, for which
p
holds: ∇β Gαβ = 0. With the variational principle δ (L(gµν ) − Rc2 /16πκ) |g|d4 x = 0 for variations
R

gµν → gµν + δgµν the Einstein field equations can be derived:

8πκ 8πκ
Gαβ = Tαβ , which can also be written as Rαβ = (Tαβ − 21 gαβ Tµµ )
c2 c2
For empty space this is equivalent to Rαβ = 0. The equation Rαβµν = 0 has as only solution a flat
space.
The Einstein equations are 10 independent equations, which are of second order in gµν . From this,
the Laplace equation from Newtonian gravitation can be derived by stating: gµν = ηµν + hµν , where
|h| ≪ 1. In the stationary case, this results in ∇2 h00 = 8πκϱ/c2 .
8πκ
The most general form of the field equations is: Rαβ − 21 gαβ R + Λgαβ = Tαβ
c2
where Λ is the cosmological constant. This constant plays a role in inflatory models of the universe.

3.2.2 The line element

X ∂ x̄k ∂ x̄k
The metric tensor in an Euclidean space is given by: gij = .
∂xi ∂xj
k

In general holds: ds = gµν dx dx . In special relativity this becomes ds2 = −c2 dt2 + dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 .
2 µ ν

This metric, ηµν :=diag(−1, 1, 1, 1), is called the Minkowski metric.

The external Schwarzschild metric applies in vacuum outside a spherical mass distribution, and is
given by:
   −1
2 2m 2 2 2m
ds = −1 + c dt + 1 − dr2 + r2 dΩ2
r r
Here, m := M κ/c2 is the geometrical mass of an object with mass M , and dΩ2 = dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2 .
This metric is singular for r = 2m = 2κM/c2 . If an object is smaller than its event horizon 2m, that
implies that its escape velocity is > c, it is called a black hole. The Newtonian limit of this metric is
given by:
ds2 = −(1 + 2V )c2 dt2 + (1 − 2V )(dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 )
where V = −κM/r is the Newtonian gravitation potential. In general relativity, the components of
gµν are associated with the potentials and the derivatives of gµν with the field strength.
The Kruskal-Szekeres coordinates are used to solve certain problems with the Schwarzschild metric
near r = 2m. They are defined by:
16 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

ˆ r > 2m:  r  
r  r  t
u = − 1 exp cosh


2m 4m 4m



r  
r  r  t


 v = − 1 exp sinh


2m 4m 4m
ˆ r < 2m:  r  
r  r  t
u = 1− exp sinh


2m 4m 4m



r  
r  r  t


 v = 1− exp cosh


2m 4m 4m
ˆ r = 2m: here, the Kruskal coordinates are singular, which is necessary to eliminate the coordi-
nate singularity there.
The line element in these coordinates is given by:
32m3 −r/2m 2
ds2 = − e (dv − du2 ) + r2 dΩ2
r
The line r = 2m corresponds to u = v = 0, the limit x0 → ∞ with u = v and x0 → −∞ with u = −v.
The Kruskal coordinates are only singular on the hyperbole v 2 − u2 = 1, this corresponds with r = 0.
On the line dv = ±du holds dθ = dφ = ds = 0.
For the metric outside a rotating, charged spherical mass the Newman metric applies:
2mr − e2 r2 + a2 cos2 θ
   
2 2 2
ds = 1− 2 c dt − dr2 − (r2 + a2 cos2 θ)dθ2 −
r + a2 cos2 θ r2 − 2mr + a2 − e2
(2mr − e2 )a2 sin2 θ 2a(2mr − e2 )
   
2
r2 + a2 + sin θdφ2
+ sin2 θ(dφ)(cdt)
r2 + a2 cos2 θ r2 + a2 cos2 θ
where m = κM/c2 , a = L/M c and e = κQ/ε0 c2 . √
A rotating charged black hole has an event horizon with RS = m + m2 − a2 − e2 .
Near rotating black holes frame dragging occurs√because gtφ ̸= 0. For the Kerr metric (e = 0, a ̸= 0)
then follows that within the surface RE = m + m2 − a2 cos2 θ (de ergosphere) no particle can be at
rest.

3.2.3 Planetary orbits and the perihelium shift

R
To find a planetary
R 2 orbit,
R the variational problem δ ds = 0 has to be solved. This is equivalent to
the problem δ ds = δ gij dxi dxj = 0. Substituting the external Schwarzschild metric yields for a
planetary orbit:
du d2 u
 
du  m
+ u = 3mu +
dφ dφ2 dφ h2
where u := 1/r and h = r2 φ̇ =constant. The term 3mu is not present in the  classical
 solution. This
κM h2
term can in the classical case also be found from a potential V (r) = − 1+ 2 .
r r
The orbital equation gives r =constant as solution, or can, after dividing by du/dφ, be solved with
perturbation theory. In zeroth order, this results in an elliptical orbit: u0 (φ) = A + B cos(φ) with
A = m/h2 and B an arbitrary constant. In first order, this becomes:
B2 B2
 
u1 (φ) = A + B cos(φ − εφ) + ε A + − cos(2φ)
2A 6A
where ε = 3m2 /h2 is small. The perihelion of a planet is the point for which r is minimal, or u
maximal. This is the case if cos(φ − εφ) = 0 ⇒ φ ≈ 2πn(1 + ε). For the perihelion shift then follows:
∆φ = 2πε = 6πm2 /h2 per orbit.
Chapter 3: Relativity 17

3.2.4 The trajectory of a photon

For the trajectory of a photon (and for each particle with zero restmass) holds ds2 = 0. Substituting
the external Schwarzschild metric results in the following orbital equation:

du d2 u
 
+ u − 3mu = 0
dφ dφ2

3.2.5 Gravitational waves

Starting with the approximation gµν = ηµν + hµν for weak gravitational fields and the definition
h′µν = hµν − 21 ηµν hα ′ ′ ν
α it follows that □hµν = 0 if the gauge condition ∂hµν /∂x = 0 is satisfied. From
this, it follows that the loss of energy of a mechanical system, if the occurring velocities are ≪ c and
for wavelengths ≫ the size of the system, is given by:
2
G X d3 Qij

dE
=− 5
dt 5c i,j dt3

ϱ(xi xj − 31 δij r2 )d3 x the mass quadrupole moment.

R
with Qij =

3.2.6 Cosmology
If for the universe as a whole is assumed:

1. There exists a global time coordinate which acts as x0 of a Gaussian coordinate system,
2. The 3-dimensional spaces are isotrope for a certain value of x0 ,
3. Each point is equivalent to each other point for a fixed x0 .
then the Robertson-Walker metric can be derived for the line element:
R2 (t)
ds2 = −c2 dt2 +   2 2 2
2 (dr + r dΩ )
kr
r02 1 − 2
4r0

For the scalefactor R(t) the following equations can be derived:

2R̈ Ṙ2 + kc2 8πκp Ṙ2 + kc2 8πκϱ Λ

+ 2
=− 2 +Λ and 2
= +
R R c R 3 3
where p is the pressure and ϱ the density of the universe. If Λ = 0 can be derived for the deceleration
parameter q:
R̈R 4πκϱ
q=− =
Ṙ 2 3H 2
where H = Ṙ/R is Hubble’s constant. This is a measure of the velocity with which galaxies far away
are moving away from each other, and has the value ≈ (75 ± 25) km·s−1 ·Mpc−1 . This gives 3 possible
conditions for the universe (here, W is the total amount of energy in the universe):
1. Parabolical universe: k = 0, W = 0, q = 12 . The expansion velocity of the universe → 0 if
t → ∞. The hereto related critical density is ϱc = 3H 2 /8πκ.
1
2. Hyperbolical universe: k = −1, W < 0, q < 2. The expansion velocity of the universe
remains positive forever.
3. Elliptical universe: k = 1, W > 0, q > 21 . The expansion velocity of the universe becomes
negative after some time: the universe starts collapsing.
Chapter 4

Oscillations

4.1 Harmonic oscillations

The general form of a harmonic oscillation is: Ψ(t) = Ψ̂ei(ωt±φ) ≡ Ψ̂ cos(ωt ± φ),

where Ψ̂ is the amplitude. A superposition of several harmonic oscillations with the same frequency
results in another harmonic oscillation:
X
Ψ̂i cos(αi ± ωt) = Φ̂ cos(β ± ωt)
i

with:
P
Ψ̂i sin(αi ) X XX
i
tan(β) = P and Φ̂2 = Ψ̂2i + 2 Ψ̂i Ψ̂j cos(αi − αj )
Ψ̂i cos(αi ) i j>i i
i

dn x(t)
Z
x(t)
For harmonic oscillations holds: x(t)dt = and = (iω)n x(t).
iω dtn

4.2 Mechanic oscillations

For a construction with a spring with constant C parallel to a damping k which is connected to
a mass M , to which a periodic force F (t) = F̂ cos(ωt) is applied holds the equation of motion
mẍ = F (t) − k ẋ − Cx. With complex amplitudes, this becomes −mω 2 x = F − Cx − ikωx. With
ω02 = C/m follows:

F F
x= , and for the velocity holds: ẋ = √
m(ω02 − ω 2 ) + ikω i Cmδ + k
ω ω0
where δ = − . The quantity Z = F/ẋ is called the impedance of the system. The quality of the
ω0 ω √
Cm
system is given by Q = .
k
The frequency with minimal
√ |Z| is called velocity resonance frequency. This is equal to ω0 . In the
resonance curve |Z|/ Cm is plotted
√ against ω/ω0 . The width of this curve is characterized by the
points where |Z(ω)| = |Z(ω0 )| 2. In these points holds: R = X and δ = ±Q−1 , and the width is
2∆ωB = ω0 /Q.

The stiffness of an oscillating system is given by F/x. The amplitude

q resonance frequency ωA is the
1 2
frequency where iωZ is minimal. This is the case for ωA = ω0 1 − 2 Q .

The damping frequency r ωD is a measure for the time in which an oscillating system comes to rest. It
1
is given by ωD = ω0 1 − . A weak damped oscillation (k 2 < 4mC) dies out after TD = 2π/ωD .
4Q2
For a critical damped oscillation (k 2 = 4mC) holds ωD = 0. A strong damped oscillation (k 2 > 4mC)
drops like (if k 2 ≫ 4mC) x(t) ≈ x0 exp(−t/τ ).
Chapter 4: Oscillations 19

4.3 Electric oscillations

The impedance is given by: Z = R + iX. The phase angle is φ := arctan(X/R). The impedance of
a resistor is R, of a capacitor 1/iωC and of a self inductor iωL. The quality of a coil is Q = ωL/R.
The total impedance in case several elements are positioned is given by:
1. Series connection: V = IZ,
X X 1 X 1 Z0
Ztot = Zi , Ltot = Li , = , Q= , Z = R(1 + iQδ)
i i
Ctot i
C i R

2. parallel connection: V = IZ,

1 X 1 1 X 1 X R R
= , = , Ctot = Ci , Q = , Z=
Ztot i
Zi Ltot i
Li i
Z0 1 + iQδ
r
L 1
Here, Z0 = and ω0 = √ .
C LC
The power given by a source is given by P (t) = V (t) · I(t), so ⟨P ⟩t = V̂eff Iˆeff cos(∆ϕ)
= 21 V̂ Iˆ cos(ϕv − ϕi ) = 12 Iˆ2 Re(Z) = 21 V̂ 2 Re(1/Z), where cos(∆ϕ) is the work factor.

4.4 Waves in long conductors

r
dL dx
These cables are in use for signal transfer, e.g. coax cable. For them holds: Z0 = .
r dx dC
dx dx
The transmission velocity is given by v = .
dL dC

4.5 Coupled conductors and transformers

For two coils enclosing each others flux holds: if Φ12 is the part of the flux originating from I2 through
coil 2 which is enclosed by coil 1, than holds Φ12 = M12 I2 , Φ21 = M21 I1 . For the coefficients of mutual
induction Mij holds:
p N 1 Φ1 N 2 Φ2
M12 = M21 := M = k L1 L2 = = ∼ N1 N2
I2 I1
where 0 ≤ k ≤ 1 is the coupling factor. For a transformer is k ≈ 1. At full load holds:
r
V1 I2 iωM L1 N1
= =− ≈− =−
V2 I1 iωL2 + Rload L2 N2

4.6 Pendulums
The oscillation time T = 1/f , and for different types of pendulums is given by:
ˆ Oscillating spring: T = 2π m/C if the spring force is given by F = C · ∆l.
p

ˆ Physical pendulum: T = 2π I/τ with τ the moment of force and I the moment of inertia.
p

2lm
ˆ Torsion pendulum: T = 2π
p
I/κ with κ = the constant of torsion and I the moment
πr4 ∆φ
of inertia.
ˆ Mathematical pendulum: T = 2π
p
l/g with g the acceleration of gravity and l the length of
the pendulum.
Chapter 5

Waves

5.1 The wave equation

The general form of the wave equation is: □u = 0, or:

1 ∂2u ∂2u ∂2u ∂2u 1 ∂2u

∇2 u − 2 2
= 2
+ 2 + 2 − 2 2 =0
v ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z v ∂t
where u is the disturbance and v the propagation velocity. In general holds: v = f λ. By definition
holds: kλ = 2π and ω = 2πf .
In principle, there are two types of waves:

1. Longitudinal waves: for these holds ⃗k ∥ ⃗v ∥ ⃗u.

2. Transversal waves: for these holds ⃗k ∥ ⃗v ⊥ ⃗u.

The phase velocity is given by vph = ω/k. The group velocity is given by:
 
dω dvph k dn
vg = = vph + k = vph 1 −
dk dk n dk

where n is the refractive index of the medium. If vph does not depend on ω holds: vph = vg . In a
dispersive medium it is possible that vg > vph or vg < vph , and vg · vf = c2 . If one wants to transfer
information with a wave, e.g. by modulation of an EM wave, the information travels with the velocity
at with a change in the electromagnetic field propagates. This velocity is often almost equal to the
group velocity.
For some media, the propagation velocity follows from:

ˆ Pressure waves in a liquid or gas: v = κ/ϱ, where κ is the modulus of compression.

p

ˆ For pressure waves in a gas also holds: v = γp/ϱ = γRT /M .

p p

ˆ Pressure waves in a thin solid bar with diameter << λ: v = E/ϱ

p

ˆ waves in a string: v = Fspan l/m

p

s   
gλ 2πγ 2πh
ˆ Surface waves on a liquid: v = + tanh
2π ϱλ λ
√
where h is the depth of the liquid and γ the surface tension. If h ≪ λ holds: v ≈ gh.

5.2 Solutions of the wave equation

5.2.1 Plane waves
In n dimensions a harmonic plane wave is defined by:
n
X
u(⃗x, t) = 2n û cos(ωt) sin(ki xi )
i=1
Chapter 5: Waves 21

The equation for a harmonic traveling plane wave is: u(⃗x, t) = û cos(⃗k · ⃗x ± ωt + φ)
If waves reflect at the end of a spring this will result in a change in phase. A fixed end gives a phase
change of π/2 to the reflected wave, with boundary condition u(l) = 0. A lose end gives no change
in the phase of the reflected wave, with boundary condition (∂u/∂x)l = 0.
If an observer is moving w.r.t. the wave with a velocity vobs , he will observe a change in frequency:
f vf − vobs
the Doppler effect. This is given by: = .
f0 vf

5.2.2 Spherical waves

When the situation is spherical symmetric, the homogeneous wave equation is given by:

1 ∂ 2 (ru) ∂ 2 (ru)
− =0
v 2 ∂t2 ∂r2
with general solution:
f (r − vt) g(r + vt)
u(r, t) = C1 + C2
r r

5.2.3 Cylindrical waves

When the situation has a cylindrical symmetry, the homogeneous wave equation becomes:

1 ∂2u 1 ∂
 
∂u
− r =0
v 2 ∂t2 r ∂r ∂r

This is a Bessel equation, with solutions which can be written as Hankel functions. For sufficient
large values of r these are approximated by:

û
u(r, t) = √ cos(k(r ± vt))
r

5.2.4 The general solution in one dimension

Starting point is the equation:
N 
∂ 2 u(x, t) ∂m
X 
= bm m u(x, t)
∂t2 m=0
∂x

where bm ∈ IR. Substituting u(x, t) = Aei(kx−ωt) gives two solutions ωj = ωj (k) as dispersion
relations. The general solution is given by:
Z∞  
u(x, t) = a(k)ei(kx−ω1 (k)t) + b(k)ei(kx−ω2 (k)t) dk
−∞

Because in general the frequencies ωj are non-linear in k there is dispersion and the solution cannot
be written any more as a sum of functions depending only on x ± vt: the wave front transforms.

5.3 The stationary phase method

Usually the Fourier integrals of the previous section cannot be calculated exactly. If ωj (k) ∈ IR the
stationary phase method can be applied. Assuming that a(k) is only a slowly varying function of k,
one can state that the parts of the k-axis where the phase of kx−ω(k)t changes rapidly will give no net
contribution to the integral because the exponent oscillates rapidly there. The only areas contributing
22 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

d
significantly to the integral are areas with a stationary phase, determined by (kx − ω(k)t) = 0.
dk
Now the following approximation is possible:
Z∞ v
N u
i(kx−ω(k)t)
X u 2π
t d2 ω(k ) exp −i 41 π + i(ki x − ω(ki )t)
 
a(k)e dk ≈
i
−∞ i=1 dki2

5.4 Green functions for the initial-value problem

This method is preferable if the solutions deviate much from the stationary solutions, like point-like
excitations. Starting with the wave equation in one dimension, with ∇2 = ∂ 2 /∂x2 holds: if Q(x, x′ , t)
∂Q(x, x′ , 0)
is the solution with initial values Q(x, x′ , 0) = δ(x − x′ ) and = 0, and P (x, x′ , t) the
∂t
∂P (x, x′ , 0)
solution with initial values P (x, x′ , 0) = 0 and = δ(x − x′ ), then the solution of the wave
∂t
∂u(x, 0)
equation with arbitrary initial conditions f (x) = u(x, 0) and g(x) = is given by:
∂t
Z∞ Z∞
′ ′ ′
u(x, t) = f (x )Q(x, x , t)dx + g(x′ )P (x, x′ , t)dx′
−∞ −∞

P and Q are called the propagators. They are defined by:

Q(x, x′ , t) = 1 ′ ′
2 [δ(x − x − vt) + δ(x − x + vt)]
1
(
if |x − x′ | < vt
P (x, x′ , t) = 2v
0 if |x − x′ | > vt
∂P (x, x′ , t)
Further holds the relation: Q(x, x′ , t) =
∂t

5.5 Waveguides and resonating cavities

The boundary conditions for a perfect conductor can be derived from the Maxwell equations. If ⃗n is
⃗ is a surface current density, than holds:
a unit vector ⊥ the surface, pointed from 1 to 2, and K
⃗2 −D
⃗n · (D ⃗ 1) = σ ⃗2 − E
⃗n × (E ⃗ 1) = 0
⃗2 − B
⃗n · (B ⃗ 1) = 0 ⃗2 − H
⃗n × (H ⃗ 1) = K⃗

In a waveguide holds because of the cylindrical symmetry: E(⃗ ⃗ x, t) = E(x,

⃗ y)ei(kz−ωt) and B(⃗
⃗ x, t) =
⃗
B(x, y)e i(kz−ωt)
. From this one can now deduce that, if Bz and Ez are not ≡ 0:
   
i ∂Bz ∂Ez i ∂Bz ∂Ez
Bx = k − εµω B y = k + εµω
εµω 2 − k 2  ∂x ∂y  εµω 2 − k 2  ∂y ∂x 
i ∂Ez ∂Bz i ∂Ez ∂Bz
Ex = k + εµω Ey = k − εµω
εµω 2 − k 2 ∂x ∂y εµω 2 − k 2 ∂y ∂x
Now one can distinguish between three cases:
1. Bz ≡ 0: the Transversal Magnetic modes (TM). Boundary condition: Ez |surf = 0.

∂Bz 
2. Ez ≡ 0: the Transversal Electric modes (TE). Boundary condition: = 0.
∂n surf
For the TE and TM modes this gives an eigenvalue problem for Ez resp. Bz with boundary
conditions:  2
∂2

∂
+ ψ = −γ 2 ψ with eigenvalues γ 2 := εµω 2 − k 2
∂x2 ∂y 2
Chapter 5: Waves 23

p
This gives a discrete solution ψℓ with eigenvalue γℓ2 : k = εµω 2 − γℓ2 . For ω < ωℓ , k is
imaginary and the wave is damped. Therefore, ωℓ is called the cut-off frequency. In rectangular
conductors the following expression can be found for the cut-off frequency for modes TEm,n of
TMm,n :
2
λℓ = p
(m/a)2 + (n/b)2

3. Ez and Bz are zero everywhere: the Transversal electromagnetic mode (TEM). Than holds:
√
k = ±ω εµ and vf = vg , just as if here were no waveguide. Further k ∈ IR, so there exists no
cut-off frequency.
In a rectangular, 3 dimensional resonating cavity with edges a, b and c the possible wave numbers
n1 π n2 π n3 π
are given by: kx = , ky = , kz = This results in the possible frequencies f = vk/2π
a b c
in the cavity: r
v n2x n2y n2z
f= + +
2 a2 b2 c2
For a cubic cavity, with a = b = c, the possible number of oscillating modes NL for longitudinal waves
is given by:
4πa3 f 3
NL =
3v 3
Because transversal waves have two possible polarizations holds for them: NT = 2NL .

5.6 Non-linear wave equations

The Van der Pol equation is given by:
d2 x dx
− εω0 (1 − βx2 ) + ω02 x = 0
dt2 dt
βx2 can be qignored for very small values of the amplitude. Substitution of x ∼ e
iωt
gives: ω =
1 1 2 1
2 ω0 (iε ± 2 1 − 2 ε ). The lowest-order instabilities grow as 2 εω0 . While x is growing, the 2nd term
becomes larger and diminishes the growth. Oscillations on a time scale ∼ ω0−1 can exist. If x is
expanded as x = x(0) + εx(1) + ε2 x(2) + · · · and this is substituted one obtains, besides periodic,
secular terms ∼ εt. If it is assumed that there exist timescales τn , 0 ≤ τ ≤ N with ∂τn /∂t = εn and
if the secular terms are put 0 one obtains:
(   )
2  2
d 1 dx 1 2 2 dx
+ 2 ω0 x = εω0 (1 − βx2 )
dt 2 dt dt

This is an energy equation. Energy is conserved if the left-hand side is 0. If x2 > 1/β, the right-hand
side changes sign and an increase in energy changes into a decrease of energy. This mechanism limits
the growth of oscillations.
The Korteweg-De Vries equation is given by:
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂3u
+ − au + b2 3 = 0
∂t ∂x | {z∂x} ∂x }
| {z
non−lin dispersive

This equation is for example a model for ion-acoustic waves in a plasma. For this equation, soliton
solutions of the following form exist:
−d
u(x − ct) = 2
cosh (e(x − ct))

with c = 1 + 31 ad and e2 = ad/(12b2 ).

Chapter 6

Optics

6.1 The bending of light

For the refraction at a surface holds: ni sin(θi ) = nt sin(θt ) where n is the refractive index of the
material. Snell’s law is:
n2 λ1 v1
= =
n1 λ2 v2
If ∆n ≤ 1, the change in phase of the light is ∆φ = 0, if ∆n > 1 holds: ∆φ = π. The refraction of
light in a material is caused by scattering from atoms. This is described by:
ne e2 X fj
n2 = 1 + 2
ε0 m j ω0,j − ω 2 − iδω
P
where ne is the electron density and fj the oscillator strength, for which holds: fj = 1. From
j
this follows that vg = c/(1 + (ne e2 /2ε0 mω 2 )). From this the equation of Cauchy can be derived:
n
2
X ak
n = a0 + a1 /λ . More general, it is possible to expand n as: n = .
λ2k
k=0
√
For an electromagnetic wave in general holds: n = εr µr .
The path, followed by a light ray in material can be found from Fermat’s principle:
Z2 Z2 Z2
n(s)
δ dt = δ ds = 0 ⇒ δ n(s)ds = 0
c
1 1 1

6.2 Paraxial geometrical optics

6.2.1 Lenses
The Gaussian lens formula can be deduced from Fermat’s principle with the approximations cos φ = 1
and sin φ = φ. For the refraction at a spherical surface with radius R holds:
n1 n2 n1 − n2
− =
v b R
where |v| is the distance of the object and |b| the distance of the image. Applying this twice results
in:  
1 1 1
= (nl − 1) −
f R2 R1
where nl is the refractive index of the lens, f is the focal length and R1 and R2 are the curvature
radii of both surfaces. For a double concave lens holds R1 < 0, R2 > 0, for a double convex lens holds
R1 > 0 and R2 < 0. Further holds:
1 1 1
= −
f v b
D := 1/f is called the dioptric power of a lens. For a lens with thickness d and diameter D holds to
a good approximation: 1/f = 8(n − 1)d/D2 . For two lenses placed on a line with distance d holds:
1 1 1 d
= + −
f f1 f2 f1 f2
Chapter 6: Optics 25

In these equations the following signs are being used for refraction at a spherical surface, as is seen
by an incoming light ray:
Quantity + −
R Concave surface Convex surface
f Converging lens Diverging lens
v Real object Virtual object
b Virtual image Real image

6.2.2 Mirrors
For images of mirrors holds:
2
h2 1

1 1 1 2 1
= + = + −
f v b R 2 R v
where h is the perpendicular distance from the point the light ray hits the mirror to the optical
axis. Spherical aberration can be reduced by not using spherical mirrors. A parabolical mirror has
no spherical aberration for light rays parallel with the optical axis and is therefore often used for
telescopes. The used signs are:
Quantity + −
R Concave mirror Convex mirror
f Concave mirror Convex mirror
v Real object Virtual object
b Real image Virtual image

6.2.3 Principal planes

The nodal points N of a lens are defined by the figure on the right. If the
lens is surrounded by the same medium on both sides, the nodal points are
the same as the principal points H. The plane ⊥ the optical axis through N1
r r r
the principal points is called the principal plane. If the lens is described by
a matrix mij than for the distances h1 and h2 to the boundary of the lens O N2
holds:
m11 − 1 m22 − 1
h1 = n , h2 = n
m12 m12

6.2.4 Magnification
b
The linear magnification is defined by: N = −
v
αsyst
The angular magnification is defined by: Nα = −
αnone
where αsys is the size of the retinal image with the optical system and αnone the size of the retinal
image without the system. Further holds: N · Nα = 1. For a telescope holds: N = fobjective /focular .
The f-number is defined by f /Dobjective .

6.3 Matrix methods

A light ray can be described by a vector (nα, y) with α the angle with the optical axis and y the
distance to the optical axis. The change of a light ray interacting with an optical system can be
obtained using a matrix multiplication:
   
n2 α2 n1 α1
=M
y2 y1
where Tr(M ) = 1. M is a product of elementary matrices. These are:
26 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

 
1 0
1. Transfer along length l: MR =
l/n 1
 
1 −D
2. Refraction at a surface with dioptric power D: MT =
0 1

6.4 Aberrations
Lenses usually do not give a perfect image. Some causes are:

1. Chromatic aberration is caused by the fact that n = n(λ). This can be partially corrected
with a lens which is composed of more lenses with different functions ni (λ). Using N lenses
makes it possible to obtain the same f for N wavelengths.

2. Spherical aberration is caused by second-order effects which are usually ignored; a spherical
surface does not make a perfect lens. Incomming rays far from the optical axis will more bent.

3. Coma is caused by the fact that the principal planes of a lens are only flat near the principal
axis. Further away of the optical axis they are curved. This curvature can be both positive or
negative.

4. Astigmatism: from each point of an object not on the optical axis the image is an ellipse
because the thickness of the lens is not the same everywhere.

5. Field curvature can be corrected by the human eye.

6. Distorsion gives abberations near the edges of the image. This can be corrected with a com-
bination of positive and negative lenses.

6.5 Reflection and transmission

If an electromagnetic wave hits a transparent medium part of the wave will reflect at the same angle
as the incident angle, and a part will be refracted at an angle according to Snell’s law. It makes
a difference whether the E⃗ field of the wave is ⊥ or ∥ w.r.t. the surface. When the coefficients of
reflection r and transmission t are defined as:
       
E0r E0r E0t E0t
r∥ ≡ , r⊥ ≡ , t∥ ≡ , t⊥ ≡
E0i ∥ E0i ⊥ E0i ∥ E0i ⊥

where E0r is the reflected amplitude and E0t the transmitted amplitude. Then the Fresnel equations
are:
tan(θi − θt ) sin(θt − θi )
r∥ = , r⊥ =
tan(θi + θt ) sin(θt + θi )
2 sin(θt ) cos(θi ) 2 sin(θt ) cos(θi )
t∥ = , t⊥ =
sin(θt + θi ) cos(θt − θi ) sin(θt + θi )
The following holds: t⊥ − r⊥ = 1 and t∥ + r∥ = 1. If the coefficient of reflection R and transmission
T are defined as (with θi = θr ):

Ir It cos(θt )
R≡ and T ≡
Ii Ii cos(θi )

⃗ it follows: R + T = 1. A special case is r∥ = 0. This happens if the angle between

with I = ⟨|S|⟩
the reflected and transmitted rays is 90◦ . From Snell’s law it then follows: tan(θi ) = n. This angle is
called Brewster’s angle. The situation with r⊥ = 0 is not possible.
Chapter 6: Optics 27

6.6 Polarization
Ip Imax − Imin
The polarization is defined as: P = =
Ip + Iu Imax + Imin
where the intensity of the polarized light is given by Ip and the intensity of the unpolarized light
is given by Iu . Imax and Imin are the maximum and minimum intensities when the light passes a
polarizer. If polarized light passes through a polarizer Malus law applies: I(θ) = I(0) cos2 (θ) where
θ is the angle of the polarizer.
The state of a light ray can be described by the Stokes-parameters: start with 4 filters which each
transmits half the intensity. The first is independent of the polarization, the second and third are
linear polarizers with the transmission axes horizontal and at +45◦ , while the fourth is a circular
polarizer which is opaque for L-states. Then holds S1 = 2I1 , S2 = 2I2 − 2I1 , S3 = 2I3 − 2I1 and
S4 = 2I4 − 2I1 .
The state of a polarized light ray can also be described by the Jones vector:

E0x eiφx
 
⃗
E=
E0y eiφy

For the horizontal ⃗ = (1, 0), for the vertical P -state E

P -state holds: E ⃗ = (0, 1), the R-state is given
√ √
⃗ 1 ⃗ 1
by E = 2 2(1, −i) and the L-state by E = 2 2(1, i). The change in state of a light beam after
passage of optical equipment can be described as E ⃗2 = M · E
⃗ 1 . For some types of optical equipment
the Jones matrix M is given by:
 
1 0
Horizontal linear polarizer:
0 0
 
0 0
Vertical linear polarizer:
0 1
 
1 1
Linear polarizer at +45◦ 1
2 1 1
 
◦ 1 1 −1
Lineair polarizer at −45 2 −1 1
 
1 iπ/4 1 0
4 -λ plate, fast axis vertical e
0 −i
 
1 iπ/4 1 0
4 -λ plate, fast axis horizontal e
0 i
 
1 1 i
Homogene circular polarizor right 2 −i 1
 
1 1 −i
Homogene circular polarizer left 2 i 1

6.7 Prisms and dispersion

A light ray passing through a prism is refracted twice and aquires a deviation from its original direction
δ = θi + θi′ + α w.r.t. the incident direction, where α is the apex angle, θi is the angle between the
incident angle and a line perpendicular to the surface and θi′ is the angle between the ray leaving the
prism and a line perpendicular to the surface. When θi varies there is an angle for which δ becomes
minimal. For the refractive index of the prism now holds:

sin( 21 (δmin + α))

n=
sin( 12 α)
28 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

The dispersion of a prism is defined by:

dδ dδ dn
D= =
dλ dn dλ
where the first factor depends on the shape and the second on the composition of the prism. For the
first factor follows:
dδ 2 sin( 12 α)
=
dn cos( 12 (δmin + α))
For visible light usually holds dn/dλ < 0: shorter wavelengths are stronger bent than longer. The
refractive index in this area can usually be approximated by Cauchy’s formula.

6.8 Diffraction
Fraunhofer diffraction occurs far away from the source(s). The Fraunhofer diffraction of light passing
through multiple slits is described by:
 2  2
I(θ) sin(u) sin(N v)
= ·
I0 u sin(v)

where u = πb sin(θ)/λ, v = πd sin(θ)/λ. N is the number of slits, b the width of a slit and d the
distance between the slits. The maxima in intensity are given by d sin(θ) = kλ.
The diffraction through a spherical aperture with radius a is described by:
 2
I(θ) J1 (ka sin(θ))
=
I0 ka sin(θ)
The diffraction pattern of a rectangular aperture at distance R with length a in the x-direction and
b in the y-direction is described by:
2  2
sin(α′ ) sin(β ′ )

I(x, y)
=
I0 α′ β′

where α′ = kax/2R and β ′ = kby/2R.

When X rays are diffracted at a crystal holds for the position of the maxima in intensity Bragg’s
relation: 2d sin(θ) = nλ where d is the distance between the crystal layers.
Close at the source the Fraunhofermodel is invalid because it ignores the angle-dependence of the
reflected waves. This is described by the obliquity or inclination factor, which describes the direc-
tionality of the secondary emissions: E(θ) = 21 E0 (1 + cos(θ)) where θ is the angle w.r.t. the optical
axis.
Diffraction limits the resolution of a system. This is the minimum angle ∆θmin between two incident
rays coming from points far away for which their refraction patterns can be detected separately. For
a circular slit holds: ∆θmin = 1.22λ/D where D is the diameter of the slit.
For a grating holds: ∆θmin = 2λ/(N a cos(θm )) where a is the distance between two peaks and N the
number of peaks. The minimum difference between two wavelengths that gives a separated diffraction
pattern in a multiple slit geometry is given by ∆λ/λ = nN where N is the number of lines and n the
order of the pattern.

6.9 Special optical effects

ˆ Birefringe and dichroism. D ⃗ is not parallel with E⃗ if the polarizability P⃗ of a material is
not equal in all directions. There are at least 3 directions, the principal axes, in which they are
parallel. This results in 3 refractive indices ni which can be used to construct Fresnel’s ellipsoid.
Chapter 6: Optics 29

In case n2 = n3 ̸= n1 , which happens e.g. at trigonal, hexagonal and tetragonal crystals there
is one optical axis in the direction of n1 . Incident light rays can now be split up in two parts:
the ordinary wave is linear polarized ⊥ the plane through the transmission direction and the
optical axis. The extraordinary wave is linear polarized in the plane through the transmission
direction and the optical axis. Dichroism is caused by a different absorption of the ordinary
and extraordinary wave in some materials. Double images occur when the incident ray makes
an angle with the optical axis: the extraordinary wave will refract, the ordinary will not.

ˆ Retarders: waveplates and compensators. Incident light will have a phase shift of ∆φ =
2πd(|n0 − ne |)/λ0 if an uniaxial crystal is cut in such a way that the optical axis is parallel with
the front and back plane. Here, λ0 is the wavelength in vacuum and n0 and ne the refractive
indices for the ordinary and extraordinary wave. For a quarter-wave plate holds: ∆φ = π/2.

ˆ The Kerr-effect: isotropic, transparent materials can become birefringent when placed in an
⃗ The difference in refractive index in
electric field. In that case, the optical axis is parallel to E.
2
the two directions is given by: ∆n = λ0 KE , where K is the Kerr constant of the material. If
the electrodes have an effective length ℓ and are separated by a distance d, the retardation is
given by: ∆φ = 2πKℓV 2 /d2 , where V is the applied voltage.

ˆ The Pockels or linear electro-optical effect can occur in 20 (from a total of 32) crystal symmetry
classes, namely those without a centre of symmetry. These crystals are also piezoelectric: their
polarization changes when a pressure is applied and vice versa: P⃗ = pd+ε0 χE. ⃗ The retardation
3
in a Pockels cell is ∆φ = 2πn0 r63 V /λ0 where r63 is the 6-3 element of the electro-optic tensor.
ˆ The Faraday effect: the polarization of light passing through material with length d and to
which a magnetic field is applied in the propagation direction is rotated by an angle β = VBd
where V is the Verdet constant.
ˆ C̆erenkov radiation arises when a charged particle with vq > vf arrives. The radiation is
emitted within a cone with an apex angle α with sin(α) = c/cmedium = c/nvq .

6.10 The Fabry-Perot interferometer

For a Fabry-Perot interferometer holds
in general: T + R + A = 1 where T
is the transmission factor, R the reflec-
tion factor and A the absorption fac-
tor. If F is given by F = 4R/(1 − R)2
it follows for the intensity distribution:
 2
It A 1
= 1− PP
Ii 1 − R 1 + F sin2 (θ) PP
q
-
The term [1 + F sin2 (θ)]−1 := A(θ) is Source Lens d
Screen
called the Airy function. Focussing lens
√ √
The width of the peaks at half height is given by γ = 4/ F . The finesse F is defined as F = 21 π F .
The maximum resolution is then given by ∆fmin = c/2ndF.
Chapter 7

Statistical physics

7.1 Degrees of freedom

A molecule consisting of n atoms has s = 3n degrees of freedom. There are 3 translational degrees of
freedom, a linear molecule has s = 3n − 5 vibrational degrees of freedom and a non-linear molecule
s = 3n − 6. A linear molecule has 2 rotational degrees of freedom and a non-linear molecule 3.

Because vibrational degrees of freedom account for both kinetic and potential energy they count
double. So, for linear molecules this results in a total of s = 6n − 5. For non-linear molecules this
gives s = 6n − 6. The average energy of a molecule in thermodynamic equilibrium is ⟨Etot ⟩ = 21 skT .
Each degree of freedom of a molecule has in principle the same energy: the principle of equipartition.

The rotational and vibrational energy of a molecule are:

ℏ2
Wrot = l(l + 1) = Bl(l + 1) , Wvib = (v + 12 )ℏω0
2I
The vibrational levels are excited if kT ≈ ℏω, the rotational levels of a hetronuclear molecule are
excited if kT ≈ 2B. For homonuclear molecules additional selection rules apply so the rotational
levels are well coupled if kT ≈ 6B.

7.2 The energy distribution function

The general form of the equilibrium velocity distribution function is
P (vx , vy , vz )dvx dvy dvz = P (vx )dvx · P (vy )dvy · P (vz )dvz with
 2
1 v
P (vi )dvi = √ exp − i2 dvi
α π α
p
where α = √ 2kT /m

is the most probable velocity of a particle. The average velocity is given by
⟨v⟩ = 2α/ π, and v 2 = 23 α2 . The distribution as a function of the absolute value of the velocity is
given by:
mv 2
 
dN 4N
= 3 √ v 2 exp −
dv α π 2kT
The general form of the energy distribution function then becomes:
  12 s−1  
c(s) E E
P (E)dE = exp − dE
kT kT kT

where c(s) is a normalization constant, given by:

1
1. Even s: s = 2l: c(s) =
(l − 1)!

2l
2. Odd s: s = 2l + 1: c(s) = √
π(2l − 1)!!
Chapter 7: Statistical physics 31

7.3 Pressure on a wall

The number of molecules that collides with a wall with surface A within a time τ is given by:

ZZZ Z∞ Zπ Z2π
3
d N= nAvτ cos(θ)P (v, θ, φ)dvdθdφ
0 0 0

From this follows for the particle flux on the wall: Φ = 14 n ⟨v⟩. For the pressure on the wall then
follows:
2mv cos(θ)d3 N 2
d3 p = , so p = n ⟨E⟩
Aτ 3

7.4 The equation of state

If intermolecular forces and the volume of the molecules can be neglected then for gases from p =
2 3
3 n ⟨E⟩ and ⟨E⟩ = 2 kT can be derived:

1
N m v2


pV = ns RT =
3

Here, ns is the number of moles particles and N is the total number of particles within volume V . If
the own volume and the intermolecular forces cannot be neglected the Van der Waals equation can
be derived:
an2s
 
p + 2 (V − bns ) = ns RT
V

There is an isotherme with a horizontal point of inflection. In the Van der Waals equation this
corresponds with the critical temperature, pressure and volume of the gas. This is the upper limit of
the area of coexistence between liquid and vapor. From dp/dV = 0 and d2 p/dV 2 = 0 follows:

8a a
Tcr = , pcr = , Vcr = 3bns
27bR 27b2

For the critical point holds: pcr Vm,cr /RTcr = 38 , which differs from the value of 1 which follows from
the general gas law.

Scaled on the critical quantities, with p∗ := p/pcr , T ∗ = T /Tcr and Vm∗ = Vm /Vm,cr with Vm := V /ns
holds:
 
3
p∗ + Vm∗ − 13 = 38 T ∗


∗
(Vm ) 2

Gases behave the same for equal values of the reduced quantities: the law of the corresponding states.
A virial expansion is used for even more accurate views:
 
1 B(T ) C(T )
p(T, Vm ) = RT + + + ···
Vm Vm2 Vm3

The Boyle temperature TB is the temperature for which the 2nd virial coefficient is 0. In a Van der
Waals gas, this happens at TB = a/Rb. The inversion temperature Ti = 2TB .

The equation of state for solids and liquids is given by:

   
V 1 ∂V 1 ∂V
= 1 + γp ∆T − κT ∆p = 1 + ∆T + ∆p
V0 V ∂T p V ∂p T
32 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

7.5 Collisions between molecules

The collision probability of a particle in a gas that is translated over a distance dx is given by nσdx,
v1 p
where σ is the cross section. The mean free path is given by ℓ = with u = v12 + v22 the relative
r nuσ
u m1 1
velocity between the particles. If m1 ≪ m2 holds: = 1+ , so ℓ = . If m1 = m2 holds:
v1 m2 nσ
1 1
ℓ= √ . This means that the average time between two collisions is given by τ = . If the
nσ 2 nσv
1 2 2
molecules are approximated by hard spheres the cross section is: σ = 4 π(D1 + D2 ). The average
distance between two molecules is 0.55n−1/3 . Collisions between molecules and small particles in a
solution result

 in the
Brownian motion. For the average motion of a particle with radius R can be
derived: x2i = 13 r2 = kT t/3πηR.
A gas is called a Knudsen gas if ℓ ≫ the dimensions of the gas, something that can easily occur at low
pressures.pThe equilibrium
√ condition√ for a vessel which has a hole with surface A in it√for which √holds
that ℓ ≫ A/π is: n1 T1 = n2 T2 . Together with the general gas law follows: p1 / T1 = p2 / T2 .
If two plates move along each other at a distance d with velocity wx the viscosity η is given by:
Awx
Fx = η . The velocity profile between the plates is in that case given by w(z) = zwx /d. It can
d
be derived that η = 31 ϱℓ ⟨v⟩ where v is the thermal velocity.
 
dQ T2 − T1
The heat conductance in a non-moving gas is described by: = κA , which results
dt d
in a temperature profile T (z) = T1 + z(T2 − T1 )/d. It can be derived that κ = 31 CmV nℓ ⟨v⟩ /NA .
Also holds: κ = CV η. A better expression for κ can be obtained with the Eucken correction:
κ = (1 + 9R/4cmV )CV · η with an error <5%.

7.6 Interaction between molecules

For dipole interaction between molecules can be derived that U ∼ −1/r6 . If the distance between
two molecules approaches the molecular diameter D a repulsing force between the electron clouds
appears. This force can be described by Urep ∼ exp(−γr) or Vrep = +Cs /rs with 12 ≤ s ≤ 20. This
results in the Lennard-Jones potential for intermolecular forces:
"   6 #
12
D D
ULJ = 4ϵ −
r r

with a minimum ϵ at r = rm . The following holds: D ≈ 0.89rm . For the Van der Waals coefficients
a and b and the critical quantities holds: a = 5.275NA2 D3 ϵ, b = 1.3NA D3 , kTkr = 1.2ϵ and Vm,kr =
3.9NA D3 .
A more simple model for intermolecular forces assumes a potential U (r) = ∞ for r < D, U (r) = ULJ
for D ≤ r ≤ 3D and U (r) = 0 for r ≥ 3D. This gives for the potential energy of one molecule:
Z 3D
Epot = U (r)F (r)dr.
D

with F (r) the spatial distribution function in spherical coordinates, which for a homogeneous distri-
bution is given by: F (r)dr = 4nπr2 dr.
Some useful mathematical relations are:
Z∞ Z∞ √ Z∞
n −x 2n −x2 (2n)! π 2
x e dx = n! , x e dx = 2n+1
, x2n+1 e−x dx = 12 n!
n!2
0 0 0
Chapter 8

Thermodynamics

8.1 Mathematical introduction

If there exists a relation f (x, y, z) = 0 between 3 variables, one can write: x = x(y, z), y = y(x, z)
and z = z(x, y). The total differential dz of z is than given by:
   
∂z ∂z
dz = dx + dy
∂x y ∂y x

By writing this also for dx and dy it can be obtained that

     
∂x ∂y ∂z
· · = −1
∂y z ∂z x ∂x y
H
Because dz is a total differential holds dz = 0.
A homogeneous function of degree m obeys: εm F (x, y, z) = F (εx, εy, εz). For such a function Euler’s
theorem applies:
∂F ∂F ∂F
mF (x, y, z) = x +y +z
∂x ∂y ∂z

8.2 Definitions
 
1 ∂p
ˆ The isochoric pressure coefficient: βV =
p ∂T V
 
1 ∂V
ˆ The isothermal compressibility: κT = −
V ∂p T
 
1 ∂V
ˆ The isobaric volume coefficient: γp =
V ∂T p
 
1 ∂V
ˆ The adiabatic compressibility: κS = −
V ∂p S

For an ideal gas follows: γp = 1/T , κT = 1/p and βV = −1/V .

8.3 Thermal heat capacity

 
∂S
ˆ The specific heat at constant X is: CX = T
∂T X
 
∂H
ˆ The specific heat at constant pressure: Cp =
∂T p
 
∂U
ˆ The specific heat at constant volume: CV =
∂T V
34 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

For an ideal gas holds: Cmp − CmV = R. Further, if the temperature is high enough to thermalize
all internal rotational and vibrational degrees of freedom, holds: CV = 12 sR. Hence Cp = 12 (s + 2)R.
For their ratio now follows γ = (2 + s)/s. For a lower T one needs only to consider the thermalized
degrees of freedom. For a Van der Waals gas holds: CmV = 12 sR + ap/RT 2 .
In general holds:
     2  
∂p ∂V ∂V ∂p
Cp − CV = T · = −T ≥0
∂T V ∂T p ∂T p ∂V T

Because (∂p/∂V )T is always < 0, the following is always valid: Cp ≥ CV . If the coefficient of
expansion is 0, Cp = CV , and also at T = 0K.

8.4 The laws of thermodynamics

The zeroth law states that heat flows from higher to lower temperatures. The first law is the conserva-
tion of energy. For a closed system holds: Q = ∆U + W , where Q is the total added heat, W the work
done and ∆U the difference in the internal energy. In differential form this becomes: d Q = dU + d W ,
where d means that the it is not a differential of a quantity of state. For a quasi-static process holds:
d W = pdV . So for a reversible process holds: d Q = dU + pdV .
For an open (flowing) system the first law is: Q = ∆H + Wi + ∆Ekin + ∆Epot . One can extract an
amount of work Wt from the system or add Wt = −Wi to the system.
The second law states: for a closed system there exists an additive quantity S, called the entropy, the
differential of which has the following property:

dQ
dS ≥
T
If the only processes occurring are reversible holds: dS = d Qrev /T . So, the entropy difference after
a reversible process is:
Z2
d Qrev
S2 − S1 =
T
1
I
d Qrev
So, for a reversible cycle holds: = 0.
T
I
d Qirr
For an irreversible cycle holds: < 0.
T
The third law of thermodynamics is (Nernst):
 
∂S
lim =0
T →0 ∂X T

From this it can be concluded that the thermal heat capacity → 0 if T → 0, so absolute zero
temperature cannot be reached by cooling through a finite number of steps.

8.5 State functions and Maxwell relations

The quantities of state and their differentials are:

Internal energy: U dU = T dS − pdV

Enthalpy: H = U + pV dH = T dS + V dp
Free energy: F = U − TS dF = −SdT − pdV
Gibbs free enthalpy: G = H − TS dG = −SdT + V dp
Chapter 8: Thermodynamics 35

From this one can derive Maxwell’s relations:

               
∂T ∂p ∂T ∂V ∂p ∂S ∂V ∂S
=− , = , = , =−
∂V S ∂S V ∂p S ∂S p ∂T V ∂V T ∂T p ∂p T

From the total differential and the definitions of CV and Cp it can be derived that:
   
∂p ∂V
T dS = CV dT + T dV and T dS = Cp dT − T dp
∂T V ∂T p

For an ideal gas also holds:

       
T V T p ′
Sm = CV ln + R ln + Sm0 and Sm = Cp ln − R ln + Sm0
T0 V0 T0 p0

Helmholtz’ equations are:

       
∂U ∂p ∂H ∂V
=T −p , =V −T
∂V T ∂T V ∂p T ∂T p

for an enlarged surface holds: d Wrev = −γdA, with γ the surface tension. From this follows:
   
∂U ∂F
γ= =
∂A S ∂A T

8.6 Processes
Work done
The efficiency η of a process is given by: η =
Heat added
Cold delivered
The Cold factor ξ of a cooling down process is given by: ξ =
Work added
Reversible adiabatic processes
For adiabatic processes holds: W = U1 − U2 . For reversible adiabatic processes holds Poisson’s
equation: with γ = Cp /CV one gets that pV γ =constant. Also holds: T V γ−1 =constant and
T γ p1−γ =constant. Adiabatics exhibit a greater steepness p-V diagram than isothermics because
γ > 1.
Isobaric processes
R2
Here holds: H2 − H1 = 1
Cp dT . For a reversible isobaric process holds: H2 − H1 = Qrev .
The throttle process
This is also called the Joule-Kelvin effect and is an adiabatic expansion of a gas through a porous
material or a small opening. Here H is a conserved quantity, and dS > 0. In general this is
accompanied with a change in temperature. The quantity which is important here is the throttle
coefficient: "  #
  
∂T 1 ∂V
αH = = T −V
∂p H Cp ∂T p
The inversion temperature is the temperature where an adiabatically expanding gas keeps the same
temperature. If T > Ti the gas heats up, if T < Ti the gas cools down. Ti = 2TB , with for TB :
[∂(pV )/∂p]T = 0. The throttle process is e.g. applied in refridgerators.
The Carnotprocess
The system undergoes a reversible cycle with 2 isothemics and 2 adiabatics:

1. Isothermic expansion at T1 . The system absorbs a heat Q1 from the reservoir.

36 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

2. Adiabatic expansion with a temperature drop to T2 .

3. Isothermic compression at T2 , removing Q2 from the system.
4. Adiabatic compression to T1 .
The efficiency for Carnot’s process is:
|Q2 | T2
η =1− =1− := ηC
|Q1 | T1
The Carnot efficiency ηC is the maximal efficiency at which a heat machine can operate. If the process
is applied in reverse order and the system performs a work −W the cold factor is given by:
|Q2 | |Q2 | T2
ξ= = =
W |Q1 | − |Q2 | T1 − T2
The Stirling process
Stirling’s cycle exists of 2 isothermics and 2 isochorics. The efficiency in the ideal case is the same as
for Carnot’s cycle.

8.7 Maximal work

Consider a system that changes from state 1 into state 2, with the temperature and pressure of the
surroundings given by T0 and p0 . The maximum work which can be obtained from this change is,
when all processes are reversible:
1. Closed system: Wmax = (U1 − U2 ) − T0 (S1 − S2 ) + p0 (V1 − V2 ).
2. Open system: Wmax = (H1 − H2 ) − T0 (S1 − S2 ) − ∆Ekin − ∆Epot .
The minimal work needed to attain a certain state is: Wmin = −Wmax .

8.8 Phase transitions

Phase transitions are isothermic and isobaric, so dG = 0. When the phases are indicated by α, β and
γ holds: Gα β
m = Gm and
α β rβα
∆Sm = Sm − Sm =
T0
where rβα is the transition heat of phase β to phase α and T0 is the transition temperature. The
following holds: rβα = rαβ and rβα = rγα − rγβ . Further
 
∂Gm
Sm =
∂T p

so G has a twist in the transition point. In a two phase system Clapeyron’s equation is valid:

dp S α − Sm
β
rβα
= m β
=
dT α
Vm − Vm (Vm − Vmβ )T
α

For an ideal gas one finds for the vapor line at some distance from the critical point:

p = p0 e−rβα/RT

There exist also phase transitions with rβα = 0. For those there will occur only a discontinuity in the
second derivates of Gm . These second-order transitions appear at organization phenomena.
A phase-change of the 3rd order, so with e.g. [∂ 3 Gm /∂T 3 ]p non continuous arises e.g. when ferro-
magnetic iron changes to the paramagnetic state.
Chapter 8: Thermodynamics 37

8.9 Thermodynamic potential

When the number of particles within a system changes this number becomes a third quantity of state.
Because addition of matter usually takes place at constant p and T , G is the relevant quantity. If a
system exists of more components this becomes:
X
dG = −SdT + V dp + µi dni
i
 
∂G
where µ = is called the thermodynamic potential. This is a partial quantity. For V
∂ni p,T,nj
holds:
c   c
X ∂V X
V = ni := ni Vi
i=1
∂ni nj ,p,T i=1
where Vi is the partial volume of component i. The following holds:
X
Vm = xi V i
i
X
0 = xi dVi
i

where xi = ni /n is the molar fraction of component i. The molar volume of a mixture of two
components can be a concave line in a V -x2 diagram: the mixing contracts the volume.
The thermodynamic
P potentials are not independent in a multiple-phase
P system. It can be derived
that ni dµi = −SdT + V dp, this gives at constant p and T : xi dµi = 0 (Gibbs-Duhmen).
i i
Each component has as much µ’s as there are phases. The number of free parameters in a system
with c components and p different phases is given by f = c + 2 − p.

8.10 Ideal mixtures

For a mixture of n components holds (the index 0 is the value for the pure component):
X X X
Umixture = ni Ui0 , Hmixture = ni Hi0 , Smixture = n xi Si0 + ∆Smix
i i i
P
where for ideal gases holds: ∆Smix = −nR xi ln(xi ).
i

For the thermodynamic potentials holds: µi = µ0i + RT ln(xi ) < µ0i . A mixture of two liquids is
rarely ideal: this is usually only the case for chemically related components or isotopes. In spite of
this holds Raoult’s law for the vapour pressure holds for many binary mixtures: pi = xi p0i = yi p.
Here is xi the fraction of the ith component in liquid phase and yi the fraction of the ith component
in gas phase.
A solution of one component in another gives rise to an increase in the boiling point ∆Tk and a
decrease of the freezing point ∆Ts . For x2 ≪ 1 holds:
RTk2 RT 2
∆Tk = x2 , ∆Ts = − s x2
rβα rγβ
with rβα the evaporation heat and rγβ < 0 the melting heat. For the osmotic pressure Π of a solution
0
holds: ΠVm1 = x2 RT .

8.11 Conditions for equilibrium

When a system evolves towards equilibrium the only changes that are possible are those for which
holds: (dS)U,V ≥ 0 or (dU )S,V ≤ 0 or (dH)S,p ≤ 0 or (dF )T,V ≤ 0 or (dG)T,p ≤ 0. In equilibrium for
β γ
each component holds: µαi = µi = µi .
38 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

8.12 Statistical basis for thermodynamics

The number of possibilities P to distribute N particles on n possible energy levels, each with a g-fold
degeneracy is called the thermodynamic probability and is given by:
Y g ni
i
P = N!
i
ni !

The most probable distribution, that with the maximum value for P , is the equilibrium state. When
Stirling’s equation, ln(n!) ≈ n ln(n)−n is used, one finds for a discrete system the Maxwell-Boltzmann
distribution. The occupation numbers in equilibrium are then given by:
 
N Wi
ni = gi exp −
Z kT
P
The state sum Z is a normalization constant, given by: Z = gi exp(−Wi /kT ). For an ideal gas
i
holds:
V (2πmkT )3/2
Z=
h3
The entropy can then be defined as: S = k ln(P ) . For a system in thermodynamic equilibrium this
becomes:    N
U Z U Z
S= + kN ln + kN ≈ + k ln
T N T N!
V (2πmkT )3/2
 
For an ideal gas, with U = 32 kT then holds: S = 25 kN + kN ln
N h3

8.13 Application to other systems

Thermodynamics can be applied to other systems than gases and liquids. To do this the term
d W = pdV has to be replaced with the correct work term, like d Wrev = −F dl for the stretching of a
wire, d Wrev = −γdA for the expansion of a soap bubble or d Wrev = −BdM for a magnetic system.
A rotating, non-charged black hole has a temparature of T = ℏc/8πkm. It has an entropy S =
Akc3 /4ℏκ with A the area of its event horizon. For a Schwarzschild black hole A is given by A =
16πm2 . Hawkings area theorem states that dA/dt ≥ 0.
Hence, the lifetime of a black hole ∼ m3 .
Chapter 9

Transport phenomena

9.1 Mathematical introduction

An important relation is: if X is a quantity of a volume element which travels from position ⃗r to
⃗r + d⃗r in a time dt, the total differential dX is then given by:
∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X dX ∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X
dX = dx + dy + dz + dt ⇒ = vx + vy + vz +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t dt ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t

dX ∂X
This results in general to: = + (⃗v · ∇)X .
dt ∂t
ZZZ ZZZ ZZ
d ∂
From this follows that also holds: Xd3 V = Xd3 V + ⃝ X(⃗v · ⃗n )d2 A
dt ∂t
where the volume V is surrounded by surface A. Some properties of the ∇ operator are:

div(ϕ⃗v ) = ϕdiv⃗v + gradϕ · ⃗v rot(ϕ⃗v ) = ϕrot⃗v + (gradϕ) × ⃗v rot gradϕ = ⃗0

div(⃗u × ⃗v ) = ⃗v · (rot⃗u ) − ⃗u · (rot⃗v ) rot rot⃗v = grad div⃗v − ∇2⃗v div rot⃗v = 0
div gradϕ = ∇2 ϕ ∇2⃗v ≡ (∇2 v1 , ∇2 v2 , ∇2 v3 )

Here, ⃗v is an arbitrary vector field and ϕ an arbitrary scalar field. Some important integral theorems
are: ZZ ZZZ
Gauss: ⃝ (⃗v · ⃗n )d2 A = (div⃗v )d3 V
I ZZ
Stokes for a scalar field: (ϕ · ⃗et )ds = (⃗n × gradϕ)d2 A
I ZZ
Stokes for a vector field: (⃗v · ⃗et )ds = (rot⃗v · ⃗n )d2 A
ZZ
This results in: ⃝ (rot⃗v · ⃗n )d2 A = 0
ZZ ZZZ
2
Ostrogradsky: ⃝ (⃗n × ⃗v )d A = (rot⃗v )d3 A
ZZ ZZZ
2
⃝ (ϕ⃗n )d A = (gradϕ)d3 V

d2 A is limited by the Jordan curve

RR H
Here, the orientable surface ds.

9.2 Conservation laws

On a volume work two types of forces:
1. The force f⃗0 on each volume element. For gravity holds: f⃗0 = ϱ⃗g .
2. Surface forces working only on the margins: ⃗t. For these holds: ⃗t = ⃗n T, where T is the stress
tensor.
40 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

T can be split in a part pI representing the normal tensions and a part T′ representing the shear
stresses: T = T′ + pI, where I is the unit tensor. When viscous aspects can be ignored holds:
divT= −gradp.
When the flow velocity is ⃗v at position ⃗r holds on position ⃗r + d⃗r:

⃗v (d⃗r ) = ⃗v (⃗r ) + d⃗r · (grad⃗v )

|{z} | {z }
translation rotation, deformation, dilatation

The quantity L:=grad⃗v can be split in a symmetric part D and an antisymmetric part W. L = D + W
with    
1 ∂vi ∂vj 1 ∂vi ∂vj
Dij := + , Wij := −
2 ∂xj ∂xi 2 ∂xj ∂xi
When the rotation or vorticity ω⃗ = rot⃗v is introduced holds: Wij = 12 εijk ωk . ω
⃗ represents the local
⃗ 1 ⃗
rotation velocity: dr · W = 2 ω × dr.
For a Newtonian liquid holds: T′ = 2ηD. Here, η is the dynamical viscosity. This is related to the
shear stress τ by:
∂vi
τij = η
∂xj
For compressible media can be stated: T′ = (η ′ div⃗v )I + 2ηD. From equating the thermodynamical
and mechanical pressure it follows: 3η ′ + 2η = 0. If the viscosity is constant holds: div(2D) =
∇2⃗v + grad div⃗v .
The conservation laws for mass, momentum and energy for continuous media can be written in both
integral and differential form. They are:
Integral notation:
ZZZ ZZ
∂
1. Conservation of mass: ϱd3 V + ⃝ ϱ(⃗v · ⃗n )d2 A = 0
∂t
ZZZ ZZ ZZZ ZZ
∂ 3 2
2. Conservation of momentum: ϱ⃗v d V + ⃝ ϱ⃗v (⃗v · ⃗n )d A = f0 d V + ⃝ ⃗n · T d2 A
3
∂t
ZZZ ZZ
∂
3. Conservation of energy: ( 2 v + e)ϱd V + ⃝ ( 12 v 2 + e)ϱ(⃗v · ⃗n )d2 A =
1 2 3
∂t
ZZ ZZZ ZZ
− ⃝ (⃗q · ⃗n )d2 A + (⃗v · f⃗0 )d3 V + ⃝ (⃗v · ⃗n T)d2 A

Differential notation:
∂ϱ
1. Conservation of mass: + div · (ϱ⃗v ) = 0
∂t
∂⃗v
2. Conservation of momentum: ϱ + (ϱ⃗v · ∇)⃗v = f⃗0 + divT = f⃗0 − gradp + divT′
∂t
ds de p dϱ
3. Conservation of energy: ϱT =ϱ − = −div⃗q + T′ : D
dt dt ϱ dt
Here, e is the internal energy per unit of mass E/m and s is the entropy per unit of mass S/m.
⃗ is the heat flow. Further holds:
⃗q = −κ∇T
∂E ∂e ∂E ∂e
p=− =− , T = =
∂V ∂1/ϱ ∂S ∂s
so    
∂e ∂h
CV = and Cp =
∂T V ∂T p
Chapter 9: Transport phenomena 41

with h = H/m the enthalpy per unit of mass.

From this one can derive the Navier-Stokes equations for an incompressible, viscous and heat-
conducting medium:
div⃗v = 0
∂⃗v
ϱ + ϱ(⃗v · ∇)⃗v = ϱ⃗g − gradp + η∇2⃗v
∂t
∂T
ϱC + ϱC(⃗v · ∇)T = κ∇2 T + 2ηD : D
∂t
with C the thermal heat capacity. The force F⃗ on an object within a flow, when viscous effects are
limited to the boundary layer, can be obtained using the momentum law. If a surface A surrounds
the object outside the boundary layer holds:
ZZ
⃗
F = − ⃝ [p⃗n + ϱ⃗v (⃗v · ⃗n )]d2 A

9.3 Bernoulli’s equations

Starting with the momentum equation one can find for a non-viscous medium for stationary flows,
with
(⃗v · grad)⃗v = 21 grad(v 2 ) + (rot⃗v ) × ⃗v
and the potential equation ⃗g = −grad(gh) that:
Z
1 2 dp
2 v + gh + ϱ
= constant along a streamline

For compressible flows holds: 12 v 2 + gh + p/ϱ =constant along aRline of flow. If also holds rot⃗v = 0
and the entropy is equal on each streamline holds 12 v 2 + gh + dp/ϱ =constant everywhere. For
incompressible flows this becomes: 12 v 2 + gh + p/ϱ =constant everywhere. For ideal gases with
constant Cp and CV holds, with γ = Cp /CV :

1 2 γ p c2
2v + = 12 v 2 + = constant
γ−1ϱ γ−1
With a velocity potential defined by ⃗v = gradϕ holds for instationary flows:
Z
∂ϕ 1 2 dp
+ 2 v + gh + = constant everywhere
∂t ϱ

9.4 Characterising of flows by dimensionless numbers

The advantage of dimensionless numbers is that they make model experiments possible: one has
to make the dimensionless numbers which are important for the specific experiment equal for both
model and the real situation. One can also deduce functional equalities without solving the differential
equations. Some dimensionless numbers are given by:
ωL v2 v
Strouhal: Sr = Froude: Fr = Mach: Ma =
v gL c
a vL vL
Fourier: Fo = Péclet: Pe = Reynolds: Re =
ωL2 a ν
ν Lα v2
Prandtl: Pr = Nusselt: Nu = Eckert: Ec =
a κ c∆T
Here, ν = η/ϱ is the kinematic viscosity, c is the speed of sound and L is a characteristic length of
the system. α follows from the equation for heat transport κ∂y T = α∆T and a = κ/ϱc is the thermal
diffusion coefficient.
These numbers can be interpreted as follows:
42 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

ˆ Re: (stationary inertial forces)/(viscous forces)

ˆ Sr: (non-stationary inertial forces)/(stationary inertial forces)

ˆ Fr: (stationary inertial forces)/(gravity)

ˆ Fo: (heat conductance)/(non-stationary change in enthalpy)

ˆ Pe: (convective heat transport)/(heat conductance)

ˆ Ec: (viscous dissipation)/(convective heat transport)

ˆ Ma: (velocity)/(speed of sound): objects moving faster than approximately Ma = 0,8 produce
shockwaves which propagate with an angle θ with the velocity of the object. For this angle
holds Ma= 1/ arctan(θ).

ˆ Pr and Nu are related to specific materials.

Now, the dimensionless Navier-Stokes equation becomes, with x′ = x/L, ⃗v ′ = ⃗v /V , grad′ = Lgrad,
∇′2 = L2 ∇2 and t′ = tω:

∂⃗v ′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ⃗g ∇′2⃗v ′
Sr + (⃗
v · ∇ )⃗
v = −grad p + +
∂t′ Fr Re

9.5 Tube flows

For tube flows holds: they are laminar if Re< 2300 with dimension of length the diameter of the
tube, and turbulent if Re is larger. For an incompressible laminar flow through a straight, circular
tube holds for the velocity profile:

1 dp 2
v(r) = − (R − r2 )
4η dx

ZR
π dp 4
For the volume flow holds: ΦV = v(r)2πrdr = − R
8η dx
0

The entrance length Le is given by:

1. 500 < ReD < 2300: Le /2R = 0.056ReD

2. Re > 2300: Le /2R ≈ 50

√
4R3 α π dp
For gas transport at low pressures (Knudsen-gas) holds: ΦV =
3 dx
For flows at a small Re holds: ∇p = η∇2⃗v and div⃗v = 0. For the total force on a sphere with radius
R in a flow then holds: F = 6πηRv. For large Re holds for the force on a surface A: F = 21 CW Aϱv 2 .

9.6 Potential theory

I ZZ ZZ
The circulation Γ is defined as: Γ = (⃗v · ⃗et )ds = (rot⃗v ) · ⃗nd2 A = ω · ⃗n )d2 A
(⃗

For non viscous media, if p = p(ϱ) and all forces are conservative, Kelvin’s theorem can be derived:

dΓ
=0
dt
Chapter 9: Transport phenomena 43

For rotationless flows a velocity potential ⃗v = gradϕ can be introduced. In the incompressible case
follows from conservation of mass ∇2 ϕ = 0. For a 2-dimensional flow a flow function ψ(x, y) can be
defined: with ΦAB the amount of liquid flowing through a curve s between the points A and B:

ZB ZB
ΦAB = (⃗v · ⃗n )ds = (vx dy − vy dx)
A A

and the definitions vx = ∂ψ/∂y, vy = −∂ψ/∂x holds: ΦAB = ψ(B) − ψ(A). In general holds:

∂2ψ ∂2ψ
+ = −ωz
∂x2 ∂y 2

In polar coordinates holds:

1 ∂ψ ∂ϕ ∂ψ 1 ∂ϕ
vr = = , vθ = − =
r ∂θ ∂r ∂r r ∂θ
Q
For source flows with power Q in (x, y) = (0, 0) holds: ϕ = ln(r) so that vr = Q/2πr, vθ = 0.
2π
For a dipole of strength Q in x = a and strength −Q in x = −a follows from superposition: ϕ =
−Qax/2πr2 where Qa is the dipole strength. For a vortex holds: ϕ = Γθ/2π.
If an object is surrounded by an uniform main flow with ⃗v = v⃗ex and such a large Re that viscous
effects are limited to the boundary layer holds: Fx = 0 and Fy = −ϱΓv. The statement that Fx = 0 is
d’Alembert’s paradox and originates from the neglection of viscous effects. The lift Fy is also created
by η because Γ ̸= 0 due to viscous effects. Henxe rotating bodies also create a force perpendicular to
their direction of motion: the Magnus effect.

9.7 Boundary layers

9.7.1 Flow boundary layers
√
If for the thickness of the boundary layer holds: δ ≪ L holds: δ ≈ L/ Re. With v∞ the velocity
of the main flow it follows for the velocity vy ⊥ the surface: vy L ≈ δv∞ . Blasius’ equation for the
boundary layer is, with vy /v∞ = f (y/δ): 2f ′′′ + f f ′′ = 0 with boundary conditions f (0) = f ′ (0) = 0,
f ′ (∞) = 1. From this follows: CW = 0.664 Re−1/2x .
d dv τ0
The momentum theorem of Von Karman for the boundary layer is: (ϑv 2 ) + δ ∗ v =
dx dx ϱ
where the displacement thickness δ ∗ v and the momentum thickness ϑv 2 are given by:

Z∞ Z∞ 
2 ∗ ∂vx 
ϑv = (v − vx )vx dy , δ v = (v − vx )dy and τ0 = −η
∂y y=0
0 0
 
∂vx dp
The boundary layer is released from the surface if = 0. This is equivalent with =
∂y y=0 dx
12ηv∞
.
δ2

9.7.2 Temperature boundary layers

√
If the thickness of the temperature boundary layer δT ≪ L holds: 1. If Pr ≤ 1: δ/δT ≈ √Pr.
2. If Pr ≫ 1: δ/δT ≈ 3 Pr.
44 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

9.8 Heat conductance

For non-stationairy heat conductance in one dimension without flow holds:

∂T κ ∂2T
= +Φ
∂t ϱc ∂x2
where Φ is a source term. If Φ = 0 the solutions for harmonic oscillations at x = 0 are:
T − T∞  x  x
= exp − cos ωt −
Tmax − T∞ D D
p
with D = 2κ/ωϱc. At x = πD the temperature variation is in anti-phase with the surface. The
one-dimensional solution at Φ = 0 is
x2
 
1
T (x, t) = √ exp −
2 πat 4at

This is mathematical equivalent to the diffusion problem:

∂n
= D∇2 n + P − A
∂t
where P is the production of and A the discharge of particles. The flow density J = −D∇n.

9.9 Turbulence
√
The time scale of turbulent velocity variations τt is of the order of: τt = τ Re/Ma2 with τ the
molecular time scale. For the velocity of the particles holds: v(t) = ⟨v⟩ + v ′ (t) with ⟨v ′ (t)⟩ = 0. The
Navier-Stokes equation now becomes:

∂ ⟨⃗v ⟩ ∇ ⟨p⟩ divSR

+ (⟨⃗v ⟩ · ∇) ⟨⃗v ⟩ = − + ν∇2 ⟨⃗v ⟩ +
∂t ϱ ϱ

where SRij = −ϱ ⟨vi vj ⟩ is the turbulent stress tensor. Boussinesq’s assumption is: τij = −ϱ vi′ vj′ .



It is stated that, analogous to Newtonian media: SR = 2ϱνt ⟨D⟩. Near a boundary holds: νt = 0, far
away of a boundary holds: νt ≈ νRe.

9.10 Self organization

dω ∂ω
For a (semi) two-dimensional flow holds: = + J(ω, ψ) = ν∇2 ω
dt ∂t
With J(ω, ψ) the Jacobian. So if ν = 0, ω is conserved. Further, the kinetic energy/mA and the
enstrofy V are conserved: with ⃗v = ∇ × (⃗kψ)
Z∞ Z∞
2 2 2
E ∼ (∇ψ) ∼ E(k, t)dk = constant , V ∼ (∇ ψ) ∼ k 2 E(k, t)dk = constant
0 0

From this follows that in a two-dimensional flow the energy flux goes towards large values of k: larger
structures become larger at the expanse of smaller ones. In three-dimensional flows the situation is
just the opposite.
Chapter 10

Quantum physics

10.1 Introduction to quantum physics

10.1.1 Black body radiation
Planck’s law for the energy distribution for the radiation of a black body is:
8πhf 3 1 8πhc 1
w(f ) = , w(λ) =
c3 ehf /kT − 1 λ5 ehc/λkT − 1
Stefan-Boltzmann’s law for the total power density can be derived from this: P = AσT 4 . Wien’s law
for the maximum can also be derived from this: T λmax = kW .

10.1.2 The Compton effect

For the wavelength of scattered light, if light is considered to exist of particles, can be derived:
h
λ′ = λ + (1 − cos θ) = λ + λC (1 − cos θ)
mc

10.1.3 Electron diffraction

Diffraction of electrons at a crystal can be explained by assuming that particles have a wave character
with wavelength λ = h/p. This wavelength is called the Broglie-wavelength.

10.2 Wave functions

The wave character of particles is described by a wavefunction ψ. This wavefunction can be described
in normal or momentum space. Both definitions are each others Fourier transform:
Z Z
1 1
Φ(k, t) = √ Ψ(x, t)e−ikx dx and Ψ(x, t) = √ Φ(k, t)eikx dk
h h
These waves define a particle with group velocity vg = p/m and energy E = ℏω.
The wavefunction can be interpreted as a measure for the probability P to find a particle somewhere
(Born): dP = |ψ|2 d3 V . The expectation value ⟨f ⟩ of a quantity f of a system is given by:
ZZZ ZZZ
⟨f (t)⟩ = Ψ∗ f Ψd3 V , ⟨fp (t)⟩ = Φ∗ f Φd3 Vp

This is also written as ⟨f (t)⟩ = ⟨Φ|f |Φ⟩. The normalizing condition for wavefunctions follows from
this: ⟨Φ|Φ⟩ = ⟨Ψ|Ψ⟩ = 1.

10.3 Operators in quantum physics

In quantum mechanics, classical quantities are translated into operators. These operators are hermi-
tian because their eigenvalues must be real:
Z Z
ψ1∗ Aψ2 d3 V = ψ2 (Aψ1 )∗ d3 V
46 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

When un is the eigenfunction of the eigenvalue

P equation AΨ = aΨ for eigenvalue an , Ψ can be
expanded into a basis of eigenfunctions: Ψ = cn un . If this basis is taken orthonormal, then follows
n
for the coefficients: cn = ⟨un |Ψ⟩. If the system is in a state described by Ψ, the chance to find
eigenvalue an when measuring A is given by |cn |2 in the discrete part of the spectrum and |cn |2 da
in the continuous part of the spectrum between a and P a + da. The matrix elementP Aij is given by:
Aij = ⟨ui |A|uj ⟩. Because (AB)ij = ⟨ui |AB|uj ⟩ = ⟨ui |A |un ⟩ ⟨un |B|uj ⟩ holds: |un ⟩⟨un | = 1.
n n

The time-dependence of an operator is given by (Heisenberg):

dA ∂A [A, H]
= +
dt ∂t iℏ
with [A, B] ≡ AB − BA the commutator of A and B. For hermitian operators the commutator is
always complex. If [A, B] = 0, the operators A and B have a common set of eigenfunctions. By
applying this to px and x follows (Ehrenfest): md2 ⟨x⟩t /dt2 = − ⟨dU (x)/dx⟩.
The first order approximation ⟨F (x)⟩t ≈ F (⟨x⟩), with F = −dU/dx represents the classical equation.
Before the addition of quantummechanical operators which are a product of other operators, they
should be made symmetrical: a classical product AB becomes 21 (AB + BA).

10.4 The uncertainty principle


 2
If the uncertainty ∆A in A is defined as: (∆A)2 = ψ|Aop − ⟨A⟩ |2 ψ = A2 − ⟨A⟩ it follows:

∆A · ∆B ≥ 12 | ⟨ψ|[A, B]|ψ⟩ |

From this follows: ∆E · ∆t ≥ 12 ℏ, and because [x, px ] = iℏ holds: ∆px · ∆x ≥ 21 ℏ, and ∆Lx · ∆Ly ≥
1
2 ℏLz .

10.5 The Schrödinger equation

The momentum operator is given by: pop = −iℏ∇. The position operator is: xop = iℏ∇p . The energy
operator is given by: Eop = iℏ∂/∂t. The Hamiltonian of a particle with mass m, potential energy
U and total energy E is given by: H = p2 /2m + U . From Hψ = Eψ then follows the Schrödinger
equation:

ℏ2 2 ∂ψ
− ∇ ψ + U ψ = Eψ = iℏ
2m ∂t
The linear combination of the solutions of this equation give the general solution. In one dimension
it is: X Z   
iEt
ψ(x, t) = + dE c(E)uE (x) exp −
ℏ
ℏ
The current density J is given by: J = (ψ ∗ ∇ψ − ψ∇ψ ∗ )
2im
∂P (x, t)
The following conservation law holds: = −∇J(x, t)
∂t

10.6 Parity
The parity operator in one dimension is given by Pψ(x) = ψ(−x). If the wavefunction is split in even
and odd functions, it can be expanded into eigenfunctions of P:

ψ(x) = 12 (ψ(x) + ψ(−x)) + 12 (ψ(x) − ψ(−x))

| {z } | {z }
+ −
even: ψ odd: ψ
Chapter 10: Quantum physics 47

[P, H] = 0. The functions ψ + = 21 (1+P)ψ(x, t) and ψ − = 12 (1−P)ψ(x, t) both satisfy the Schrödinger
equation. Hence, parity is a conserved quantity.

10.7 The tunnel effect

The wavefunction of a particle in an ∞ high potential step from x = 0 to x = a is given by ψ(x) =
a−1/2 sin(kx). The energylevels are given by En = n2 h2 /8a2 m.
If the wavefunction with energy W meets a potential well of W0 > W the wavefunction will, unlike
the classical case, be non-zero within the potential well. If 1, 2 and 3 are the areas in front, within
and behind the potential well, holds:
′ ′
ψ1 = Aeikx + Be−ikx , ψ2 = Ceik x + De−ik x , ψ3 = A′ eikx
with k ′2 = 2m(W − W0 )/ℏ2 and k 2 = 2mW . Using the boundary conditions requiring continuity:
ψ =continuous and ∂ψ/∂x =continuous at x = 0 and x = a gives B, C and D and A′ expressed
in A. The amplitude T of the transmitted wave is defined by T = |A′ |2 /|A|2 . If W > W0 and
2a = nλ′ = 2πn/k ′ holds: T = 1.

10.8 The harmonic oscillator

For a harmonic oscillator holds: U = 12 bx2 and ω02 = b/m. The Hamiltonian H is then given by:
p2
H= + 1 mω 2 x2 = 12 ℏω + ωA† A
2m 2
with
ip ip
q q
A= 1
2 mωx +√ and A† = 12 mωx − √
2mω 2mω
A ̸= A† is non hermitian. [A, A† ] = ℏ and [A, H] = ℏωA. A is a so called raising ladder operator,
A† a lowering ladder operator. HAuE = (E − ℏω)AuE . There is an eigenfunction u0 for which
holds: Au0 = 0. The energy in this ground state is 21 ℏω: the zero point energy. For the normalized
eigenfunctions follows:
 † n
mωx2
r  
1 A mω
un = √ √ u0 with u0 = 4
exp −
n! ℏ πℏ 2ℏ
with En = ( 12 + n)ℏω.

10.9 Angular momentum

For the angular momentum operators L holds: [Lz , L2 ] = [Lz , H] = [L2 , H] = 0. However, cyclically
holds: [Lx , Ly ] = iℏLz . Not all components of L can be known at the same time with arbitrary
accuracy. For Lz holds:  
∂ ∂ ∂
Lz = −iℏ = −iℏ x −y
∂φ ∂y ∂x
The ladder operators L± are defined by: L± = Lx ± iLy . Now holds: L2 = L+ L− + L2z − ℏLz .
Further,  
±iφ ∂ ∂
L± = ℏe ± + i cot(θ)
∂θ ∂φ
From [L+ , Lz ] = −ℏL+ follows: Lz (L+ Ylm ) = (m + 1)ℏ(L+ Ylm ).
From [L− , Lz ] = ℏL− follows: Lz (L− Ylm ) = (m − 1)ℏ(L− Ylm ).
From [L2 , L± ] = 0 follows: L2 (L± Ylm ) = l(l + 1)ℏ2 (L± Ylm ).
Because Lx and Ly are hermitian (this implies L†± = L∓ ) and |L± Ylm |2 > 0 follows: l(l+1)−m2 −m ≥
0 ⇒ −l ≤ m ≤ l. Further follows that l has to be integral or half-integral. Half-odd integral values
give no unique solution ψ and are therefore dismissed.
48 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

10.10 Spin
For the spin operators are defined by their commutation relations: [Sx , Sy ] = iℏSz . Because the
spin operators do not act in the physical space (x, y, z) the uniqueness of the wavefunction is not a
criterium here: also half odd-integer values are allowed for the spin. Because [L, S] = 0 spin and
angular momentum operators do not have a common set of eigenfunctions. The spin operators are
⃗⃗ ⃗σ , with
given by S = 21 ℏ⃗
     
⃗ 0 1 ⃗ 0 −i ⃗ 1 0
⃗σ x = , ⃗σ y = , ⃗σ z =
1 0 i 0 0 −1
The eigenstates of Sz are called spinors: χ = α+ χ+ + α− χ− , where χ+ = (1, 0) represents the state
with spin up (Sz = 21 ℏ) and χ− = (0, 1) represents the state with spin down (Sz = − 12 ℏ). Then the
probability to find spin up after a measurement is given by |α+ |2 and the chance to find spin down
is given by |α− |2 . Of course holds |α+ |2 + |α− |2 = 1.
The electron will have an intrinsic magnetic dipole moment M ⃗ due to its spin, given by M⃗ =
⃗
−egS S/2m, with gS = 2(1 + α/2π + · · ·) the gyromagnetic ratio. In the presence of an external
magnetic field this gives a potential energy U = −M ⃗ · B.⃗ The Schrödinger equation then becomes
(because ∂χ/∂xi ≡ 0):
∂χ(t) egS ℏ ⃗
iℏ = ⃗σ · Bχ(t)
∂t 4m
with ⃗σ = (⃗⃗σ x , ⃗
⃗σ y , ⃗ ⃗ = B⃗ez there are two eigenvalues for this problem: χ± for E =
⃗σ z ). If B
±egS ℏB/4m = ±ℏω. So the general solution is given by χ = (ae−iωt , beiωt ). From this can be
derived: ⟨Sx ⟩ = 21 ℏ cos(2ωt) and ⟨Sy ⟩ = 21 ℏ sin(2ωt). Thus the spin precesses about the z-axis with
frequency 2ω. This causes the normal Zeeman splitting of spectral lines.
The potential operator for two particles with spin ± 21 ℏ is given by:
1 ⃗ ⃗
V (r) = V1 (r) + (S1 · S2 )V2 (r) = V1 (r) + 21 V2 (r)[S(S + 1) − 23 ]
ℏ2
This makes it possible for two states to exist: S = 1 (triplet) or S = 0 (Singlet).

10.11 The Dirac formalism

If the operators for p and E are substituted in the relativistic equation E 2 = m20 c4 + p2 c2 , the
Klein-Gordon equation is found:

1 ∂2 m20 c2
 
2
∇ − 2 2− 2 ψ(⃗x, t) = 0
c ∂t ℏ

The operator □ − m20 c2 /ℏ2 can be separated:

1 ∂2 m2 c2
  
∂ m0 c ∂ m0 c
∇2 − 2 2 − 02 = γλ − γµ +
c ∂t ℏ ∂xλ ℏ ∂xµ ℏ
where the Dirac matrices γ are given by: {γλ , γµ } = γλ γµ + γµ γλ = 2δλµ (In general relativity this
becomes 2gλµ ). From this it can be derived that the γ are hermitian 4 × 4 matrices given by:
   
0 −iσk I 0
γk = , γ4 =
iσk 0 0 −I
With this, the Dirac equation becomes:
 
∂ m0 c
γλ + ψ(⃗x, t) = 0
∂xλ ℏ

where ψ(x) = (ψ1 (x), ψ2 (x), ψ3 (x), ψ4 (x)) is a spinor.

Chapter 10: Quantum physics 49

10.12 Atomic physics

10.12.1 Solutions
The solutions of the Schrödinger equation in spherical coordinates if the potential energy is a function
of r alone can be written as: ψ(r, θ, φ) = Rnl (r)Yl,ml (θ, φ)χms , with

Clm
Ylm = √ Plm (cos θ)eimφ
2π

For an atom or ion with one electron holds: Rlm (ρ) = Clm e−ρ/2 ρl L2l+1
n−l−1 (ρ)

with ρ = 2rZ/na0 with a0 = ε0 h2 /πme e2 . The Lji are the associated Laguere functions and the Plm
are the associated Legendre polynomials:

|m| d|m|  2 (−1)m n! −x −m dn−m −x n

(x) = (1 − x2 )m/2 (x − 1)l , Lm

Pl |m| n (x) = e x (e x )
dx (n − m)! dxn−m
n−1
The parity of these solutions is (−1)l . The functions are 2 (2l + 1) = 2n2 -folded degenerated.
P
l=0

10.12.2 Eigenvalue equations

The eigenvalue equations for an atom or ion with with one electron are:

Equation Eigenvalue Range

Hop ψ = Eψ En = µe4 Z 2 /8ε20 h2 n2 n≥1
Lzop Ylm = Lz Ylm Lz = ml ℏ −l ≤ ml ≤ l
L2op Ylm 2
= L Ylm 2
L = l(l + 1)ℏ 2
l<n
Szop χ = Sz χ Sz = ms ℏ ms = ± 12
2 1
Sop χ = S2χ S 2 = s(s + 1)ℏ2 s= 2

10.12.3 Spin-orbit interaction

The total momentum is given by J⃗ = L ⃗ +M ⃗ . The total magnetic dipole moment of an electron
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
is then M = ML + MS = −(e/2me )(L + gS S) where gS = 2.0023 is the gyromagnetic ratio of the
electron. Further holds: J 2 = L2 + S 2 + 2L⃗ ·S
⃗ = L2 + S 2 + 2Lz Sz + L+ S− + L− S+ . J has quantum
1
numbers j with possible values j = l ± 2 , with 2j + 1 possible z-components (mJ ∈ {−j, .., 0, .., j}). If
the interaction energy between S and L is small it can be stated that: E = En + ESL = En + aS ⃗ · L.
⃗
It can then be derived that:
|En |Z 2 α2
a= 2
ℏ nl(l + 1)(l + 21 )
After a relativistic correction this becomes:
|En |Z 2 α2
 
3 1
E = En + − 1
n 4n j + 2

The fine structure in atomic spectra arises from this. With gS = 2 follows for the average magnetic
moment: M ⃗ av = −(e/2me )gℏJ,
⃗ where g is the Landé-factor:

⃗ · J⃗
S j(j + 1) + s(s + 1) − l(l + 1)
g =1+ =1+
J2 2j(j + 1)

For atoms with more than one electron the following limiting situations occur:
50 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

1. L − S coupling: for small atoms the electrostatic interaction is dominant and the state can be
characterized by L, S, J, mJ . J ∈ {|L − S|, ..., L + S − 1, L + S} and mJ ∈ {−J, ..., J − 1, J}. The
spectroscopic notation for this interaction is: 2S+1 LJ . 2S + 1 is the multiplicity of a multiplet.

2. j −j coupling: for larger atoms the electrostatic interaction is smaller than the Li ·si interaction
of an electron. The state is characterized by ji ...jn , J, mJ where only the ji of the not completely
filled subshells are to be taken into account.

The energy difference for larger atoms when placed in a magnetic field is: ∆E = gµB mJ B where
g is the Landé factor. For a transition between two singlet states the line splits in 3 parts, for
∆mJ = −1, 0 + 1. This results in the normal Zeeman effect. At higher S the line splits up in more
parts: the anomalous Zeeman effect.
Interaction with the spin of the nucleus gives the hyperfine structure.

10.12.4 Selection rules

⃗ · ⃗r |l1 m1 ⟩|. Conservation of angular
For the dipole transition matrix elements follows: p0 ∼ |⟨l2 m2 |E
momentum demands that for the transition of an electron holds that ∆l = ±1.
For an atom where L − S coupling is dominant further holds: ∆S = 0 (but not strict), ∆L = 0, ±1,
∆J = 0, ±1 except for J = 0 → J = 0 transitions, ∆mJ = 0, ±1, but ∆mJ = 0 is forbidden if
∆J = 0.
For an atom where j − j coupling is dominant further holds: for the jumping electron holds, except
∆l = ±1, also: ∆j = 0, ±1, and for all other electrons: ∆j = 0. For the total atom holds: ∆J = 0, ±1
but no J = 0 → J = 0 transitions and ∆mJ = 0, ±1, but ∆mJ = 0 is forbidden if ∆J = 0.

10.13 Interaction with electromagnetic fields

The Hamiltonian of an electron in an electromagnetic field is given by:
2 2
1 ⃗ 2 − eV = − ℏ ∇2 + e B ⃗ + e A2 − eV
⃗ ·L
H= (⃗
p + eA)
2µ 2µ 2µ 2µ

where µ is the reduced mass of the system. The term ∼ A2 can usually be neglected, except for very
⃗ = B⃗ez it is given by e2 B 2 (x2 + y 2 )/8µ.
strong fields or macroscopic motions. For B
When a gauge transformation A ⃗′ = A ⃗ − ∇f , V ′ = V + ∂f /∂t is applied to the potentials the
wavefunction is also transformed according to ψ ′ = ψeiqef /ℏ with qe the charge of the particle.
Because f = f (x, t), this is called a local gauge transformation, in contrast with a global gauge
transformation which can always be applied.

10.14 Perturbation theory

10.14.1 Time-independent perturbation theory
To solve the equation (H0 + λH1 )ψn = En ψn one has to find the eigenfunctions of H = H0 + λH1 .
Suppose that ϕn is a complete set of eigenfunctions of the non-perturbed Hamiltonian H0 : H0 ϕn =
En0 ϕn . Because ϕn is a complete set holds:
 
 X 
ψn = N (λ) ϕn + cnk (λ)ϕk
 
k̸=n

(1) (2)
When cnk and En are being expanded into λ: cnk = λcnk + λ2 cnk + · · ·
(1) (2)
En = En0 + λEn + λ2 En + · · ·
Chapter 10: Quantum physics 51

(1)
and this is put into the Schrödinger equation the result is: En = ⟨ϕn |H1 |ϕn ⟩ and
⟨ϕm |H1 |ϕn ⟩
c(1)
nm = if m ̸= n. The second-order correction of the energy is then given by:
En0 − Em0
X | ⟨ϕk |H1 |ϕn ⟩ |2 X ⟨ϕk |λH1 |ϕn ⟩
En(2) = 0 . So to first order holds: ψn = ϕn + ϕk .
0
En − Ek En0 − Ek0
k̸=n k̸=n

In case the levels are degenerated the above does not hold. In that case an orthonormal set eigen-
functions ϕni is chosen for each level n, so that ⟨ϕmi |ϕnj ⟩ = δmn δij . Now ψ is expanded as:
 
X X (1) X 
ψn = N (λ) αi ϕni + λ cnk βi ϕki + · · ·
 
i k̸=n i

0 (1) 0
Eni = Eni +λEni is approximated by Eni := En0 . Substitution in the Schrödinger equation and taking
(1)
|αi |2 = 1.
P P
dot product with ϕni gives: αi ⟨ϕnj |H1 |ϕni ⟩ = En αj . Normalization requires that
i i

10.14.2 Time-dependent perturbation theory

∂ψ(t)
From the Schrödinger equation iℏ = (H0 + λV (t))ψ(t)
∂t
−iEn0 t
 
(1)
X
and the expansion ψ(t) = cn (t) exp ϕn with cn (t) = δnk + λcn (t) + · · ·
n
ℏ

Zt
i(En0 − Ek0 )t′
 
λ
follows: c(1)
n (t) = ⟨ϕn |V (t′ )|ϕk ⟩ exp dt′
iℏ ℏ
0

10.15 N-particle systems

10.15.1 General
Identical particles are indistinguishable. For the total wavefunction of a system of identical indistin-
guishable particles holds:

1. Particles with a half-odd integer spin (Fermions): ψtotal must be antisymmetric w.r.t. inter-
change of the coordinates (spatial and spin) of each pair of particles. The Pauli principle results
from this: two Fermions cannot exist in an identical state because then ψtotal = 0.

2. Particles with an integer spin (Bosons): ψtotal must be symmetric w.r.t. interchange of the
coordinates (spatial and spin) of each pair of particles.

For a system of two electrons there are 2 possibilities for the spatial wavefunction. When a and b are
the quantum numbers of electron 1 and 2 holds:

ψS (1, 2) = ψa (1)ψb (2) + ψa (2)ψb (1) , ψA (1, 2) = ψa (1)ψb (2) − ψa (2)ψb (1)

Because the particles do not approach each other closely the repulsion energy at ψA in this state is
smaller. The following spin wavefunctions are possible:
√
χA = 21 2[χ+ (1)χ− (2) − χ+ (2)χ− (1)] ms = 0

 χ+√(1)χ+ (2) ms = +1
1
χS = 2[χ + (1)χ− (2) + χ+ (2)χ− (1)] ms = 0
 2
χ− (1)χ− (2) ms = −1
Because the total wavefunction must be antisymmetric it follows: ψtotal = ψS χA or ψtotal = ψA χS .
52 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

For N particles the symmetric spatial function is given by:

X
ψS (1, ..., N ) = ψ(all permutations of 1..N )
1
The antisymmetric wavefunction is given by the determinant ψA (1, ..., N ) = √ |uEi (j)|
N!

10.15.2 Molecules
The wavefunctions of atom a and b are ϕa and ϕb . If the 2 atoms approach each other there are
two possibilities:
√ the total wavefunction approaches the bonding function with lower √ total energy
ψB = 12 2(ϕa +ϕb ) or approaches the anti-bonding function with higher energy ψAB = 12 2(ϕa −ϕb ).
If a molecular-orbital is symmetric w.r.t. the connecting axis, like a combination of two s-orbitals it
is called a σ-orbital, otherwise a π-orbital, like the combination of two p-orbitals along two axes.
⟨ψ|H|ψ⟩
The energy of a system is: E = .
⟨ψ|ψ⟩
The energy calculated with this method is always higher than the real energy if ψ is only an ap-
proximation for the solutions of Hψ = Eψ. Also, if there are more functions to be chosen, the
function
P which gives the lowest energy is the best approximation. Applying this to the function
ψ = ci ϕi one finds: (Hij − ESij )ci = 0. This equation has only solutions if the secular determinant
|Hij − ESij | = 0. Here, Hij = ⟨ϕi |H|ϕj ⟩ and Sij = ⟨ϕi |ϕj ⟩. αi := Hii is the Coulomb integral and
βij := Hij the exchange integral. Sii = 1 and Sij is the overlap integral.
The first approximation in the molecular-orbital theory is to place both electrons of a chemical bond in
the bonding orbital: ψ(1, 2) = ψB (1)ψB (2). This results in a large electron density between the nuclei
and therefore a repulsion. A better approximation is: ψ(1, 2) = C1 ψB (1)ψB (2) + C2 ψAB (1)ψAB (2),
with C1 = 1 and C2 ≈ 0.6.
In some atoms, such as C, it is energetical more suitable to form orbitals which are a linear combination
of the s, p and d states. There are three ways of hybridization in C:
√
1. SP-hybridization: ψsp = 21 2(ψ2s ± ψ2pz ). There are 2 hybrid orbitals which are placed on one
line under 180◦ . Further the 2px and 2py orbitals remain.
√ p √ √
2. SP2 hybridization: ψsp2 = ψ2s / 3+c1 ψ2pz +c2 ψ2py , where (c1 , c2 ) ∈ {( 2/3, 0), (−1/ 6, 1/ 2)
√ √
, (−1/ 6, −1/ 2)}. The 3 SP2 orbitals lay in one plane, with symmetry axes which are at an
angle of 120◦ .
3. SP3 hybridization: ψsp3 = 21 (ψ2s ± ψ2pz ± ψ2py ± ψ2px ). The 4 SP3 orbitals form a tetraheder
with the symmetry axes at an angle of 109◦ 28′ .

10.16 Quantum statistics

If a system exists in a state in which one has not the disposal of the maximal amount of information
about the system, it can be described by a density matrix ρ. If the probability Pthat the system is in
state ψi is given by ai , one can write for the expectation value a of A: ⟨a⟩ = ri ⟨ψi |A|ψi ⟩.
i
(i)
If ψ is expanded into an orthonormal basis {ϕk } as: ψ (i) =
P
ck ϕ k , holds:
k
X
⟨A⟩ = (Aρ)kk = Tr(Aρ)
k

where ρlk = c∗k cl . ρ is hermitian, with Tr(ρ) = 1. Further holds ρ = ri |ψi ⟩⟨ψi |. The probability to
P
find eigenvalue an when measuring A is given by ρnn if one uses a basis of eigenvectors of A for {ϕk }.
For the time-dependence holds (in the Schrödinger image operators are not explicitly time-dependent):
dρ
iℏ = [H, ρ]
dt
Chapter 10: Quantum physics 53

For a macroscopic system in equilibrium holds [H, ρ] = 0. If all quantumstates with the same energy
are equally probable: Pi = P (Ei ), one can obtain the distribution:

e−En /kT X
Pn (E) = ρnn = with the state sum Z = e−En /kT
Z n

The thermodynamic quantities are related to these definitions as follows: F = −kT ln(Z), U = ⟨H⟩ =
P ∂ P
pn En = − ln(Z), S = −k Pn ln(Pn ). For a mixed state of M orthonormal quantum states
n ∂kT n
with probability 1/M follows: S = k ln(M ).
The distribution function for the internal states for a system in thermal equilibrium is the most
probable function. This function can be found by taking the maximum of the function P which gives
the number of states with Stirling’s equation: ln(n!) ≈ n ln(n) − n, and the conditions nk = N and
P k
nk Wk = W . For identical, indistinguishable particles which obey the Pauli exclusion principle the
k
possible number of states is given by:
Y gk !
P =
nk !(gk − nk )!
k

This results in the Fermi-Dirac statistics. For indistinguishable particles which do not obey the
exclusion principle the possible number of states is given by:
Y g nk
k
P = N!
nk !
k

This results in the Bose-Einstein statistics. So the distribution functions which explain how particles
are distributed over the different one-particle states k which are each gk -fold degenerate depend on
the spin of the particles. They are given by:
N gk
1. Fermi-Dirac statistics: integer spin. nk ∈ {0, 1}, nk =
P Z g exp((E k − µ)/kT ) + 1
with ln(Zg ) = gk ln[1 + exp((Ei − µ)/kT )].
N gk
2. Bose-Einstein statistics: half odd-integer spin. nk ∈ IN , nk =
P Z g exp((E k − µ)/kT ) − 1
with ln(Zg ) = − gk ln[1 − exp((Ei − µ)/kT )].
Here,
P Zg is the large-canonical state sum and µ the chemical potential. It is found by demanding
nk = N , and for it holds: lim µ = EF , the Fermi-energy. N is the total number of particles. The
T →0
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution can be derived from this in the limit Ek − µ ≫ kT :
   
N Ek X Ek
nk = exp − with Z = gk exp −
Z kT kT
k

With the Fermi-energy, the Fermi-Dirac and Bose-Einstein statistics can be written as:
gk
1. Fermi-Dirac statistics: nk = .
exp((Ek − EF )/kT ) + 1
gk
2. Bose-Einstein statistics: nk = .
exp((Ek − EF )/kT ) − 1
Chapter 11

Plasma physics

11.1 Introduction
ne
The degree of ionization α of a plasma is defined by: α =
ne + n0
where ne is the electron density and n0 the density of the neutrals. If a plasma contains also negative
charged ions α is not well defined.
The probability that a test particle collides with another is given by dP = nσdx where σ is the cross
section. The collision frequency νc = 1/τc = nσv. The mean free path is given by λv = 1/nσ. The
rate coefficient K is defined by K = ⟨σv⟩. The number of collisions per unit of time and volume
between particles of kind 1 and 2 is given by n1 n2 ⟨σv⟩ = Kn1 n2 .
The potential of an electron is given by:
  s r
−e r ε0 kTe Ti ε0 kTe
V (r) = exp − with λD = ≈
4πε0 r λD e2 (ne Ti + ni Te ) ne e2

because charge is shielded in a plasma. Here, λD is the Debye length. For distances < λD the
plasma cannot be assumed to be quasi-neutral. Deviations of charge neutrality by thermic motion
are compensated by oscillations with frequency
s
ne e2
ωpe =
me ε0

The distance of closest approximation when two equal charged particles collide for a deviation of π/2
−1/3
is 2b0 = e2 /(4πε0 21 mv 2 ). A “neat” plasma is defined as a plasma for which holds: b0 < ne ≪
λD ≪ Lp . Here Lp := |ne /∇ne | is the gradient length of the plasma.

11.2 Transport
1
Relaxation times are defined as τ = 1/νc . Starting with σm = 4πb20 ln(ΛC ) and with 2 mv
2
= kT it
can be found that: √ √
4πε2 m2 v 3 8 2πε20 m(kT )3/2
τm = 4 0 =
ne ln(ΛC ) ne4 ln(ΛC )
For momentum transfer between electrons and ions holds for a Maxwellian velocity distribution:
√ √ √ √
6π 3ε20 me (kTe )3/2 6π 3ε20 mi (kTi )3/2
τee = ≈ τei , τii =
ne e4 ln(ΛC ) ni e4 ln(ΛC )

The energy relaxation times for identical particles are equal to the momentum relaxation times.
Because for e-i collisions the energy p transfer is only ∼ 2me /mi this is a slow process. Approximately
holds: τee : τei : τie : τieE = 1 : 1 : mi /me : mi /me .
The relaxation for e-o interaction is much more complicated. For T > 10 eV holds approximately:
−2/5
σeo = 10−17 ve , for lower energies this can be a factor 10 lower.
Chapter 11: Plasma physics 55

The resistivity η = E/J of a plasma is given by:

√
ne e2 e2 me ln(ΛC )
η= = √
me νei 6π 3ε20 (kTe )3/2

The diffusion coefficient D is defined by means of the flux Γ by ⃗Γ = n⃗vdiff = −D∇n. The equation of
continuity is ∂t n + ∇(nvdiff ) = 0 ⇒ ∂t n = D∇2 n. One finds that D = 31 λv v. A rough estimate gives
τD = Lp /D = L2p τc /λ2v . For magnetized plasma’s λv must be replaced with the cyclotron radius. In
electrical fields also holds J⃗ = neµE
⃗ = e(ne µe + ni µi )E
⃗ with µ = e/mνc the mobility of the particles.
The Einstein ratio is:
D kT
=
µ e
Because a plasma is electrically neutral electrons and ions are strongly coupled and they don’t diffuse
independent. The coefficient of ambipolar diffusion Damb is defined by ⃗Γ = ⃗Γi = ⃗Γe = −Damb ∇ne,i .
From this follows that
kTe /e − kTi /e kTe µi
Damb = ≈
1/µe − 1/µi e
In an external magnetic field B0 particles will move in spiral orbits with cyclotron radius ρ = mv/eB0
and with cyclotron frequency Ω = B0 e/m. The helical orbit is perturbed by collisions. A plasma is
called magnetized if λv > ρe,i . So the electrons are magnetized if
√
ρe me e3 ne ln(ΛC )
= √ 2 <1
λee 6π 3ε0 (kTe )3/2 B0
Magnetization of only the electrons is sufficient to confine the plasma reasonable because they are
coupled to the ions by charge neutrality. In case of magnetic confinement holds: ∇p = J⃗ × B. ⃗
Combined with the two stationary Maxwell equations for the B-field these form the ideal magneto-
hydrodynamic equations. For a uniform B-field holds: p = nkT = B 2 /2µ0 .
If both magnetic and electric fields are present electrons and ions will move in the same direction.
⃗ = Er ⃗er + Ez ⃗ez and B
If E ⃗ = Bz ⃗ez the E ⃗ ×B ⃗ drift results in a velocity ⃗u = (E
⃗ ×B
⃗ )/B 2 and the
˙
velocity in the r, φ plane is ṙ(r, φ, t) = ⃗u + ρ
⃗(t).

11.3 Elastic collisions

11.3.1 General
The scattering angle of a particle in interaction with
another particle, as shown in the figure at the right is: b
@
I
@
R
Z∞
dr
χ = π − 2b s
b2 W (r) ra
ra r2 1− − b 6 φ χ
r2 E0 ?
M
Particles with an impact parameter between b and b +
db, moving through a ring with dσ = 2πbdb leave the
scattering area at a solid angle dΩ = 2π sin(χ)dχ. The
differential cross section is then defined as:
 
 dσ  b ∂b
I(Ω) =   =
dΩ sin(χ) ∂χ

For a potential energy W (r) = kr−n follows: I(Ω, v) ∼ v −4/n .

For low energies, O(1 eV), σ has a Ramsauer minimum. It arises from the interference of matter
waves behind the object. I(Ω) for angles 0 < χ < λ/4 is larger than the classical value.
56 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

11.3.2 The Coulomb interaction

For the Coulomb interaction holds: 2b0 = q1 q2 /2πε0 mv02 , so W (r) = 2b0 /r. This gives b = b0 cot( 21 χ)
and
b ∂b b20
I(Ω = =
sin(χ) ∂χ 4 sin2 ( 12 χ)

Because the influence of a particle vanishes at r = λD holds: σ = π(λ2D − b20 ). Because dp = d(mv) =
mv0 (1 − cos χ) a cross section related to momentum transfer σm is given by:

ln(v 4 )
Z    
1 λD
σm = (1 − cos χ)I(Ω)dΩ = 4πb20 ln 1 = 4πb20 ln := 4πb20 ln(ΛC ) ∼
sin( 2 χmin ) b0 v4

where ln(ΛC ) is the Coulomb-logarithm. For this quantity holds: ΛC = λD /b0 = 9n(λD ).

11.3.3 The induced dipole interaction

The induced dipole interaction, with p⃗ = αE, ⃗ gives a potential V and an energy W in a dipole field
given by:
p⃗ · ⃗er |e|p αe2
V (r) = , W (r) = − = −
4πε0 r2 8πε0 r2 2(4πε0 )2 r4
s Z∞
2e2 α dr
with ba = 4
holds: χ = π − 2b
(4πε0 )2 12 mv02
r
b2 b4
ra r 2 1 −
2
+ a4
r 4r
If b ≥ ba the charge would hit the atom. Repulsing nuclear forces prevent this to happen. If the
scattering angle is a lot times 2π it is called capture. The cross section for capture σorb = πb2a is
called the Langevin limit, and is a lowest estimate for the total cross section.

11.3.4 The centre of mass system

If collisions of two particles with masses m1 and m2 which scatter in the centre of mass system by an
angle χ are compared with the scattering under an angle θ in the laboratory system holds:

m2 sin(χ)
tan(θ) =
m1 + m2 cos(χ)

The energy loss ∆E of the incoming particle is given by:

1 2
∆E 2 m 2 v2 2m1 m2
= 1 2
= (1 − cos(χ))
E 2 m 1 v1
(m1 + m2 )2

11.3.5 Scattering of light

Scattering of light by free electrons is called Thomson scattering. The scattering is free from collective
effects if kλD ≪ 1. The cross section σ = 6.65 · 10−29 m2 and

∆f 2v
= sin( 21 χ)
f c

This gives for the scattered energy Escat ∼ nλ40 /(λ2 − λ20 )2 with n the density. If λ ≫ λ0 it is
called Rayleigh scattering. Thomson sccattering is a limit of Compton scattering, which is given by
λ′ − λ = λC (1 − cos χ) with λC = h/mc and cannot be used any more if relativistic effects become
important.
Chapter 11: Plasma physics 57

11.4 Thermodynamic equilibrium and reversibility

Planck’s radiation law and the Maxwellian velocity distribution hold for a plasma in equilibrium:

8πhν 3 2πn √
 
1 E
ρ(ν, T )dν = dν , N (E, T )dE = E exp − dE
c3 exp(hν/kT ) − 1 (πkT )3/2 kT

“Detailed balancing” means that the number of reactions in one direction equals the number of
reactions in the opposite direction because both processes have equal probability if one corrects for
the used phase space. For the reaction
→
X X
Xforward ← Xback
forward back

holds in a plasma in equilibrium microscopic reversibility:

Y Y
η̂forward = η̂back
forward back

If the velocity distribution is Maxwellian, this gives:

nx h3
η̂x = e−Ekin /kT
gx (2πmx kT )3/2

where g is the statistical weight of the state and n/g := η. For electrons holds g = 2, for excited
states usually holds g = 2j + 1 = 2n2 .
With this one finds for the Boltzmann balance, Xp + e− ← → X1 + e− + (E1p ):

nB
 
p gp Ep − E1
= exp
n1 g1 kTe
→ X+ + 2e− :
And for the Saha balance, Xp + e− + (Epi ) ← 1

nSp n+ h3
 
1 ne Epi
= + exp
gp g1 ge (2πme kTe )3/2 kTe

Because the number of particles on the left-hand side and right-hand side of the equation is different,
a factor g/Ve remains. This factor causes the Saha-jump.
From microscopic reversibility one can derive that for the rate coefficients K(p, q, T ) := ⟨σv⟩pq holds:
 
gp ∆Epq
K(q, p, T ) = K(p, q, T ) exp
gq kT

11.5 Inelastic collisions

11.5.1 Types of collisions
The kinetic energy can be split in a part of and a part in the centre of mass system. The energy in
the centre of mass system is available for reactions. This energy is given by

m1 m2 (v1 − v2 )2
E=
2(m1 + m2 )
Some types of inelastic collisions important for plasma physics are:
→ Aq + e −
1. Excitation: Ap + e− ←
→ Ap + hf
2. Decay: Aq ←
58 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

→ A+ + 2e−
3. Ionisation and 3-particles recombination: Ap + e− ←
→ Ap + hf
4. radiative recombination: A+ + e− ←
5. Stimulated emission: Aq + hf → Ap + 2hf
→ AB+ + e−
6. Associative ionisation: A∗∗ + B ←
→ Ar+ + Ne + e−
7. Penning ionisation: b.v. Ne∗ + Ar ←
→ A + B+
8. Charge transfer: A+ + B ←
→ A + A+
9. Resonant charge transfer: A+ + A ←

11.5.2 Cross sections

Collisions between an electron and an atom can be approximated by a collision between an electron
and one of the electrons of that atom. This results in
dσ πZ 2 e4
=
d(∆E) (4πε0 )2 E(∆E)2

πZ 2 e4 ∆Eq,q+1
Then follows for the transition p → q: σpq (E) =
(4πε0 )2 E(∆E)2pq
   
1 1 1.25βE
For ionization from state p holds to a good approximation: σp = 4πa20 Ry − ln
Ep E Ep
A[1 − B ln(E)]2
For resonant charge transfer holds: σex =
1 + CE 3.3

11.6 Radiation
In equilibrium holds for radiation processes:

np Apq + np Bpq ρ(ν, T ) = nq Bqp ρ(ν, T )

| {z } | {z } | {z }
emission stimulated emission absorption

Here, Apq is the matrix element of the transition p → q, and is given by:

8π 2 e2 ν 3 |rpq |2
Apq = with rpq = ⟨ψp |⃗r |ψq ⟩
3ℏε0 c3

For hydrogenic atoms holds: Ap = 1.58 · 108 Z 4 p−4.5 , with Ap = 1/τp =

P
Apq . The intensity I of a
q
line is given by Ipq = hf Apq np /4π. The Einstein coefficients B are given by:

c3 Apq Bpq gq
Bpq = and =
8πhν 3 Bqp gp

A spectral line is broadened by several mechanisms:

1. Because the states have a finite life time. The natural life time of a state p is given by τp =
1/ Apq . From the uncertainty relation then follows: ∆(hν) · τp = 21 ℏ, this gives
P
q
P
Apq
1 q
∆ν = =
4πτp 4π

The natural line width is usually ≪ than the broadening due to the following two mechanisms:
Chapter 11: Plasma physics 59

2. The Doppler broadening is caused by the thermal motion of the particles:

s
∆λ 2 2 ln(2)kTi
=
λ c mi

This broadening√results in a Gaussian line profile:

kν = k0 exp(−[2 ln 2(ν − ν0 )/∆νD ]2 ), with k the coefficient of absorption or emission.

3. The Stark broadening is caused by the electric field of the electrons:

 2/3
ne
∆λ1/2 =
C(ne , Te )

with for the H-β line: C(ne , Te ) ≈ 3 · 1014 Å−3/2 cm−3 .

The natural broadening and the Stark broadening result in a Lorentz profile of a spectral line: kν =
1 1 2 2
2 k0 ∆νL /[( 2 ∆νL ) + (ν − ν0 ) ]. The total line shape is a convolution of the Gauss- and Lorentz profile
and is called a Voigt profile.
The number of transitions p → q is given by np Bpq ρ and by np nhf ⟨σa c⟩ = np (ρdν/hν)σa c where dν
is the line width. Then follows for the cross section of absorption processes: σa = Bpq hν/cdν.
The background radiation in a plasma originates from two processes:

1. Free-Bound radiation, originating from radiative recombination. The emission is given by:
  
C1 zi ni ne hc
εf b = 2 √ 1 − exp − ξf b (λ, Te )
λ kTe λkTe

with C1 = 1.63 · 10−43 Wm4 K1/2 sr−1 and ξ the Biberman factor.

2. Free-free radiation, originating from the acceleration of particles in the EM-field of other parti-
cles:  
C1 zi ni ne hc
εf f = 2 √ exp − ξf f (λ, Te )
λ kTe λkTe

11.7 The Boltzmann transport equation

It is assumed that there exists a distribution function F for the plasma so that

F (⃗r, ⃗v , t) = Fr (⃗r, t) · Fv (⃗v , t) = F1 (x, t)F2 (y, t)F3 (z, t)F4 (vx , t)F5 (vy , t)F6 (vz , t)
 
dF ∂F ∂F
Then the BTE is: = + ∇r · (F ⃗v ) + ∇v · (F⃗a ) =
dt ∂t ∂t coll−rad
Assuming that v does not depend on r and ai does not depend on vi , holds ∇r · (F ⃗v ) = ⃗v · ∇F
and ∇v · (F⃗a ) = ⃗a · ∇v F . This is also true in magnetic fields because ∂ai /∂xi = 0. The velocity
R is
separated
R in a thermal velocity ⃗
v t and a drift velocity w.
⃗ The total density is given by n = F d⃗v
and ⃗v F d⃗v = nw.
⃗
The balance equations can be derived by means of the moment method:
Z  
∂n ∂n
1. Mass balance: (BTE)d⃗v ⇒ + ∇ · (nw)
⃗ =
∂t ∂t cr
Z
dw⃗
2. Momentum balance: (BTE)m⃗v d⃗v ⇒ mn + ∇T′ + ∇p = mn ⟨⃗a ⟩ + R
⃗
dt
Z
3 dp 5
3. Energy balance: (BTE)mv 2 d⃗v ⇒ + p∇ · w⃗ + ∇ · ⃗q = Q
2 dt 2
60 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

⃗ +w ⃗ ) is the average acceleration, ⃗q = 1 nm ⃗vt 2⃗vt the heat flow,


Here, ⟨⃗a ⟩ = e/m(E ⃗ ×B 2
mvt2 ∂F
Z  
Q= d⃗v the source term for energy production, R ⃗ is a friction term and p = nkT the
r ∂t cr
pressure.
X e2 (ne + zi ni )
A thermodynamic derivation gives for the total pressure: p = nkT = pi −
i
24πε0 λD
For the electrical conductance in a plasma follows from the momentum balance, if we ≫ wi :
⃗ ⃗
⃗ − J × B + ∇pe
η J⃗ = E
ene
In a plasma where only elastic e-a collisions are important the equilibrium energy distribution function
is the Druyvesteyn distribution:
 3/2 "  2 #
E 3me E
N (E)dE = Cne exp − dE
E0 m0 E0

with E0 = eEλv = eE/nσ.

11.8 Collision-radiative models

These models are first-moment equations for excited states. One assumes the Quasi-steady-state
solution is valid, where ∀p>1 [(∂np /∂t = 0) ∧ (∇ · (np w
⃗ p ) = 0)]. This results in:
     
∂np>1 ∂n1 ∂n1 ∂ni ∂ni
=0 , + ∇ · (n1 w
⃗ 1) = , + ∇ · (ni w
⃗ i) =
∂t cr ∂t ∂t cr ∂t ∂t cr

with solutions np = rp0 nSp + rp1 nB S

p =pbp np . Further holds for all collision-dominated levels that
−x
δbp := bp − 1 = b0 peff with peff = Ry/Epi and 5 ≤ x ≤ 6. For systems in ESP, where only
collisional (de)excitation between levels p and p ± 1 is taken into account holds x = 6. Even in
plasma’s far from equilibrium the excited levels will eventually reach ESP, so from a certain level up
the level densities can be calculated.
To find the population densities of the lower levels in the stationary case one has to start with a
macroscopic equilibrium:

Number of populating processes of level p = Number of depopulating processes of level p ,

When this is expanded it becomes:

X X X
ne nq Kqp + ne nq Kqp + nq Aqp + n2e ni K+p + ne ni αrad =
| {z }
q<p q>p q>p
| {z }
| {z } | {z } | {z } coll. recomb. rad. recomb
coll. excit. coll. deexcit. rad. deex. to
X X X
ne np Kpq + ne np Kpq + np Apq + ne np Kp+
q<p q>p q<p
| {z }
| {z } | {z } | {z } coll. ion.
coll. deexcit. coll. excit. rad. deex. from

11.9 Waves in plasma’s

Interaction of electromagnetic waves in plasma’s results in scattering and absorption of energy. For
electromagnetic waves with complex wave number k = ω(n + iκ)/c in one dimension one finds:
Ex = E0 e−κωx/c cos[ω(t − nx/c)]. The refractive index n is given by:
r
k c ωp2
n=c = = 1− 2
ω vf ω
Chapter 11: Plasma physics 61

⃗ i(kz−ωt)
⃗ = B0⃗ez +B̂e
For disturbances in the z-direction in a cold, homogeneous, magnetized plasma: B
and n = n0 + n̂ei(kz−ωt) (external E fields are screened) follows, with the definitions α = ωp /ω and
β = Ω/ω and ωp2 = ωpi 2 2
+ ωpe :
 1 −iβs 
0
X  1 − βs2 1 − βs2 
J⃗ = ⃗ ⃗ , with ⃗
⃗σ E ⃗σ = iε0 ω αs2  iβs 1
 
0 
1 − βs2 1 − βs2
s
 
0 0 1
where the sum is taken over particle species s. The dielectric tensor E, with property:

⃗k · (⃗E⃗ · E)
⃗ =0

⃗ ⃗
is given by E⃗ = I⃗ − ⃗
⃗σ /iε0 ω.
X αs2 X α 2 βs
s
X
With the definitions S = 1 − , D = , P = 1 − αs2
s
1 − βs2 s
1 − βs2 s
follows:  
S −iD 0
⃗⃗ 
E= iD S 0 
0 0 P
The eigenvalues
√ of this √ hermitian matrix are R = S + D, L = S − D, λ3 = P , with eigenvectors
⃗er = 21 2(1, i, 0), ⃗el = 21 2(1, −i, 0) and ⃗e3 = (0, 0, 1). ⃗er is connected with a right rotating field for
which iEx /Ey = 1 and ⃗el is connected with a left rotating field for which iEx /Ey = −1. When k
makes an angle θ with B ⃗ one finds:

P (n2 − R)(n2 − L)
tan2 (θ) =
S(n2 − RL/S)(n2 − P )
where n is the refractive index. From this the following solutions can be obtained:
A. θ = 0: transmission in the z-direction.
1. P = 0: Ex = Ey = 0. This describes a longitudinal linear polarized wave.
2. n2 = L: a left, circular polarized wave.
3. n2 = R: a right, circular polarized wave.
B. θ = π/2: transmission ⊥ the B-field.
1. n2 = P : the ordinary mode: Ex = Ey = 0. This is a transversal linear polarized wave.
2. n2 = RL/S: the extraordinary mode: iEx /Ey = −D/S, an elliptical polarized wave.
Resonance frequencies are frequencies for which n2 → ∞, so vf = 0. For these holds: tan(θ) = −P/S.
For R → ∞ this gives the electron cyclotron resonance frequency ω = Ωe , for L → ∞ the ion cyclotron
resonance frequency ω = Ωi and for S = 0 holds for the extraordinary mode:
mi Ω2i m2i Ω2i Ω2i
    
2
α 1− = 1− 2 2 1− 2
me ω 2 me ω ω
Cut-off frequencies are frequencies for which n2 = 0, so vf → ∞. For these holds: P = 0 or R = 0 or
L = 0.
In the case that β 2 ≫ 1 one finds Alfvén waves propagating parallel to the field lines. With the
Alfvén velocity
Ωe Ωi 2
vA = 2 2 c
ωpe + ωpi
p
follows: n = 1 + c/vA , and in case vA ≪ c: ω = kvA .
Chapter 12

Solid state physics

12.1 Crystal structure

A lattice is defined by the 3 translation vectors ⃗ai , so that the atomic composition looks the same
from each point ⃗r and ⃗r′ = ⃗r + T⃗ , where T⃗ is a translation vector given by: T⃗ = u1⃗a1 + u2⃗a2 + u3⃗a3
with ui ∈ IN . A lattice can be constructed from primitive cells. As a primitive cell one can take a
parallellepiped, with volume
Vcell = |⃗a1 · (⃗a2 × ⃗a3 )|
Because a lattice has a periodical structure the physical properties which are connected with the
lattice have the same periodicity (neglecting boundary effects):

ne (⃗r + T⃗ ) = ne (⃗r )
This periodicity is suitable to use Fourier analysis: n(⃗r ) is expanded as:
X
n(⃗r ) = nG exp(iG ⃗ · ⃗r )
G

with ZZZ
1 ⃗ · ⃗r )dV
nG = n(⃗r ) exp(−iG
Vcell
cell
⃗ is the reciprocal lattice vector. If G
G ⃗ is written as G ⃗ = v1⃗b1 + v2⃗b2 + v3⃗b3 with vi ∈ IN , it follows for
⃗
the vectors bi , cyclically:
⃗bi = 2π ⃗ai+1 × ⃗ai+2
⃗ai · (⃗ai+1 × ⃗ai+2 )
⃗
The set of G-vectors determines the Röntgen diffractions: a maximum in the reflected radiation occurs
if: ∆k = G with ∆⃗k = ⃗k − ⃗k ′ . So: 2⃗k · G
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ = G2 . From this follows for parallel lattice planes (Bragg
reflection) that for the maxima holds: 2d sin(θ) = nλ.
The Brillouin zone is defined as a Wigner-Seitz cell in the reciprocal lattice.

12.2 Crystal binding

A distinction can be made between 4 binding types:
1. Van der Waals bond
2. Ion bond
3. Covalent or homopolar bond
4. Metalic bond.
For the ion binding of NaCl the energy per molecule is calculated by:
E = cohesive energy(NaCl) – ionization energy(Na) + electron affinity(Cl)
The interaction in a covalent bond depends on the relative spin orientations of the electrons constituing
the bond. The potential energy for two parallel spins is higher than the potential energy for two
antiparallel spins. Furthermore the potential energy for two parallel spins has sometimes no minimum.
In that case binding is not possible.
Chapter 12: Solid state physics 63

12.3 Crystal vibrations

12.3.1 A lattice with one type of atoms
In this model for crystal vibrations only nearest-neighbour interactions are taken into account. The
force on atom s with mass M can then be written as:

d2 us
Fs = M = C(us+1 − us ) + C(us−1 − us )
dt2

Assuming that all solutions have the same time-dependence exp(−iωt) this results in:

−M ω 2 us = C(us+1 + us−1 − 2us )

Further it is postulated that: us±1 = u exp(isKa) exp(±iKa).

This gives: us = exp(iKsa). Substituting the later two equations in the fist results in a system of
linear equations, which has only a solution if their determinant is 0. This gives:

4C
ω2 = sin2 ( 12 Ka)
M
Only vibrations with a wavelength within the first Brillouin Zone have a physical significance. This
requires that −π < Ka ≤ π.

The group velocity of these vibrations is given by:

r
dω Ca2
vg = = cos( 21 Ka) .
dK M

and is 0 on the edge of a Brillouin Zone. Here, there is a standing wave.

12.3.2 A lattice with two types of atoms

Now the solutions are: ω
s 6
2
4 sin2 (Ka)
 
2 1 1 1 1 q
ω =C + ±C + − 2C
M1 M2 M1 M2 M1 M2 M2
q
2C
Connected with each value of K are two values of ω, as can M1
be seen in the graph. The upper line describes the optical
branch, the lower line the acoustical branch. In the optical
branch, both types of ions oscillate in opposite phases, in - K
the acoustical branch they oscillate in the same phase. This 0 π/a
results in a much larger induced dipole moment for optical
oscillations, and also a stronger emission and absorption
of radiation. Furthermore each branch has 3 polarization
directions, one longitudinal and two transversal.

12.3.3 Phonons
The quantum mechanical excitation of a crystal vibration with an energy ℏω is called a phonon.
Phonons can be viewed as quasi-particles: with collisions, they behave as particles with momentum
ℏK. Their total momentum is 0. When they collide, their momentum need not be conserved: for a
normal process holds: K1 + K2 = K3 , for an umklapp process holds: K1 + K2 = K3 + G. Because
phonons have no spin they behave like bosons.
64 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

12.3.4 Thermal heat capacity

The total energy of the crystal vibrations can be calculated by multiplying each mode with its energy
and sum over all branches K and polarizations P :
XX XZ ℏω
U= ℏω ⟨nk,p ⟩ = Dλ (ω) dω
exp(ℏω/kT ) − 1
K P λ

for a given polarization λ. The thermal heat capacity is then:

∂U XZ (ℏω/kT )2 exp(ℏω/kT )
Clattice = =k D(ω) dω
∂T (exp(ℏω/kT ) − 1)2
λ

The dispersion relation in one dimension is given by:

L dK L dω
D(ω)dω = dω =
π dω π vg
In three dimensions one applies periodic boundary conditions to a cube with N 3 primitive cells and
a volume L3 : exp(i(Kx x + Ky y + Kz z)) ≡ exp(i(Kx (x + L) + Ky (y + L) + Kz (z + L))).
Because exp(2πi) = 1 this is only possible if:
2π 4π 6π 2N π
Kx , Ky , Kz = 0; ± ; ± ; ± ; ... ±
L L L L
⃗ per volume (2π/L)3 in K-space, or:
So there is only one allowed value of K
 3
L V
=
2π 8π 3
⃗
allowed K-values ⃗
per unit volume in K-space, for each polarization and each branch. The total
number of states with a wave vector < K is:
 3
L 4πK 3
N=
2π 3
for each polarization. The density of states for each polarization is, according to the Einstein model:
V K 2 dK
  ZZ
dN V dAω
D(ω) = = =
dω 2π 2 dω 8π 3 vg
The Debye model for thermal heat capacities is a low-temperature approximation which is valid up
to ≈ 50K. Here, only the acoustic phonons are taken into account (3 polarizations), and one assumes
that v = ωK, independent of the polarization. From this follows: D(ω) = V ω 2 /2π 2 v 3 , where v is the
speed of sound. This gives:
ZωD ZxD
V ω2 3V k 2 T 4 x3 dx
Z
ℏω
U =3 D(ω) ⟨n⟩ ℏωdω = 2 3
dω = .
2π v exp(ℏω/kT ) − 1 2π 2 v 3 ℏ3 ex − 1
0 0

Here, xD = ℏωD /kT = θD /T . θD is the Debye temperature and is defined by:

1/3
ℏv 6π 2 N

θD =
k V
where N is the number of primitive cells. Because xD → ∞ for T → 0 it follows from this:
3 Z∞
x3 dx 3π 4 N kT 4 12π 4 N kT 3

T
U = 9N kT x
= ∼ T4 and CV = 3 ∼ T3
θD e −1 5θD 5θD
0

In the Einstein model for the thermal heat capacity one considers only phonons at one frequency, an
approximation for optical phonons.
Chapter 12: Solid state physics 65

12.4 Magnetic field in the solid state

The following graph shows the magnetization versus fieldstrength for different types of magnetism:
M 6
Msat
ferro
∂M
χm =
∂H paramagnetism

0 hhhh - H
hhhh diamagnetism
hhh h

12.4.1 Dielectrics
The quantum mechanical origin of diamagnetism is the Larmorprecession of the spin of the electron.
Starting with a circular electron orbit in an atom with two electrons, there is a Coulomb force Fc
and a magnetic force on each electron. If the magnetic part of the force is not strong enough to
significantly deform the orbit holds:
s 2
2 Fc (r) eB 2 eB eB eB
ω = ± ω = ω0 ± (ω0 + δ) ⇒ ω = ω0 ± + · · · ≈ ω0 ± = ω0 ± ωL
mr m m 2m 2m
Here, ωL is the Larmor frequency. One electron is accelerated, the other decelerated. Hence there
is a net circular current which results
in
 a magnetic

 moment µ ⃗ . The circular current is given by
I = −ZeωL /2π, and ⟨µ⟩ = IA = Iπ ρ2 = 32 Iπ r2 . If N is the number of atoms in the crystal it
⃗ =µ
follows for the susceptibility, with M ⃗N:
µ0 M µ0 N Ze2
2 
χ= =− r
B 6m

12.4.2 Paramagnetism
Starting with the splitting of energy levels in a weak magnetic field: ∆Um − µ⃗ ·B ⃗ = mJ gµB B,
P withPa distribution fm ∼ exp(−∆Um /kT ),Pone finds P
and for the average magnetic moment ⟨µ⟩ =
J = 2J + 1 and m2J = 32 J(J + 1)(J +
P
fm µ/ fm . After linearization and because mJ = 0,
1
2 ) it follows that:
µ0 M µ0 N ⟨µ⟩ µ0 J(J + 1)g 2 µ2B N
χp = = =
B B 3kT
This is the Curie law, χp ∼ 1/T .

12.4.3 Ferromagnetism
A ferromagnet behaves like a paramagnet above a critical temperature Tc . To describe ferromagnetism
⃗ E = λµ0 M
a field BE parallel with M is postulated: B ⃗ . From there the treatment is analogous to the
paramagnetic case:
 
C
µ0 M = χp (Ba + BE ) = χp (Ba + λµ0 M ) = µ0 1 − λ M
T
µ0 M C
From this follows for a ferromagnet: χF = = which is Weiss-Curie’s law.
Ba T − Tc
If BE is estimated this way it results in values of about 1000 T. This is clearly unrealistic and suggests
another mechanism. A quantum mechanical approach from Heisenberg postulates an interaction
between two neighbouring atoms: U = −2J S ⃗i · S
⃗j ≡ −⃗µ·B⃗ E . J is an overlap integral given by:
J = 3kTc /2zS(S + 1), with z the number of neighbours. A distinction between 2 cases can now be
made:
66 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

1. J > 0: Si and Sj become parallel: the material is a ferromagnet.

2. J < 0: Si and Sj become antiparallel: the material is an antiferromagnet.
Heisenberg’s theory predicts quantized spin waves: magnons. Starting from a model with only nearest
neighbouring atoms interacting one can write:

⃗p · (S
U = −2J S ⃗p−1 + S
⃗p+1 ) ≈ µ ⃗p
⃗p · B ⃗ p = −2J (S
with B ⃗p−1 + S
⃗p+1 )
gµB
⃗
dS 2J ⃗
The equation of motion for the magnons becomes: = ⃗p−1 + S
Sp × (S ⃗p+1 )
dt ℏ
⃗p =
From here the treatment is analogous to phonons: postulate traveling waves of the type S
⃗u exp(i(pka − ωt)). This results in a system of linear equations with solution:
ℏω = 4JS(1 − cos(ka))

12.5 Free electron Fermi gas

12.5.1 Thermal heat capacity
The solution with period L of the one-dimensional Schrödinger equation is: ψn (x) = A sin(2πx/λn)
with nλn = 2L. From this follows
ℏ2  nπ 2
E=
2m L
In a linear lattice the only important quantum numbers are n and ms . The Fermi level is the
uppermost filled level in the ground state, which has the Fermi-energy EF . If nF is the quantum
number of the Fermi level, it can be expressed as: 2nF = N so EF = ℏ2 π 2 N 2 /8mL. In 3 dimensions
holds:  2 1/3 2/3
ℏ2 3π 2 N

3π N
kF = and EF =
V 2m V
 3/2
V 2mE
The number of states with energy ≤ E is then: N = 2
.
3π ℏ2
3/2
√

dN V 2m 3N
and the density of states becomes: D(E) = = 2 2
E= .
dE 2π ℏ 2E
The heat capacity of the electrons is approximately 0.01 times the classical expected value 32 N k. This
is caused by the Pauli exclusion principle and the Fermi-Dirac distribution: only electrons within an
energy range ∼ kT of the Fermi level are excited thermally. There is a fraction ≈ T /TF excited
thermally. The internal energy then becomes:
T ∂U T
U ≈ N kT and C = ≈ Nk
TF ∂T TF
A more accurate analysis gives: Celectrons = 12 π 2 N kT /TF ∼ T . Together with the T 3 dependence of
the thermal heat capacity of the phonons the total thermal heat capacity of metals is described by:
C = γT + AT 3 .

12.5.2 Electric conductance

The equation of motion for the charge carriers is: F⃗ = md⃗v /dt = ℏd⃗k/dt. The variation of ⃗k is given
by δ⃗k = ⃗k(t) − ⃗k(0) = −eEt/ℏ.
⃗ If τ is the characteristic collision time of the electrons, δ⃗k remains
⃗ with µ = eτ /m the mobility of the electrons.
stable if t = τ . Then holds: ⟨⃗v ⟩ = µE,
The current in a conductor is given by: J⃗ = nq⃗v = σ E⃗ = E/ρ
⃗ = neµE. ⃗ Because for the collision time
holds: 1/τ = 1/τL + 1/τi , where τL is the collision time with the lattice phonons and τi the collision
time with the impurities follows for the resistivity ρ = ρL + ρi , with lim ρL = 0.
T →0
Chapter 12: Solid state physics 67

12.5.3 The Hall-effect

If a magnetic field is applied ⊥ to the direction of the current the charge carriers will be pushed
aside by the Lorentz force. This results in a magnetic field ⊥ to the flow direction of the current. If
J⃗ = J⃗ex and B
⃗ = B⃗ez than Ey /Ex = µB. The Hall coefficient is defined by: RH = Ey /Jx B, and
RH = −1/ne if Jx = neµEx . The Hall voltage is given by: VH = Bvb = IB/neh where b is the width
of the material and h de height.

12.5.4 Thermal heat conductivity

With ℓ = vF τ the mean free path of the electrons follows from κ = 31 C ⟨v⟩ ℓ: κelectrons = π 2 nk 2 T τ /3m.
From this follows for the Wiedemann-Franz ratio: κ/σ = 31 (πk/e)2 T .

12.6 Energy bands

In the tight-bond approximation it is assumed that ψ = eikna ϕ(x − na). From this follows for the
energy: ⟨E⟩ = ⟨ψ|H|ψ⟩ = Eat − α − 2β cos(ka). So this gives a cosine superimposed on the atomic
energy, which can often be approximated by a harmonic oscillator. If it is assumed that the electron is
nearly free one can postulate: ψ = exp(i⃗k ·⃗r ). This is a traveling wave. This wave can be decomposed
into two standing waves:

ψ(+) = exp(iπx/a) + exp(−iπx/a) = 2 cos(πx/a)

ψ(−) = exp(iπx/a) − exp(−iπx/a) = 2i sin(πx/a)

The probability density |ψ(+)|2 is high near the atoms of the lattice and low in between. The
probability density |ψ(−)|2 is low near the atoms of the lattice and high in between. Hence the
energy of ψ(+) is also lower than the energy of ψ)(−). Suppose that U (x) = U cos(2πx/a), than the
bandgap is given by:
Z1
Egap = U (x) |ψ(+)|2 − |ψ(−)|2 dx = U
 

12.7 Semiconductors
The band structures and the transitions between them of direct and indirect semiconductors are
shown in the figures below. Here it is assumed that the momentum of the absorbed photon can be
neglected. For an indirect semiconductor a transition from the valence- to the conduction band is
also possible if the energy of the absorbed photon is smaller than the band gap: then, also a phonon
is absorbed.

E conduction E
6 band 6
•
 •
 6
6
ωg Ω ω
 
 
◦ ◦

Direct transition Indirect transition

This difference can also be observed in the absorption spectra:

68 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

absorption absorption
6 6

.
.....
..
....

. .

....
-E
.. - E
ℏωg Eg + ℏΩ
Direct semiconductor Indirect semiconductor

So indirect semiconductors, like Si and Ge, cannot emit any light and are therefore not usable to
fabricate lasers. When light is absorbed holds: ⃗kh = −⃗ke , Eh (⃗kh ) = −Ee (⃗ke ), ⃗vh = ⃗ve and mh = −m∗e
if the conduction band and the valence band have the same structure.
Instead of the normal electron mass one has to use the effective mass within a lattice. It is defined
by:
 2 −1
∗ F dp/dt dK 2 d E
m = = =ℏ =ℏ
a dvg /dt dvg dk 2
with E = ℏω and vg = dω/dk and p = ℏk.
With the distribution function fe (E) ≈ exp((µ − E)/kT ) for the electrons and fh (E) = 1 − fe (E) for
the holes the density of states is given by:
 ∗ 3/2 p
1 2m
D(E) = 2
E − Ec
2π ℏ2
with Ec the energy at the edge of the conductance band. From this follows for the concentrations of
the holes p and the electrons n:
Z∞ 3/2
m∗ kT
  
µ − Ec
n= De (E)fe (E)dE = 2 exp
2πℏ2 kT
Ec
 3  
kT p Eg
For the product np follows: np = 4 m∗e mh exp −
2πℏ2 kT
For an intrinsic (no impurities) semiconductor holds: ni = pi , for a n − type holds: n > p and in a
p − type holds: n < p.
An exciton is a bound electron-hole pair, rotating on each other as in positronium. The excitation
energy of an exciton is smaller than the bandgap because the energy of an exciton is lower than the
energy of a free electron and a free hole. This causes a peak in the absorption just under Eg .

12.8 Superconductivity
12.8.1 Description
A superconductor is characterized by a zero resistivity if certain quantities are smaller than some
critical values: T < Tc , I < Ic and H < Hc . The BCS-model predicts for the transition temperature
Tc :  
−1
Tc = 1.14ΘD exp
U D(EF )
while experiments find for Hc approximately:
T2
 
Hc (T ) ≈ Hc (Tc ) 1 − 2 .
Tc
Chapter 12: Solid state physics 69

Within a superconductor the magnetic field is 0: the Meissner effect.

There are type I and type II superconductors. Because the Meissner effect implies that a supercon-
ductor is a perfect diamagnet holds in the superconducting state: H ⃗ = µ0 M
⃗ . This holds for a type I
superconductor, for a type II superconductor this only holds to a certain value Hc1 , for higher values
of H the superconductor is in a vortex state to a value Hc2 , which can be 100 times Hc1 . If H becomes
larger than Hc2 the superconductor becomes a normal conductor. This is shown in the figures below.
µ0 M µ0 M
6 6

··
··
··
··
··
··
··
-H · - H
Hc Hc1 Hc2
Type I Type II

The transition to a superconducting state is a second order thermodynamic state transition. This
means that there is a twist in the T − S diagram and a discontinuity in the CX − T diagram.

12.8.2 The Josephson effect

For the Josephson effect one considers two superconductors, separated by an insulator. The electron
wavefunction in one superconductor is ψ1 , in the other ψ2 . The Schrödinger equations in both
superconductors is set equal:

∂ψ1 ∂ψ2
iℏ = ℏT ψ2 , iℏ = ℏT ψ1
∂t ∂t
ℏT is the effect of the coupling of the electrons, or the transfer interaction through the insulator. The
√ √
electron wavefunctions are written as √ ψ1 = n1 exp(iθ1 ) and ψ2 = n2 exp(iθ2 ). Because a Cooper
pair exist of two electrons holds: ψ ∼ n. From this follows, if n1 ≈ n2 :

∂θ1 ∂θ2 ∂n2 ∂n1

= and =−
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t
The Josephson effect results in a current density through the insulator depending on the phase
difference as: J = J0 sin(θ2 − θ1 ) = J0 sin(δ), where J0 ∼ T . With an AC-voltage across the junction
the Schrödinger equations become:

∂ψ1 ∂ψ2
iℏ = ℏT ψ2 − eV ψ1 and iℏ = ℏT ψ1 + eV ψ2
∂t ∂t
 
2eV t
This gives: J = J0 sin θ2 − θ1 − .
ℏ
Hence there is an oscillation with ω = 2eV /ℏ.

12.8.3 Flux quantisation in a superconducting ring

nq ⃗
For the current density in general holds: J⃗ = qψ ∗⃗v ψ = ⃗]
[ℏ∇θ − q A
m
⃗ = 0 and J⃗ = 0, follows: ℏ∇θ
⃗ = qA ⃗ ⇒ ∇θdl
⃗
H
From the Meissner effect, B = θ2 − θ1 = 2πs with
⃗ = (rotA, ⃗ ⃗n )dσ = (B,⃗ ⃗n )dσ = Ψ follows: Ψ = 2πℏs/q. The size of a flux
H RR RR
s ∈ IN . Because: Adl
quantum follows by setting s = 1: Ψ = 2πℏ/e = 2.0678 · 10−15 Tm2 .
70 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

12.8.4 Macroscopic quantum interference

2eΨ
From θ2 − θ1 = 2eΨ/ℏ follows for two parallel junctions: δb − δa = , so
ℏ
  
eΨ
J = Ja + Jb = 2J0 sin δ0 cos This gives maxima if eΨ/ℏ = sπ.
ℏ

12.8.5 The London equation

⃗ is postulated:
A current density in a superconductor proportional to the vector potential A

−A⃗ −B⃗
J⃗ = or rotJ⃗ =
µ0 λ2L µ0 λ2L

⃗ = B/λ
⃗ 2.
p
where λL = ε0 mc2 /nq 2 . From this follows: ∇2 B L

⃗
The Meissner effect is the solution of this equation: B(x) = B0 exp(−x/λL ). Magnetic fields within
a superconductor drop exponentially.

12.8.6 The BCS model

The BCS model can explain superconductivity in metals. (So far there is no explanation for high-Tc
superconductance).
A new ground state where the electrons behave like independent fermions is postulated. Because of
the interaction with the lattice these pseudo-particles exhibit a mutual attraction. This causes two
electrons with opposite spin to combine to a Cooper pair. It can be proved that this ground state is
perfect diamagnetic.
The infinite conductivity is more difficult to explain because a ring with a persisting current is
not a real equilibrium: a state with zero current has a lower energy. Flux quantization prevents
transitions between these states. Flux quantization is related to the existence of a coherent many-
particle wavefunction. A flux quantum is the equivalent of about 104 electrons. So if the flux has
to change with one flux quantum there has to occur a transition of many electrons, which is very
improbable, or the system must go through intermediary states where the flux is not quantized so
they have a higher energy. This is also very improbable.
Some useful mathematical relations are:
Z∞ Z∞ Z∞
xdx π2 x2 dx π2 x3 dx π4
ax
= , = , =
e +1 12a2 x
(e + 1) 2 3 x
e +1 15
0 −∞ 0

∞ Z∞ Z∞
X
n 1 1
And, when (−1) = 2 follows: sin(px)dx = cos(px)dx = .
n=0
p
0 0
Chapter 13

Theory of groups

13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Definition of a group
G is a group for the operation • if:

1. ∀A,B∈G ⇒ A • B ∈ G: G is closed.

2. ∀A,B,C∈G ⇒ (A • B) • C = A • (B • C): G obeys the associative law.

3. ∃E∈G so that ∀A∈G A • E = E • A = A: G has a unit element.

4. ∀A∈G ∃A−1 ∈G so that A • A−1 = E: Each element in G has an inverse.

If also holds:
5. ∀A,B∈G ⇒ A • B = B • A the group is called Abelian or commutative.

13.1.2 The Cayley table

Each element arises only once in each row and column of the Cayley- or multiplication table: because
EAi = Ak−1 (Ak Ai ) = Ai each Ai appears once. There are h positions in each row and column when
there are h elements in the group so each element appears only once.

13.1.3 Conjugated elements, subgroups and classes

B is conjugate to A if ∃X∈G such that B = XAX −1 . Then A is also conjugate to B because
B = (X −1 )A(X −1 )−1 .
If B and C are conjugate to A, B is also conjugate with C.

A subgroup is a subset of G which is also a group w.r.t. the same operation.

A conjugacy class is the maximum collection of conjugated elements. Each group can be split up in
conjugacy classes. Some theorems:

ˆ All classes are completely disjoint.

ˆ E is a class itself: for each other element in this class would hold: A = XEX −1 = E.

ˆ E is the only class which is also a subgroup because all other classes have no unit element.

ˆ In an Abelian group each element is a separate class.

The physical interpretation of classes: elements of a group are usually symmetry operations which
map a symmetrical object into itself. Elements of one class are then the same kind of operations.
The opposite need not to be true.
72 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

13.1.4 Isomorfism and homomorfism; representations

Two groups are isomorphic if they have the same multiplication table. The mapping from group G1
to G2 , so that the multiplication table remains the same is a homomorphic mapping. It need not be
isomorphic.
A representation is a homomorphic mapping of a group to a group of square matrices with the usual
matrix multiplication as the combining operation. This is symbolized by Γ. The following holds:
Γ(E) = II , Γ(AB) = Γ(A)Γ(B) , Γ(A−1 ) = [Γ(A)]−1
For each group there are 3 possibilities for a representation:
1. A faithful representation: all matrices are different.
2. The representation A → det(Γ(A)).
3. The identical representation: A → 1.
An equivalent representation is obtained by performing an unitary base transformation: Γ′ (A) =
S −1 Γ(A)S.

13.1.5 Reducible and irreducible representations

If the same unitary transformation can bring all matrices of a representation Γ in the same block
structure the representation is called reducible:
 (1) 
Γ (A) 0
Γ(A) =
0 Γ(2) (A)
This is written as: Γ = Γ(1) ⊕ Γ(2) . If this is not possible the representation is called irreducible.
The number of irreducible representations equals the number of conjugacy classes.

13.2 The fundamental orthogonality theorem

13.2.1 Schur’s lemma
Lemma: Each matrix which commutes with all matrices of an irreducible representation is a constant
×II, where II is the unit matrix. The opposite is (of course) also true.
Lemma: If there exists a matrix M so that for two irreducible representations of group G, γ (1) (Ai )
and γ (2) (Ai ), holds: M γ (1) (Ai ) = γ (2) (Ai )M , than the representations are equivalent, or M = 0.

13.2.2 The fundamental orthogonality theorem

For a set of unequivalent, irreducible, unitary representations holds that, if h is the number of elements
in the group and ℓi is the dimension of the ith ¯ representation:
X (j) h
Γ(i)∗
µν (R)Γαβ (R) = δij δµα δνβ
ℓi
R∈G

13.2.3 Character
The character of a representation is given by the trace of the matrix and is therefore invariant for
base transformations: χ(j) (R) = Tr(Γ(j) (R))
X
Also holds, with Nk the number of elements in a conjugacy class: χ(i)∗ (Ck )χ(j) (Ck )Nk = hδij
k
n
X
Theorem: ℓ2i = h
i=1
Chapter 13: Theory of groups 73

13.3 The relation with quantum mechanics

13.3.1 Representations, energy levels and degeneracy
Consider a set of symmetry transformations ⃗x ′ = R⃗x which leave the Hamiltonian H invariant. These
transformations are a group. An isomorfic operation on the wavefunction is given by: PR ψ(⃗x ) =
ψ(R−1 ⃗x ). This is considered an active rotation. These operators commute with H: PR H = HPR ,
and leave the volume element unchanged: d(R⃗x ) = d⃗x.

PR is the symmetry group of the physical system. It causes degeneracy: if ψn is a solution of

Hψn = En ψn than also holds: H(PR ψn ) = En (PR ψn ). A degeneracy which is not the result of a
symmetry is called an accidental degeneracy.
(n)
Assume an ℓn -fold degeneracy at En : then choose an orthonormal set ψν , ν = 1, 2, . . . , ℓn . The
ℓn
(n)
X
function PR ψν is in the same subspace: PR ψν(n) = ψκ(n) Γ(n)
κν (R)
κ=1

where Γ(n) is an irreducible, unitary representation of the symmetry group G of the system. Each
n corresponds with another energy level. One can purely mathematical derive irreducible represen-
tations of a symmetry group and label the energy levels with a quantum number this way. A fixed
(n)
choice of Γ(n) (R) defines the base functions ψν . This way one can also label each separate base
function with a quantum number.

Particle in a periodical potential: the symmetry operation is a cyclic group: note the operator
describing one translation over one unit as A. Then: G = {A, A2 , A3 , . . . , Ah = E}.
The group is Abelian so all irreducible representations are one-dimensional. For 0 ≤ p ≤ h−1 follows:

Γ(p) (An ) = e2πipn/h

 
2πp 2π
If one defines: k = − mod , so: PA ψp (x) = ψp (x − a) = e2πip/h ψp (x), this gives Bloch’s
ah a
theorem: ψk (x) = uk (x)eikx , with uk (x ± a) = uk (x).

13.3.2 Breaking of degeneracy by a perturbation

Suppose the unperturbed system has Hamiltonian H0 and symmetry group G0 . The perturbed system
has H = H0 + V, and symmetry group G ⊂ G0 . If Γ(n) (R) is an irreducible representation of G0 , it is
also a representation of G but not all elements of Γ(n) in G0 are also in G. The representation then
usually becomes reducible: Γ(n) = Γ(n1 ) ⊕ Γ(n2 ) ⊕ . . .. The degeneracy is then (possibly partially)
removed: see the figure below.

ℓn1 = dim(Γ(n1 ) )
ℓn ℓn2 = dim(Γ(n2 ) )

ℓn3 = dim(Γ(n3 ) )

Spectrum H0 Spectrum H
(n)
Theorem: The set of ℓn degenerated eigenfunctions ψν with energy En is a basis for an ℓn -
dimensional irreducible representation Γ(n) of the symmetry group.

13.3.3 The construction of a base function

ℓj
n X
X
Each function F in configuration space can be decomposed into symmetry types: F = fκ(j)
j=1 κ=1
74 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

The following operator extracts the symmetry types:

!
ℓj X (j)∗
Γκκ (R)PR F = fκ(j)
h
R∈G

is the part of F that transforms according to the κth

(j) (j)
This is expressed as: fκ ¯ row of Γ .
P (aj) (j)
F can also be expressed in base functions φ: F = cajκ φκ . The functions fκ are in general not
ajκ
transformed into each other by elements of the group. However, this does happen if cjaκ = cja .
Theorem: Two wavefunctions transforming according to non-equivalent unitary representations or
according to different rows of an unitary irreducible representation are orthogonal:
(i) (j) (i) (i)
⟨φκ |ψλ ⟩ ∼ δij δκλ , and ⟨φκ |ψκ ⟩ is independent of κ.

13.3.4 The direct product of representations

Consider a physical system existing of two subsystems. The subspace D(i) of the system trans-
(i)
forms according to Γ(i) . Basefunctions are φκ (⃗xi ), 1 ≤ κ ≤ ℓi . Now form all ℓ1 × ℓ2 products
(1) (2)
φκ (⃗x1 )φλ (⃗x2 ). These define a space D ⊗ D(2) .
(1)

These product functions transform as:

(2) (2)
PR (φ(1)
κ (⃗x1 )φλ (⃗x2 )) = (PR φ(1)
κ (⃗x1 ))(PR φλ (⃗x2 ))

In general the space D(1) ⊗ D(2) can be split up in a number of invariant subspaces:
X
Γ(1) ⊗ Γ(2) = ni Γ(i)
i

A useful tool for this reduction is that for the characters hold:
X
χ(1) (R)χ(2) (R) = ni χ(i) (R)
i

13.3.5 Clebsch-Gordan coefficients

(i) (j) (aκ)
With the reduction of the direct-product matrix w.r.t. the basis φκ φλ one uses a new basis φµ .
These base functions lie in subspaces D(ak) . The unitary base transformation is given by:
(j)
X
φ(ak)
µ = φ(i)
κ φλ (iκjλ|akµ)
κλ

(j)
X
and the inverse transformation by: φ(i)
κ φλ = φ(aκ)
µ (akµ|iκjλ)
akµ

(i) (j) (ak)

In essence the Clebsch-Gordan coefficients are dot products: (iκjλ|akµ) := ⟨φk φλ |φµ ⟩

13.3.6 Symmetric transformations of operators, irreducible tensor opera-

tors
Observables (operators) transform as follows under symmetry transformations: A′ = PR APR−1 . If a
(j)
set of operators Aκ with 0 ≤ κ ≤ ℓj transform into each other under the transformations of G holds:
X
−1
PR A(j)
κ PR = A(j) (j)
ν Γνκ (R)
ν

(j)
If Γ(j) is irreducible they are called irreducible tensor operators A(j) with components Aκ .
Chapter 13: Theory of groups 75

P (j)
An operator can also be decomposed into symmetry types: A = ak , with:
jk

!
ℓj X (j)∗
a(j)
κ = Γκκ (R) (PR APR−1 )
h
R∈G

Theorem: Matrix elements Hij of the operator H which is invariant under ∀A∈G , are 0 between
states which transform according to non-equivalent irreducible unitary representations or according
(i) (i)
to different rows of such a representation. Further ⟨φκ |H|ψκ ⟩ is independent of κ. For H = 1 this
becomes the previous theorem.

This is applied in quantum mechanics in perturbation theory and variational calculus. Here one tries
(i)
to diagonalize H. Solutions can be found within each category of functions φκ with common i and
κ: H is already diagonal in categories as a whole.
Perturbation calculus can be applied independent within each category. With variational calculus
the try function can be chosen within a separate category because the exact eigenfunctions transform
according to a row of an irreducible representation.

13.3.7 The Wigner-Eckart theorem

(i) (j) (k)
Theorem: The matrix element ⟨φλ |Aκ |ψµ ⟩ can only be ̸= 0 if Γ(j) ⊗ Γ(k) = . . . ⊕ Γ(i) ⊕ . . .. If
this is the case holds (if Γ(i) appears only once, otherwise one has to sum over a):

(i)
⟨φλ |A(j) (k) (i) (j)
κ |ψµ ⟩ = (iλ|jκkµ)⟨φ ∥A ∥ψ
(k)
⟩

This theorem can be used to determine selection rules: the probability of a dipole transition is given
by (⃗ϵ is the direction of polarization of the radiation):

8π 2 e2 f 3 |r12 |2
PD = with r12 = ⟨l2 m2 |⃗ϵ · ⃗r |l1 m1 ⟩
3ℏε0 c3

Further it can be used to determine intensity ratios: if there is only one value of a the ratio of
the matrix elements are the Clebsch-Gordan coefficients. For more a-values relations between the
intensity ratios can be stated. However, the intensity ratios are also dependent on the occupation of
the atomic energy levels.

13.4 Continuous groups

Continuous groups have h = ∞. However, not all groups with h = ∞ are continuous, e.g. the
translation group of an spatially infinite periodic potential is not continuous but does have h = ∞.

13.4.1 The 3-dimensional translation group

For the translation of wavefunctions over a distance a holds: Pa ψ(x) = ψ(x − a). Taylor expansion
near x gives:
dψ(x) 1 2 d2 ψ(x)
ψ(x − a) = ψ(x) − a + a − +...
dx 2 dx2
ℏ ∂
Because the momentum operator in quantum mechanics is given by: px = , this can be written
i ∂x
as:
ψ(x − a) = e−iapx /ℏ ψ(x)
76 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

13.4.2 The 3-dimensional rotation group

This group is called SO(3) because a faithful representation can be constructed from orthogonal 3 × 3
matrices with a determinant of +1.
For an infinitesimal rotation around the x-axis holds:

Pδθx ψ(x, y, z) ≈ ψ(x, y + zδθx , z − yδθx )

 
∂ ∂
= ψ(x, y, z) + zδθx − yδθx ψ(x, y, z)
∂y ∂z
 
iδθx Lx
= 1− ψ(x, y, z)
ℏ
 
ℏ ∂ ∂
Because the angular momentum operator is given by: Lx = z −y .
i ∂y ∂z
So in an arbitrary direction holds: Rotations: Pα,⃗n = exp(−iα(⃗n · J⃗ )/ℏ)
Translations: Pa,⃗n = exp(−ia(⃗n · p⃗ )/ℏ)
Jx , Jy and Jz are called the generators of the 3-dim. rotation group, px , py and pz are called the
generators of the 3-dim. translation group.
The commutation rules for the generators can be derived from the properties of the group for multi-
plications: translations are interchangeable ↔ px py − py px = 0.
Rotations are not generally interchangeable: consider a rotation around axis ⃗n in the xz-plane over
an angle α. Then holds: Pα,⃗n = P−θ,y Pα,x Pθ,y , so:
⃗
e−iα(⃗n·J )/ℏ = eiθJy /ℏ e−iαJx /ℏ e−iθJy /ℏ

If α and θ are very small and are expanded to second order, and the corresponding terms are put
equal with ⃗n · J⃗ = Jx cos θ + Jz sin θ, it follows from the αθ term: Jx Jy − Jy Jx = iℏJz .

13.4.3 Properties of continuous groups

The elements R(p1 , ..., pn ) depend continuously on parameters p1 , ..., pn . For the translation group
this are e.g. anx , any and anz . It is demanded that the multiplication and inverse of an element R
depend continuously on the parameters of R.
The statement that each element arises only once in each row and column of the Cayley table holds
also for continuous groups. The notion conjugacy class for continuous groups is defined equally as for
discrete groups. The notion representation is fitted by demanding continuity: each matrix element
depends continuously on pi (R).
Summation over all group elements is for continuous groups replaced by an integration. If f (R) is a
function defined on G, e.g. Γαβ (R), holds:
Z Z Z
f (R)dR := · · · f (R(p1 , ..., pn ))g(R(p1 , ..., pn ))dp1 · · · dpn
G p1 pn

Here, g(R) is the density function.

R R
Because of the properties of the Cayley table is demanded: f (R)dR = f (SR)dR. This fixes
g(R) except for a constant factor. Define new variables p′ by: SR(pi ) = R(p′i ). If one writes:
dV := dp1 · · · dpn holds:
dV
g(S) = g(E) ′
dV
!
dV dV ∂pi
Here, is the Jacobian: = det , and g(E) is constant.
dV ′ dV ′ ∂p′j
Chapter 13: Theory of groups 77

For the translation group holds: g(⃗a) = constant = g(⃗0 ) because g(a⃗n )d⃗a′ = g(⃗0 )d⃗a and d⃗a′ = d⃗a.
This leads to the fundamental orthogonality theorem:
Z Z
(j) 1
Γ(i)∗
µν (R)Γαβ (R)dR = δ ij δ µα δνβ dR
ℓi
G G

and for the characters hold: Z Z

χ(i)∗ (R)χ(j) (R)dR = δij dR
G G
R
Compact groups are groups with a finite group volume: G
dR < ∞.

13.5 The group SO(3)

One can take 2 parameters for the direction of the rotational axis and one for the angle of rotation φ.
The parameter space is a collection points φ⃗n within a sphere with radius π. The diametrical points
on this sphere are equivalent because R⃗n,π = R⃗n,−π .
Another way to define parameters is by means of Eulers angles. If α, β and γ are the 3 Euler angles,
defined as:
1. The spherical angles of axis 3 w.r.t. xyz are θ, φ := β, α. Now a rotation around axis 3 remains
possible.
2. The spherical angles of the z-axis w.r.t. 123 are θ, φ := β, π − γ.
then the rotation of a quantum mechanical system is described by:
⃗
ψ → e−iαJz ℏ e−iβJy /ℏ e−iγJz /ℏ ψ. So PR = e−iε(⃗n·J )/ℏ .
All irreducible representations of SO(3) can be constructed from the behaviour of the spherical har-
monics Ylm (θ, φ) with −l ≤ m ≤ l and for a fixed l:
(l)
X
PR Ylm (θ, φ) = Ylm′ (θ, φ)Dmm′ (R)
m′

D(l) is an irreducible representation of dimension 2l + 1. The character of D(l) is given by:

l l
X X sin([l + 21 ]α)
χ(l) (α) = eimα = 1 + 2 cos(kα) =
m=−l k=0
sin( 21 α)

In the performed derivation α is the rotational angle around the z-axis. This expression is valid for
all rotations over an angle α because the classes of SO(3) are rotations around the same angle around
an axis with an arbitrary orientation.
Via the fundamental orthogonality theorem for characters one obtains the following expression for
the density function (which is normalized so that g(0) = 1):

sin2 ( 21 α)
g(α) =
( 12 α)2

With this result one can see that the given representations of SO(3) are the only ones: the character
of another representation χ′ would have to be ⊥ to the already found ones, so χ′ (α) sin2 ( 21 α) = 0∀α
⇒ χ′ (α) = 0∀α. This is contradictory because the dimension of the representation is given by χ′ (0).
Because fermions have an half-odd integer spin the states ψsms with s = 21 and ms = ± 12 constitute
a 2-dim. space which is invariant under rotations. A problem arises for rotations over 2π:

ψ 12 ms → e−2πiSz /ℏ ψ 12 ms = e−2πims ψ 12 ms = −ψ 21 ms
78 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

However, in SO(3) holds: Rz,2π = E. So here holds E → ±II. Because observable quantities can
always be written as ⟨ϕ|ψ⟩ or ⟨ϕ|A|ψ⟩, and are bilinear in the states, they do not change sign if the
states do. If only one state changes sign the observable quantities do change.
The existence of these half-odd integer representations is connected with the topological properties
of SO(3): the group is two-fold coherent through the identification R0 = R2π = E.

13.6 Applications to quantum mechanics

13.6.1 Vectormodel for the addition of angular momentum
If two subsystems have angular momentum quantum numbers j1 and j2 the only possible values for
the total angular momentum are J = j1 + jP 2 , j1 + j2 − 1, ..., |j1 − j2 |. This can be derived from group
theory as follows: from χ(j1 ) (α)χ(j2 ) (α) = nj χ(J) (α) follows:
J

D(j1 ) ⊗ D(j2 ) = D(j1 +j2 ) ⊕ D(j1 +j2 −1) ⊕ ... ⊕ D(|j1 −j2 |)

The states can be characterized by quantum numbers in two ways: with j1 , m1 , j2 , m2 and with
j1 , j2 , J, M . The Clebsch-Gordan
P coefficients, for SO(3) called the Wigner coefficients, can be chosen
real, so: ψj1 j2 JM = ψj1 m1 j2 m2 (j1 m1 j2 m2 |JM )
m
P1 m2
ψj1 m1 j2 m2 = ψj1 j2 JM (j1 m1 j2 m2 |JM )
JM

13.6.2 Irreducible tensor operators, matrixelements and selection rules

Some examples of the behaviour of operators under SO(3)
1. Suppose j = 0: this gives the identical representation with ℓj = 1. This state is described by a
(0) (0)
scalar operator. Because PR A0 PR−1 = A0 this operator is invariant, e.g. the Hamiltonian of
′ ′
a free atom. Then holds: ⟨J M |H|JM ⟩ ∼ δM M ′ δJJ ′ .

2. A vector operator: A ⃗ = (Ax , Ay , Az ). The cartesian components of a vector operator transform

equally as the cartesian components of ⃗r by definition. So for rotations around the z-axis holds:
 
cos α − sin α 0
D(Rα,z ) =  sin α cos α 0 
0 0 1
The transformed operator has the same matrix elements w.r.t. PR ψ and PR ϕ:
PR ψ|PR Ax PR−1 |PR ϕ = ⟨ψ|Ax |ϕ⟩, and χ(Rα,z ) = 1 + 2 cos(α). According to the equation for



characters this means one can choose base operators which transform like Y1m (θ, φ). These turn
out to be the spherical components:
(1) 1 (1) (1) 1
A+1 = − √ (Ax + iAy ), A 0 = Az , A−1 = √ (Ax − iAy )
2 2

3. A cartesian tensor of rank 2: Tij is a quantity which transforms under rotations like Ui Vj , where
⃗ and V
U ⃗ are vectors. So Tij transforms like PR Tij P −1 = P Tkl Dki (R)Dlj (R), so like D(1) ⊗
R
kl
D(1) = D(2) ⊕ D(1) ⊕ D(0) . The 9 components can be split in 3 invariant subspaces with
dimension 1 (D(0) ), 3 (D(1) ) and 5 (D(2) ). The new base operators are:
⃗ ·V
I. Tr(T ) = Txx + Tyy + Tzz . This transforms as the scalar U ⃗ , so as D(0) .
II. The 3 antisymmetric components Az = 21 (Txy − Tyx ), etc. These transform as the vector
⃗ ×V
U ⃗ , so as D(1) .
III. The 5 independent components of the traceless, symmetric tensor S:
Sij = 12 (Tij + Tji ) − 13 δij Tr(T ). These transform as D(2) .
Chapter 13: Theory of groups 79

Selection rules for dipole transitions

Dipole operators transform as D(1) : for an electric dipole transfer is the operator e⃗r, for a magnetic
⃗ + 2S
e(L ⃗ )/2m.
(1) ′
From the Wigner-Eckart theorem follows: ⟨J ′ M ′ |Aκ |JM ⟩ = 0 except D(J ) is a part of D(1) ⊗D(J) =
D(J+1) ⊕ D(J) ⊕ D(|J−1|) . This means that J ′ ∈ {J + 1, J, |J − 1|}: J ′ = J or J ′ = J ± 1, except
J ′ = J = 0.

Landé-equation for the anomalous Zeeman splitting

According to Landé’s model the interaction between a magnetic moment with an external magnetic
⃗ on J⃗ because L
field is determined by the projection of M ⃗ and S⃗ precede fast around J.⃗ This can
also be understood from the Wigner-Eckart theorem: from this follows that the matrix elements from
⃗ follows:
all vector operators show a certain proportionality. For an arbitrary operator A

⟨αjm|A⃗ · J⃗ |αjm⟩
⃗
⟨αjm′ |A|αjm⟩ = ⟨αjm′ |J⃗ |αjm⟩
j(j + 1)ℏ2

13.7 Applications to particle physics

The physics of a system does not change after performing a transformation ψ ′ = eiδ ψ where δ is a
constant. This is a global gauge transformation: the phase of the wavefunction changes everywhere
by the same amount.
There exists some freedom in the choice of the potentials A ⃗ and ϕ at the same E ⃗ and B:
⃗ gauge
⃗ ⃗
transformations of the potentials do not change E and B (See chapter 2 and 10). The solution ψ ′ of
the Schrödinger equation with the transformed potentials is: ψ ′ = e−iqf (⃗r,t) ψ.
This is a local gauge transformation: the phase of the wavefunction changes different at each position.
The physics of the system does not change if A ⃗ and ϕ are also transformed. This is now stated as a
guide principle: the “right of existence” of the electromagnetic field is to allow local gauge invariance.
The gauge transformations of the EM-field form a group: U(1), unitary 1 × 1-matrices. The split-off
of charge in the exponent is essential: it allows one gauge field for all charged particles, independent
of their charge.
This concept is generalized: particles have a “special charge” Q. The group elements now are PR =
exp(−iQΘ).
Other force fields than the electromagnetic field can also be understood this way. The weak interac-
tion together with the electromagnetic interaction can be described by a force field that transforms
according to U(1)⊗SU(2), and consists of the photon and three intermediary vector bosons. The
colour force is described by SU(3), and has a gauge field that exists of 8 types of gluons.
In general the group elements are given by PR = exp(−iT⃗ · Θ),
⃗ where Θn are real constants and Tn
P
operators (generators), like Q. The commutation rules are given by [Ti , Tj ] = i cijk Tk . The cijk
k
are the structure constants of the group. For SO(3) these constants are cijk = εijk , here εijk is the
complete antisymmetric tensor with ε123 = +1.
These constants can be found with the help of group product elements: because G is closed holds:
⃗ ⃗ ⃗′ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗′ ⃗ ⃗ ′′ ⃗
eiΘ·T eiΘ ·T e−iΘ·T e−iΘ ·T = e−iΘ ·T . Taylor expansion and setting equal Θn Θ′m -terms results in the
commutation rules.
The group SU(2) has 3 free parameters: because it is unitary there are 4 real conditions over 4
complex parameters, and the determinant has to be +1, remaining 3 free parameters.
Each unitary matrix U can be written as: U = e−iH . Here, H is a Hermitian matrix. Further it
always holds that: det(U ) = e−iTr(H) .
For each matrix of SU(2) holds that Tr(H)=0. Each Hermitian, traceless 2 × 2 matrix can be written
80 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

as a linear combination of the 3 Pauli-matrices σi . So these matrices are a choice for the operators
⃗
of SU(2). One can write: SU(2)={exp(− 12 i⃗σ · Θ)}.
In abstraction, one can consider an isomorphic group where only the commutation rules are considered
to be known regarding the operators Ti : [T1 , T2 ] = iT3 , etc.
In elementary particle physics the Ti can be interpreted e.g. as the isospin operators. Elementary
particles can be classified in isospin-multiplets, these are the irreducible representations of SU(2).
The classification is:
⃗ ⃗
1. The isospin-singlet ≡ the identical representation: e−iT ·Θ = 1 ⇒ Ti = 0
2. The isospin-doublet ≡ the faithful representation of SU(2) on 2 × 2 matrices.

The group SU(3) has 8 free parameters. (The group SU(N ) has N 2 − 1 free parameters). The
Hermitian, traceless operators are 3 SU(2)-subgroups in the ⃗e1⃗e2 , ⃗e1⃗e3 and the ⃗e2⃗e3 plane. This gives
9 matrices, which are not all 9 linear independent. By taking a linear combination one gets 8 matrices.
8
∂ D ∂ X
In the Lagrange density for the colour force one has to substitute → := − Ti Aix
∂x Dx ∂x i=1
The terms of 3rd and 4th power in A show that the colour field interacts with itself.
Chapter 14

Nuclear physics

14.1 Nuclear forces

9
The mass of a nucleus is given by:
8
Mnucl = Zmp + N mn − Ebind /c2 ↑ 7
E 6
The binding energy per nucleon is given (MeV)5
in the figure at the right. The top is at
56 4
26 Fe, the most stable nucleus. With the
constants 3
a1 = 15.760 MeV 2
a2 = 17.810 MeV 1
a3 = 0.711 MeV 0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240
a4 = 23.702 MeV A→
a5 = 34.000 MeV

and A = Z + N , in the droplet or collective model of the nucleus the binding energy Ebind is given by:

Ebind Z(Z − 1) (N − Z)2

2
= a1 A − a2 A2/3 − a3 1/3
− a4 + ϵa5 A−3/4
c A A
These terms arise from:
1. a1 : Binding energy of the strong nuclear force, approximately ∼ A.
2. a2 : Surface correction: the nucleons near the surface are less bound.
3. a3 : Coulomb repulsion between the protons.
4. a4 : Asymmetry term: a surplus of protons or neutrons has a lower binding energy.
5. a5 : Pair off effect: nuclei with an even number of protons or neutrons are more stable because
groups of two protons or neutrons have a lower energy. The following holds:
Z even, N even: ϵ = +1, Z odd, N odd: ϵ = −1.
Z even, N odd: ϵ = 0, Z odd, N even: ϵ = 0.
The Yukawa potential can be derived if the nuclear force can to first approximation, be considered
as an exchange of virtual pions:  
W0 r0 r
U (r) = − exp −
r r0
With ∆E · ∆t ≈ ℏ, Eγ = m0 c2 and r0 = c∆t follows: r0 = ℏ/m0 c.
In the shell model of the nucleus one assumes that a nucleon moves in an average field of other
nucleons. Further, there is a contribution of the spin-orbit coupling ∼ L ⃗ · S:
⃗ ∆Vls = 1 (2l + 1)ℏω.
2
So each level (n, l) is split in two, with j = l ± 2 , where the state with j = l + 12 has the lowest
1

energy. This is just the opposite for electrons, which is an indication that the L − S interaction
is not electromagnetical. The energy of a 3-dimensional harmonic oscillator is E = (N + 23 )ℏω.
N = nx + ny + nz = 2(n − 1) + l where n ≥ 1 is the main oscillator number. Because −l ≤ m ≤ l and
82 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

ms = ± 21 ℏ there are 2(2l + 1) substates which exist independently for protons and neutrons. This
gives rise to the so called magical numbers: nuclei where each state in the outermost level are filled
are particulary stable. This is the case if N or Z ∈ {2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126}.

14.2 The shape of the nucleus

A nucleus is to first approximation spherical with a radius of R = R0 A1/3 . Here, R0 ≈ 1.4 · 10−15 m,
constant for all nuclei. If the nuclear radius is measured including the charge distribution one obtains
R0 ≈ 1.2 · 10−15 m. The shape of oscillating nuclei can be described by spherical harmonics:
" #
X
m
R = R0 1 + alm Yl (θ, φ)
lm

l = 0 gives rise to monopole vibrations, density vibrations, which can be applied to the theory of
neutron
√ stars. l = 1 gives dipole vibrations, l = 2 quadrupole, with a2,0 = β cos γ and a2,±2 =
1
2 2β sin γ where β is the deformation factor and γ the shape parameter. The multipole moment
is given by µl = Zerl Ylm (θ, φ). The parity of the electric moment is ΠE = (−1)l , of the magnetic
moment ΠM = (−1)l+1 .

⃗L = e ⃗ ⃗ S = gS e S.
⃗
There are 2 contributions to the magnetic moment: M L and M
2mp 2mp
where gS is the spin-gyromagnetic ratio. For protons holds gS = 5.5855 and for neutrons gS =
−3.8263. The z-components of the magnetic moment are given by ML,z = µN ml and MS,z = gS µN mS .
⃗ = gI (e/2mp )I.
The resulting magnetic moment is related to the nuclear spin I according to M ⃗ The
z-component is then Mz = µN gI mI .

14.3 Radioactive decay

The number of nuclei decaying is proportional to the number of nuclei: Ṅ = −λN . This gives for the
number of nuclei N : N (t) = N0 exp(−λt). The half life time follows from τ 21 λ = ln(2). The average
life time of a nucleus is τ = 1/λ. The probability that N nuclei decay within a time interval is given
by a Poisson distribution:
λN e−λ
P (N )dt = N0 dt
N!
P
If a nucleus can
P decay into more final states then holds: λ = λi . So the fraction decaying into
state i is λi / λi . There are 5 types of natural radioactive decay:

1. α-decay: the nucleus emits a He2+ nucleus. Because nucleons tend to order themselves in groups
of 2p+2n this can be considered as a tunneling of a He2+ nucleus through a potential barrier.
The tunnel probability P is
s Z
incoming amplitude 1
P = = e−2G with G = 2m [V (r) − E]dr
outgoing amplitude ℏ

G is called the Gamow factor.

2. β-decay. Here a proton changes into a neutron or vice versa:

p+ → n0 + W+ → n0 + e+ + νe , and n0 → p+ + W− → p+ + e− + ν e .

3. Electron capture: here, a proton in the nucleus captures an electron (usually from the K-shell).

4. Spontaneous fission: a nucleus breaks apart.

Chapter 14: Nuclear physics 83

5. γ-decay: here the nucleus emits a high-energetic photon. The decay constant is given by
 2l
P (l) Eγ Eγ R
λ= ∼ ∼ 10−4l
ℏω (ℏc)2 ℏc
where l is the quantum number for the angular momentum and P the radiated power. Usually
the decay constant of electric multipole moments is larger than the one of magnetic multipole
moments. The energy of the photon is Eγ = Ei − Ef − TR , with TR = Eγ2 /2mc2 the recoil
l i f
p is Π = Π · Π .
energy, which can usually be neglected. The parity of the emitted radiation
With I the quantum number of angular momentum of the nucleus, L = ℏ I(I + 1), holds the
following selection rule: |I⃗i − I⃗f | ≤ ∆l ≤ |I⃗i + I⃗f |.

14.4 Scattering and nuclear reactions

14.4.1 Kinetic model
If a beam with intensity I hits a target with density n and length x (Rutherford scattering) the
number of scatterings R per unit of time is equal to R = Inxσ. From this follows that the intensity
of the beam decreases as −dI = Inσdx. This results in I = I0 e−nσx = I0 e−µx .
dσ R(θ, φ)
Because dR = R(θ, φ)dΩ/4π = Inxdσ it follows: =
dΩ 4πnxI
∆N dσ
If N particles are scattered in a material with density n then holds: = n ∆Ω∆x
N dΩ
Z1 Z2 e2

dσ  1
For Coulomb collisions holds: =
dΩ C 8πε0 µv02 sin4 ( 12 θ)

14.4.2 Quantum mechanical model for n-p scattering

The initial state is a beam of neutrons moving along the z-axis with wavefunction ψinit = eikz
and current density Jinit = v|ψinit |2 = v. At large distances from the scattering point they have
approximately a spherical wavefunction ψscat = f (θ)eikr /r where f (θ) is the scattering amplitude.
The total wavefunction is then given by
eikr
ψ = ψin + ψscat = eikz + f (θ)
r
The particle flux of the scattered particles is v|ψscat |2 = v|f (θ)|2 dΩ. From this it follows that σ(θ) =
|f (θ)|2 . The wavefunction of the incoming particles can be expressed as a sum of angular momentum
wavefunctions: X
ψinit = eikz = ψl
l
The impact parameter is related to the angular momentum with L = bp = bℏk, so bk ≈ l. At very
low energy only particles with l = 0 are scattered, so
X sin(kr)
ψ = ψ0′ + ψl and ψ0 =
kr
l>0

sin(kr + δ0 )
If the potential is approximately rectangular holds: ψ0′ = C
kr
sin2 (δ0 ) 4π sin2 (δ0 )
Z
The cross section is then σ(θ) = so σ = σ(θ)dΩ =
k2 k2
ℏ2 k 2 /2m
At very low energies holds: sin2 (δ0 ) =
W0 + W
4π X 2
with W0 the depth of the potential well. At higher energies holds: σ = sin (δl )
k2
l
84 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

14.4.3 Conservation of energy and momentum in nuclear reactions

If a particle P1 collides with a particle P2 which is in rest w.r.t. the laboratory system and other
particles are created, so X
P1 + P2 → Pk
k>2

mk )c2 .
P
the total energy Q gained or required is given by Q = (m1 + m2 −
k>2

The minimal required kinetic energy T of P1 in the laboratory system to initialize the reaction is
P
m1 + m2 + mk
T = −Q
2m2
If Q < 0 there is a threshold energy.

14.5 Radiation dosimetry

Radiometric quantities determine the strength of the radiation source(s). Dosimetric quantities are
related to the energy transfer from radiation to matter. Parameters describing a relation between
those are called interaction parameters. The intensity of a beam of particles in matter decreases
according to I(s) = I0 exp(−µs). The deceleration of a heavy particle is described by the Bethe-Bloch
equation:
dE q2
∼ 2
ds v

The fluention is given by Φ = dN/dA. The flux is given by ϕ = dΦ/dt. The energy loss is defined
by Ψ = dW/dA, and the energy flux density ψ = dΨ/dt. The absorption coefficient is given by
µ = (dN/N )/dx. The mass absorption coefficient is given by µ/ϱ.
The radiation dose X is the amount of charge produced by the radiation per unit of mass, with unit
C/kg. An old unit is the Röntgen: 1Ro= 2.58 · 10−4 C/kg. With the energy-absorption coefficient
µE follows:
dQ eµE
X= = Ψ
dm Wϱ
where W is the energy required to disjoin an elementary charge.
The absorbed dose D is given by D = dEabs /dm, with unit Gy=J/kg. An old unit is the rad: 1
rad=0.01 Gy. The dose tempo is defined as Ḋ. It can be derived that
µE
D= Ψ
ϱ
The Kerma K is the amount of kinetic energy of secundary produced particles which is produced per
mass unit of the radiated object.
The equivalent dose H is a weight average of the absorbed dose per type of radiation, where for each
type radiation the effects on biological material is used for the weight factor. These weight factors
are called the quality factors. Their unit is Sv. H = QD.
P If the absorption is not equally distributed
also weight factors w per organ need to be used: H = wk Hk . For some types of radiation holds:

Radiation type Q
Röntgen, gamma radiation 1
β, electrons, mesons 1
Thermic neutrons 3 to 5
Fast neutrons 10 to 20
protons 10
α, fission products 20
Chapter 15

Quantum field theory & Particle

physics

15.1 Creation and annihilation operators

A state with more particles can be described by a collection occupation numbers |n1 n2 n3 · · ·⟩. Hence
the vacuum state is given by |000 · · ·⟩. This is a complete description because the particles are
indistinguishable. The states are orthonormal:
∞
Y
⟨n1 n2 n3 · · · |n′1 n′2 n′3 · · ·⟩ = δni n′i
i=1

The time-dependent state vector is given by

X
Ψ(t) = cn1 n2 ··· (t)|n1 n2 · · ·⟩
n1 n2 ···

The coefficients c can be interpreted as follows: |cn1 n2 ··· |2 is the probability to find n1 particles
with momentum ⃗k1 , n2 particles with momentum ⃗k2 , etc., and ⟨Ψ(t)|Ψ(t)⟩ = |cni (t)|2 = 1. The
P
expansion of the states in time is described by the Schrödinger equation
d
i |Ψ(t)⟩ = H|Ψ(t)⟩
dt
where H = H0 + Hint . H0 is the Hamiltonian for free particles and keeps |cni (t)|2 constant, Hint is
the interaction Hamiltonian and can increase or decrease a c2 at the cost of others.
All operators which can change occupation numbers can be expanded in the a and a† operators. a is
the annihilation operator and a† the creation operator, and:
√
a(⃗ki )|n1 n2 · · · ni · · ·⟩ = ni |n1 n2 · · · ni − 1 · · ·⟩
† ⃗
√
a (ki )|n1 n2 · · · ni · · ·⟩ = ni + 1 |n1 n2 · · · ni + 1 · · ·⟩

Because the states are normalized holds a|0⟩ = 0 and a(⃗ki )a† (⃗ki )|ni ⟩ = ni |ni ⟩. So aa† is an occupation
number operator. The following commutation rules can be derived:

[a(⃗ki ), a(⃗kj )] = 0 ,
[a† (⃗ki ), a† (⃗kj )] = 0 , [a(⃗ki ), a† (⃗kj )] = δij

Hence for free spin-0 particles holds: H0 = a† (⃗ki )a(⃗ki )ℏωki

P
i

15.2 Classical and quantum fields

Starting with a real field Φα (x) (complex fields can be split in a real and an imaginary part), the La-
grange density L is a function of the
R position x = (⃗x, ict) through the fields: L = L(Φα (x), ∂ν Φα (x)).
3
The Lagrangian is given R by L = L(x)d x. Using the variational principle δI(Ω) = 0 and with the
action-integral I(Ω) = L(Φα , ∂ν Φα )d4 x the field equation can be derived:
∂L ∂ ∂L
α
− =0
∂Φ ∂xν ∂(∂ν Φα )
86 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

The conjugated field is, analogous to momentum in classical mechanics, defined as:
∂L
Πα (x) =
∂ Φ̇α
With this, the Hamilton density becomes H(x) = Πα Φ̇α − L(x).
Quantization of a classical field is analogous to quantization in point mass mechanics: the field
functions are considered as operators obeying certain commutation rules:
[Φα (⃗x), Φβ (⃗x ′ )] = 0 , [Πα (⃗x), Πβ (⃗x ′ )] = 0 , [Φα (⃗x), Πβ (⃗x ′ )] = iδαβ (⃗x − ⃗x ′ )

15.3 The interaction picture

Some equivalent formulations of quantum mechanics are possible:
1. Schrödinger picture: time-dependent states, time-independent operators.
2. Heisenberg picture: time-independent states, time-dependent operators.
3. Interaction picture: time-dependent states, time-dependent operators.
The interaction picture can be obtained from the Schrödinger picture by an unitary transformation:
S S S
|Φ(t)⟩ = eiH0 |ΦS (t)⟩ and O(t) = eiH0 OS e−iH0
S
The index denotes the Schrödinger picture. From this follows:
d d
i |Φ(t)⟩ = Hint (t)|Φ(t)⟩ and i O(t) = [O(t), H0 ]
dt dt

15.4 Real scalar field in the interaction picture

It is easy to find that, with M := m20 c2 /ℏ2 , holds:
∂ ∂
Φ(x) = Π(x) and Π(x) = (∇2 − M 2 )Φ(x)
∂t ∂t
From this follows that Φ obeys the Klein-Gordon equation (□ − M 2 )Φ = 0. With the definition
k02 = ⃗k 2 + M 2 := ωk2 and the notation ⃗k · ⃗x − ik0 t := kx the general solution of this equation is:
1 X 1  ⃗ ikx i X 1 
 q 
Φ(x) = √ √ a(k )e + a† (⃗k )e−ikx , Π(x) = √ ⃗ ikx + a† (⃗k )e−ikx
2 ωk −a(k )e
V ⃗ 2ωk V ⃗
k k

The field operators contain a volume V , which is used as normalization factor. Usually one can take
the limit V → ∞.
In general it holds that the term with e−ikx , the positive frequency part, is the creation part, and the
negative frequency part is the annihilation part.
the coefficients have to be each others hermitian conjugate because Φ is hermitian. Because Φ has
only one component this can be interpreted as a field describing a particle with spin zero. From this
follows that the commutation rules are given by [Φ(x), Φ(x′ )] = i∆(x − x′ ) with
Z
1 sin(ky) 3
∆(y) = d k
(2π)3 ωk
∆(y) is an odd function which is invariant for proper Lorentz transformations (no mirroring). This
is consistent with the previously found result [Φ(⃗x, t, Φ(⃗x ′ , t)] = 0. In general holds that ∆(y) = 0
outside the light cone. So the equations obey the locality postulate.
The Lagrange density is given by: L(Φ, ∂ν Φ) = − 21 (∂ν Φ∂ν Φ + m2 Φ2 ). The energy operator is given
by: Z X
H = H(x)d3 x = ℏωk a† (⃗k )a(⃗k )
⃗
k
Chapter 15: Quantum field theory & Particle physics 87

15.5 Charged spin-0 particles, conservation of charge

The Lagrange density of charged spin-0 particles is given by: L = −(∂ν Φ∂ν Φ∗ + M 2 ΦΦ∗ ).
Noether’s theorem connects a continuous symmetry of L and an additive conservation law. Suppose
that L ((Φα )′ , ∂ν (Φα )′ ) = L (Φα , ∂ν Φα ) and there exists a continuous transformation between Φα and
Φα ′ such as Φα ′ = Φα + ϵf α (Φ). Then holds
 
∂ ∂L α
f =0
∂xν ∂(∂ν Φα )

This is a continuity equation ⇒ conservation law. Which quantity is conserved depends on the
symmetry. The above Lagrange density is invariant for a change in phase Φ → Φeiθ : a global gauge
transformation. The conserved quantity is the current density Jµ (x) = −ie(Φ∂µ Φ∗ −Φ∗ ∂µ Φ). Because
this quantity is 0 for real fields a complex field is needed to describe charged particles. When this
field is quantized the field operators are given by
1 X 1  ⃗ ikx  1 X 1  † ⃗ ikx 
Φ(x) = √ √ a(k )e + b† (⃗k )e−ikx , Φ† (x) = √ √ a (k )e + b(⃗k )e−ikx
V ⃗ 2ωk V ⃗ 2ωk
k k

Hence the energy operator is given by:

X  
H= ℏωk a† (⃗k )a(⃗k ) + b† (⃗k )b(⃗k )
⃗
k

and the charge operator is given by:

Z X  
Q(t) = −i J4 (x)d3 x ⇒ Q = e a† (⃗k )a(⃗k ) − b† (⃗k )b(⃗k )
⃗
k

From this follows that a† a := N+ (⃗k ) is an occupation number operator for particles with a positive
charge and b† b := N− (⃗k ) is an occupation number operator for particles with a negative charge.

15.6 Field functions for spin- 21 particles

Spin is defined by the behaviour of the solutions ψ of the Dirac equation. A scalar field Φ has the
property that, if it obeys the Klein-Gordon equation, the rotated field Φ̃(x) := Φ(Λ−1 x) also obeys
it. Λ denotes 4-dimensional rotations: the proper Lorentz transformations. These can be written as:
 
⃗ ∂ ∂
Φ̃(x) = Φ(x)e−i⃗n·L with Lµν = −iℏ xµ − xν
∂xν ∂xµ

For µ ≤ 3, ν ≤ 3 these are rotations, for ν = 4, µ ̸= 4 these are Lorentz transformations.

A rotated field ψ̃ obeys the Dirac equation if the following condition holds: ψ̃(x) = D(Λ)ψ(Λ−1 x).
⃗
This results in the condition D−1 γλ D = Λλµ γµ . One finds: D = ei⃗n·S with Sµν = −i 12 ℏγµ γν . Hence:

ψ̃(x) = e−i(S+L) ψ(x) = e−iJ ψ(x)

Then the solutions of the Dirac equation are given by:

p )e−i(⃗p·⃗x±Et)
ψ(x) = ur± (⃗

Here, r is an indication for the direction of the spin, and ± is the sign of the energy. With the
notation v r (⃗
p ) = ur− (−⃗
p ) and ur (⃗
p ) = ur+ (⃗
p ) one can write for the dot products of these spinors:

′ E ′ E ′
ur+ (⃗
p )ur+ (⃗
p) = δrr′ , ur− (⃗
p )ur− (⃗
p) = δrr′ , ur+ (⃗
p )ur− (⃗
p) = 0
M M
88 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

Because of the factor E/M this is not relativistic invariant. A Lorentz-invariant dot product is defined
by ab := a† γ4 b, where a := a† γ4 is a row spinor. From this follows:
′ ′ ′
p )ur (⃗
ur (⃗ p )v r (⃗
p ) = δrr′ , v r (⃗ p )v r (⃗
p ) = −δrr′ , ur (⃗ p) = 0
Combinations of the type aa give a 4 × 4 matrix:
2 2
X −iγλ pλ + M X −iγλ pλ − M
ur (⃗
p )ur (⃗
p) = , v r (⃗
p )v r (⃗
p) =
r=1
2M r=1
2M
The Lagrange density which results in the Dirac equation and having the correct energy normalization
is:  
∂
L(x) = −ψ(x) γµ + M ψ(x)
∂xµ
and the current density is Jµ (x) = −ieψγµ ψ.

15.7 Quantization of spin- 21 fields

The general solution for the fieldoperators is in this case:
r
MX 1 X
p )eipx + d†r (⃗
p )ur (⃗ p )e−ipx
p )v r (⃗


ψ(x) = √ cr (⃗
V E r
p
⃗

and r
MX 1 X †
p )e−ipx + dr (⃗ p )eipx


ψ(x) = √ p )ur (⃗
cr (⃗ p )v r (⃗
V E r
p
⃗

Here, c† and c are the creation respectively annihilation operators for an electron and d† and d the
creation respectively annihilation operators for a positron. The energy operator is given by
X 2
X
c†r (⃗ p )d†r (⃗


H= Ep⃗ p ) − dr (⃗
p )cr (⃗ p)
p
⃗ r=1

To prevent that the energy of positrons is negative the operators must obey anti commutation rules
in stead of commutation rules:
p ), c†r′ (⃗
[cr (⃗ p ), d†r′ (⃗
p )]+ = [dr (⃗ p )]+ = δrr′ δpp′ , all other anti commutators are 0.
The field operators obey
[ψα (x), ψβ (x′ )] = 0 , [ψα (x), ψβ (x′ )] = 0 , [ψα (x), ψβ (x′ )]+ = −iSαβ (x − x′ )
 
∂
with S(x) = γλ − M ∆(x)
∂xλ
The anti commutation rules give besides the positive-definite energy also the Pauli exclusion principle
and the Fermi-Dirac statistics: because c†r (⃗ p )c†r (⃗
p ) = −c†r (⃗
p )c†r (⃗
p ) holds: {c†r (p)}2 = 0. It appears
to be impossible to create two electrons with the same momentum and spin. This is the exclusion
principle. Another way to see this is the fact that {Nr+ (⃗ p )}2 = Nr+ (⃗ p ): the occupation operators
have only eigenvalues 0 and 1.
To avoid infinite vacuum contributions to the energy and charge the normal product is introduced.
The expression for the current density now becomes Jµ = −ieN (ψγµ ψ). This product is obtained by:
ˆ Expand all fields into creation and annihilation operators,
ˆ Keep all terms which have no annihilation operators, or in which they are on the right of the
creation operators,
ˆ In all other terms interchange the factors so that the annihilation operators go to the right.
By an interchange of two fermion operators add a minus sign, by interchange of two boson
operators not. Assume hereby that all commutators are zero.
Chapter 15: Quantum field theory & Particle physics 89

15.8 Quantization of the electromagnetic field

∂Aν ∂Aν
Starting with the Lagrange density L = − 21
∂xµ ∂xµ
it follows for the field operators A(x):
4
1 X 1 X 
A(x) = √ √ am (⃗k )ϵm (⃗k )eikx + a† (⃗k )ϵm (⃗k )∗ e−ikx
V ⃗ 2ωk m=1
k

The operators obey [am (⃗k ), a†m′ (⃗k )] = δmm′ δkk′ . All other commutators are 0. m gives the polariza-
tion direction of the photon: m = 1, 2 gives transversal polarized, m = 3 longitudinal polarized and
m = 4 timelike polarized photons. Further holds:

[Aµ (x), Aν (x′ )] = iδµν D(x − x′ ) with D(y) = ∆(y)|m=0

In spite of the fact that A4 = iV is imaginary in the classical case, A4 is still defined to be hermi-
tian because otherwise the sign of the energy becomes incorrect. By changing the definition of the
inner product in configuration space the expectation values for A1,2,3 (x) ∈ IR and for A4 (x) become
imaginary.
If the potentials satisfy the Lorentz gauge condition ∂µ Aµ = 0 the E and B operators derived
from these potentials will satisfy the Maxwell equations. However, this gives problems with the
commutation rules. It is now demanded that only those states are permitted for which holds
∂A+µ
|Φ⟩ = 0
∂xµ
 
∂Aµ
This results in: = 0.
∂xµ
From this follows that (a3 (⃗k ) − a4 (⃗k ))|Φ⟩ = 0. With a local gauge transformation one obtains
N3 (⃗k ) = 0 and N4 (⃗k ) = 0. However, this only applies to free EM-fields: in intermediary states in
interactions there can exist longitudinal and timelike photons. These photons are also responsible for
the stationary Coulomb potential.

15.9 Interacting fields and the S-matrix

The S(scattering)-matrix gives a relation between the initial and final states of an interaction:
|Φ(∞)⟩ = S|Φ(−∞)⟩. If the Schrödinger equation is integrated:
Zt
|Φ(t)⟩ = |Φ(−∞)⟩ − i Hint (t1 )|Φ(t1 )⟩dt1
−∞

and perturbation theory is applied one finds that:

∞ ∞
(−i)n
X Z Z X
S= · · · T {Hint (x1 ) · · · Hint (xn )} d4 x1 · · · d4 xn ≡ S (n)
n=0
n! n=0

Here, the T -operator means a time-ordered product: the terms in such a product must be ordered in
increasing time order from the right to the left so that the earliest terms act first. The S-matrix is
then given by: Sij = ⟨Φi |S|Φj ⟩ = ⟨Φi |Φ(∞)⟩.
The interaction Hamilton density for the interaction between the electromagnetic and the electron-
positron field is: Hint (x) = −Jµ (x)Aµ (x) = ieN (ψγµ ψAµ )
 
When this is expanded as: Hint = ieN (ψ + + ψ − )γµ (ψ + + ψ − )(A+ −
µ + Aµ )
90 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

eight terms appear. Each term corresponds with a possible process. The term ieψ + γµ ψ + A− µ acting
− + +
on |Φ⟩ gives transitions where Aµ creates a photon, ψ annihilates an electron and ψ annihilates a
positron. Only terms with the correct number of particles in the initial and final state contribute to a
matrix element ⟨Φi |S|Φj ⟩. Further the factors in Hint can create and thereafter annihilate particles:
the virtual particles.
The expressions for S (n) contain time-ordered products of normal products. This can be written
as a sum of normal products. The appearing operators describe the minimal changes necessary to
change the initial state into the final state. The effects of the virtual particles are described by the
(anti)commutator functions. Some time-ordened products are:

T {Φ(x)Φ(y)} = N {Φ(x)Φ(y)} + 21 ∆F (x − y)
n o n o
F
T ψα (x)ψβ (y) = N ψα (x)ψβ (y) − 21 Sαβ (x − y)
F
T {Aµ (x)Aν (y)} = N {Aµ (x)Aν (y)} + 21 δµν Dµν (x − y)

Here, S F (x) = (γµ ∂µ − M )∆F (x), DF (x) = ∆F (x)|m=0 and

 Z ikx
1 e


 (2π)3 d3 k if x0 > 0
ω⃗k


∆F (x) =
Z −ikx
1 e


d3 k if x0 < 0


3

(2π) ω⃗k

The term 21 ∆F (x − y) is called the contraction of Φ(x) and Φ(y), and is the expectation value of the
time-ordered product in the vacuum state. Wick’s theorem gives an expression for the time-ordened
product of an arbitrary number of field operators. The graphical representation of these processes
are called Feynman diagrams. In the x-representation each diagram describes a number of processes.
The contraction functions can also be written as:
−2i eikx −2i iγµ pµ − M 4
Z Z
∆F (x) = lim d 4
k and S F
(x) = lim eipx 2 d p
ϵ→0 (2π)4 k 2 + m2 − iϵ ϵ→0 (2π)4 p + M 2 − iϵ

In the expressions for S (2) this gives rise to terms δ(p + k − p′ − k ′ ). This means that energy and
momentum is conserved. However, virtual particles do not obey the relation between energy and
momentum.

15.10 Divergences and renormalization

It turns out that higher orders contribute infinite terms because only the sum p + k of the four-
momentum of the virtual particles is fixed. An integration over one of them becomes ∞. In the
x-representation this can be understood because the product of two functions containing δ-like singu-
larities is not well defined. This is solved by discounting all divergent diagrams in a renormalization
of e and M . It is assumed that an electron, if there would not be an electromagnetical field, would
have a mass M0 and a charge e0 unequal to the observed mass M and charge e. In the Hamilton and
Lagrange density of the free electron-positron field appears M0 . So this gives, with M = M0 + ∆M :

Le−p (x) = −ψ(x)(γµ ∂µ + M0 )ψ(x) = −ψ(x)(γµ ∂µ + M )ψ(x) + ∆M ψ(x)ψ(x)

and Hint = ieN (ψγµ ψAµ ) − i∆eN (ψγµ ψAµ ).

15.11 Classification of elementary particles

Elementary particles can be categorized as follows:
1. Hadrons: these exist of quarks and can be categorized in:
Chapter 15: Quantum field theory & Particle physics 91

I. Baryons: these exist of 3 quarks or 3 antiquarks.

II. Mesons: these exist of one quark and one antiquark.
2. Leptons: e± , µ± , τ ± , νe , νµ , ντ , ν e , ν µ , ν τ .
3. Field quanta: γ, W± , Z0 , gluons, gravitons (?).
4. Higgs particle: ϕ.
An overview of particles and antiparticles is given in the following table:
Particle spin (ℏ) B L T T3 S C B∗ charge (e) m0 (MeV) antipart.
u 1/2 1/3 0 1/2 1/2 0 0 0 +2/3 5 u
d 1/2 1/3 0 1/2 −1/2 0 0 0 −1/3 9 d
s 1/2 1/3 0 0 0 −1 0 0 −1/3 175 s
c 1/2 1/3 0 0 0 0 1 0 +2/3 1350 c
b 1/2 1/3 0 0 0 0 0 −1 −1/3 4500 b
t 1/2 1/3 0 0 0 0 0 0 +2/3 173000 t
e− 1/2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0.511 e+
µ− 1/2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 −1 105.658 µ+
τ− 1/2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 −1 1777.1 τ+
νe 1/2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0(?) νe
νµ 1/2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0(?) νµ
ντ 1/2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0(?) ντ
γ 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 γ
gluon 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 gluon
W+ 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 +1 80220 W−
Z 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 91187 Z
graviton 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 graviton
Higgs 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 125350 Higgs
Here B is the baryon number and L the lepton number. It is found that there are three different
lepton numbers, one for e, µ and τ , which are separately conserved. T is the isospin, with T3 the
projection of the isospin on the third axis, C the charmness, S the strangeness and B∗ the bottomness.
The anti particles have quantum numbers with the opposite sign except for the total isospin T. The
composition of (anti)quarks of the hadrons is given in the following table, together with their mass
in MeV in their ground state:
1
√
π0 2 2(uu+dd) 134.9764 J/Ψ cc 3096.8 Σ+ dds 1197.436
π+ ud 139.56995 Υ bb 9460.37 Ξ0 uss 1314.9
0
π− du 139.56995 p+ uud 938.27231 Ξ uss 1314.9
K0 sd 497.672 p− uud 938.27231 Ξ− dss 1321.32
K0 ds 497.672 n0 udd 939.56563 Ξ+ dss 1321.32
K+ us 493.677 n0 udd 939.56563 Ω− sss 1672.45
K− su 493.677 Λ uds 1115.684 Ω+ sss 1672.45
D+ cd 1869.4 Λ uds 1115.684 Λ+c udc 2285.1
D− dc 1869.4 Σ+ uus 1189.37 ∆2− uuu 1232.0
D0 cu 1864.6 Σ− uus 1189.37 ∆2+ uuu 1232.0
D0 uc 1864.6 Σ0 uds 1192.55 ∆+ uud 1232.0
F+ cs 1969.0 Σ0 uds 1192.55 ∆0 udd 1232.0
F− sc 1969.0 Σ− dds 1197.436 ∆− ddd 1232.0
Each quark can exist in two spin states. So mesons are bosons with spin 0 or 1 in their ground
state, while baryons are fermions with spin 12 or 32 . There exist excited states with higher internal L.
Neutrino’s have a helicity of − 12 while antineutrino’s have only + 21 as possible value.
The quantum numbers are subject to conservation laws. These can be derived from symmetries in the
Lagrange density: continuous symmetries give rise to additive conservation laws, discrete symmetries
result in multiplicative conservation laws.
92 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

Geometrical conservation laws are invariant under Lorentz transformations and the CPT-operation.
These are:

1. Mass/energy because the laws of nature are invariant for translations in time.
2. Momentum because the laws of nature are invariant for translations in space.
3. Angular momentum because the laws of nature are invariant for rotations.

Dynamical conservation laws are invariant under the CPT-operation. These are:

1. Electrical charge because the Maxwell equations are invariant under gauge transformations.
2. Colour charge is conserved.
3. Isospin because QCD is invariant for rotations in T-space.
4. Baryon number and lepton number are conserved but not under a possible SU(5) symmetry of
the laws of nature.
5. Quarks type is only conserved under the colour interaction.
6. Parity is conserved except for weak interactions.

The elementary particles can be classified into three families:

leptons quarks antileptons antiquarks

− +
1st generation e d e d
νe u νe u
2nd generation µ− s µ+ s
νµ c νµ c
3rd generation τ− b τ+ b
ντ t ντ t

Quarks exist in three colours but because they are confined these colours cannot be seen directly. The
color force does not decrease with distance. The potential energy will become high enough to create
a quark-antiquark pair when it is tried to disjoin an (anti)quark from a hadron. This will result in
two hadrons and not in free quarks.

15.12 P and CP-violation

It is found that the weak interaction violates P-symmetry, and even CP-symmetry is not conserved.
Some processes which violate P symmetry but conserve the combination CP are:

1. µ-decay: µ− → e− + νµ + ν e . Left-handed electrons appear more than 1000× as much as

right-handed ones.

2. β-decay of spin-polarized 60 Co: 60 Co →60 Ni + e− + ν e . More electrons with a spin parallel to

the Co than with a spin antiparallel are created: (parallel−antiparallel)/(total)=20%.

3. There is no connection with the neutrino: the decay of the Λ particle through: Λ → p+ + π −
and Λ → n0 + π 0 has also these properties.

The CP-symmetry was found to be violated by the decay of neutral Kaons. These are the lowest
possible states with a s-quark so they can decay only weakly. The following holds: C|K0 ⟩ = η|K0 ⟩
where η is a phase factor. Further holds P|K0 ⟩ = −|K0 ⟩ because K0 and K0 have an intrinsic parity
of −1. From this follows that K0 and K0 are not eigenvalues of CP: CP|K0 ⟩ = |K0 ⟩. The linear
combinations √ √
|K01 ⟩ := 21 2(|K0 ⟩ + |K0 ⟩) and |K02 ⟩ := 21 2(|K0 ⟩ − |K0 ⟩)
Chapter 15: Quantum field theory & Particle physics 93

are eigenstates of CP: CP|K01 ⟩ = +|K01 ⟩ and CP|K02 ⟩ = −|K02 ⟩. A base of K01 and K02 is practical while
describing weak interactions. For colour interactions a base of K0 and K0 is practical because then
the number u−number u is constant. The expansion postulate must be used for weak decays:

|K0 ⟩ = 12 (⟨K01 |K0 ⟩ + ⟨K02 |K0 ⟩)

to find a final state with CP= −1 is 21 | K02 |K0 |2 , the probability of CP=+1 decay


The probability
is 21 | K01 |K0 |2 .



The relation between the mass eigenvalues of the quarks (unaccented) and the fields arising in the
weak currents (accented) is (u′ , c′ , t′ ) = (u, c, t), and:
 ′     
d 1 0 0 1 0 0 cos θ1 sin θ1 0
 s′  =  0 cos θ2 sin θ2   0 1 0   − sin θ1 cos θ1 0 
′
b 0 − sin θ2 cos θ2 0 0 eiδ 0 0 1
  
1 0 0 d
 0 cos θ3 sin θ3   s 
0 − sin θ3 cos θ3 b

θ1 ≡ θC is the Cabibbo angle: sin(θC ) ≈ 0.23 ± 0.01.

15.13 The standard model

When one wants to make the Lagrange density which describes a field invariant for local gauge
transformations from a certain group, one has to perform the transformation
∂ D ∂ g
→ = − i Lk Akµ
∂xµ Dxµ ∂xµ ℏ

Here the Lk are the generators of the gauge group (the “charges”) and the Akµ are the gauge fields.
g is the matching coupling constant. The Lagrange density for a scalar field becomes:

L = − 12 (Dµ Φ∗ Dµ Φ + M 2 Φ∗ Φ) − 14 Fµν
a
Faµν
a
and the field tensors are given by: Fµν = ∂µ Aaν − ∂ν Aaµ + gcalm Alµ Am
ν .

15.13.1 The electroweak theory

The electroweak interaction arises from the necessity to keep the Lagrange density invariant for local
gauge transformations of the group SU(2)⊗U(1). Right- and left-handed spin states are treated
different because the weak interaction does not conserve parity. If a fifth Dirac matrix is defined by:
 
0 0 1 0
 0 0 0 1 
γ5 := γ1 γ2 γ3 γ4 = − 
 1 0 0 0 


0 1 0 0

the left- and right- handed solutions of the Dirac equation for neutrino’s are given by:

ψL = 21 (1 + γ5 )ψ and ψR = 12 (1 − γ5 )ψ

It appears that neutrino’s are always left-handed while antineutrino’s are always right-handed. The
hypercharge Y , for quarks given by Y = B + S + C + B∗ + T′ , is defined by:

Q = 21 Y + T3

so [Y, Tk ] = 0. The group U(1)Y ⊗SU(2)T is taken as symmetry group for the electroweak interaction
because the generators of this group commute. The multiplets are classified as follows:
94 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

e−
R νeL e−
L uL d′L uR dR
1 1
T 0 2 2 0 0
1 1 1 1
T3 0 2 − 2 2 − 2 0 0
1 4
Y −2 −1 3 3 − 32

Now, 1 field Bµ (x) is connected with gauge group U(1) and 3 gauge fields A ⃗ µ (x) are connected with
SU(2). The total Lagrange density (minus the fieldterms) for the electron-fermion field now becomes:
′
  
g⃗ 1 g ψνe,L
L0,EW = −(ψνe,L , ψeL )γ µ ∂µ − i A µ · ( 1
2 ⃗
σ ) − i
2 ℏ µ B · (−1) −
ℏ ψeL
g′
 
ψeR γ µ ∂µ − 12 i (−2)Bµ ψeR
ℏ

Here, 21 ⃗σ are the generators of T and −1 and −2 the generators of Y .

15.13.2 Spontaneous symmetry breaking: the Higgs mechanism

All leptons are massless in the equations above. Their mass is probably generated by spontaneous sym-
metry breaking. This means that the dynamic equations which describe the system have a symmetry
which the ground state does not have. It is assumed that there exists an isospin-doublet of scalar fields
Φ with electrical charges +1 and 0 and potential V (Φ) = −µ2 Φ∗ Φ+λ(Φ∗ Φ)2 . Their antiparticles have
µ
charges −1 and 0. The extra terms in L arising from these fields, LH = (DLµ Φ)∗ (DL Φ) − V (Φ), are
globally U(1)⊗SU(2) symmetric. Hence the state with the lowest energy corresponds with the state
Φ∗ (x)Φ(x) = v = µ2 /2λ =constant. The field can be√written (were ω ± and z are Nambu-Goldstone
bosons which can be transformed away, and mϕ = µ 2) as:

Φ+ iω + √
     
0√
Φ= = and ⟨0|Φ|0⟩ =
Φ0 (v + ϕ − iz)/ 2 v/ 2

Because this expectation value ̸= 0 the SU(2) symmetry is broken but the U(1) symmetry is not.
When the gauge fields in the resulting Lagrange density are separated one obtains:
√ √
Wµ− = 12 2(A1µ + iA2µ ) , Wµ+ = 21 2(A1µ − iA2µ )
gA3µ − g ′ Bµ
Zµ = p ≡ A3µ cos(θW ) − Bµ sin(θW )
g 2 + g ′2
g ′ A3µ + gBµ
Aµ = p ≡ A3µ sin(θW ) + Bµ cos(θW )
g 2 + g ′2

where θW is called the Weinberg angle. For this angle holds: sin2 (θW ) = 0.255 ± 0.010. Relations
for the masses of the field quanta can be obtained from the remaining terms: MW = 12 vg and
gg ′
= g ′ cos(θW ) = g sin(θW )
p
MZ = 12 v g 2 + g ′2 , and for the elementary charge holds: e = p
g 2 + g ′2
Experimentally it is found that MW = 80.022 ± 0.26 GeV/c2 and MZ = 91.187 ± 0.007 GeV/c2 .
According to the weak theory this should be: MW = 83.0 ± 0.24 GeV/c2 and MZ = 93.8 ± 2.0
GeV/c2 .

15.13.3 Quantumchromodynamics
Coloured particles interact because the Lagrange density is invariant for the transformations of the
group SU(3) of the colour interaction. A distinction can be made between two types of particles:

1. “White” particles: they have no colour charge, the generator T⃗ = 0.

Chapter 15: Quantum field theory & Particle physics 95

2. “Coloured” particles: the generators T⃗ are 8 3 × 3 matrices. There exist three colours and three
anticolours.
The Lagrange density for coloured particles is given by
X X
LQCD = i Ψk γ µ Dµ Ψk + a
Ψk Mkl Ψl − 41 Fµν Faµν
k k,l

The gluons remain massless because this Lagrange density does not contain spinless particles. Because
left- and right- handed quarks now belong to the same multiplet a mass term can be introduced. This
term can be brought in the form Mkl = mk δkl .

15.14 Path integrals

The development in time of a quantum mechanical system can, besides with Schrödingers equation,
also be described by a path integral (Feynman):
Z
ψ(x′ , t′ ) = F (x′ , t′ , x, t)ψ(x, t)dx

in which F (x′ , t′ , x, t) is the amplitude of probability to find a system on time t′ in x′ if it was in x

on time t. Then, Z  
iS[x]
F (x′ , t′ , x, t) = exp d[x]
ℏ
R
where S[x] is an action-integral: S[x] = L(x, ẋ, t)dt. The notation d[x] means that the integral has
to be taken over all possible paths [x]:
 ∞ 
Z Z
1 Y 
d[x] := lim dx(tn )
n→∞ N  
n −∞

in which N is a normalization constant. To each path is assigned a probability amplitude exp(iS/ℏ).

The classical limit can be found by taking δS = 0: the average of the exponent vanishes, except where
it is stationary. In quantum fieldtheory, the probability of the transition of a fieldoperator Φ(⃗x, −∞)
to Φ′ (⃗x, ∞) is given by
Z  
iS[Φ]
F (Φ′ (⃗x, ∞), Φ(⃗x, −∞)) = exp d[Φ]
ℏ
with the action-integral Z
S[Φ] = L(Φ, ∂ν Φ)d4 x
Ω

15.15 Unification and quantum gravity

The strength of the forces varies with energy and the reciprocal coupling constants approach each other
with increasing energy. The SU(5) model predicts complete unification of the electromagnetical, weak
and colour forces at 1015 GeV. It also predicts 12 extra X bosons which couple leptons and quarks and
are i.g. responsible for proton decay, with dominant channel p+ → π 0 + e+ , with an average lifetime
of the proton of 1031 year. This model has been experimentally falsified.
Supersymmetric models assume a symmetry between bosons and fermions and predict partners for
the currently known particles with a spin which differs 12 . The supersymmetric SU(5) model predicts
unification at 1016 GeV and an average lifetime of the proton of 1033 year. The dominant decay
channels in this theory are p+ → K+ + ν µ and p+ → K0 + µ+ .
Quantum
p gravity plays only a role in particle interactions
p at the Planck dimensions, where λC ≈ RS :
mPl = hc/G = 3 · 1019 GeV, tPl = h/mPl c2 = hG/c5 = 10−43 sec and rPl = ctPl ≈ 10−35 m.
Chapter 16

Astrophysics

16.1 Determination of distances

The parallax is mostly used to determine distances in nearby space. The parallax is the angular
difference between two measurements of the position of the object from different view-points. If the
annual parallax is given by p, the distance R of the object is given by R = a/ sin(p), in which a is the
radius of the Earth’s orbit. The clusterparallax is used to determine the distance of a group of stars
by using their motion w.r.t. a fixed background. The tangential velocity vt and the radial velocity vr
of the stars along the sky are given by

vr = V cos(θ) , vt = V sin(θ) = ωR
-5
where θ is the angle between the star and the point of convergence and -4
R̂ the distance in pc. This results, with vt = vr tan(θ), in: Type 1
⟨M ⟩ -3
vr tan(θ) 1′′ -2
R= ⇒ R̂ = -1 Type 2
ω p
0
where p is the parallax in arc seconds. The parallax is then given by RR-Lyrae
1
0,1 0,3 1 3 10 30 100
4.74µ
p= P (days) →
vr tan(θ)

with µ de proper motion of the star in ′′ /yr. A method to determine the distance of objects which
are somewhat further away, like galaxies and star clusters, uses the period-Brightness relation for
Cepheids. This relation is shown in the above figure for different types of stars.

16.2 Brightness and magnitudes

The brightness is the total radiated energy per unit of time. Earth receives s0 = 1.374 kW/m2 from
the Sun. Hence, the brightness of the Sun is given by L⊙ = 4πr2 s0 = 3.82 · 1026 W. It is also given
by:
Z∞
2
L⊙ = 4πR⊙ πFν dν
0

where πFν is the monochromatic radiation flux. At the position of an observer this is πfν , with
fν = (R/r)2 Fν if absorption is ignored. If Aν is the fraction of the flux which reaches Earth’s surface,
the transmission factor is given by Rν and the surface of the detector is given by πa2 , then the
apparent brightness b is given by:
Z∞
2
b = πa fν Aν Rν dν
0

The magnitude m is defined by:

b1 1
= (100) 5 (m2 −m1 ) = (2.512)m2 −m1
b2
Chapter 16: Astrophysics 97

because the human eye perceives lightintensities logaritmical. From this follows that m2 − m1 =
2.5 ·10 log(b1 /b2 ), or: m = −2.5 ·10 log(b) + C. The apparent brightness of a star if this star would be
at a distance of 10 pc is called the absolute brightness B: B/b = (r̂/10)2 . The absolute magnitude is
then given by M = −2.5 ·10 log(B) + C, or: M = 5 + m − 5 ·10 log(r̂). When an interstellar absorption
of 10−4 /pc is taken into account one finds:

M = (m − 4 · 10−4 r̂) + 5 − 5 ·10 log(r̂)

If a detector detects all radiation emitted by a source one would measure the absolute bolometric
magnitude. If the bolometric correction BC is given by
   R 
10 Energy flux received 10 fν dν
BC = 2.5 · log = 2.5 · log R
Energy flux detected fν Aν Rν dν
holds: Mb = MV − BC where MV is the visual magnitude. Further holds
 
10 L
Mb = −2.5 · log + 4.72
L⊙

16.3 Radiation and stellar atmospheres

The radiation energy passing through a surface dA is dE = Iν (θ, φ) cos(θ)dνdΩdAdt, where Iµ is
the monochromatical intensity [Wm−2 sr−1 Hz−1 ]. When there is no absorption the quantity Iν is
independent of the distance to the source. Planck’s law holds for a black body:
c 2hν 3 1
Iν (T ) ≡ Bν (T ) = wν (T ) = 2
4π c exp(hν/kT ) − 1
The radiation transport through a layer can then be written as:
dIν
= −Iν κν + jν
ds
R
Here, jν is the coefficient of emission and κν the coefficient of Rabsorption. ds is the thickness of
the layer. The optical thickness τν of the layer is given by τν = κν ds. The layer is optically thin if
τν ≪ 1, the layer is optically thick if τν ≫ 1. For a stellar atmosphere in LTE holds: jν = κν Bν (T ).
Then also holds:
Iν (s) = Iν (0)e−τν + Bν (T )(1 − e−τν )

16.4 Composition and evolution of stars

The structure of a star is described by the following equations:
dM (r)
= 4πϱ(r)r2
dr
dp(r) GM (r)ϱ(r)
= −
dr r2
L(r)
= 4πϱ(r)ε(r)r2
 dr
dT (r) 3 L(r) κ(r)
= − , (Eddington), or
dr 4 4πr2 4σT 3 (r)
  rad
dT (r) T (r) γ − 1 dp(r)
= , (convective energy transport)
dr conv p(r) γ dr
Further, for stars of the solar type, the composing plasma can be described as an ideal gas:
ϱ(r)kT (r)
p(r) =
µmH
98 Physics Formulary by ir. J.C.A. Wevers

where µ is the average molecular mass, usually well approximated by:

ϱ 1
µ= =
nmH 3
2X + 4 Y + 12 Z

where X is the mass fraction of H, Y the mass fraction of He and Z the mass fraction of the other
elements. Further holds:

κ(r) = f (ϱ(r), T (r), composition) and ε(r) = g(ϱ(r), T (r), composition)

Convection will occur when the star meets the Schwartzschild criterium:
   
dT dT
<
dr conv dr rad

Otherwise the energy transfer takes place by radiation. For stars in quasi-hydrostatic equilibrium
hold the approximations r = 21 R, M (r) = 12 M , dM/dr = M/R, κ ∼ ϱ and ε ∼ ϱT µ (this last
assumption is only valid for stars on the main sequence). For pp-chains holds µ ≈ 5 and for the CNO
chains holds µ = 12 tot 18. It can be derived that L ∼ M 3 : the mass-brightness relation. Further
holds: L ∼ R4 ∼ Teff
8
. This results in the equation for the main sequence in the Hertzsprung-Russel
diagram:
10
log(L) = 8 ·10 log(Teff ) + constant

16.5 Energy production in stars

The net reaction from which most stars gain their energy is: 41 H → 4 He + 2e+ + 2νe + γ.
This reaction produces 26.72 MeV. Two reaction chains are responsible for this reaction. The slowest,
speed-limiting reaction is shown in boldface. The energy between brackets is the energy carried away
by the neutrino.
1. The proton-proton chain can be divided into two subchains:
1
H + p+ → 2 D + e+ + νe , and then 2 D + p → 3 He + γ.
I. pp1: 3 He +3 He → 2p+ + 4 He. There is 26.21 + (0.51) MeV released.
II. pp2: 3 He + α → 7 Be + γ
i. 7 Be + e− → 7 Li + ν, then 7 Li + p+ → 24 He + γ. 25.92 + (0.80) MeV.
ii. 7 Be + p+ → 8 B + γ, then 8 B + e+ → 24 He + ν. 19.5 + (7.2) MeV.
Both 7 Be chains become more important with raising T .
2. The CNO cycle. The first chain releases 25.03 + (1.69) MeV, the second 24.74 + (1.98) MeV.
The reactions are shown below.
−→ ↘
15
↗ → N + p+ → α +12 C 15
N + p+ → 16 O + γ
↓ ↓
15
O + e+ → 15
N+ν 12
C + p+ → 13 N + γ 16
O + p+ → 17 F + γ
↑ ↓ ↓
14
N + p+ → 15
O+γ 13
N → 13 C + e+ + ν 17
F → 17 O + e+ + ν
↓ ↓
13
↖ ← C + p+ → 14 N + γ 17
O + p+ → α + 14 N
←− ↙
The ∇ operator 99

The ∇-operator
In cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) holds:

⃗ = ∂ ⃗ex + ∂ ⃗ey + ∂ ⃗ez , gradf = ∇f

∇ ⃗ = ∂f ⃗ex + ∂f ⃗ey + ∂f ⃗ez
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
2 2 2
⃗ · ⃗a = ∂ax + ∂ay + ∂az , ∇2 f = ∂ f + ∂ f + ∂ f
div ⃗a = ∇
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
     
⃗ ∂az ∂ay ∂ax ∂az ∂ay ∂ax
rot ⃗a = ∇ × ⃗a = − ⃗ex + − ⃗ey + − ⃗ez
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
In cylinder coordinates (r, φ, z) holds:

⃗ = ∂ ⃗er + 1 ∂ ⃗eφ + ∂ ⃗ez , gradf = ∂f ⃗er + 1 ∂f ⃗eφ + ∂f ⃗ez

∇
∂r r ∂φ ∂z ∂r r ∂φ ∂z

∂ar ar 1 ∂aφ ∂az ∂2f 1 ∂f 1 ∂2f ∂2f

div ⃗a = + + + , ∇2 f = + + +
∂r r r ∂φ ∂z ∂r2 r ∂r r2 ∂φ2 ∂z 2
     
1 ∂az ∂aφ ∂ar ∂az ∂aφ aφ 1 ∂ar
rot ⃗a = − ⃗er + − ⃗eφ + + − ⃗ez
r ∂φ ∂z ∂z ∂r ∂r r r ∂φ
In spherical coordinates (r, θ, φ) holds:

⃗ ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
∇ = ⃗er + ⃗eθ + ⃗eφ
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
∂f 1 ∂f 1 ∂f
gradf = ⃗er + ⃗eθ + ⃗eφ
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
∂ar 2ar 1 ∂aθ aθ 1 ∂aφ
div ⃗a = + + + +
∂r r r ∂θ r tan θ r sin θ ∂φ
   
1 ∂aφ aθ 1 ∂aθ 1 ∂ar ∂aφ aφ
rot ⃗a = + − ⃗er + − − ⃗eθ +
r ∂θ r tan θ r sin θ ∂φ r sin θ ∂φ ∂r r
 
∂aθ aθ 1 ∂ar
+ − ⃗eφ
∂r r r ∂θ
∂2f 2 ∂f 1 ∂2f 1 ∂f 1 ∂2f
∇2 f = 2
+ + 2 2 + 2 + 2 2
∂r r ∂r r ∂θ r tan θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ2
General orthonormal curvelinear coordinates (u, v, w) can be obtained from cartesian coordinates by
the transformation ⃗x = ⃗x(u, v, w). The unit vectors are then given by:
1 ∂⃗x 1 ∂⃗x 1 ∂⃗x
⃗eu = , ⃗ev = , ⃗ew =
h1 ∂u h2 ∂v h3 ∂w
where the factors hi set the norm to 1. Then holds:
1 ∂f 1 ∂f 1 ∂f
gradf = ⃗eu + ⃗ev + ⃗ew
h1 ∂u h2 ∂v h3 ∂w
 
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
div ⃗a = (h2 h3 au ) + (h3 h1 av ) + (h1 h2 aw )
h1 h2 h3 ∂u ∂v ∂w
   
1 ∂(h3 aw ) ∂(h2 av ) 1 ∂(h1 au ) ∂(h3 aw )
rot ⃗a = − ⃗eu + − ⃗ev +
h2 h3 ∂v ∂w h3 h1 ∂w ∂u
 
1 ∂(h2 av ) ∂(h1 au )
− ⃗ew
h1 h2 ∂u ∂v
      
1 ∂ h2 h3 ∂f ∂ h3 h1 ∂f ∂ h1 h2 ∂f
∇2 f = + +
h1 h2 h3 ∂u h1 ∂u ∂v h2 ∂v ∂w h3 ∂w
100 The SI units

The SI units
Basic units Derived units with special names
Quantity Unit Sym. Quantity Unit Sym. Derivation
Length metre m Frequency hertz Hz s−1
Mass kilogram kg Force newton N kg · m · s−2
Time second s Pressure pascal Pa N · m−2
Therm. temp. kelvin K Energy joule J N·m
Electr. current ampere A Power watt W J · s−1
Luminous intens. candela cd Charge coulomb C A·s
Amount of subst. mol mol El. Potential volt V W · A−1
El. Capacitance farad F C · V−1
Extra units El. Resistance ohm Ω V · A−1
Plane angle radian rad El. Conductance siemens S A · V−1
solid angle sterradian sr Mag. flux weber Wb V·s
Mag. flux density tesla T Wb · m−2
Inductance henry H Wb · A−1
Luminous flux lumen lm cd · sr
Illuminance lux lx lm · m−2
Activity bequerel Bq s−1
Absorbed dose gray Gy J · kg−1
Dose equivalent sievert Sv J · kg−1

Prefixes
quetta Q 1030 deci d 10−1
ronna R 1027 centi c 10−2
yotta Y 1024 milli m 10−3
zetta Z 1021 micro µ 10−6
exa E 1018 nano n 10−9
peta P 1015 pico p 10−12
tera T 1012 femto f 10−15
giga G 109 atto a 10−18
mega M 106 zepto z 10−21
kilo k 103 yocto y 10−24
hecto h 102 ronto r 10−27
deca da 10 quecto q 10−30