CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY

LASAM CAMPUS
CENTRO 02, LASAM CAGAYAN

SCIENCE,
TECHNOLOGY AND
SOCIETY
MODULE

________________________________
NAME OF STUDENT

THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

The scientific revolution was the emergence of modern science during the early modern period,
when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology (including human anatomy), and
chemistry transformed societal views about nature. The scientific revolution began in Europe  toward
the end of the Renaissance period, and continued through the late 18th century, influencing the
intellectual social movement known as the Enlightenment. While its dates are disputed, the publication
in 1543 of Nicolaus Copernicus ‘s De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the
Heavenly Spheres) is often cited as marking the beginning of the scientific revolution.

The scientific revolution was built upon the foundation of ancient Greek learning and science in
the Middle Ages, as it had been elaborated and further developed by Roman/Byzantine science and
medieval Islamic science. The Aristotelian tradition was still an important intellectual framework in the
17th century, although by that time natural philosophers had moved away from much of it. Key
scientific ideas dating back to classical antiquity had changed drastically over the years, and in many
cases been discredited. The ideas that remained (for example, Aristotle ‘s cosmology, which placed the
Earth at the center of a spherical hierarchic cosmos, or the Ptolemaic model of planetary motion) were
transformed fundamentally during the scientific revolution.

The change to the medieval idea of science occurred for four reasons:
 Seventeenth century scientists and philosophers were able to collaborate with
members of the mathematical and astronomical communities to effect
advances in all fields.
 Scientists realized the inadequacy of medieval experimental methods for their
work and so felt the need to devise new methods (some of which we use
today).
 Academics had access to a legacy of European, Greek, and Middle Eastern
scientific philosophy that they could use as a starting point (either by disproving
or building on the theorems).
 Institutions (for example, the British Royal Society) helped validate science as a
field by providing an outlet for the publication of scientists’ work.

NEW METHODS
Under the scientific method that was defined and applied in the 17th century, natural
and artificial circumstances were abandoned, and a research tradition of systematic
experimentation was slowly accepted throughout the scientific community. The philosophy of
using an inductive approach to nature (to abandon assumption and to attempt to simply
observe with an open mind) was in strict contrast with the earlier, Aristotelian approach of
deduction, by which analysis of known facts produced further understanding. In practice, many
scientists and philosophers believed that a healthy mix of both was needed—the willingness to
both question assumptions, and to interpret observations assumed to have some degree of
validity.

During the scientific revolution, changing perceptions about the role of the scientist in
respect to nature, the value of evidence, experimental or observed, led towards a scientific
methodology in which empiricism played a large, but not absolute, role. The term British
empiricism came into use to describe philosophical differences perceived between two of its
founders—Francis Bacon, described as empiricist, and René Descartes, who was described as a
rationalist. Bacon’s works established and popularized inductive methodologies for scientific
inquiry, often called the Baconian method, or sometimes simply the scientific method. His
demand for a planned procedure of investigating all things natural marked a new turn in the
rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, much of which still surrounds conceptions of
proper methodology today. Correspondingly, Descartes distinguished between the knowledge
that could be attained by reason alone (rationalist approach), as, for example, in mathematics,
and the knowledge that required experience of the world, as in physics.

Thomas Hobbes, George Berkeley, and David Hume were the primary exponents of
empiricism, and developed a sophisticated empirical tradition as the basis of human
knowledge. The recognized founder of the approach was John Locke, who proposed in An Essay
Concerning Human Understanding (1689) that the only true knowledge that could be accessible
to the human mind was that which was based on experience.

NEW IDEAS
 Many new ideas contributed to what is called the scientific revolution. Some of them were
revolutions in their own fields. These include:
 The heliocentric model that involved the radical displacement of the earth to an orbit around
the sun (as opposed to being seen as the center of the universe). Copernicus’ 1543 work on the
heliocentric model of the solar system tried to demonstrate that the sun was the center of the
universe. The discoveries of Johannes Kepler and Galileo gave the theory credibility and the
work culminated in Isaac Newton’s Principia, which formulated the laws of motion and
universal gravitation that dominated scientists’ view of the physical universe for the next three
centuries.
  Studying human anatomy based upon the dissection of human corpses, rather than the animal
dissections, as practiced for centuries.
 Discovering and studying magnetism and electricity, and thus, electric properties of various
materials.
 Modernization of disciplines (making them more as what they are today), including dentistry,
physiology, chemistry, or optics.
 Invention of tools that deepened the understating of sciences, including mechanical calculator,
steam digester (the forerunner of the steam engine), refracting and reflecting telescopes,
vacuum pump, or mercury barometer.
 The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment
 The scientific revolution laid the foundations for the Age of Enlightenment, which centered on
reason as the primary source of authority and legitimacy, and emphasized the importance of
the scientific method. By the 18th century, when the Enlightenment flourished, scientific
authority began to displace religious authority, and disciplines until then seen as legitimately
scientific (e.g.,  alchemy and astrology) lost scientific credibility.

Science came to play a leading role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many
Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences, and associated scientific
advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favor of the development of
free speech and thought. Broadly speaking, Enlightenment science greatly valued empiricism and
rational thought, and was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of advancement and progress. At
the time, science was dominated by scientific societies and academies, which had largely replaced
universities as centers of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the
backbone of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the
popularization of science among an increasingly literate population. The century saw significant
advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics, and physics; the development of biological
taxonomy; a new understanding of magnetism and electricity; and the maturation of chemistry as a
discipline, which established the foundations of modern chemistry.

Newton’s Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, which dominated

scientists’ view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. By deriving Kepler’s laws of
planetary motion from his mathematical description of gravity, and then using the same principles to
account for the trajectories of comets, the tides, the precession of the equinoxes, and other
phenomena, Newton removed the last doubts about the validity of the heliocentric model of the
cosmos. This work also demonstrated that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies could
be described by the same principles. His laws of motion were to be the solid foundation of mechanics.
 CRADLE OF EARLY SCIENCE

Development of Science in Mesoamerica

Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central America from Southern Mexico up to
the border of South America. There is no doubt that the Mesoamerican region is rich in culture
and knowledge prior to the arrival of its European colonizers.

The Maya civilization is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for approximately
2000 years. These people are known for their works in astronomy. They incorporated their
advanced understanding of astronomy into their temples and other religious structures. This
allows them to use their temples for Astronomical observation. For example, the pyramid at
Chichen Itza in Mexico is situated at the location of the Sun during the spring and fall equinoxes.

Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies was advanced for their
time, as evidenced by their knowledge of predicting eclipse and using astrological cycles in
planting and harvesting. The Mayans are also known for measuring time using two complicated
calendar systems. These calendars were very useful for their life specially in planning their
activities and in observing their religious rituals and cultural celebrations.

The Mayans also developed the technology for growing different crops and building
elaborate cities using ordinary machineries and tools. They build hydraulics system with
sophisticated waterways to supply water to different communities.

Furthermore, they used various tools and adapt themselves to innovations specially in
the field of Arts. The Mayans built looms for weaving cloth ad devised a rainbow of glittery
paints made from a mineral called mica. They are also believed to be one of the first people to
produce rubber products 3000 years before Goodyear received its patent in 1884.

The Mayans are considered one of the most scientifically advanced societies in
Mesoamerica. They are also famous as one of the world’s first civilizations to use a writing
system known as the Mayan hieroglyphics. They were also skilled in mathematics and created a
number system based on the numeral 20. Moreover, they independently developed the
concept of zero and positional value, even before the Romans did.

The Inca Civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica. The Incas made advanced scientific
ideas considering their limitations as an old civilization. The following were scientific ideas and
tools that they developed to help them in everyday Life:

 Roads paved with stones;

 Sone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters;
 Irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of
land;
 Calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting
season;
 The first suspension bridge;
 Quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret; and
 Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic achievements.

 Following the Inca, the Aztec Civilization has also made substantial contributions to the Society
as a whole. Some of their contributions are the following:
 Mandatory Education. The Aztec puts value on Education; that is why their children are
mandated to get education regardless of their social class, gender, or age. It is an early form of
Universal or Inclusive Education.
 Chocolates. The Aztecs in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. In the Mayan culture,
they used it as currency. The Aztec valued the cacao beans highly and made it as part of their
tribute to Gods.
 Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of antispasmodic medication that could prevent
muscle spasms and relax muscles, which could help during surgery.
 Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for Agricultural farming in which the land was
divided into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.
 Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan for their activities, rituals and planting seasons.
 Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems.
 DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN ASIA

Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of many ancient civilizations. It is a host
to many cultural, economic, scientific and political activities of all ages. In the field of Science,
technology and mathematics, great civilizations have stood out; India, China, and the Middle East
civilizations. These civilizations were incomparable in terms of their contributions to the development
of knowledge during their time.

INDIA
One of the oldest civilizations in the world, the Indian civilization has a strong tradition of
science and technology. Ancient India was a land of sages and seers as well as a land of scholars and
scientists. Research has shown that from making the best steel in the world to teaching the world to
count, India was actively contributing to the field of science and technology centuries long before
modern laboratories were set up. Many theories and techniques discovered by the ancient Indians have
created and strengthened the fundamentals of modern science and technology. While some of these
groundbreaking contributions have been acknowledged, some are still unknown to most.

Here is a list of 16 contributions, made by ancient Indians to the world of science and technology,
that will make you feel proud to be an Indian.

1. The Idea of Zero

Little needs to be written about the mathematical digit ‘zero’, one of the most important inventions of
all time. Mathematician Aryabhata was the first person to create a symbol for zero and it was through
his efforts that mathematical operations like addition and subtraction started using the digit, zero. The
concept of zero and its integration into the place-value system also enabled one to write numbers, no
matter how large, by using only ten symbols.

2. The Decimal System

India gave the ingenious method of expressing all numbers by means of ten symbols – the decimal
system. In this system, each symbol received a value of position as well as an absolute value.  Due to the
simplicity of the decimal notation, which facilitated calculation, this system made the uses of arithmetic
in practical inventions much faster and easier.

3. Numeral Notations

Indians, as early as 500 BCE, had devised a system of different symbols for every number from one to
nine. This notation system was adopted by the Arabs who called it the hind numerals. Centuries later,
this notation system was adopted by the western world who called them the Arabic numerals as it
reached them through the Arab traders.

4. Fibbonacci Numbers

The Fibonacci numbers and their sequence first appear in Indian mathematics
as mātrāmeru, mentioned by Pingala in connection with the Sanskrit tradition of prosody. Later on, the
methods for the formation of these numbers were given by mathematicians Virahanka, Gopala and
Hemacandra , much before the Italian mathematician Fibonacci introduced the fascinating sequence to
Western European mathematics

5. Binary Numbers

Binary numbers is the basic language in which computer programs are written. Binary basically refers
to a set of two numbers, 1 and 0, the combinations of which are called bits and bytes. The binary
number system was first described by the Vedic scholar Pingala, in his book Chandahśāstra, which is the
earliest known Sanskrit treatise on prosody ( the study of poetic metres and verse).

6. Chakravala method of Algorithm

The chakravala method is a cyclic algorithm to solve indeterminate quadratic equations, including
the Pell’s equation. This method for obtaining integer solutions was developed by Brahmagupta, one of
the well known mathematicians of the 7th century CE. Another mathematician, Jayadeva later
generalized this method for a wider range of equations, which was further refined by Bhāskara II in
his Bijaganita treatise

7. Ruler Measurements

Excavations at Harappans sites have yielded rulers or linear measures made from ivory and shell.
Marked out in minute subdivisions with amazing accuracy, the calibrations correspond closely with
the hasta increments of 1 3/8 inches, traditionally used in the ancient architecture of South
India. Ancient bricks found at the excavation sites have dimensions that correspond to the units on
these rulers

8. A Theory of Atom

One of the notable scientists of the ancient India was Kanad who is said to have devised the atomic
theory centuries before John Dalton was born. He speculated the existence of anu or a small
indestructible particles, much like an atom. He also stated that anu can have two states — absolute rest
and a state of motion. He further held that atoms of same substance combined with each other in a
specific and synchronized manner to produce dvyanuka (diatomic molecules) and tryanuka (triatomic
molecules

9. The Heliocentric Theory

Mathematicians of ancient India often applied their mathematical knowledge to make accurate

astronomical predictions. The most significant among them was Aryabhatta whose
book, Aryabhatiya, represented the pinnacle of astronomical knowledge at the time. He correctly
propounded that the Earth is round, rotates on its own axis and revolves around the Sun i.e the
heliocentric theory. He also made predictions about the solar and lunar eclipses, duration of the day as
well as the distance between the Earth and the Moon.

10. Wootz Steel

A pioneering steel alloy matrix developed in India, Wootz steel is a crucible steel characterized by a
pattern of bands that was known in the ancient world by many different names such as Ukku,
Hindwani and Seric Iron. This steel was used to make the famed Damascus swords of yore that
could cleave a free-falling silk scarf or a block of wood with the same ease. Produced by  the Tamils of
the Chera Dynasty, the finest steel of the ancient world was made by heating black magnetite ore in the
presence of carbon in a sealed clay crucible kept inside a charcoal furnace.

11. Smelting of Zinc

India was the first to smelt zinc by the distillation process, an advanced technique derived from  a long
experience of ancient alchemy. The ancient Persians had also attempted to reduce zinc oxide in an open
furnace but had failed. Zawar in the Tiri valley of Rajasthan is the world’s first known ancient zinc
smelting site. The distillation technique of zinc production goes back to the 12th Century AD and is an
important contribution of India to the world of science.

12. Seamless Metal Globe

Considered one of the most remarkable feats in metallurgy, the first seamless celestial globe was
made in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in the reign of the Emperor Akbar. In a major feat in
metallurgy, Mughal metallurgists pioneered the method of lost-wax casting to make twenty other globe
masterpieces in the reign of the Mughal Empire. Before these globes were rediscovered in the 1980s,
modern metallurgists believed that it was technically impossible to produce metal globes without any
seams, even with modern technology.

13. Plastic Surgery

Written by Sushruta in 6th Century BC, Sushruta Samhita is considered to be one of the most

comprehensive textbooks on ancient surgery. The text mentions various illnesses, plants, preparations
and cures along with complex techniques of plastic surgery. The Sushruta Samhita ’s most well-known
contribution to plastic surgery is the reconstruction of the nose, known also as rhinoplasty.

14. Cataract Surgery

The first cataract surgery is said to have been performed by the ancient Indian physician Sushruta, way
back in 6th century BCE. To remove the cataract from the eyes, he used a curved needle, Jabamukhi
Salaka, to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision. The eye would then be
bandaged for a few days till it healed completely. Sushruta’s surgical works were later translated to
Arabic language and  through the Arabs, his works were introduced to the West.

15. Ayurveda

Long before the birth of Hippocrates, Charaka authored a foundational text, Charakasamhita, on the
ancient science of Ayurveda. Referred to as the Father of Indian Medicine, Charaka was was the first
physician to present the concept of digestion, metabolism and immunity in his book. Charaka’s  ancient
manual on preventive medicine remained a standard work on the subject for two millennia and was
translated into many foreign languages, including Arabic and Latin

16. Iron-Cased Rockets

The first iron-cased rockets were developed in the 1780s by Tipu Sultan of Mysore who successfully
used these rockets against the larger forces of the British East India Company during the Anglo-Mysore
Wars. He crafted long iron tubes, filled them with gunpowder and fastened them to bamboo poles to
create the predecessor of the modern rocket. With a range of about 2 km, these rockets were the best
in the world at that time and caused as much fear and confusion as damage. Due to them, the British
suffered one of their worst ever defeats in India at the hands of Tipu.

CHINA
Ancient Chinese inventions revolutionized many industries that we take for granted today.
Without paper, there would be no books, without the compass, traveling would have been curtailed,
without printing, there would be no paper money. The Chinese also invented lots of other things during
the medieval period, and that is why two very important inventions from this period have also been
included. The world would be a very different place without these ancient and medieval Chinese
inventions.

The ancient Chinese were innovative and determined. They met their daily needs by creating
and innovating some of the most important and long-lasting items in history. Ancient Chinese
inventions date back to the Paleolithic period, and the Chinese were always ahead of their
contemporaries when it came to inventing valuable things. They have given us the four greatest
inventions in the world – the compass, gunpowder, paper, and printing, but the list doesn’t stop there.
Here are the top 18 (including two from the medieval period) most famous Chinese inventions:

Top 18 Ancient Chinese Inventions and Discoveries

1. Papermaking (50–121 AD)

Before the invention of paper, people used different materials like wood, stone, and bone to write on.
Around 2200 BC, the Egyptians discovered a type of reed called papyrus which could be used to write
on by overlapping thin strips that had been soaked in water. The world “paper” was derived from
papyrus.

Paper was invented in ancient China around 105 AD during the reign of the Han emperor He Di by Ts’ai
Lun (or Chai Lun), an official of the imperial court. However, a recent archeological survey indicates that
paper had already been invented 200 years earlier and was used by the ancient Chinese military. Ts’ai
Lun used the bark of the mulberry tree and pounded the fibers into a sheet. Later, he discovered that
the quality of the paper could be improved by adding hemp and old fish nets to the pulp. Soon, paper
became the new writing material, and it only took a few years before it was widely in use all over China.
Later, paper was brought to the rest of the world via the Silk Road.

2. Silk

The invention of silk dates back to the fourth millennium BC during the Neolithic period. Apart
from clothing, silk was widely used in a variety of sectors including writing, fishing, and for musical
instruments. Silk was dominantly used by emperors and high-class society but later it spread to the rest
of the population. During the Han dynasty (202 BC–220 AD), silk became more than just a commodity. It
was used as a reward for a worthy Chinese citizen or government official.

Silk became an important part of the Chinese economy. Japan and the Middle East started cultivating
silk around 300 AD and the Crusades brought the concept of silk production to Western Europe. This
resulted in an economic boom and Chinese silk started to decrease in value and exports. However,
China dominates the luxury silk market today.

3. Tea Production (2737 BC)

Tea was discovered in ancient China by the Chinese emperor Shennong in 2737 BC. Shennong liked to
drink hot water. One day during a march he and his army stopped to rest and his servant prepared
some boiling water for him. A brown leaf fell into the water and the water turned brown. The servant
presented it to the emperor, he drank it and found it refreshing.

During the Han dynasty, tea was used as a medicine, and it was used as a drink on social occasions from
the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). Tea was prepared differently in ancient China than it is today. Tea
leaves were processed and compressed into cake form. The dried teacake known as brick tea was
ground in a stone mortar. The powder from the teacake was then boiled in a kettle, or hot water was
added to it. It was then served as a hot beverage. White tea (compressed tea) was produced during the
Tang dynasty, and it was harvested in the early spring when the tea leaves were still silver needles.

4. Kites

The Chinese were ahead of the rest of the world in producing silk, and they used this silk to make kites,
adding a resilient and lightweight bamboo framework to high tensile strength silk. Chinese philosophers
Lu Ban and Mozi documented the first kite in ancient China in the fifth century BC. By 549 AD, paper
kites were being used to carry messages for rescue missions. During the medieval period, the Chinese
used kites to test the wind, measure distance, and for military communication.

5. The Seed Drill (250 BC)

The Babylonians in ancient Mesopotamia invented single tube drills around 1500 BC, but these never
reached Europe or Asia. Chinese farmers generally planted seeds by hand which was time-consuming
and ineffective. Most of the seeds never germinated because of pests and the elements. The ancient
Chinese found an alternative to this problem. During the Zhou dynasty, they discovered the seed drill
that allowed … However, it wasn’t until the second century BC that they invented a multi-tube iron seed
drill that helped them to produce food on a larger scale.

6. Deep Drilling (Second Century BC)

The Chinese developed drilling technology to extract brine from beneath the earth’s surface. It was
developed in the landlocked province of Szechuan, around 1,200 miles from the sea, in order to get salt
from boreholes. Deep drilling borehole technology slowly improved, and the ancient Chinese were
finally able to extract natural gas from the boreholes. The gas was carried by a bamboo pipe to its
destination and then used as fuel. By the 11th century, the Chinese were able to drill boreholes over
3,000 feet deep. The same technology was used to drill the first petroleum well in California in the
1860s.

7. Porcelain

Porcelain was not a sudden invention, and an ancient form of porcelain existed during the Shang
dynasty (1600 BC–1046 BC). It was perfected during the Tang dynasty and was exported to the Middle
East. During the Song dynasty (960–1279 AD), the manufacture of porcelain became highly organized
and reached new heights. By the time of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 AD) porcelain was being
exported to Europe, Africa, and Asia via the Silk Road.

8. The Compass

The Chinese considered south their cardinal direction, and the original compass was created by the
Chinese using a lodestone to point south. This was called the south pointer. A lodestone is a type of
mineral magnetite that aligns itself with the earth’s magnetic field. The ancient Chinese discovered that
a suspended lodestone could turn freely and would point towards the magnetic poles. During the Han
dynasty, it was mainly used for geomancy and fortune telling. In the 11th century, during the Song
dynasty, the Chinese figured out that the lodestone, which was primarily being used as a divination tool,
could also be used to indicate a direction for travelers. In the book Shorter Science and Civilization in
China, Volume 3 written by Joseph Needham, it is stated that the Chinese began to use the compass for
navigation between the 9th and the 11th centuries.

9. Noodles

An archeological survey in 2002 at the Lajia site of the Qijia culture discovered some ancient noodles
made of grains from millet grass. The 50cm-long yellow strands of noodles are predicted to be 4,000
years old. Prior to this period, the earliest noodles were thought to have been eaten during the Han
dynasty. There was a huge controversy over whether the Arabs, the Italians, or the Chinese first
invented them

10. Alcoholic Beverages

The consumption of beer began in ancient China around 9,000 years ago during the Neolithic period.
They used rice, hawthorn, honey, and grapes to make the beer. The four to five percent alcoholic beer
was made popular by Yi Di and Du Kang of the Xia dynasty. Various bronze vessels preserved from the
Shang dynasty indicate that they had once contained alcohol.

11. Iron and Steel Smelting

During the Paleolithic period, the Chinese used arrowheads made of stone for fishing and hunting.
During the Neolithic period, conflicts began to arise among different groups and the Chinese started to
modify their farming and fishing tools into deadly weapons. During the Shang and Zhou periods, bronze
smelting was perfected to create different weapons as well as tools for farming.
An Iron Age began in ancient China during the Zhou dynasty (1050 BC–256 BC) and iron was used to
create weapons, farming tools, and household products. During the Han dynasty private iron making
was abolished, and the state began to monopolize the iron smelting industry.

The Chinese used different techniques for creating iron and steel weaponry. Their innovative
techniques led to the rapid growth of the iron and steel industry in China. They invented various casting
processes to produce crude iron, cast iron, wrought iron, tempering, and wrought steel that put them
way ahead of other civilizations at that time.

12. The Wheelbarrow

There is archaeological evidence of wheelbarrows in ancient China from the Han dynasty, as seen in
Hui’s tomb murals and brick tomb reliefs. However, the invention of the wheelbarrow can be credited
to prime minister Zhuge Liang (181–234 AD) of Shu Han sometime between 197 and 234 AD. Liang
created the wheelbarrow to carry military weapons and to move injured and dead soldiers from the
battlefield.
There were two types of wheelbarrow that were common: the front-wheeled wheelbarrow and the
centrally mounted wheel. The centrally mounted design didn’t require a huge amount of energy to pull
the wheelbarrow, the total weight being distributed equally between the wheels and pullers. This made
it convenient to use and these wheelbarrows were used mainly by builders, soldiers, traders, and
farmers.

13. Acupuncture

There is archaeological evidence that acupuncture was practiced in ancient China from the Paleolithic
period. Different materials such as stone knives and bamboo or bone needles used as instruments of
healing have all been excavated in China. Acupuncture was revolutionized during the period of Huang
Di, the Yellow Emperor (2697–2597 BC). The earliest book of Chinese medicine is the Nei Jing and was
written around 305 BC–204 BC. It consists of a dialogue between Huang Di and his physicist Qi Bo about
the whole spectrum of the Chinese medical arts.

14. The Seismograph

In 132 AD, Zhang Heng (78–139 AD) of the Han dynasty invented the first seismograph called “Houfeng
Didong” to measure the movements of the earth and seasonal winds. The seismograph was an urn-like
instrument made of copper with a central pendulum. The eight dragons on the surface, each one
holding the copper in its mouth, point out the eight different directions: east, south, west, north,
southeast, northeast, southwest, and northwest. When there was an earthquake, the dragon’s mouth
that was closest to the earthquake’s source opened and the ball dropped into the mouth of the frog,
producing a sound. This let people know the direction of the earthquake.
 15. The Great Wall

The Great Wall of China was built by the first emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang (260–210 BC) to protect
the country from northern invaders. The 5,500-mile-long wall was built by slaves, criminals, and
peasants. It is estimated that millions of people worked to build the Great Wall over a period of 1,000
years. Most of the Great Wall that we can see today was built during the Ming dynasty. Glutinous rice
flour was used as a binding material to bind the bricks.

16. The Silk Road

The Silk Road was an ancient trading route used by merchants, traders, and city dwellers linking Asia to
the Mediterranean. The history of the Silk Road can be traced back to the Han dynasty. The name “Silk
Road” came into existence due to the lucrative silk industry that exported silk all over the world. The
Silk Road was 6,400 miles long and considered an important development, enabling the silk industry to
flourish.

17. Gunpowder

The first chemical explosive known as a gunpowder or black powder was made from sulfur, charcoal,
and potassium nitrate (saltpeter). Gunpowder wasn’t a sudden invention. The Chinese had used
saltpeter since the middle of the first century AD in various medical treatments. Gunpowder was
invented during the Tang dynasty in the 9th century, but it wasn’t until the Song dynasty in the 11th
century that the first recorded formula was documented. The Chinese used gunpowder and
gunpowder-based weaponry as a military defense.

18. Movable Type Printing

A major revolution in the history of printing came after the invention of movable clay type printing by Bi
Sheng (990–1051) during the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127). The printing process consisted of four
stages: making the types, composing the text, printing, and retrieving the movable types. Later, in 1298,
it was re-invented by Wang Zhen during the Yuan dynasty. He produced 100 copies of the Nong Shu or
Book of Agriculture using more than 30,000 wooden movable types. The book consists of over 60,000
Chinese characters. Metal movable type printing was invented during the Jin (1115–1234) and Southern
Song (1127–1279) dynasties in the 12th century. It was mostly made of bronze and was used to print
money.
 MIDDLE EAST
Cutting-edge science in the Middle East

Following the rise of Islam in the seventh century C.E., science and technology

flourished in the Islamic world to a far greater extent than they did in the West. Muslim rulers
promoted the translation of Greek philosophy and science texts, and then encouraged further
scientific exploration in numerous fields, among them mathematics, astronomy, medicine,
pharmacology, optics, chemistry, botany, philosophy, and physics.

In mathematics, Muslim scholars introduced the use of zero, solutions to quadratic

equations -- even the Arabic word "algebra."

Muslim astronomers knew the Earth was round and calculated its diameter. Ibn al-
Haytham (965-1040) explored momentum, gravity, and optics 600 years before Galileo was
accused of heresy for arguing that the Earth orbited the Sun.

Medicine was one of the most important fields of endeavor. Muslim doctors were
surgically removing cataracts and treating kidney and gallstones while Europeans were still
using leeches on their patients. Ibn Sina (known in the West as Avicenna, 980-1037) wrote  al-
Qanun fi al-Tibb, or the Canons of Medicine, a seminal volume that was the first to recognize
the contagious nature of tuberculosis, identify meningitis, and describe all the minute parts of
the eye. By the 12th century, the Canons had been translated into Latin, and European
medicine relied on this text until well into the 1700s. Much of the knowledge developed by the
Muslims and transmitted to the Europeans enabled Europe to emerge from the Dark Ages into
the Renaissance

The technological advance of the West

During the 16th century, the Ottoman astronomer Taqi al-Din made astronomical tables
that were considered at least as accurate as those of fellow 16th-century astronomer Tycho
Brahe of Denmark, whose observations of the planets served as the basis for Kepler's Laws of
planetary motion. Only a century later, though, the Ottomans and their Muslim contemporaries
in Mughal India and the Persian Safavid Empire ceased to support scientific research and
innovations.

This change was due in part to the shifting priorities and educational systems of these
empires. Not unlike Europe in previous centuries, groups wanting to protect the status quo
became more powerful than those advocating growth and experimentation. Meanwhile,
building on the earlier accomplishments of Muslim scientists, Europe's scientific and industrial
revolutions began to give the West a military and economic advantage over the Islamic world.

By the 19th century, when Middle Eastern states like Egypt, Iran, and the Ottoman
Empire decided to develop modern infrastructure, including railroads and telegraph lines, the
work had to be contracted to foreign firms. The cash-strapped Middle Eastern governments
sold concessions -- the right to develop and then profit from these infrastructure development
projects -- to European companies. These opportunities gave European governments an
interest in influencing Middle Eastern regimes, in order to both win the contracts and then
protect their investments. In this way, the technological and industrial capabilities of the West
reinforced its political and economic power in the region. Technological dependence on the
West, however, was seen as a threat to the independence of the Islamic world, and resentment
against Western power began to rise.

Technological advances in the modern Middle East

The overall aridity of the region has motivated some of the richer countries to
search for technological solutions to their water requirements. Through sustained
investment in research, they have become experts in water desalination, water
recycling, and solar energy. The region's oil-poor countries, however, Egypt among
them, cannot afford such advanced technologies and remain dependent on more
traditional water resources.
Scientific discovery and technological implementation varies widely in the
Middle East today. Israel's current position as a technological leader and its close
economic relationship with the West stand in sharp contrast to its Arab neighbors.
Israel, for example, is a world leader in the development of voice-recognition software
for computers
 AFRICA

Great achievements in science and technology in ancient Africa

Despite suffering through the horrific system of slavery, sharecropping and the
Jim Crow era, early African-Americans made countless contributions to science and
technology (1). This lineage and culture of achievement, though, emerged at least
40,000 years ago in Africa. Unfortunately, few of us are aware of these
accomplishments, as the history of Africa, beyond ancient Egypt, is seldom publicized.

Sadly, the vast majority of discussions on the origins of science include only the
Greeks, Romans and other whites. But in fact most of their discoveries came thousands
of years after African developments. While the remarkable black civilization in Egypt
remains alluring, there was sophistication and impressive inventions throughout
ancient sub-Saharan Africa as well. There are just a handful of scholars in this area. The
most prolific is the late Ivan Van Sertima, an associate professor at Rutgers University.
He once poignantly wrote that “the nerve of the world has been deadened for centuries
to the vibrations of African genius”.

Here, I attempt to send an electrical impulse to this long-deadened nerve. I can

only fly by this vast plane of achievements. Despite this, it still should be evident that
the ancient people of Africa, like so many other ancients of the world, definitely had
their genius.

Math

Surely only a few of us know that many modern high-school-level concepts in

mathematics first were developed in Africa, as was the first method of counting. More
than 35,000 years ago, Egyptians scripted textbooks about math that included division
and multiplication of fractions and geometric formulas to calculate the area and volume
of shapes (3). Distances and angles were calculated, algebraic equations were solved
and mathematically based predictions were made of the size of floods of the Nile. The
ancient Egyptians considered a circle to have 360 degrees and estimated Π at 3.16.

Eight thousand years ago, people in present-day Zaire developed their own
numeration system, as did Yoruba people in what is now Nigeria. The Yoruba system
was based on units of 20 (instead of 10) and required an impressive amount of
subtraction to identify different numbers. Scholars have lauded this system, as it
required much abstract reasoning.

Astronomy

Several ancient African cultures birthed discoveries in astronomy. Many of these are
foundations on which we still rely, and some were so advanced that their mode of discovery
still cannot be understood. Egyptians charted the movement of the sun and constellations and
the cycles of the moon. They divided the year into 12 parts and developed a yearlong calendar
system containing 365 ¼ days. Clocks were made with moving water and sundial-like clocks
were used.
 A structure known as the African Stonehenge in present-day Kenya (constructed around
300 B.C.) was a remarkably accurate calendar . The Dogon people of Mali amassed a wealth of
detailed astronomical observations . Many of their discoveries were so advanced that some
modern scholars credit their discoveries instead to space aliens or unknown European
travelers, even though the Dogon culture is steeped in ceremonial tradition centered on
several space events. The Dogon knew of Saturn’s rings, Jupiter’s moons, the spiral structure of
the Milky Way and the orbit of the Sirius star system. Hundreds of years ago, they plotted
orbits in this system accurately through the year 1990 . They knew this system contained a
primary star and a secondary star (now called Sirius B) of immense density and not visible to
the naked eye.

Metallurgy and tools

Many advances in metallurgy and tool making were made across the entirety of ancient
Africa. These include steam engines, metal chisels and saws, copper and iron tools and
weapons, nails, glue, carbon steel and bronze weapons and art (2, 7).

Advances in Tanzania, Rwanda and Uganda between 1,500 and 2,000 years ago
surpassed those of Europeans then and were astonishing to Europeans when they learned of
them. Ancient Tanzanian furnaces could reach 1,800°C — 200 to 400°C warmer than those of
the Romans

Architecture and engineering

Various past African societies created sophisticated built environments. Of course,

there are the engineering feats of the Egyptians: the bafflingly raised obelisks and the more
than 80 pyramids. The largest of the pyramids covers 13 acres and is made of 2.25 million
blocks of stone. Later, in the 12th century and much farther south, there were hundreds of
great cities in Zimbabwe and Mozambique. There, massive stone complexes were the hubs of
cities. One included a 250-meter-long, 15,000-ton curved granite wall. The cities featured huge
castlelike compounds with numerous rooms for specific tasks, such as iron-smithing. In the
13th century, the empire of Mali boasted impressive cities, including Timbuktu, with grand
palaces, mosques and universities .

Medicine

Many treatments we use today were employed by several ancient peoples throughout
Africa. Before the European invasion of Africa, medicine in what is now Egypt, Nigeria and
South Africa, to name just a few places, was more advanced than medicine in Europe. Some of
these practices were the use of plants with salicylic acid for pain (as in aspirin), kaolin for
diarrhea (as in Kaopectate), and extracts that were confirmed in the 20th century to kill Gram
positive bacteria. Other plants used had anticancer properties, caused abortion and treated
malaria — and these have been shown to be as effective as many modern-day Western
treatments. Furthermore, Africans discovered ouabain, capsicum, physostigmine and
reserpine. Medical procedures performed in ancient Africa before they were performed in
Europe include vaccination, autopsy, limb traction and broken bone setting, bullet removal,
brain surgery, skin grafting, filling of dental cavities, installation of false teeth, what is now
known as Caesarean section, anesthesia and tissue cauterization. In addition, African cultures
preformed surgeries under antiseptic conditions universally when this concept was only
emerging in Europe.
Navigation

Most of us learn that Europeans were the first to sail to the Americas. However, several
lines of evidence suggest that ancient Africans sailed to South America and Asia hundreds of
years before Europeans. Thousands of miles of waterways across Africa were trade routes.
Many ancient societies in Africa built a variety of boats, including small reed-based vessels,
sailboats and grander structures with many cabins and even cooking facilities. The Mali and
Songhai built boats 100 feet long and 13 feet wide that could carry up to 80 tons. Currents in
the Atlantic Ocean flow from this part of West Africa to South America. Genetic evidence from
plants and descriptions and art from societies inhabiting South America at the time suggest
small numbers of West Africans sailed to the east coast of South America and remained there.

Contemporary scientists have reconstructed these ancient vessels and their fishing gear
and have completed the transatlantic voyage successfully. Around the same time as they were
sailing to South America, the 13th century, these ancient peoples also sailed to China and back,
carrying elephants as cargo.

People of African descent come from ancient, rich and elaborate cultures that created a
wealth of technologies in many areas. Hopefully, over time, there will be more studies in this
area and more people will know of these great achievements

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES

 Science
In pre-Spanish Philippines, is embedded in the way of life of the people. Scientific knowledge is
observed in the way they plant their crops that provide them food, in taking care of animals to help
them in their daily tasks, and foe food productions.

Science is observed in the way they interpret the movements of heavenly bodies to predict seasons and
climates, and in organizing days into months and years. They use science in preparing the soil for
agricultural purposes and like any other ancient cultures, they discovered the medicinal uses.

 Technology
- is used by people in building houses, irrigations and in developing tools that they can use in everyday
life. They developed tools for planting, hunting, cooking, and fishing; for fighting their enemies during
war or tribal conflicts; and for transportation, both on land and on waterways. They also developed
technologies in creating musical instruments.

 STONE AGE

Archeological findings show that modern man from Asian mainland first came over land
on across narrow channels to live in Batangas and Palawan about 48,000 B.C.

Subsequently they formed settlement in Sulu, Davao, Zamboanga, Samar, Negros,

Batangas, Laguna, Rizal, Bulacan and Cagayan.

 INVENTIONS

They made simple tools and weapons of stone flakes and later developed method of
sawing and polishing stones around 40,000 B.C.

By around 3,000 B.C. they were producing adzes ornaments of seashells and pottery.
Pottery flourished for the next 2,000 years until they imported Chinese porcelain. Soon they
learned to produce copper, bronze, iron, and gold metal tools and ornaments.

 IRON AGE
 The Iron Age lasted from there third century B.C. to 11th century A.D. During this
period Filipinos were engaged in extraction smelting and refining of iron from ores, until the
importation of cast iron from Sarawak and later from China.

 INVENTIONS/DISCOVERIES

They learn to weave cotton, make glass ornaments, and cultivate lowland rice and dike
fields of terraced fields utilizing spring water in mountain regions.

They also learned to build boats for trading purposes.

Spanish chronicles noted refined plank built warships called caracoa suited for
interisland trade raids.

 10TH CENTURY A.D

Filipinos from the Butuan were trading with Champa (Vietnam) and those from Ma-I
(Mindoro) with China as noted in Chinese records containing several references to the
Philippines. These archaeological findings indicated that regular trade relations between the
Philippines, China and Vietnam had been well established from the 10th century to the 15th
century A.D.

 TRADING

The People of Ma-I and San-Hsu (Palawan) traded bee wax, cotton, pearls, coconut
heart mats, tortoise shell and medicinal betel nuts, panie cloth for porcelain, leads fishnets
sinker, colored glass beads, iron pots, iron needles and tin.

 BEFORE THE SPANIARDS

Filipinos were already engage in activities and practices related to science forming
primitive or first wave technology. They were curative values of some plant on how to extract
medicine from herbs. They had an alphabet, a system of writing, a method of counting and
weights and measure. They had no calendar but counted the years by the period of the moon
and from one harvest to another.
 FAMOUS FILIPINOS IN THE FIELD OF SCIENCE
School Science is filled with names of foreign scientists: Albert Einstein, Galileo Galilei, Newton,
Faraday, Darwin and many other Western scientists. We rarely hear of Filipino scientists being
discussed in science classes. Lee Chua (2000) identified 10 outstanding Filipino scientists who have
made significant contributions in the Philippine science. These scientists are also famous abroad
specially in different science disciplines: agriculture, mathematics, physics, medicine, marine science,
chemistry, engineering, and biology.

The Filipino Scientists are:

1. Ramon Cabanos Barba- for his outstanding research on tissue culture in Philippine
mangoes
2. Josefino Cacas Comiso – for his works on observing the characteristics of Antarctica by
using satellite images.
3. Jose Bejar Cruz Jr. known internationally in the field of electrical engineering; was
elected as officer of the famous Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering.
4. Lourdes Jansuy Cruz – notable for her research on sea snail venom
5. Fabian Millar Dayrit- for his research on herbal medicine
6. Rafael Dineros Guerrero III- for his research on tissue culture
7. Enrique Mapua Ostrea Jr. – for inventing the meconium drugs testing
8. Lilian Formalejo Patena – for doing research on plant biotechnology
9. Mari-Jo Panganiban Ruiz – for being an outstanding educator and graph theorist
10. Gregory Ligot Tangonan – for his research in the field of communications technology

There are other outstanding Filipino Scientist who are recognized here and abroad for their
outstanding contributions in science:

 Caesar A. Saloma – an internationally renowned physicist

 Edgardo Gomez – famous scientist in marine science
 William Padolina – chemist and president of National Academy of Science and
Technology (NAST) – Philippines
 Angel Alcala- marine science

There are other scientists in the Philippines who were not identified in the list. Yet, the
Philippines still need more scientists and engineers, and there is a need to support scientific research in
the country. The University of the Philippines-Los Banos is a science paradise for agriculture, forestry,
plant and animal science, and veterinary science. It has produced numerous scientists and various
research in the fields mentioned.

Many Filipino scientists, whether they are in the country or abroad, always excel in their job.
The Filipino spirit in their souls has never faded. They continue to bring honor to the country. They
make ordinary things in an extraordinary way. They are always at par with other scientists in spite of the
limited facilities we have here in the country.

Science Education in the Philippines

The Concept of Science Education

Science Education focuses on teaching, learning, and understanding science. Teaching

science involves developing ways on how to effectively each science. This means exploring
pedagogical theories and models in helping teachers teach scientific concepts and processes
effectively. Learning Science, on the other hand, includes both pedagogy and the most
interesting aspect, which is helping students understand and love science.
 Understanding science implies developing and applying science-process skills and using
science literacy in understanding the natural world and activities in everyday life.

Science Education in Basic and Tertiary Education

In basic Education, Science education help students learn important concepts and facts
that are related to everyday life (Carale and Campo, 2003;Meador, 2005; Worth and
Grollman,2003) including important skills such as process skills, critical thinking skills, and life
skills that are needed in coping up with daily life activities (Chaille and Britain,2002). Science
Education also develops positive attitude such as: the love for knowledge, passion for
innovative things, curiosity to study about nature, and creativity (Lind, 1997). Science Education
will develop a strong foundation for studying science and for considering science-related
careers in the future. This is an investment for the country to develop a scientifically cultured
and literate citizenry.

In tertiary education, science education deals with developing students’ understanding

and appreciation of science ideas and scientific works. This is done through offering basic
science courses in the General Education curriculum. Science education in the tertiary level also
focuses on the preparation of science teachers, scientists, engineers and other professionals in
various science-related fields such as engineering, agriculture, medicine, and health sciences.
The state provides scholarships to encourage more students to pursue science courses.

Science schools in the Philippines

One outstanding program for science education supported by the government is the
establishment of science schools in various parts of the country. There are also several government
programs implemented by the Department of Education and few private schools for science education.

 Philippine Science High School System

This is a government program for gifted students in the Philippines. It is a service
institute of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) whose mandate is to offer
free scholarship basis for secondary course with special emphasis on subjects pertaining to
the sciences, with the end view of preparing its students for a science career (Republic act
no. 3661). The school maintains a dormitory for all its students.
Since its inception, the PSHSS continues to pursue its vision to develop Filipino science
scholars with scientific minds and passion for excellence. PSHSS students have proven to be
a beacon of excellence, courage and hope for the country. They have brought honor to the
Philippines through their exemplary achievements in various international competitions and
research circles. When the students graduate from the school, they are expected to pursue
degrees in science and technology at various colleges and universities locally or abroad.

 Special Science Elementary Schools (SSES) Project

The Special Science Elementary Schools (SSES) Project is in pursuance to Dep Ed. Order
NO. 73 s 2008, and Dep Ed order no. 51 s. 2010. This project started in June 2007 with 57
identified elementary schools that participated or were identified as science elementary
schools in the country. Since its inception, the number have grown to more than 60 schools
nationwide and this is now its 6th year of implementation.
The SSES project aims to develop Filipino children equipped with scientific and
technological knowledge, skills and values. Its mission is to:
a. provide a learning environment to science-inclined children through special
curriculum that recognizes the multiple intelligences of the learners;
b. promote the development of lifelong learning skills; and
c. foster the holistic development of the learners.

The subject Science and Health is taught in Grade I with a longer time compared to
other subjects: 70 minutes for Grade I to III and 80 minutes for grade IV to VI. The
curriculum also utilizes different instructional approaches that address the learning
styles and needs of the learners like the use of investigatory projects.
 Quezon City Regional Science High School

The school was established on September 17, 1967. Originally, it was named
Quezon City Science High School. It was turned into a regional science high school for
the National Capital Region in 1999. The school was a product of a dream to establish a
special science school for talented students in science and mathematics. The focus of
the curriculum is on science and technology. The school still teaches the basic
education courses prescribed by the Department of Education (Dep. Ed.) for secondary
education. However, there are additional subjects in sciences and technology that
students should take. The school envisions to serve as a venue in providing maximum
opportunities for science-gifted students to develop spirit of inquiry and creativity. The
school is well supported by the local government unit and by the parents and teachers
Association (PTA). The school is under the Department of Education.

 Manila Science High School

The school was established on October 1, 1963 as the Manila Science High School
(MSHS). It is the first science high school in the Philippines. The organization and curriculum
of the school puts more emphasis on science and mathematics. MSHS aims to produce
scientists with souls. In order to do this, humanities courses and other electives are
included in their curriculum. Students are also encouraged to participate in various
extracurricular activities. The school administers an entrance exam, the Manila Science High
School Admission Test (MSAT), for students who wish to enroll. The MSAT has five parts:
aptitude in science, aptitude test in mathematics, problem-solving test in science, problem-
solving test in mathematics, and proficiency in English. The school prides itself from
producing alumni and for winning various national competitions.
 SCIENCE AS METHOD AND RESULT
For the most part, science’s reputation stems from the objectivity brough upon by an
arbitrary, rigid methodology whose very character absolves it from any accusation of prejudice.
Such infamy effectively raised science in a pedestal untouchable by other institutions- its sole
claim to reason and empiricism-garnering supporters who want to defend it and its ways.
In school, the scientific method is introduced in the earlier part of the discussions. Even
though the number of steps varies, it presents a general idea of how to do science:
1. Observe
Determine if there are unexplained occurrences and unfolding.
2. Determine the Problem
Identify the factors involved
3. Through past knowledge of similar instance, formulate hypothesis that could explain
the said phenomenon. Ideally, the goal is to reject the null hypothesis and accept the
alternative hypothesis for the study “to count as significant” (can also be separated into
additional steps such as “to generate prediction” or “to infer from past experiments”).
4. Conduct Experiment by setting up dependent and independent variables, and trying to
see how independent ones affect dependent ones.
5. Gather and analyze results throughout and upon culmination of the experiment.
Examine if the data gathered are significant enough to conclude results.
6. Formulate conclusion and provide recommendation in case others would want to
broaden the study.

At least in the students’ formative years, the above routine is basic methodology when
introducing them to experimentation and empiricism-two distinct features that give science
edge over other schools of thought. Throughout the course history, however, there exists
heavy objections on the scientific procedure; the line separating science and the so called
pseudoscience becomes muddled.
THE ESSENCE OF TECHNOLOGY
What Is the Essence of Technology?

Let us now follow Heidegger’s understanding of technology more exactingly, relying on the
Bremen lectures and “The Question Concerning Technology,” and beginning with four points of
Heidegger’s critique (some of which we have already touched on).

First, the essence of technology is not something we make; it is a mode of being, or of

revealing. This means that technological things have their own novel kind of presence,
endurance, and connections among parts and wholes. They have their own way of presenting
themselves and the world in which they operate. The essence of technology is, for Heidegger,
not the best or most characteristic instance of technology, nor is it a nebulous generality, a
form or idea. Rather, to consider technology essentially is to see it as an event to which we
belong: the structuring, ordering, and “requisitioning” of everything around us, and of
ourselves. The second point is that technology even holds sway over beings that we do not
normally think of as technological, such as gods and history. Third, the essence of technology
as Heidegger discusses it is primarily a matter of modern and industrial technology. He is less
concerned with the ancient and old tools and techniques that antedate modernity; the essence
of technology is revealed in factories and industrial processes, not in hammers and plows.
And fourth, for Heidegger, technology is not simply the practical application of natural science.
Instead, modern natural science can understand nature in the characteristically scientific
manner only because nature has already, in advance, come to light as a set of calculable,
orderable forces — that is to say, technologically.

Some concrete examples from Heidegger’s writings will help us develop these themes. When
Heidegger says that technology reveals things to us as “standing reserve,” he means that
everything is imposed upon or “challenged” to be an orderly resource for technical application,
which in turn we take as a resource for further use, and so on interminably. For example, we
challenge land to yield coal, treating the land as nothing but a coal reserve. The coal is then
stored, “on call, ready to deliver the sun’s warmth that is stored in it,” which is then
“challenged forth for heat, which in turn is ordered to deliver steam whose pressure turns the
wheels that keep a factory running.” The factories are themselves challenged to produce tools
“through which once again machines are set to work and maintained.”

The passive voice in this account indicates that these acts occur not primarily by our own
doing; we belong to the activity. Technological conscriptions of things occur in a sense prior to
our actual technical use of them, because things must be (and be seen as) already available
resources in order for them to be used in this fashion. This availability makes planning for
technical ends possible; it is the heart of what in the Sixties and Seventies was called the
inescapable “system.” But these technical ends are never ends in themselves: “A success is that
type of consequence that itself remains assigned to the yielding of further consequences.” This
chain does not move toward anything that has its own presence, but, instead, “only enters into
its circuit,” and is “regulating and securing” natural resources and energies in this never-ending
fashion.

Technology also replaces the familiar connection of parts to wholes; everything is just an
exchangeable piece. For example, while a deer or a tree or a wine jug may “stand on its own”
and have its own presence, an automobile does not: it is challenged “for a further conducting
along, which itself sets in place the promotion of commerce.” Machines and other pieces of
inventory are not parts of self-standing wholes, but arrive piece by piece. These pieces do
share themselves with others in a sort of unity, but they are isolated, “shattered,” and confined
to a “circuit of orderability.” The isolated pieces, moreover, are uniform and exchangeable. We
can replace one piece of standing reserve with another. By contrast, “My hand … is not a piece
of me. I myself am entirely in each gesture of the hand, every single time.”
Human beings too are now exchangeable pieces. A forester “is today positioned by the lumber
industry. Whether he knows it or not, he is in his own way a piece of inventory in the cellulose
stock” delivered to newspapers and magazines. These in turn, as Heidegger puts it in “The
Question Concerning Technology,” “set public opinion to swallowing what is printed, so that a
set configuration of opinion becomes available on demand.” Similarly, radio and its employees
belong to the standing reserve of the public sphere; everything in the public sphere is ordered
“for anyone and everyone without distinction.” Even the radio listener, whom we are
nowadays accustomed to thinking of as a free consumer of mass media — after all, he “is
entirely free to turn the device on and off” — is actually still confined in the technological
system of producing public opinion. “Indeed, he is only free in the sense that each time he
must free himself from the coercive insistence of the public sphere that nevertheless
ineluctably persists.”

But the essence of technology does not just affect things and people. It “attacks everything
that is: Nature and history, humans, and divinities.” When theologians on occasion cite the
beauty of atomic physics or the subtleties of quantum mechanics as evidence for the existence
of God, they have, Heidegger says, placed God “into the realm of the orderable.” God becomes
technologized. (Heidegger’s word for the essence of technology is Gestelli. While the
translator of the Bremen lectures, Andrew Mitchell, renders it as “positionality,” William Lovitt,
the translator of “The Question Concerning Technology” in 1977 chose the term “enframing.”
It almost goes without saying that neither term can bring out all the nuances that Heidegger
has in mind.)

The heart of the matter for Heidegger is thus not in any particular machine, process, or
resource, but rather in the “challenging”: the way the essence of technology operates on our
understanding of all matters and on the presence of those matters themselves — the all-
pervasive way we confront (and are confronted by) the technological world. Everything
encountered technologically is exploited for some technical use. It is important to note, as
suggested earlier, that when Heidegger speaks of technology’s essence in terms of challenging
or positionality, he speaks of modern technology, and excludes traditional arts and tools that
we might in some sense consider technological. For instance, the people who cross the Rhine
by walking over a simple bridge might also seem to be using the bridge to challenge the river,
making it a piece in an endless chain of use. But Heidegger argues that the bridge in fact allows
the river to be itself, to stand within its own flow and form. By contrast, a hydroelectric plant
and its dams and structures transform the river into just one more element in an energy-
producing sequence. Similarly, the traditional activities of peasants do not “challenge the
farmland.” Rather, they protect the crops, leaving them “to the discretion of the growing
forces,” whereas “agriculture is now a mechanized food industry.”

Modern machines are therefore not merely more developed, or self-propelled, versions of old
tools such as water or spinning wheels. Technology’s essence “has already from the outset
abolished all those places where the spinning wheel and water mill previously stood.”
Heidegger is not concerned with the elusive question of precisely dating the origin of modern
technology, a question that some think important in order to understand it. But he does claim
that well before the rise of industrial mechanization in the eighteenth century, technology’s
essence was already in place. “It first of all lit up the region within which the invention of
something like power-producing machines could at all be sought out and attempted.” We
cannot capture the essence of technology by describing the makeup of a machine, for “every
construction of every machine already moves within the essential space of technology.”

Even if the essence of technology does not originate in the rise of mechanization, can we at
least show how it follows from the way we apprehend nature? After all, Heidegger says, the
essence of technology “begins its reign” when modern natural science is born in the early
seventeenth century. But in fact we cannot show this because in Heidegger’s view the
relationship between science and technology is the reverse of how we usually think it to be;
natural forces and materials belong to technology, rather than the other way around. It was
technological thinking that first understood nature in such a way that nature could be
challenged to unlock its forces and energy. The challenge preceded the unlocking; the essence
of technology is thus prior to natural science. “Modern technology is not applied natural
science, far more is modern natural science the application of the essence of technology.”
Nature is therefore “the fundamental piece of inventory of the technological standing reserve
— and nothing else.”

Given this view of technology, it follows that any scientific account obscures the essential being
of many things, including their nearness. So when Heidegger discusses technology and
nearness, he assures us that he is not simply repeating the cliché that technology makes the
world smaller. “What is decisive,” he writes, “is not that the distances are diminishing with the
help of technology, but rather that nearness remains outstanding.” In order to experience
nearness, we must encounter things in their truth. And no matter how much we believe that
science will let us “encounter the actual in its actuality,” science only offers us representations
of things. It “only ever encounters that which its manner of representation has previously
admitted as a possible object for itself.”

An example from the second lecture illustrates what Heidegger means. Scientifically speaking,
the distance between a house and the tree in front of it can be measured neutrally: it is thirty
feet. But in our everyday lives, that distance is not as neutral, not as abstract. Instead, the
distance is an aspect of our concern with the tree and the house: the experience of walking, of
seeing the tree’s shape grow larger as I come closer, and of the growing separation from the
home as I walk away from it. In the scientific account, “distance appears to be first achieved in
an opposition” between viewer and object. By becoming indifferent to things as they concern
us, by representing both the distance and the object as simple but useful mathematical entities
or philosophical ideas, we lose our truest experience of nearness and distance.

Turning To and Away from Danger

It is becoming clear by now that in order to understand the essence of technology we must
also understand things non-technologically; we must enter the realm where things can show
themselves to us truthfully in a manner not limited to the technological. But technology is such
a domineering force that it all but eliminates our ability to experience this realm. The
possibility of understanding the interrelated, meaningful, practical involvements with our
surroundings that Heidegger describes is almost obliterated. The danger is that technology’s
domination fully darkens and makes us forget our understanding of ourselves as the beings
who can stand within this realm.

The third Bremen lecture lays out just how severe the problem is. While we have already seen
how the essence of technology prevents us from encountering the reality of the world, now
Heidegger points out that technology has become the world (“world and positionality are the
same”). Technology reigns, and we therefore forget being altogether and our own essential
freedom — we no longer even realize the world we have lost. Ways of experiencing distance
and time other than through the ever more precise neutral measuring with rulers and clocks
become lost to us; they no longer seem to be types of knowing at all but are at most vague
poetic representations. While many other critics of technology point to obvious dangers
associated with it, Heidegger emphasizes a different kind of threat: the possibility that it may
prevent us from experiencing “the call of a more primal truth.” The problem is not just that
technology makes it harder for us to access that realm, but that it makes us altogether forget
that the realm exists.

Yet, Heidegger argues, recognizing this danger allows us to glimpse and then respond to what
is forgotten. The understanding of man’s essence as openness to this realm and of technology
as only one way in which things can reveal themselves is the guide for keeping technology
within its proper bounds. Early in the fourth and last Bremen lecture, Heidegger asks if the
danger of technology means “that the human is powerless against technology and delivered
over to it for better or worse.” No, he says. The question, however, is not how one should
act with regard to technology — the question that seems to be “always closest and solely
urgent” — but how we should think, for technology “can never be overcome,” we are never its
master. Proper thinking and speaking, on the other hand, allow us to be ourselves and to
reveal being. “Language is … never merely the expression of thinking, feeling, and willing.
Language is the inceptual dimension within which the human essence is first capable of
corresponding to being.” It is through language, by a way of thinking, that “we first learn to
dwell in the realm” of being.

The thought that opens up the possibility of a “turn” away from technology and toward its
essential realm is the realization of its danger. Heidegger quotes the German poet Friedrich
Hölderlin: “But where the danger is, there grows also what saves.” By illuminating this danger,
Heidegger’s path of thinking is a guide for turning away from it. The turn brings us to a place in
which the truth of being becomes visible as if by a flash of lightning. This flash does not just
illuminate the truth of being, it also illuminates us: we are “caught sight of in the insight.” As
our own essence comes to light, if we disavow “human stubbornness” and cast ourselves
“before this insight,” so too does the essence of technology come to light.
THE GOOD LIFE
ARISTOTLE AND GOOD LIFE
Aristotle and Good Life It is interesting to note that the first philosopher who approached the
problem of reality from scientific lens is Aristotle who is also the first thinker who dabbled into the
complex problematization of the end goal of life: happiness. Compared to his predecessor and teacher,
Plato, Aristotle embarked on different approach in figuring out reality. Plato thought that things in this
world are not real and are only copies of the real in the world of forms. While Aristotle puts everything
back to the ground in claiming that this world is all there and that this world is the only reality, we can
all access. Aristotle also forwarded the idea that there is no reality over and above what the senses can
perceive. As such, it is only by observation of the external world that one can truly understand what
reality is all about. Change is a process that is inherent in things. We, along with all other entities in the
world start as potentialities and move towards actualities. The movement, of course, entails change.

Materialism

The first materialists were the atomists in Ancient Greece. Democritus and Leucippus led a
school whose primary belief is that the world is made up of and is controlled by the tiny indivisible units
in the world called atomos or seeds. Accordingly, the world including human beings, is made up of
matter and there is no need to possess immaterial entities as sources of purpose. Atoms simply comes
together randomly to form the things in the world. As such, only material entities matter.

In terms of human flourishing, matter is what makes us attain happiness. The material things we
possess give us ultimate happiness. We see this at work with most people who are clinging on to
material wealth as the primary source of meaning of their existence.

Hedonism

The Hedonists see the end goal of life in acquiring pleasure. Pleasure has always been the
priority of hedonists. For them life is obtaining and indulging in pleasure because life is limited. They
believe that pleasure give meaning to their life without thinking of the future. The mantra of this school
of thought is the famous, “Eat, drink and merry for tomorrow we will die.

Stoicism

Another school of thought led by Epicurus, the stoics, exposed the idea that to generate
happiness, one must learn to distance oneself and be apathetic. The original term apatheia, precisely
means to be indifferent. These group believe that they can do things at their own and believe that
happiness can only be attained by a careful practice of apathy.

Theism

Most people find the meaning of their lives using God as the fulcrum of their existence. The
Philippines, as predominantly country, is witness to how people base their life goals on beliefs that
hinged on some form of supernatural reality called heaven. The ultimate basis of happiness for theists is
the communion with God.

Humanism

Humanism as another school of thought espouses the freedom of man to carve his own destiny
and to legislate his own laws, free from the shackles of a God that monitors and controls. For
humanists, man is literally the captain of his own ship. They see themselves not merely as stewards of
the creation but as individuals who are in control of themselves and the world outside them. 50 As a
result of the motivation of the humanist current, scientists eventually turned to technology in order to
ease the difficulty of life. Scientists of today meanwhile are ready to confront more sophisticated
attempts at altering the world for the benefit of humanity. Some people now are willing to tamper with
time and space in the name of technology.
TECHNOLOGY AND HUMANITY
Television sets, Mobile phones, Computers, and Humanity A number of technological
devices can be easily found inside the home, the most accessible place to anyone. Having said
that, it can also be easily inferred that these technological devices are some of the most
popular and most commonly used types of devices across all age groups. To be more specific,
these “celebrities” in the field of technology are television sets, mobile phones, and computers.
People all over the world use these technologies every day to accomplish different purposes. In
television, used mainly as a platform for advertisements and information dissemination. It
remains to be the most used avenue by different advertisement companies not only in the
Philippines but also all over the world. Various advertising companies trust that television is
still one of the most used technological devices up until today. It also serves as a recreational
activity and good stress reliever to most families, specifically to Filipino families. Television also
is a good platform for different propagandas and advocacies. Lastly, it can also be a good way
to bond with one’s family members.
In mobile phones, used primarily for communication. It offers services like texting and
calling. In the past, these were the only functions of the mobile phone but as technology
progressed, there have been many additional features included on mobile phones. In the
present, people use their mobile phones to surf the Internet and to take pictures more than
text or to call people. This is the reason why more and more people all over the world prefer to
buy smartphones over the old models where such features are not available. These make this
particular technological device very appealing to the masses. Additionally, it is very portable
and convenient because it can fit into any space, may it be inside the pocket or bag.
Computers and laptops, on the other hand, can be used to surf the Internet and
communicate. For a lot of people, they prefer to do their job using either a personal computer
or a laptop than a mobile phone. Personal computer or a laptop has wide keyboard, wide
screens and separate keyboards than mobile phones. Another reason is that the availability of
a mouse or a touchpad made these two technological devices easier to maneuver than mobile
phones. Lastly, for the youth and those who love to play different computer games, personal
computers or laptops are really the better choice because these allow them play with comfort
and convenience.
Ethical Dilemma Faced by these technological advancements It is true that these
technological devices are useful and beneficial, the fact remains that there are several
dilemmas faced by these “necessities”. First, most parents would argue that these devices
make their children lazy and unhealthy. This is because of the fact that people who are fixated
on these technological advancements start and end their day by using such devices. For
example, those who love to watch television shows stay in front of the television for more than
six hours a day while those who love to surf the Internet or play computer games stay on their
laptops, computers, or mobile phones for more than half a day. These people have the
tendency to be unaware of the time because they are so engrossed with the use of
technological device. Also, there are the same people who are more likely to experience
alienation because they no longer take time to get out their houses and mingle with other
people. It is really concerning to know that there are people who develop different kinds of
sickness because of too much use of technological devices. The agents using the devices are
the ones to be blamed for the undesirable consequences, namely, laziness and unhealthiness.
In terms of alienation, it can be concluded that the people in the scientific-technological world
are blameworthy because they tell the people something that seems positive but when
examined closely, brings worse than good. Another dilemma faced by these technological
devices is the moral dilemma. People, especially the children who are not capable yet of
rationally deciding for themselves what is right or wrong, are freely exposed to different things
on television, mobile phones, laptops, or computers. Because of the availability and easy
access to the Internet, they can just easily search the web and go to different websites without
restrictions. This allows them to see, read, or hear things which are not suitable for their very
young age. This makes them very vulnerable to character change and can greatly affect the
way they view the world and the things around them. The people in the scientific world nor the
children are blameworthy because first, the children are not yet capable of rationally deciding
for themselves what is good and what is bad. Second, even if creators of these technologies
went out of their way to inform children of the pros and cons of these technological
contributions, it would still be useless because the children have no capacity to understand
them yet. So, the ones to be blamed are the adults who allowed the children to have access to
such devices in first place without any supervision.
ROBOTICS AND HUMANITY
Another great product of the innovative minds of the people is the robot which are now
widely used. For example, there are so -called service robots that do specific tasks but focus
mainly in assisting their masters in their everyday tasks. Germany was one of the first countries
to develop service robots. As part of the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research’s
“Service Robotics Innovation Lead Initiative,” it sponsored a collaborative project called DESIRE
(Deutsche Servicerobotik InitiativeGermany Service Robotics Initiative) which was launched on
October 1, 2005. Some of the expected work to be performed by DESIRE are the following: (1)
“Clear up the kitchen table” – all objects on top of the kitchen table will be moved to where
they belong; (2) “Fill the dishwasher” – the dirty dishes will be sorted correctly into the
dishwasher; and (3) “Clear up this room” – all objects that are not in their proper places will be
moved to where they belong.
Roles played by Robotics http://news.mit.edu Figure 7.5 58 Robots play different roles
not only in the lives of the people but also in the society as a whole. They are primarily used to
ease the workload of mankind. They were invented to make life more efficient and less
stressful. They perform complicated activities which human beings are incapable of doing. On
the other hand, they perform the simplest tasks at home so that their masters can perform the
complex ones without stressing themselves over the simple tasks. There are also robots which
are made for pleasure. To be more specific, these types of robots perform activities to
entertain people. They can usually be found in amusement parks or exhibits. In addition, there
are also some robots which were made to serve as toys. They also perform different activities
but they are usually child-friendly. Ethical Dilemma/s faced by Robotics Just like any other
technological advancements, robotics also faces different problems and dilemmas. Although
the idea is to help people and make their lives a lot easier than before, it is still not immune to
different ethical dilemmas and possible undesirable outcomes. One of the dilemmas faced by
robots is safety. Who should be held accountable if someone’s safety is compromised by a
robot? It is important to know who should be blamed and who should be held responsible if
such thing happens. Another dilemma is the emotional component. This may seem a little
absurd as of the moment, but looking at how fast technology progresses nowadays, it is not
completely impossible for robots to develop emotions. So here, the questions become, “What
if robots become sentient? Should they be granted robot right? Should they have their own set
of rights to be upheld, respected, and protected by humans?” It is just right for the robots to
be given their own set of rights should they develop the ability to feel different kinds of
emotion. Moral and Ethical Issues in Advanced Technology Individuals and organizations use
technology to enhance their daily operations, be it business, learning, construction, or medical
activities. Advancement in technology does not elicit ethical or moral issues, but it is the use of
technological inventions that raises these issues. Ethical dilemmas arise when there are
competing goods and competing evils. In regard to IT, the sharing of private information within
an organization raises the question of whether the action is moral or immoral. Information
systems enable people to manipulate records within a short period, thus raising questions on
whether the information is genuine or vague.
In addition, will genetic engineering improve the quality of life or destroy it? These are
some of ethical dilemmas that are yet to be solved. Furthermore, biotechnology raises some
moral issues. It is difficult to justify the use of living organisms during research and other
technological discoveries. For instance, vitro fertilization enables women who are not in a
position to have their own children to undergo the process. Religious groups are opposed to
such practices because their beliefs do not agree with them. Similarly, the uses of technology
have the capability of making many innocent people to suffer; this is a moral concern. For
example, nuclear technology has the potential of killing many people, and consequently
destroying the environment. This raises some health problems. People affected by nuclear
emissions, such as those witnessed in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, are deemed to be genetically
impaired. Such effects can affect the next generations of affected individuals. The use of
computers also raises health issues. Even though computer makes our work easier, it is evident
that prolonged use of computers results to repetitive stress injuries. In regard to job
displacement, machines have enabled companies to cut down their labor force. Many
companies use technological tools and knowledge, such as robots and computer to run their
business operations. Some people are forced to take different roles other than their
qualification requirements and others are faced with stress related to work difficulties. The
idea that the quest for strong AI would ultimately succeed was long thought of as science
fiction, centuries or more away. However, thanks to recent breakthroughs, many AI
milestones, which experts viewed as decades away merely five years ago, have now been
reached, making many experts take seriously the possibility of super intelligence in our
lifetime. Because AI has the potential to become more intelligent than any human, we have no
surefire way of predicting how it will behave. People now control the planet, not because
we’re the strongest, fastest or biggest, but because we’re the smartest. If we’re no longer the
smartest, are we assured to remain in control?
But there are other examples of potential ethical dilemmas in scientific research and
technology. There are things like genetic engineering, where people worry that we might one
day create super-humans that will outcompete regular humans. There is surveillance
technology, making people wonder how human rights could be violated. People ask questions
about whether we're going where only God should tread, and whether we should do
something just because we can. The implications of many of these technologies are complex
and philosophical. The biggest risk to our future is not that technology will take over but that
we will become too much like technology. Let’s think about where it’s going. Let’s balance the
EQ with the IQ. We should think of technology not as what we seek but rather how we seek – it
is a tool we should embrace, not one we should become.