DIAL TEST INDICATOR READING (Activity No.

5)

I. EXPECTED COMPETENCIES…………………………………
1. Understand the construction and application of Dial Test Indicator in the workshop.
2. Know the different applications of the different types of DTI.

II. THEORIES / PRINCIPLES…………………………………

Introduction
Dial Test Indicator are necessary tools used for setting-up and inspecting the work. They
are used to compare sizes and measurement to a known standard and to check the alignment of
machine tools, fixtures and workpieces prior to machining. They can show whether work is set
parallel or square and whether round work is running out.
Early Test Indicators simply indicate variations by means of magnifying levers set to a
single mark. As the pointer “Wiggled” the work was said to be over or under the mark. Dial
indicators record the amount of variations in accepted measuring units (for example 0.001”)
and sometimes the variations is designated also by the term plus (+) and minus ( - ). The modern
dial indicator takes its name from its appearance since it resembles the faces of the watch.
Modern Dial Indicators have been standardized so far as dial faces are concerned. The zero
positive is assumed to be vertical or twelve o’clock position of a watch (See figure below). The
usual range of an indicator is two and a half turns from its zero position.
Many types of dial indicators operate on a gear and rack principles. A rack cut out on a
plunger or spindle is in mesh with a pinion which in turn is connected with a gear train. Any
movement of the spindle is then amplified and transmitted to a hand or pointer over a graduated
dial. Inch designed dials may be graduated in thousandths of an inch or less. The dial attached
to a bevel may be adjusted to and locked in any position.
When in use the contact point on the end of the spindle bears against the work and is held
in constant engagement with the work surface by the rack spring. A hair spring is attached to
the gear that meshes with the center pinion. This flat spiral takes up the backlash from the gear
train and prevents any lost motion from affecting the accuracy of the gage.

Types of Dial Test Indicators with Respect to Dial

A) Balance Type B) Continuous Reading Type

The continuous reading type of Dial Test Indicators are numbered clockwise for 360 degrees
and is available in two types.
a) Regular Range
b) Long Range
The regular range dial test indicator has only about 2 ½ revolutions of travel and it is
generally used for comparison measurement and set-up purposes. The long range dial test
indicator is often used to indicate table travel or cutting tool movement on machine tools. It
has a second hand that indicates the number of revolutions that the large hand has travelled.
A balance type dial test indicator is one which it could be read both to the right and left
from zero and indicates a plus or minus value. Indicators of this type have a total spindle travel
 of only 2 ½ revolutions. This instrument may be equipped with tolerance pointer to indicate
the permissive variations of the part being measured.
Types of Dial Indicators with Respect to Spindle
A) Plunger Type
B) Lever Type
Parts of a Dial Test Indicator

III. TOOLS, EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS…………………….

1. Tools

1.1 Dial Test Indicator

1.2 pencil

2. Materials

2.1 Sample work piece

2.2 Paper

3. Equipment

3.1 Working table

IMPORTANT

1. Keep working area and tools clean.

2. Always check tools before and after using
3. Place tools in a safe place when not in use
IV. TASKS (STEPS) & KEY POINTS…………………….…….

Calibrating the Dial Test Indicator

1 Mount the dial indicator on a stand. The dial indicator should have an attachment that can be used to
secure it to a stand. The stand will stabilize the dial indicator while measurements are taken.

Note: If a stand is not available, it is still possible to calibrate the dial indicator, but it will not be as
easy.

2. Turn the outer dial face until the hand points to 0. The outer dial face can be moved by twisting the
rim of the dial. Spin the outer face until the hand hovers over zero. Calibration measurements will
ensure that the dial indicator does read measurements starting at zero.

Note: If there are errors, correction can be done by readjusting the outer face so that the hand hovers
over the zero point.

3. Begin displacing the spindle. Stop at every 1/10 measurement to calculate errors. Continue to check
for errors at 1/10 measurements for the first two revolutions of the dial.
 4. Check for errors at half revolutions. For the next five revolutions, stop at every half revolution to
calculate for errors, rather than at the 1/10 mark.

• If the dial indicator makes more than seven revolutions, check for errors at every revolution after
seven is reached.
• Do not let go of the spindle because checking for errors in the reverse is needed.

5. Begin to reverse the revolutions. Follow the same error-checking procedure, but in reverse. Check
the measurement at each of the same points, so for the first five revolutions a stop is needed at the half
revolution to measure. Then check the measurement at the 1/10 marks for the remaining two
revolutions.
6. Take five measurements of the same item. Displace the spindle five times using the same surface.
Move the spindle quickly for some measurements and slowly for others. Write down each of the five
measurements to check for deviations. Since the same surface is measured repeatedly, each
measurement should come out the same if the dial indicator is ready to use.

If the dial indicator is showing errors, adjust the outer face and clean the spindle. Dust can accumulate
on the spindle and cause issues with taking measurements. Repeat the calibration process until there
are no errors.

Taking a Measurement

1. Press the spindle against the item to be measured. To take a measurement, a displace space is needed
on the spindle. Align the base of the spindle with the item to be measured. Push the dial indicator
against the item, counting the number of revolutions made to double-check the accuracy. Hold the
gauge in place to take the measurement.
2. Count the marks displaced on the small gauge. Depending on how small the gauge is labelled, it
could count the revolutions or track the measurement. Take down the number of revolutions or the
measurement itself if it's printed on the gauge.

If the dial indicator did not make at least one revolution, then skip to reading the large gauge because
the small gauge only matters if the indicator makes at least one full revolution.

3. Calculate the measurement. If the small gauge shows revolutions or does not provide a clear
measurement, take the number of marks displaced and multiply it by the length that is represented by
one revolution.
For example, if one revolution equals .1-inches, then calculate three marks on the small gauge as 3 X
.1=.3-inches.

4. Count the marks displaced on the large gauge. The big outer face should be marked with 100 notches.
Most dial indicators will be labelled at the 5’s or 10’s to make it easier to read. Determine which
marker the hand best lines up with, then take down the number.

Make sure to count if the gauge makes complete revolutions. For example, it may completely circle
once and then land on the notch next to 30. Remember to add the calculations from both the small and
large gauges.

5. Calculate the measurement. Remember that the larger gauge represents a smaller measurement, so
while the small gauge might measure in tents, the outer gauge measures in thousandths. If the hand is
pointing at 30, then it means 30 thousandths.
To calculate the measurement, divide the number by 1,000. For example, 30/1000=0.030-inches.

6. Add the two calculations together. Take both the small gauge and large gauge measurements and
add them together. In the examples above, the reading is 0.3+0.030 = 0.330-inches. This is the reading
from the dial indicator.
UNIVERSAL VERNIER BEVEL PROTRACTOR (Activity No. 6)

EXPECTED COMPETENCIES…………………………………

After this module the student will be able to:

1. identify the construction and parts of a universal vernier bevel protractor; and
2. demonstrate the different application of a universal vernier bevel protractor.

I. THEORIES / PRINCIPLES…………………………………
Angular measurements are frequently necessary for the manufacture of interchangeable
parts. The ships and airplanes can navigate confidently without the help of the site of the land;
only because of precise angular measuring devices can be used in astronomy to determine the
relation of the stars and their approximate distances.
The angle is defined as the opening between two lines which meet at a point. If one of the
two lines is moved at a point in an arc, a complete circle can be formed.
The basic unit in angular measurement is the right angle, which is defined as the angle
between two lines which intersect so as to make the adjacent angles equal.
If a circle is divided into 360 equal parts. Each part is called as degree (0 ). Each degree is
divided in 60 minutes (‘), and each minute is divided into 60 seconds (“).
This method of defining angular units is known as sexagesimal system, which is used for
engineering purposes.
An alternative method of defining angle is based on the relationship between the radius
and arc of a circle. It is called as radian.
Radian is defined as the angle subtended at the centre by an arc of a circle of length equal
to its radius.
It is more widely used in mathematical investigation.
2 radians = 360, giving,
1 radian = 57.2958 degrees.

Bevel Protractor
It is probably the simplest instrument for measuring the angle between two faces of
component.
It consists of a base plate attached to the main body, and an adjustable blade which is
attached to a circular plate containing vernier scale. The adjustable blade is capable of rotating
freely about the centre of the main scale engraved on the body of the instrument and can be
locked in any position.
An acute angle attachment is provided at the top; as shown in fig. for the purpose of
measuring acute angles. The base of the base plate is made flat so that it could be laid flat upon
the work and any type of angle measured. It is capable of measurement from 0° to 360°
The vernier scale has 24 divisions coinciding with 23 main scale divisions. Thus the least
count of the instrument is 5’. This instrument is most commonly used in workshops for angular
measurements till more precision is required.
A recent development of the vernier bevel protractor is optical bevel protractor. In this
instrument, a glass circle divided at 10’ intervals throughout the whole 360° is fitted inside the
main body.
 A small microscope is fitted through which the circle graduations can be viewed. The
adjustable blade is clamped to a rotating member who carries this microscope. With the aid of
microscope it is possible to read by estimation to about 2’.

Figure 6.1 Bevel Protractor

Figure 6.2 Parts of a Bevel Protractor

Universal Bevel Protractor

It is used for measuring and laying out of angles accurately and precisely within 5 minutes.
The protector dial is slotted to hold a blade which can be rotated with the dial to the required
angle and also independently adjusted to any desired length. The blade can be locked in any
position.

The bevel protractors are of two types, viz.

1. Mechanical Bevel Protractor, and
2. Optical Bevel Protractor.

1. Mechanical bevel protractor:

The mechanical bevel protractors are further classified into four types; A, B, C and D.
In types A and B, the vernier is graduated to read to 5 minutes of arc whereas in case of
type C, the scale is graduated to read in degrees and the bevel protractor is without vernier or
fine adjustment device or acute angle attachment.
 The difference between types A and B is that type A is provided with fine adjustment
device or acute angle attachment whereas type B is not. The scales of all the types are graduated
either as a full circle marked 0—90—0—90 with one vernier or as semicircle marked 0—90—
0 with two verniers 180° apart.
Type D is graduated in degrees and is not provided with either vernier or fine adjustment
device or acute angle attachment.

2. Optical bevel protractor:

In the case of optical bevel protractor, it is possible to take readings up to approximately 2
minutes of arc. The provision is made for an internal circular scale which is graduated in
divisions of 10 minutes of arc.
Readings are taken against a fixed index line or vernier by means of an optical magnifying
system which is integral with the instrument. The scale is graduated as a full circle marked 0—
90—0—90. The zero positions correspond to the condition when the blade is parallel to the
stock. Provision is also made for adjusting the focus of the system to accommodate normal
variations in eye-sight. The scale and vernier are so arranged that they are always in focus in
the optical system.

Various Components of Bevel Protractors

Body: It is designed in such a way that its back is flat and there are no projections beyond its
back so that when the bevel protractor is placed on its back on a surface plate there shall be no
perceptible rock. The flatness of the working edge of the stock and body is tested by checking
the squareness of blade with respect to stock when blade is set at 90°.

Stock: The working edge of the stock is about 90 mm in length and 7 mm thick. It is very
essential that the working edge of the stock be perfectly straight and if at all departure is there,
it should be in the form of concavity and of the order of 0.01 mm maximum over the whole
span.

Blade:It can be moved along the turret throughout its length and can also be reversed. It is
about 150 or 300 mm long, 13 mm wide and 2 mm thick and ends beveled at angles of 45°
and 60° within the accuracy of 5 minutes of arc. Its working edge should be straight upto 0.02
mm and parallel up to 0.03 mm over the entire length of 300 mm. It can be clamped in any
position.

Actual Angle Attachment It can be readily fitted into body and clamped in any position. Its
working edge should be flat to within 0.005 mm and parallel to the working edge of the stock
within 0.015 mm over the entire length of attachment. The bevel protectors are tested for
flatness, squareness, parallelism, straightness and angular intervals by suitable methods.

II. TOOLS, EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS…………………….

1. Tools

1.1 Bevel protractor

 1.2 pencil

2. Materials

2.1 Sample work piece

2.2 Paper

3. Equipment

3.1 Working table

IMPORTANT

1. Keep working area and tools clean.

2. Always check tools before and after using
3. Place tools in a safe place when not in use

III. TASKS (STEPS) & KEY POINTS…………………….…….

Using the Bevel Protractor to measure angle on a workpiece:

1. Firstly, unscrew the large clamp/locking screw on the front part of the protractor as shown in
Figure 6.3. It loosens the blade so that we can swivel it.

2.

3.
4. Align the base of the protractor on one side of an angle, and then swivel the blade for making the
other side of the angle as shown in Figures 6.4. Other sample applications are shown in Figure 6.5.

5. Tighten the large clamp/locking screw.

(See Figure 6.3)

Reading a Bevel Protractor:

4. Read the main scale or the full degree scale. See Figure 6.6.
 Count the number of full degrees between the 0-degree mark on the degrees scale and the 0-
minute mark on the vernier scale. This forms the first part of the angle. This case we have a reading of
28degrees.

5. Read the minute scale or the vernier scale. See Figure 6.7.
Count the number of minutes on the vernier scale from the 0-minute mark until you reach a
minute mark which matches up exactly to a degree mark on the degree scale. This forms the second
part of the angle.
This will give you the angle, which will read in the form of “x degrees, x minutes”. In the
Figure we have a reading of 15minutes. So we have the total reading of 28 degrees and 15 minutes.

NOTE: It is important that the vernier scale is read in the same direction that the primary scale is being
read. The correct direction will depend on which way the angle you are measuring faces.
SINE PRINCIPLE AND SINE BARS

EXPECTED COMPETENCIES…………………………………

After this module the student will be able to:

1. identify the construction and parts of a Sine Bar; and
2. demonstrate the different application of a Sine Bar.

I. THEORIES / PRINCIPLES…………………………………
The sine principle uses the ratio of the length of two sides of a right triangle in deriving a
given angle. It may be noted that devices operating on sine principle are capable of “self
generation.”
The measurement is usually limited to 45° from loss of accuracy point of view. The
accuracy with which the sine principle can be put to use is dependent in practice, on some form
of linear measurement.
The sine bar in itself is not a complete measuring instrument. Another datum such as a
surface plate is needed, as well as other auxiliary equipment, notably slip gauges, and indicating
device to make measurements. Sine bars used in conjunction with slip gauges constitute a very
good device for the precise measurement of angles.
Sine bars are used either to measure angles very accurately or for locating any work to a
given angle within very close limits.
Sine bars are made from high carbon, high chromium, corrosion resistant steel, hardened,
ground and stabilized.

Figure 7.1 Use of sine bar

Where,
L = distance between centers of ground cylinder (typically 5’’ or 10’’)
H = height of the gauge blocks
θ = the angle of the plane
Sin θ = h/l
θ = arcsin (h/l)
 Figure 7.2 Practical Application of sine bar

Use of sine bar:

1. Measuring known angles or locating any work to a given angle. For this purpose the
surface plate is assumed to be having a perfectly flat surface, so that its surface could be treated
as horizontal.
One of the cylinders or rollers of sine bar is placed on the surface plate and other roller is
placed on the slip gauges of height h. Let the sine bar be set at an angle . Then

where l is the distance between the center of the rollers. Thus knowing, h can be found out and
any work could be set at this angle as the top face of sine bar is inclined at angle  to the surface
plate.
The use of angle plates and clamps could —also be made in case of heavy components.
For better results, both the rollers could also be placed on slip gauges checking of unknown
angles. Many a times, angle of a component to be checked is unknown. In such a case, it is
necessary to first find the angle approximately with the help of a bevel protector.
Let the angle be α. Then the sine bar is set at an angle α and clamped to an angle plate.
Next, the work is placed on sine bar and clamped to angle plate as shown in Figure 7.3. And a
dial indicator is set at one end of the work and moved to the other, and deviation is noted. Again
slip gauges are so adjusted (according to this deviation) that dial indicator reads zero across
work surface.
If deviation noted down by the dial indicator is ôh over a length l' of work, then height of
slip gauges by which it should be adjusted is equal to = ôh x l/l'
Checking of unknown angles of heavy component. In such cases where components are
heavy and can’t be mounted on the sine bar, then sine bar is mounted on the component as
shown in Figure 7.4.
 The height over the rollers can then be measured by a vernier height gauge; using a dial
test gauge mounted on the anvil of height gauge as the fiducially indicator to ensure constant
measuring pressure. The anvil on height gauge is adjusted with probe of dial test gauge showing
same reading for the topmost position of rollers of sine bar. Figure 7.4 shows the use of height
gauge for obtaining two readings for either of the roller of sine bar. The difference of the two
readings of height gauge divided by the centre distance of sine bar gives the sine of the angle
of the component to be measured. The angle of component is given by:
 Where greater accuracy is required, the position of dial test gauge probe can be sensed by
adjusting a pile of slip gauges till dial indicator indicates same reading over roller of sine bar
and the slip gauges.

III. TOOLS, EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS…………………….

1. Tools

1.1 Sine Bar

1.2 Dial Test Indicator

1.3 Angle Plate/Gauge block

1.4 Slip Gauges

1.5 Surface Plate

2. Materials

2.1 Sample work piece

2.2 Paper

2.3 Pencil

3. Equipment

3.1 Working table

IMPORTANT

1. Keep working area and tools clean.

2. Always check tools before and after using
3. Place tools in a safe place when not in use

IV. TASKS (STEPS) & KEY POINTS…………………….…….

For checking the angle of small size components

1. The sine bar is set up approximate (Nominal) angle on a surface plate by suitable combination of
slip gauges.

2. The component being checked, in this case the angle plate, is placed over the surface of the sine bar
as shown in Figure 7.5.

3. A dial gauge is mounted upon a suitable stand such as universal surface gauge. It is moved over the
component throughout its length. If there is a variation in parallelism of the upper surface of the
component and the surface plate, it is indicated by the deflection of pointer.
4. Adjust the slip gauges height so that the dial indicator reads zero position.

5. Given the height of the slip gauges and the length of the sine bar, compute the angle of the work
piece using the formula given above.
Inspection Equipment (Activity 8)

EXPECTED COMPETENCIES…………………………………

After this module the student will be able to:

1. identify different kinds of inspection equipment specifically comparators.
2. know the usage of different comparators.
I. THEORIES / PRINCIPLES…………………………………

Types of Comparators
Depending upon the method of magnification, the comparators are classified as:

1. Mechanical Comparators

2. Electrical Comparators

3. Optical Comparators

4. Pneumatic Comparators

5. Fluid Displacement Comparators.

Type # 1. Mechanical Comparators:

A mechanical comparator employs mechanical means to get the magnification for example, lever, gear system
etc. Its manufacturing requires high degree of skill and accuracy. The magnification of mechanical comparator
ranges from 250 to 1000.

Different types of mechanical comparators are:

1. Dial Indicators.

2. Lever Comparators.

3. Sigma Comparators.

4. Johanson Mikro kator.

5. Read type Comparators.

1. Dial Indicators:
A dial indicator is simplest type of mechanical comparator. It is very versatile and sensitive instrument. It uses
gear system together with a rack and pinion.
Figure 8.1 Dial Indicator
The Principle of Operation:
“A very slight upward pressure on the spindle at the contact plunger is magnified through a system of gears and
levers and is indicated on dial by pointer and scale.”

The dial has a scale division value of 0.01mm usually. The whole arrangement is housed in a metal case for its
protection. Dial is graduated into 100 divisions.

A suitable spring gives constant plunger pressure, while hair spring may be employed to eliminate play or
backlash.

Dial gauges are usually available having dial graduation of 0.01 mm or even 0.02 mm. Some sensitive types of
dial gauge have graduation of 0.002 mm.

Uses:
The dial indicator is used for:
(i) Determining the error in geometrical form, say, taper, roundness, ovality etc.

(ii) Determining the errors is surfaces, say alignment, Parallelism, squareness etc.

(iii) Used for comparison of two heights or distance within small limits

(iv) Used for compression and tension testing of materials.

Practical Application:
(i) To check the trueness of milling machine arbors.

(ii) To check the parallelism of shape machine ram with surface.

(iii) To check the alignment of lathe machine centers by using a bar between centers.

2. Lever Comparators:
A Lever Comparator is a simple and important type of mechanical comparator. It employs a ‘lever’ for obtain
magnification of movement or displacement.

Principle of Operation:
The Principle of operation of lever type comparator is shown in Fig. 8.2, First of all, a pile of slip gauges of
standard dimension is placed to anvil surface, below the plunger and the pointer set to zero.

Figure 8.2 Principle of lever type mechanical comparator

Now, place the component to be measured on the anvil surface below plunger by removing the pile of slip gauges.

If there is any difference in size, the plunger moves up and down. These plunger movements are magnified, by
lever and deflect the pointer on a graduated scale.

A compression spring limits the measuring pressure. The magnification achieved depends upon the length of lever
both side of the pivot.

The magnification is given by:

3. Sigma Comparator:
Sigma Comparator is a most popular, British-designed, British manufactured mechanical Comparator. This is
available in various choices of scale ranges.

The magnification of sigma comparators usually of 1000:1, Means a plunger movement of 0.002 mm will result
in movement of pointer by 2mm on calibrated scale.

Construction:
A typical Sigma Comparator is shown in Figure 8.3.
Figure 8.3 A sigma comparator
Different parts of this comparator are:
(i) Base:
It consists of a cast iron base, for mounting all the parts of comparator along with the work component to be
measure.

(ii) Column:
It consists of a threaded vertical column, mounted on the base to hold the measuring head.

(iii) Measuring Head:

It consists of a Measuring Head, mounted on the vertical threaded column. Measuring Head provided with pointer,
scale, tolerance pointer setting control knobs, trigger, measuring contract tip.

(iv) Work Table:

A work table is provided at bottom of the column, below the measuring head, having perfectly planed horizontal
surface for placement of component to be measure or check.

(v) Vertical Spindle:

Measuring head carries a vertical spindle which is mounted on two flat steel springs. The spindle works inside
fixed guides attached to the back plate of the head. This arrangement provides a frictionless movement of the
spindle. The springs provide a resistant pressure on the spindle.

(vi) Measuring Contact Tip:

A measuring contact tip is fitted with a shank and shank is fitted to spindle.

(vii) A Stop:
A stop is suitably provided in the assembly to restrict the spindle movement at lowest position of the scale.

(viii) A Trigger:
A trigger lever projects outside the measuring head. This is incorporate in the mechanism for elevating the
measuring contact when required.

Procedure:
For checking the size of a component, the dial pointer is first set to zero reading by means of a combination of
slip gauges of standard dimensions, resting on the work table. This combination of slip gauges then replaced by
the work piece and difference in dimensions is noted from the movement of a pointer on graduated scale.

Special Features:
(i) The pointer is actuated by downward movement of the plunger, thus eliminating the possibility of damage to
the mechanism from excessive upward pressure on the plunger.

(ii) Both the contact tip and worktable are Interchangeable, according to the shape and size of the component to
be checked.

(iii) These comparators are available in different vertical capacities from 150 to 600mm; means components up
to 600mm in height can be checked.

Magnification Range:
The magnifications achieved by Sigma Comparators are in the range of 1000 to 2000. Means a plunger movement
of 0.002 mm can be magnify up to deflection of pointer of 2mm. Most sensitive model is available which can
detect the plunger movement of 0.0001mm (0. 1 um).

Advantages of Mechanical Comparators:

(i) Low Cost:
These instruments are usually cheaper than other types of comparators.

(ii) Need not Electricity:

These instruments do not required any external source of power supply or air as in the case of pneumatic or
electrical comparators. Hence outside sources do not affect the accuracy of the comparator.

(iii) Linear Scale:

These installments usually have linear scale, which is easy to read.

(iv) Easy to Handle:

These installments are usually robust and compact so easy to handle.

(v) Suitable to Workshop:

These instruments are portable and can be issued from store keeper in workshop.

Disadvantages of Mechanical Comparators:

(i) Friction is More:
These instruments usually have many moving linkages as compared to the other type of comparators. Due to more
moving parts, the friction is more.

(ii) Inertia is More:

These instruments usually have more inertia. Hence these instruments are very sensitive to vibrations.

(iii) Accuracy is Less:

These instruments usually have low accuracy due to more friction and high inertia.

(iv) Wear, Play, Backlesh:

Any wear, play, backlesh or dimensional inaccuracy in the device used will also be magnified. This increases the
error in the measurement.
(v) Range is Limited:
These instruments usually have limited range of measurement, as the pointer moves over a fixed scale.

(vi) Parallax Error:

These instruments usually affected with error due to parallax as the pointer moves over a fixed scale.

Type # 2. Electrical Comparators:

An Electrical comparator employs electrical means to get the magnification. In this comparator the movement of
the measuring contact plunger is converted into an electrical signal.

The electrical signal is recorded by an instrument which can be calibrated in terms of plunger movement.

Construction:
An electrical comparator consists of four basic units.

(i) Measuring Probe (Plunger):

This is in direct contact of the component being checked.

(ii) Amplifier and Indicating Unit:

Amplifier boost up the electrical signals obtained and gives to indicating unit. Indicating unit indicates the
variation of dimensions if any by movement of pointer on a calibrated scale.

(iii) Power Unit:

Power unit gives the power to the wheat-stone bridge to balance it while setting the pointer to zero with respected
to standard component.

(iv) Base and Standard Unit:

These provide hold and support to all the other units. Other than four basic units, a spring is provided to control
the contact pressure. A thin flexible steel strip also provided as shown in Figure. 8.4 (a).

Figure 8.4 Principle of electrical comparator

Working Principle:
The principle of operation of an electrical comparator is shown in Fig. 8.4 (a) an armature supported on thin
flexible steel strip is suspended between two coils C and C. When the distance of the armature from two coils is
equal, the Wheatstone bridge is balanced and no current flows through the galvanometer.
Little movement of the measuring plunger unbalances the bridge resulting in the flow of current through the
galvanometer. Galvanometer scale is calibrated to give the movements of the plunger.

Magnification:
Electrical comparators are available to read up to 0.0001mm with magnification ranging between 1100-18,000.
Some most sensitive electrical comparators available with magnification of 40,000 or higher.

Special Features:
These comparators could also be supplied with indicators, which would give out a signal if the component being
checked lies below or above the standard dimensions. The signal from the indicator may either be colored lamps
or a buzzer sound.

This principle is known as “Visual gauging Head”. Such, instruments do not provide any difference in dimension
but gives only a Visual Indication.

Advantage of Electrical Comparators:

(i) High Degree of Reliability:
Since mechanical comparators actuated by gears, levers, rack and pinion etc.; all of these are subjected to wear
and friction and tanee affect the accuracy and useful life of the instrument.

On the other hand, electrical comparators possess a minimum number of moving parts, thus we can expect a high
degree of reliability from these instruments.

(ii) Remote Measurement:

Indicating instrument can be remote from the measuring unit.

(iii) High Magnification:

Due to reduced friction, wear, and with minimum moving parts, these comparators have a high magnification.

(iv) Not Sensitive to Vibrations:

The mechanism carrying pointer is light and not sensitive to vibration.

Disadvantages of Electrical Comparators:

(i) High Cost:
These instruments usually more expensive than the mechanical comparators.

(ii) External Power Source:

These instruments require an external agency to operate i.e., a.c. electric supply Thus the fluctuation in voltage
or frequency may affect the accuracy of measurement.

(iii) Heating of Coils:

Heating of coils in the system may cause to alter the calibration.

(iv) Fized Scale:

If only a fixed scale in used with a moving pointer then with high magnifications, a small range is obtained.

Type # 3. Optical Comparators:

There is no pure optical comparator but large magnification is obtained by use of optical principle in optical
comparators.
A mechanical instrument also contributes quite a lot for the overall magnification. Hence sometimes it is referred
as ‘Mech-optical comparator’.

Magnification in case of optical comparators is obtained with the help of light beams which has an advantage of
being straight and weightless. Optical comparators have their own built in light source.

Principle of Working:
The optical principle adopted in the optical comparators is ‘optical lever’ and is shown in Fig. 8.5.

If a ray of light AC strikes a mirror, it is reflected as ray CO such that:

∠ACN =∠NCO

Figure 8.5 Principle of the optical lever

Now, if the mirror is tilted through an angle a, the reflected ray of light has moved through an angle of 2a.

In optical comparators, the minor is tilted by the measuring plunger movement and the movement of reflected
light is recorded as an image on a screen.

Fig. 8.6 shows the working principle of an optical-mechanical comparator in which both mechanical and optical
levers are used.
Figurer 8.6 An Optical Comparator

Magnification:
The magnification of optical comparator is defined as “the ratio between distance moved by the indicating pointer
(beam) and the displacement of plunger”.

The Magnification of optical comparators is usually 1000:1, with measuring range of plus and minus 0.075 mm.

Advantages of Optical Comparators:

1. High Accuracy:
These comparators have usually a few moving linkage and hence are not subjected to wear tear, and much friction
and give high accuracy.

2. High Range:
These comparators have a scale which can be made past a datum line and thus have high range.

3. High Magnification:
The Magnification is usually high.

4. No Inertia:
A beam of light is used for magnification which has no inertia.

5. Parallax Error:
Parallax error is not there.
Disadvantages of Optical Comparators:
1. Costly:
Optical comparators are costly than other types like mechanical and electrical comparators.

2. Size:
The size of the optical comparator is large.

3. Need Source of Light:

Optical comparators require the electric supply to operate the source of light.

4. Heating of Instrument:
Heating from source of light affects the accuracy of the measurement.

5. Need of Dark Room:

Dark room is required to take readings easily and properly.

6. Reading not Convenient:

Taking readings continuously through the eye-piece in not convenient.

Type # 4. Pneumatic Comparators:

Pneumatic Comparators uses air as a means of magnification in metrology. This was originally developed by the
Solex Company in France for the calibration of carburetors.

The first application was the checking of the bores of motor-car cylinder blocks. Now it is almost used in
production shop for this purpose.

Working Principle:
The Pneumatic Comparator is based on Bernoulli’s theory. The principle of working of a Pneumatic comparator
is shown in figure 8.7. Air at a low (1,5kg./cm2) but constant pressure, ps, is supplied through a small jet ‘c’ into
an intermediate chamber and then pass through a second orifice gauging jet ‘G’ to atmosphere.
The component whose dimensions to be checked is placed below the gauging jet with some air gap as shown on
Fig. 8.7. The amount of air escaping through gap between work piece ‘p’ and gauging jet ‘G’ will depend upon
the gap h. The gap h will affect the intermediate pressure recorded by the manometer “M”.

Figure 8.7 Principle of pneumatic comparator

If the gap ‘h’ is large, pressure recorded would be small. On the other hand if the gap ‘h’ is small, pressure would
be higher.

The gap ‘h’ initially set with the help of known standard usually slips gauges. The component whose dimensions
to be checked is placed by removing the slip gauges.

If the component has variation in size than the gap ‘h’ will increased or decreased. This will cause to change in
intermediate pressure, and will change in the manometer reading. The manometer is calibrated directly to read
linear scale.

Magnification:
A high order of magnification is possible because no physical contact is made to the part being checked. The
Magnification possible with this type of comparator is as high as 30,000: 1, but are usually about 10,000: 1.

Uses and Applications:

Pneumatic Comparators can be applied to internal and external diameter measurements, thickness measurements.
They can also be applied to check the concentricity of angular parts, depth of blind holes, parallelism flatness,
hole centre distance, etc. Fig. 8.8 shows some applications of pneumatic comparators.

Figure 8.8 Pneumatic comparator applications

Advantages of Pneumatic Comparators:

1. High Accuracy:
Since the part to be checked does not comes in contact of measuring probe and hence no wear takes place on the
gauging probe. Also this incorporates very less number of moving parts thus less friction and less inertia will
leads to high accuracy.

2. Higher Magnification:
A high as 30,000:1 magnification can be achieved with pneumatic comparators.

3. Cleaning of Dust:
Jet of air helps in cleaning the dust, if any, from the component being measured.

4. Checking of Surface Positions:

Pneumatic comparators are the best means for determining the ovality, straightness, flatness, squareness,
roundness, taperness and circular bores.

Disadvantages of Pneumatic Comparators:

1. Need of Auxiliary Equipment’s:
Pneumatic comparators require auxiliary equipment for their proper functioning, like accurate pressure regulator.

2. Non-Uniform Scale:
The scale of Pneumatic Comparators is generally not uniform.

3. Not Portable:
The whole apparatus is not portable.

4. Effect of Temp:
Humidity and surface roughness: Pneumatic Comparators are sensitive to temperature and humidity changes.
Their accuracy will also affected by the surface roughness of component being checked.

Type # 5. Fluid Displacement Comparators:

Fluid displacement comparators work on the principle of displacement of fluid. These comparators find only
limited applications in metrology.

Working Principle:
The operation of these comparators depends upon the displacement of fluid from the large section of the
comparator to the relatively smaller section of the comparator with displacement of the feeler or plunger.

The component to be checked is placed below the measuring plunger. If any deviation in size of the component
then the diaphragm deflects a small quantity of fluid. This small quantity of deflected fluid will cause to raise
fluid in capillary tube. A scale is available with the capillary tube with indicates the limit points of fluid raised or
lowered. A fluid displacement comparator is shown in Fig. 8.9.

Figure 8.9 Fluid displacement comparator

Magnification:
Magnification of fluid displacement comparators is approximately given by: