Ballistics is the science of the motion of the projectile and the condition that affects

their motion. It is a science in itself for it is an orderly arranged knowledge, which is a

1
product of series of experimentation, observation and testing. Ballistics is not an exact
science rather it is applied physics or applied science, which is subject to changes and
improvement depending upon the demands of the modern civilization. Motion refers to
the mobility or movement of the projectile from the time it leaves the shell empty, it
leaves the gun muzzle and until it reach its target or fall in the ground. A projectile is
any metallic on non-metallic ball which is propelled from a firearm. Its motion can be
categories into three general types: Direct motion, Rotatory motion and Translation
motion.

3 Types of Motion
1. Direct Motion = is the forward motion of the bullet or shots out of the
shell by the action of the expansive force of gases from a burning gunpowder.
2. Rotatory motion = is the action of the bullet passing through a rifled
bore barrel firearm which is either twisted to the left or to the right.
3. Translational = is the action of bullet once it hits a target and
subsequently ricocheted.

Origin of the Word Ballistics

The word Ballistics was derived from two Greek words. The word “ballo” and the
word “ballein” which literally mean, “to throw”.
The term also said to have been derived from the Roman war machine called
“Ballista”, a gigantic catapult that was used to furl missiles or large object at a distance
like stone, dead animal or even dead person.
The study of Ballistics in the early age is divided into (3) three Divisions: Internal
Ballistics, Exterior or External Ballistics and Terminal Ballistics. From the time the gun
was fired until it reach the target and have its maximum effect. At present ballistics is
branches into four (4) and this is due to its subsequent used in solving problems in
connection with the administration of justice particularly cases involving firearms and
ammunition which is termed as Forensic Ballistics.

Branches of Ballistics
1. Interior (Internal) Ballistics = it treats of the motion of the projectile while it is still
inside the firearm (chamber /barrel) which extends from the breech to the muzzle. The
conditions attributed to internal ballistics are as follows:
a. Firing pin hitting the primer
b. Ignition of the priming mixture
The priming mixture (composing of the KCLO3, sulfur and carbon) located
either at the cavity rim or at the center of the primer upon the striking effect of the
firing pin will ignite and such action is known as “Percussion action”.
c. Combustion of the gun powder/powder charge or propellant.
d. Expansion of heated gas.
e. Pressure developed
f. Energy generated
g. Recoil of the gun

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 Is the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the forward
movement of the bullet upon explosion. The backward or rearward movement of
the gun in relation to the forward movement of the bullet.
Jump is another portion of the recoil action characterized as the backward
and upward movement of that takes place before the bullet leaves the muzzle.
h. Velocity of the bullet inside the barrel
It is the relative speed of the bullet per unit of time while it is still inside the
barrel expressed in feet per second.
i. Rotation of the bullet inside the barrel
j. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet

2. Exterior (external) Ballistics = treats of the attributes or movement of the projectile

after leaving the gun muzzle.
a. Muzzle Blast
Is the noise created at the muzzle point of the gun.
b. Muzzle energy
Energy generated at the muzzle point measured in foot-pound.
c. Trajectory
Refers to the parabola-like flight of the projectile from the time it leaves the
muzzle until it hits the target. It is also described as the actual curve path taken
by a bullet during its.
d. Range
It refers to the imaginary straight distance between the muzzle of the gun
and the target.
d.1. Accurate Range= the distance within which the shooter or
gunner has control of his shots.
d.2. Effective Range = the distance within which when the bullet
was fired it is still capable of inflicting fatal injury.
d.3. Maximum Range= the distance that a projectile can be propelled
from a firearm. The farthest distance the bullet could travel.
e. Velocity
Refers to the rate of speed of the bullet (during its flight) per unit of time
usually express is feet per second (ft/sec.)
f. Pull of Gravity
It is the downward reaction of the bullet towards the earth surface
due to its weight.
g. Air Resistance
Refers to the force of the air encounter by the bullet in its flight.
3. Terminal Ballistics= is that branch of Ballistics which deals with the effects of the
impact of the projectile on the target.
a. Terminal Accuracy
It refers to the size of the bullet grouping on the target.
b. Terminal Energy
Is the energy or force of the projectile when it strikes the target same as
striking energy.
c. Terminal Velocity

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 Is the speed of the bullet upon striking the target.
d. Terminal Penetration
Is the depth of entry of the bullet in the target.
4. Forensic Ballistics
This branch of ballistics is the product of the application of the ballistics to law.
The idea comes with the used of the word forensic. The word Forensic was derived
from the Latin word “forum” meaning a “market place” where people gathered for
public disputation or public discussion. When used in connection with the word ballistics
or other natural science, it suggests a relationship to the courts of justice or legal
proceedings.
Forensic Ballistics is defined as the study of the motion of the projectile as
applied to law or simply the science of firearm identification by means of the ammunition
fired through them.

Scope of Forensic Ballistics

1. Field Investigation
2. Ballistics Technical Examination of the Exhibits
3. Legal Proceeding

The Evolution of Firearms

MAN BEHIND FIREARMS
1. John M. Browning - Wizard of the modern firearms and pioneered the breech
loading single shot rifled which was adopted by Winchester.
2. Samuel Colt - Patented the first practical revolver and maker of the Colt Peace
Maker, a famous revolver in the history.
3. Alexander John Forsyth - Father of the percussion powder.
4. Major Uziel Gal - An Israeli army who designed UZI (Israel) in the year 1950.
5. Col. Calvin H. Goddard - Father of modern Ballistics.
6. John C. Garand - Designed and invented the Semi automatic U.S. Rifle Cal. 30.
M1 garand.
7. George Hyde - A well-known expert in the field of SMG, (also known as grease
gun) developed in 1941. M3A1 (USA).
8. Michael Kalashnikov - Designed the AK (Automat Kalashnikova) 47 (Soviet
Union) adopted by the Russian Army in the year 1951.
9. Horace Smith - Founded the great firm of Smith and Wesson and pioneered in
making breech loading rifles.
10. Eugene Stoner - Designed the U.S. M16 Armalite under licensed by Colt
Company from July 1959 onwards.
11. L.C. Smith - Developed shotgun bearing his name now the Ithaca gun Company.
12. John T. Thompson - Developed in the course of WW1 the Thompson M1A1 and
model of 1928 A1 (USA). Pioneered the making of Thompson sub-machine gun.
13. Daniel B. Wesson - Associates of Horace Smith in the making of Revolver.
14. David “Carbine” Williams - Maker of the first known Carbine.
15. Oliver Winchester - One of the earliest rifle and pistol maker.

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 IMPORTANT DATES IN THE EVOLUTION OF FIREARMS
1242 A.D. Roger Bacon published the “ De Mirabili Potestate Artis et Naturae” (On
the Marvelous Power of Arts and Nature), which noted Black powder
formula.
1498 Introduction of the rifling and sights became better and breech loaders
were attempted although never succeeded yet even multi shots arms due
to lack of good ignition system.
1500’s The development of the Wheel Lock, operates in the same principle as
the modern day cigarette lighter. At mid of 1500’s “snaphaunce” was
developed.
1575 Paper Cartridge was developed. Ball and powder charged were wrapped
in chemically treated paper to allow the carrying of numerous pre-
measured charges or pre loaded rounds.
1750 The development of Breech-loading firearms leading to the making of
FERGUSON Rifle of Major Patrick Ferguson, COLLIER Rifle, which is a
flint lock repeating rifle operated on a revolving principle and, the HALL
Rifle patented in 1811 by Col. John Hall and was the 1st breechloader
adopted by the U.S. Army.
1805 The Percussion System. Alexander John Forsyth discovered a
compound that would ignite upon blow that would ignite the powder
charge. In 1840, it replaces the flintlock ignition and was adopted in 1838
by the British and in 1842 by the American.
1835 The first real cartridge was developed “The Flobert Cap” same as the
BB and was considered the forerunner of .22 short cartridge.
1835 Samuel Colt patented the first revolver and marketed in 1872, a breech
loading revolver.
1836 Pin fire Cartridge, was developed by Le Faucheux. A much real pin fire
cartridge was also developed in the same year by Houiller.
1845 Rim fire cartridge, Flobert developed the BB (bullet breech) cap, which
was considered the forerunner of the .22 cal cartridge. In the same year,
New Havens Arms Company owned by Oliver F. Winchester, through the
effort of Tyler Henry developed a .44 cal rim fire cartridge for Henry
Rifle.
1846 Smokeless powder was discovered. It was used in shotgun first in the
year 1864 by Capt. Eschultze of Prussian Army and in Rifle by the year
1884 by M. Vieille of France.
1873 Colt Peace Maker, model 1873, .45 cal. The most famous revolver in
history and legend was manufactured.
1884 Automatic Machine Gun. Hiram Maxim developed the first fully automatic
gun.

Firearms
Legal Definition of Firearm
Firearms or arms as herein used, includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotgun,
pistol, revolvers, and all other deadly weapons, to which a bullet, ball, shot, shell, or

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other missiles maybe discharge by means of gun powder or other explosives. This term
also includes air rifle, except such of being of small caliber and limited range used as
toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be considered a complete firearm for all purposes
hereof. (Sec 877 Revised Administrative Code/ Sec. 290 national Internal Revenue
Code).
Technical Definition
Firearm is an instrument used for the propulsion of projectile by means of the
expansive force gases coming from burning gunpowder. (FBI manual of Firearms
Identification).
A. Classification of Firearms
A. Two General Classification of Firearms
(According to Interior Barrel Construction)
1.Smooth Bore Firearms = Firearms that have no rifling (lands and grooves) inside
their gun barrel.
Examples: Shotguns and Musket
2. Rifled Bore Firearms = Firearms that have rifling inside their gun barrel.
Examples: Pistols, Revolvers, and other modern weapons.

B. Main Types of Firearms

(According to the Caliber of the projectile propelled)
1. Artillery = Refers to those type of firearms that propels projectile with more than one
inch diameter.
Examples: Cannons, Mortars and Bazookas:
2. Small Arms = Are firearms that propels projectile with less than one inch diameter
and it can be handled, moved and operated by one man.
Examples: Machine gun, shoulder arms and handguns.
2.1 Machine guns
Machine gun is a type of firearm that is primarily designed for military use.
Even in investigation of shooting cases done in the city, it is not usual or common
to encounter this type of firearm having been used. It can be grouped in three
general types:

Sub Machine Gun

Is a light, portable form of machine gun, utilizing a pistol size
ammunition, having a shoulder stock that may or may not be folded and
designed to be fired with both hands.

Shoulder Arms
Shoulder Arms are those types of firearm that were normally fired from
the shoulder.
Rifles= A shoulder weapon designed to fire a projectile with more accuracy through a
long rifled bore barrel, usually more than 22 inches.
Carbine = A short barrel rifle, with its barrel rifle, measuring not longer than 22 inches. It
fires a single projectile though a rifle-bore either semi-automatic or fully automatic, for
every press of the trigger.

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Muskets = is an ancient smoothbore and muzzle loading military shoulder arms
designed to fire a shots or a single round lead ball. A more detailed discussion of
musketeers can be found on chapter 8 in the discussion of ignition system.
Shotgun = A smooth bore and a breech loading shoulder arms designed to fire a
number of lead pellets or a shots in one charge (FBA Manual)

The barrel construction of shotgun may also be found in different bore

construction.
A. cylinder bore type = which the bore size is the same through out the barrel
B. choke bored gun = designed with a diminishing or reducing bore diameter
type towards the muzzle. This type is designed to cause an effect to the travel
of the shots. It makes the shots travel longer before it spreads.
C. “paradox gun”.= still in a very rear occasions another type of shotgun can
be observed to be having rifling only a few inch from its muzzle points.
2.3 Handguns = those type of firearms that are designed or intended to be fired
using one hand.
Ex. Pistols and Revolvers
a. Pistol
In early firearm history, all handguns are generally called as pistols. There
were three classes of pistols in the period. The single shot pistol, the semi
automatic and the revolving pistols now known as the revolver.
b. Revolver
Revolver is a type of firearm designed to position cartridge into position for
firing with the aid of a rotating cylinder serving as its chamber. There are two
types of revolvers according to its mechanical firing action. T
Single action, a type of revolver that needs a manual cocking of the
hammer before squeezing the trigger and the other is Double action, a type of
revolver that does not need manual cocking. Just press the trigger and it both
cocked and released the hammer causing a much faster firing.

C. Types of Firearms
(According of Mechanical Construction)
1. Single shot firearms = types of firearms designed to fire only one shot every
loading.
Examples: Single shot pistols, Revolvers and shotguns.
2. Repeating Arms = A type of firearms designed to fire several loads (shot) in one
loading.
Examples: Automatic pistols revolvers rifles and shotguns.
3. Automatic F/A = type of firearms that constitutes a continuous firing in a single
press of the trigger and while the trigger is press.
Examples: Machine guns and rifles
4. Slide Action type = types of firearms in which loading take place by back and
forth manipulation of the under/over forearms of the gun.
Examples: Shotgun and pistols
5. Bolt Action Type = Type of firearms in which reloading takes place by
manipulating the both back and forth.
Examples: Rifles, shotguns and machine guns.

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 6. Lever type (Break type) = loading takes place by lever action on the firearms.
Examples: Rifles and shotguns.

Miscellaneous Types of Gun

1. Cane gun, knife pistols, cellphone gun, etc. = devices principally designed for
other purpose to which a gun mechanism is incorporated also called as Freakish
gun.
1. Flare gun = designed for tracing or sending signals or locating enemy troops.
2. Freakish gun = a tool in which firearm mechanism is attached to prevent easy
identification.
3. Gas gun = generally referring to all gun designed from firing tear gas.
4. Harpoon guns = refers to a barbed spear in hunting large fish.
5.Liberator = U.S. government made smooth bore gun used in Europe during war
designed to fire an automatic colt pistol cartridge caliber .45.
6. Multi –Barreled gun = refers to all types of gun containing a number of barrels.
7. Paradox gun = a type of gun which contains lands and grooves a few inch from
the muzzle point.
8. Tools = are those devices which resembles a gun designed but are generally
used for construction of furniture.
1. Traps = refers to gun used for trapping animals that are fired to woods.
2. Zip Gun = refers to all type of home made gun.

Ammunition
Legal Definition
Ammunition refers to loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbine, shotgun,
revolvers and pistols from which a ball, shot shell or other missiles maybe fired by
means of gun powder or other explosive. The term also includes ammunition for air
rifles as mentioned elsewhere in the code. (Chapter VII, Sec.290 of NIRC as well as
Sec 877 RAC)

Technical Definition
Ammunition refers to a group of cartridge or to a single cartridge. Cartridge is a
complete unfired unit consisting of bullet (ball), primer (cap), cartridge case (shell) and
gunpowder (propellant).
Origin
The word cartridge was derived from the Latin word “Charta” meaning – a
“paper” and also from the French word “Cartouche” meaning – a rolled paper. This
only indicates that the first type of cartridge was made up of a rolled paper. It was about
the turn of the 16th century that the term “cartridge” comes to use.

A. General types of Ammunition (Fig. 6)

a. Dummy ( used as a model)
b. Drill Ammunition (without gun powder)
c. Black Ammunition (without bullet)
d. Live Ammunition
B. Classification of Cartridge

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 I. According to the Location of the Primer
a. Pin-Fire = is a type of cartridge in which the ignition cap (primer) is
concealed inside the cartridge case and has a pin resting upon it.
b. b. Rim fire = is a type of cartridge in which the priming mixture is located
at the hallow rim of the case can be fired if the cartridge is tuck by the
firing pin on the rim of the case (cavity rim).
c. Center fire = it refers to a cartridge in which primer cup (ignition cap) is
centrally placed in the base of the cartridge case and the priming mixture
is exploded by the impact of the firing pin and with the support of the anvil.
II. According to Rim Diameter
a. Rimmed Case type.
b. Semi-Rimmed type
d. Rimless type
d. Rebated type = refers to the cartridge with rimless pattern, but which has a
rim diameter smaller than the body of the case
e. Belted type = a cartridge with a prominent raise belt around its body just in
front of the extraction groove.
III. According Caliber
Calibers in cartridges in inches and their approximate equivalent in mm
and use:

CAL. MM.
Cal. .22 about 5.59 mm- used in revolver, pistol and rifles
Cal. .25 about 6.35 mm- used in pistols and rifles.
Cal. .30 about 7.63 mm- (mauser) – for carbines and other rifles
Cal. .30 about 7.63 mm (luger)
Cal. .32 about 7.65 mm for automatic pistols and revolvers
Cal. .380 about 9 mm- used for pistols
Cal. .357 used in magnum .357 revolvers
Cal. .45 about 11 mm – used in automatic pistols
Cal. .50 used in .50 cal. Machine gun

Shotgun Cartridge
It refers to a complete unit of unfired cartridge consisting of the pellets, primer,
case, wads and gunpowder .
Gauge of Shotgun
Compared with other types of firearms, shotgun has very unique characteristics
in terms of its diameter designation both for its firearm and cartridge use. The unit of
measurement used in shotgun is expressed in Gauge. This is determined by the
number of solid lead balls of pure lead, each with diameter of the barrel that can be
prepared from one pound of lead. At present the 10-gauge shotgun is considered with
the biggest diameter while the .410 as the smallest one. Listed below are the
equivalents of diameter in gauge to inch.
Gauge Inch
10 .775 inch
12 .729 inch

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 16 .670 inch
20 .615 inch
28 .550 inch
.410 .410 inch
Types of Shots
1. Soft or Drop Shots = made by pure or nearly pure lead, to which a small
amount of arsenic has been added to make it take on the form of a spherical drop as
it falls down the shot tower. This type is easy to deformed or flattened, loose their
velocity quicker, low penetrating power and string out more.
2. Chilled or Hard Shot = is a type of shot with a small amount of antimony
mixed with lead to increase hardness. It does no deform easily, better patterns, less
string and more uniform velocity and penetration.
3. Coated or Plated Shot = also called as “lubaloy” shot. A chilled shot coated
with thin copper through electroplating design for greater strength and elasticity,
great resistance to deformation and leading and better pattern.
Buck Shot = a large size lead shot for used in shotgun

Bullets
The word “Bullet” was derived from French word “Boullette” which means a
small ball. This term is generally used when we are referring to projectile fired from any
small arms, which has a variety of form, especially during the earlier history. In a more
technical sense, bullet refers to a metallic or non-metallic cylindrical ball propelled from
a firearm it is sometimes called as shots or slugs.
Bullets have various types depending upon their specific nature and purpose. In
general bullet can be classified as either Lead or Jacketed.

General Types of Bullets

1. Lead Type – is a type of a bullet that is basically composed of lead
metal. Its used was due to its density; having a good weight is a
small size and easy for casting.
2. Jacketed Type – Is a type of bullet consisting of the regular lead
core, coated with a copper alloy in order to prevent lead
fouling of the barrel and is generally used in pistols and other high power
guns.

According to their Maximum Effect to their targets

1. Ball Type – Is a type of bullet, which is intended for anti-personnel and
general use.
2. Armor piercing – is a type of military bullet designed to penetrate light steel
armor. Its mechanical construction makes it capable of penetrating through some
light vehicles.
3. Explosive Bullet - Is a small bullet containing a charge of explosive, which will
detonate on impact.
4. Incendiary Bullet –Type of military bullet used to cause fire in a target,
generally designed to use by aircraft armament in order for the fuel tanks to ignite.

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 5. Tracer Bullet – a type of military bullet capable of leaving visible marks or
traces while in flight giving the gunner the chance to observe the strike of the
shot or make adjustments in the event of a miss

Cartridge Case
Cartridge Case is the metallic or non-metallic tabular container usually of brass
(70% copper and 30% zinc) designed to unite the bullet, primer and the gunpowder into
one unit. It is also known as shell or casing.
Functions of the Cartridge Case
1. It locates the bullet properly relative to the bore of the firearm.
2. It is used to carry the means of ignition.
3. It provides gas seals at the breech against an unwanted escape of propellant
gas upon firing.
4. Serves as waterproof container for the propellant or powder charge.
5. Acts as the insulator between the propellant and the hot walls of the chamber
in a rapid firing of firearms.

Parts of the Cartridge Case

1. Base= the bottom portion of the cartridge case which contains the head stamp
marking on the base of the shell containing the caliber, manufacturer and in some
cases including the date, trade name, and batch number.
2. Rim= is the part of the cartridge designed to limit the forward movement of the
cartridge to chamber.
3. Extracting grooves= is the circular groove near the rim of the shell designed
for automatic withdrawal of the case from the chamber.
4. Primer Pocket=is that part of the shell which provides the means for the
primer to be put in the central position. Its function is extended to: (a) hold the primer
in place; (b) to provide means to prevent the escape of gas; (c) to provide solid
support for primer anvil.
5. Body= is the cylindrical part of the shell which house the gunpowder.
6. Shoulder= that part of the cartridge case which support the neck of the
cartridge which is evident in a bottleneck type.
7. Cannelure= is the cylindrical groove in the outer surface of the cartridge case
designed to secure the shell to the chamber as well as prevent bullet from being
push down to the powder charge. In some instance it is even being utilized for
identification.
8. Neck= is that part of the shell which is actually occupied by the bullet. This is
obvious in a bottleneck type of shell but not with the straight type.
9. Crimp= is the cylindrical groove on the mouth of the shell designed for two
purposes: One (1) is to hold the bullet and prevent it from being pull out from the
shell and Two (2) to offers resistance to the bullet out of the neck to ensure burning
of the gun powder.
10. Vent or Flash hole= is the hole at the bottom of the primer pocket as the
passage way for the priming mixture to impart an ignition to the propellant charge.

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Primer
Primer (also called CAP) is the ignition system of the cartridge used in a center
fire type, containing a highly sensitive chemical compound that would easily ignite or
bursts into flame when struck by the firing pin. It may either be Berdan or Boxer type. It
is also known as the percussion cup.
The Berdan is a type of primer construction, which was designed in 1860s by
Colonel Hiram S. Berdan of the U.S Army Ordinance Department.
The Boxer on the other hand, was developed by Col. Edward M. Boxer of the
Royal Laboratory at Woolwich Arsenal in the year 1866

Parts of the Primer

1. Primer Cup= Is the brass gilding metal cup which contains the priming
mixture, the disc and the anvil.
2. Priming Mixture= Is the highly sensitive chemical compound which ignites by
the mechanical blow of the firing pin. It is also called as percussion powder.
3. Anvil= Is that portion of the primer which provides solid support and absorbs
the blow of the firing pin causing friction that would initiates ignition.
4. Disc= Is a thin paper or foil which is pressed over the priming mixture in order
to protect it from moisture attack.

Gun Powder
Gunpowder (also called as propellant or Power Charge) is that mixture of
chemicals of various compositions designed to propel the projectile by means of its
expansive force of gas when burned.
Two of the most popular individual whose name is always attached to
gunpowder discovery were Roger Bacon and Berthold Schwartz. Let’s take a short
description of how their names are always mentioned in the history.
Roger Bacon, (1242 A.D.) a Franciscan monk, who wrote the ---“De Mirabili
Potestate Artis et Naturae” (On the Marvelous Power of Art and Nature), including an
anagram.
Berthold Schwartz (whose real name was Constantin Anklitzen), a mysterious
monk of Freiburg, who according to legend that is supported by an engraving dated
1643, while experimenting on some powder in a cast iron vessel, he ignited a charge
and thus blew off the lid, and from this deduced the principle of containing a charge in a
tube and propelling a shot (Encyclopedia of ammunition).

The Black Powder

Black powder, the oldest known explosive, was initially made from saltpeter
(75%), charcoal (15%) and sulfur (10%).
These problems in the used of black powder was later remedied with the
introduction of the smokeless powder. According to Harrison, Captain E. Schultze of
the Prussian Army, made the 1 st successful used of smokeless powder in shotgun in the
year 1864. (Although historically nitroglycerine compound was first discovered in 1846).
The basic ingredient used for smokeless powder is a nitrocellulose that was first
produced by adding a nitric acid to cellulose fiber.

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 Later, M. Vieille of French developed the first smokeless powder for riffle in the
year 1884 and named it “poudre B” taken after Gen. Boulanger’s name. In 1887, Alfred
Nobel invented a smokeless powder with nitroglycerine ( 40%0 and nitrocellulose (60%)
as the main composition and called it “Ballistite”. In Great Britain, they utilized picrid acid
in addition to cellulose powder which they called “Lyddite” and in germany TNT (Tri-
nitrololeune ) was the one used, more powerful than picric acid but much difficult to
detonate. Also In the year 1889, Prof. Abel, a British War dept. Chemist developed
“Cordite” a smokeless powder with same composition as Nobel in the form of cords or
sticks. And in early 1890’s smokeless powder had replaced black powder and became
uniformly used worldwide by the year 1900.

Firearms Characteristics
Stages in the manufacture of barrel
A. Drilling
B. Reaming
C. Rifling
This process necessary for the making of the helical groves inside the barrel and
such can be performed in any of the following methods:
1. Hook – cutter system (cutter)
2. Scrape – cutter system (scraper)
3. Broaching system – (broach)
4. Button – system (button)
D. Lapped
The Breech face
Just like any barrel of every firearm, the breech face also bears with it the same
important.

Types of Characteristics in Firearms

A. Class Characteristics = are those properties or attributes of a firearms which
can be determined even before the manufacture of the gun. This is true for such
characteristics are considered to be a manufacture’s designs or specifications and
security.
Class Characteristics of Firearms
1. Bore diameter (caliber or gauge) it is diameter to which the bore was
reamed. The distance measured between two opposite lands inside the
bore in a hundredths or thousandths of an inch. In most express in
either caliber in inch or in millimeters.
2. Number of lands and grooves = the number of lands an grooves inside
the barrel of a given firearm are always the same or equal. It may run from 3
to 8, but the most in the modern firearm are five and six.
Lands = are the elevated portion of the bore of the firearm.
Grooves = are the depressed portion of the bore between the lands.
3. Width of the lands = is dependent upon the bore diameter of the gun,
grooves, width and number. The lands are the remainders of the circumference
after subtracting all the grooves width.

13
 4. Width of the Grooves = is measured as the shortest distance between the
two dies or edge of a grooves.
5. Direction of Twist = rifling inside the barrel of the gun is either twisted to
the left or to the right which cause bullet to rotate as it passes through the bore,
in order to ensure gyroscopic stability in its flight.
6. Pitch of Rifling = it is the measure of the twisting of the lands and
grooves. It refers to the measure of the distance advance by the rifling in order to
make a complete turn inside the barrel.
7. Depth of the Grooves = the groove’s depth if measured on a radius of the
bore. Grooves are usually few thousandths of an inch deep, which equal to the
height of the lands.
B. Individual Characteristics = are meant for those characteristics which are
being determined only after the firearm was already been manufactured. They are
the product of machine imperfections and some later due to the used of the firearms.

Types of Rifling
1. Steyer Type= is the type of rifling having four (4) lands and grooves, right
twist and the width of the lands grooves. (4 RG=L)
2. Carbine Type = rifling having (4) lands and grooves, right twist, the width
of the grooves is two (2) times the width of the lands (4RG2X).
3. Smith and Wesson = rifling having (5) lands and grooves, right hand
twist , the width of the land and grooves are equal. (5RG=L)
4. Colt = type of rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, left twist, the width of
the grooves is twice (2) the width of the lands. (6LG2X)
5. Browning = type of rifling having (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist,
the width of the grooves is twice the width of the lands. (6RG2X)
6. Webley = Rifling having seven (7) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the
width of the groove is three time larger than the boarder of the lands. (7RG3X)
7. Winchester = Rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the
width of the grooves is three time larger the width of the lands.

Individual Characteristics in Firearms

Individual Characteristics in firearms are usually determined by the test
firing which will give us both the test bullet and the test shell that will show the
individuality of its property based on the left marks on every bullet and shell fired
from it. Such marks are so minute that the use of the lens with high magnification
is necessary to discover individuality.

Marks found of Fired Bullets

1. Land Marks = marks left on a fired bullet caused by its contact to the
elevated portion (lands) of the bore of the firearm. It appears as slight
depressions or scratches the cylindrical surface of the fired bullet.
2. Groove Marks = marks found on a fired bullet caused by the grooves of
the barrel which is the same number as that of the landmarks.
3. Skid Marks = Marks that are generally found on fired bullet from a
revolver. It is more or less located at the anterior portion of the fired bullet due to

Groove 14
Mark
 its forward movement from the chamber to the barrel of the gun before it initially
rotates.
4. Stripping Marks = marks found on those bullet fired from a “loose-fit”
barrel wherein the rifling are already been badly worn-out.
Worn-out in the rifling of the firearms can be cause by either chemical
reaction brought about by rust (corrosion) or through excessive use (erosion)
5. Shaving Marks = marks commonly found on bullet fired from a revolver
cause by its forward movement to the barrel that is poorly aligned to the cylinder.
6. Slippage Marks = marks found on fired bullets passing through either on
oily or oversize barrel.

Marks found on Fired Shells

1. Firing Pin Mark = mark generally found at the base portion of the cartridge
case more specifically near center of the primer cup in a center fire cartridge or at
the rim cavity of a rim-fire cartridge. Considered as one of the most important
marks for identification of firearms using fired shell.
2. Breech Face Mark = mark found at the base portion of the shell cause by
backward movement to the breech face of the block of the firearm.
3. Extractor Mark = mark mostly found at the extracting groove of the fired
cartridge case. Cause by its withdrawal from the chamber.
4. Ejector mark = mark generally found on cartridge case fired from an
automatic firearms. It is located near the rim of the case cause by the throwing of
shell from the firearm to the area of shooting.
5. Shearing Mark = sometimes called “Secondary Firing Pin mark” found in
the primer near the firing pin mark.
6. Magazine Lip Mark = marking found at the two sides of the rim cause by
the magazine lips during the loading of the cartridge into the magazine for firing.
7. Chamber Mark = mark mostly found around the body of the fired cartridge
case cause by the irregularities of nips inside the walls of the chamber.
In fired cartridge case either of the Firing pin mark and the Breech face
marks can be used as basis for identification, in the absence or none use of
these two, both the ejector and extractor marks can be utilized as secondary
choice.

Problems in Forensic Ballistics

1. Given a fired bullet to determine the caliber, type; make of firearm from which
it was fired.
2. Given a fired shell to determine the caliber, type, and make of firearm from
which it was fired.
3. Given a fired bullet and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the
fired bullet was fired from the suspected firearm.
4. Given a fired shell and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the
fired bullet was fired from the suspected firearm.
5. Given two or more fired bullets, to determine whether or not they were fired
from one and the same firearm.

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 6. Given two or more fired shell/cartridge case, to determine whether or not they
were fired from one and the same firearm.

Scientific Instrument Used in Firearms Identification

1. Analytical or Torsion Balance
2. Bullet Comparison Microscope
3. Bullet Recovery box
4. Chronograph
5. Caliper
6. CP-6 Comparison Projector
7. Electronic Gun maker
8. Helixometer
9. Micrometer
10. Onoscope
11. Shadowgraph
12. Stereoscopic Microscope
13. Taper Gauge
Torsion Balance

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