AS AND

A-LEVEL
PHYSICS
AS (7407)
A-level (7408)
Specifications
For teaching from September 2015 onwards
For AS exams in May/June 2016 onwards
For A-level exams in May/June 2017 onwards

Version 1.3 June 2017

 AS Physics (7407) and A-level Physics (7408). AS exams May/June 2016 onwards. A-level exams May/June 2017 onwards. Version 1.2

Contents
1 Introduction 5
1.1 Why choose AQA for AS and A-level Physics 5
1.2 Support and resources to help you teach 6

2 Specification at a glance 8
2.1 Subject content 8
2.2 AS 8
2.3 A-level 9

3 Subject content 10
3.1 Measurements and their errors 10
3.2 Particles and radiation 12
3.3 Waves 17
3.4 Mechanics and materials 21
3.5 Electricity 27
3.6 Further mechanics and thermal physics (A-level only) 30
3.7 Fields and their consequences (A-level only) 34
3.8 Nuclear physics (A-level only) 41
3.9 Astrophysics (A-level only) 45
3.10 Medical physics (A-level only) 49
3.11 Engineering physics (A-level only) 54
3.12 Turning points in physics (A-level only) 58
3.13 Electronics (A-level only) 62

4 Scheme of assessment 68
4.1 Aims 68
4.2 Assessment objectives 69
4.3 Assessment weightings 70

5 General administration 71
5.1 Entries and codes 71
5.2 Overlaps with other qualifications 71
5.3 Awarding grades and reporting results 71
5.4 Re-sits and shelf life 72
5.5 Previous learning and prerequisites 72
5.6 Access to assessment: diversity and inclusion 72
5.7 Working with AQA for the first time 73
5.8 Private candidates 73

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6 Mathematical requirements and exemplifications 74
6.1 Arithmetic and numerical computation 75
6.2 Handling data 76
6.3 Algebra 77
6.4 Graphs 78
6.5 Geometry and trigonometry 79

7 AS practical assessment 80
7.1 Use of apparatus and techniques 80
7.2 AS required practical activities 81
7.3 Practical skills to be assessed in written papers 81

8 A-level practical assessment 83

8.1 Use of apparatus and techniques 83
8.2 A-level required practical activities 84
8.3 Practical skills to be assessed in written papers 85
8.4 A-level practical skills to be assessed via endorsement 86

Are you using the latest version of these specifications?

•• You will always find the most up-to-date version of these specifications on our website at
aqa.org.uk/7408
•• We will write to you if there are significant changes to these specifications.

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1 Introduction
1.1 Why choose AQA for AS and A-level Physics
Relevant in the classroom and the real world
We involved over a thousand teachers in developing these specifications, to ensure that the subject
content is relevant to real world experiences and is interesting to teach and learn. We’ve also presented
it in a straightforward way, giving you the freedom to teach in the way that works for your students.
These Physics specifications are a stepping stone to future study, which is why we also consulted
universities, to ensure these specifications allow students to develop the skills that they want to see.
This approach has led to specifications that will support you to inspire students, nurture a passion for
physics and lay the groundwork for further study in science or engineering.

The way you teach – your choice

Our specifications have been written in a context-free style. This means that you can select the
contexts and applications that you feel bring the subject alive. We have also produced a range of
excellent teaching resources that you can use alongside your own material.
The AS and A-level courses allow for a choice of starting points. You can choose a familiar starting
point for students, such as mechanics, or begin with fresh topics to create interest and a new
dimension to their knowledge, such as particle physics.
We’ve provided five optional topics as part of the full A-level course so students can focus on their
areas of interest:
•• Astrophysics
•• Medical physics
•• Turning points in physics
•• Engineering physics (re-branded Applied physics)
•• Electronics.

Practical at the heart of science

Like you, we believe that Physics is fundamentally an experimental subject. These specifications
provide numerous opportunities to use practical experiences to link theory to reality, and equip students
with the essential practical skills they need.

Teach AS and A-level together

We’ve ensured that the AS and A-level are fully co-teachable. The AS exams include similar questions
to those in the A-level, with less difficulty.
We’ve created our A-level content with our GCSE in mind to make sure that there is a seamless
progression between qualifications. We’ve also followed ASE guidance on use of scientific terminology
across our science subjects.

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Assessment success
We’ve tested our specimen question papers with students, making sure they’re interesting,
straightforward and clear and hold no hidden surprises. To ensure that your students are rewarded for
the physics skills and knowledge they’ve developed, our exams include:
•• specified content tested in each of the first two papers at A-level to help students prepare for their
exams
•• a variety of assessment styles within each paper so students can confidently engage with the
questions
•• multiple choice questions are included to allow for a wide breadth of Physics from the specifications
to be tested.
With us, your students will get the results they deserve, from the exam board you trust.
You can find out about all our science qualifications at aqa.org.uk/science

1.2 Support and resources to help you teach

We know that support and resources are vital for your teaching and that you have limited time to find
or develop good quality materials. So we’ve worked with experienced teachers to provide you with a
range of resources that will help you confidently plan, teach and prepare for exams.

Teaching resources
We have too many Physics resources to list here so visit aqa.org.uk/7408 to see them all. They include:
•• additional practice papers to help students prepare for exams
•• guidance on how to plan both the AS and A-level courses with supporting schemes of work for
co-teaching
•• several AQA-approved student textbooks reviewed by experienced senior examiners
•• guidance on maths skills requirements with additional support via Exampro
•• resources to support key topics (including the optional topics), with detailed lesson plans written by
experienced teachers
•• training courses to help you deliver AQA Physics qualifications
•• subject expertise courses for all teachers, from newly-qualified teachers who are just getting started
to experienced teachers looking for fresh inspiration.

Preparing for exams

Visit aqa.org.uk/7408 for everything you need to prepare for our exams, including:
•• past papers, mark schemes and examiners’ reports
•• specimen papers and mark schemes for new courses
•• Exampro: a searchable bank of past AQA exam questions
•• exemplar student answers with examiner commentaries.

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Analyse your students' results with Enhanced Results Analysis (ERA)

Find out which questions were the most challenging, how the results compare to previous years and
where your students need to improve. ERA, our free online results analysis tool, will help you see where
to focus your teaching. Register at aqa.org.uk/era
For information about results, including maintaining standards over time, grade boundaries and our
post-results services, visit aqa.org.uk/results

Keep your skills up to date with professional development

Wherever you are in your career, there’s always something new to learn. As well as subject-specific
training, we offer a range of courses to help boost your skills.
•• Improve your teaching skills in areas including differentiation, teaching literacy and meeting Ofsted
requirements.
•• Prepare for a new role with our leadership and management courses.
You can attend a course at venues around the country, in your school or online – whatever suits your
needs and availability. Find out more at coursesandevents.aqa.org.uk

Get help and support

Visit our website for

information, guidance,
support and resources at
aqa.org.uk/7408
You can talk directly to the
Physics subject team
E: [email protected]
T: 01483 477 756

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2 Specification at a glance
These qualifications are linear. Linear means that students will sit all the AS exams at the end of their
AS course and all the A-level exams at the end of their A-level course.

2.1 Subject content

Core content Options
1 Measurements and their errors (page 10) 9 Astrophysics (A-level only) (page 45)
2 Particles and radiation (page 12) 10 Medical physics (A-level only) (page 49)
3 Waves (page 17) 11 Engineering physics (A-level only) (page 54)
4 Mechanics and materials (page 21) 12 Turning points in physics (A-level only)
(page 58)
5 Electricity (page 27)
13 Electronics (A-level only) (page 62)
6 Further mechanics and thermal physics
(A-level only) (page 30)
7 Fields and their consequences (A-level only)
(page 34)
8 Nuclear physics (A-level only) (page 41)

2.2 AS
Assessments
Paper 1 + Paper 2
What's assessed What's assessed
Sections 1 – 5 Sections 1 – 5
Assessed Assessed
•• written exam: 1 hour 30 minutes •• written exam: 1 hour 30 minutes
•• 70 marks •• 70 marks
•• 50% of AS •• 50% of AS
Questions Questions
70 marks of short and long answer questions Section A: 20 marks of short and long answer
split by topic. questions on practical skills and data analysis
Section B: 20 marks of short and long answer
questions from across all areas of AS content
Section C: 30 multiple choice questions

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2.3 A-level
Assessments
Paper 1 + Paper 2 + Paper 3
What's assessed What's assessed What's assessed
Sections 1 – 5 and 6.1 Sections 6.2 Section A: Compulsory
(Periodic motion) (Thermal Physics), 7 and 8 section: Practical skills and
data analysis
Assumed knowledge from
sections 1 to 6.1 Section B: Students enter for
one of sections 9, 10, 11, 12
or 13
Assessed Assessed Assessed
•• written exam: 2 hours •• written exam: 2 hours •• written exam: 2 hours
•• 85 marks •• 85 marks •• 80 marks
•• 34% of A-level •• 34% of A-level •• 32% of A-level
Questions Questions Questions
60 marks of short and long 60 marks of short and long 45 marks of short and
answer questions and 25 answer questions and 25 long answer questions on
multiple choice questions multiple choice questions practical experiments and
on content. on content. data analysis.
35 marks of short and
long answer questions on
optional topic.

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3 Subject content
Sections 3.1 to 3.5 are designed to be covered in the first year of the A-level and are also the AS
subject content. So you can teach AS and A-level together.
These specifications are presented in a two column format. The left hand column contains the
specification content that all students must cover, and that can be assessed in the written papers. The
right hand column exemplifies the opportunities for skills to be developed throughout the course. As
such knowledge of individual experiments on the right hand side is not assumed knowledge for the
assessment. The codes in the right hand column refer to the skills in relevant appendices. MS refers to
the Mathematical Skills, AT refers to the Apparatus and Techniques and PS refers to the Practical Skills.

3.1 Measurements and their errors

Content in this section is a continuing study for a student of physics. A working knowledge of the
specified fundamental (base) units of measurement is vital. Likewise, practical work in the subject
needs to be underpinned by an awareness of the nature of measurement errors and of their numerical
treatment. The ability to carry through reasonable estimations is a skill that is required throughout the
course and beyond.

3.1.1 Use of SI units and their prefixes

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Fundamental (base) units.
Use of mass, length, time, amount of substance,
temperature, electric current and their associated SI units.
SI units derived.
Knowledge and use of the SI prefixes, values and standard
form.
The fundamental unit of light intensity, the candela, is
excluded.
Students are not expected to recall definitions of the
fundamental quantities.
Dimensional analysis is not required.
Students should be able to use the prefixes:
T, G, M, k, c, m, μ, n, p, f ,
Students should be able to convert between different units of
the same quantity, eg J and eV, J and kW h.

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3.1.2 Limitation of physical measurements

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Random and systematic errors. PS 2.3
Precision, repeatability, reproducibility, resolution and Students should be able to identify
accuracy. random and systematic errors and
suggest ways to reduce or remove
Uncertainty: them.
Absolute, fractional and percentage uncertainties represent PS 3.3
uncertainty in the final answer for a quantity.
Students should understand the link
Combination of absolute and percentage uncertainties. between the number of significant
Represent uncertainty in a data point on a graph using error figures in the value of a quantity and
bars. its associated uncertainty.

Determine the uncertainties in the gradient and intercept of a MS 1.5

straight-line graph. Students should be able to combine
Individual points on the graph may or may not have uncertainties in cases where the
associated error bars. measurements that give rise to the
uncertainties are added, subtracted,
multiplied, divided, or raised to
powers. Combinations involving
trigonometric or logarithmic functions
will not be required.

3.1.3 Estimation of physical quantities

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Orders of magnitude. MS 1.4
Estimation of approximate values of physical quantities. Students should be able to estimate
approximate values of physical
quantities to the nearest order of
magnitude.
Students should be able to use
these estimates together with their
knowledge of physics to produce
further derived estimates also to the
nearest order of magnitude.

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3.2 Particles and radiation
This section introduces students both to the fundamental properties of matter, and to electromagnetic
radiation and quantum phenomena. Teachers may wish to begin with this topic to provide a new
interest and knowledge dimension beyond GCSE. Through a study of these topics, students
become aware of the way ideas develop and evolve in physics. They will appreciate the importance
of international collaboration in the development of new experiments and theories in this area of
fundamental research.

3.2.1 Particles
3.2.1.1 Constituents of the atom
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Simple model of the atom, including the proton, neutron
and electron. Charge and mass of the proton, neutron and
electron in SI units and relative units.
The atomic mass unit (amu) is included in the A-level
Nuclear physics section.
Specific charge of the proton and the electron, and of nuclei
and ions.
Proton number Z , nucleon number A, nuclide notation.
A
Students should be familiar with the Z X notation.
Meaning of isotopes and the use of isotopic data.

3.2.1.2 Stable and unstable nuclei

Content Opportunities for skills
development
The strong nuclear force; its role in keeping the nucleus AT i
stable; short-range attraction up to approximately 3 fm,
very-short range repulsion closer than approximately 0.5 fm. Demonstration of the range of alpha
particles using a cloud chamber,
Unstable nuclei; alpha and beta decay. spark counter or Geiger counter.
−
Equations for alpha decay, β decay including the need for MS 0.2
the neutrino.
Use of prefixes for small and large
The existence of the neutrino was hypothesised to account distance measurements.
for conservation of energy in beta decay.

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3.2.1.3 Particles, antiparticles and photons

Content Opportunities for skills
development
For every type of particle, there is a corresponding AT i
antiparticle.
Detection of gamma radiation.
Comparison of particle and antiparticle masses, charge and
rest energy in MeV. MS 1.1, 2.2

Students should know that the positron, antiproton, Students could determine the
antineutron and antineutrino are the antiparticles of the frequency and wavelength of the two
electron, proton, neutron and neutrino respectively. gamma photons produced when a
‘slow’ electron and a ‘slow’ positron
Photon model of electromagnetic radiation, the Planck annihilate each other.
constant.
hc The PET scanner could be used as an
E = hf =  application of annihilation.
Knowledge of annihilation and pair production and the
energies involved.
2
The use of E = mc is not required in calculations.

3.2.1.4 Particle interactions

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Four fundamental interactions: gravity, electromagnetic, PS 1.2
weak nuclear, strong nuclear. (The strong nuclear force may
be referred to as the strong interaction.) Momentum transfer of a heavy ball
thrown from one person to another.
The concept of exchange particles to explain forces
between elementary particles.
0
Knowledge of the gluon, Z and graviton will not be tested.
The electromagnetic force; virtual photons as the
exchange particle.
− +
The weak interaction limited to β and β decay, electron
+ −
capture and electron–proton collisions; W and W as the
exchange particles.
Simple diagrams to represent the above reactions or
interactions in terms of incoming and outgoing particles and
exchange particles.

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3.2.1.5 Classification of particles
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Hadrons are subject to the strong interaction. AT k
The two classes of hadrons: Use of computer simulations of
•• baryons (proton, neutron) and antibaryons particle collisions.
(antiproton and antineutron)
ATl
•• mesons (pion, kaon).
Cosmic ray showers as a source of
Baryon number as a quantum number. high energy particles including pions
and kaons; observation of stray
Conservation of baryon number.
tracks in a cloud chamber; use of two
The proton is the only stable baryon into which other Geiger counters to detect a cosmic
baryons eventually decay. ray shower.

The pion as the exchange particle of the strong nuclear force.

The kaon as a particle that can decay into pions.
Leptons: electron, muon, neutrino (electron and muon types
only) and their antiparticles.
Lepton number as a quantum number; conservation of
lepton number for muon leptons and for electron leptons.
The muon as a particle that decays into an electron.
Strange particles
Strange particles as particles that are produced through the
strong interaction and decay through the weak interaction
(eg kaons).
Strangeness (symbol s) as a quantum number to reflect the
fact that strange particles are always created in pairs.
Conservation of strangeness in strong interactions.
Strangeness can change by 0, +1 or -1 in weak interactions.
Appreciation that particle physics relies on the collaborative
efforts of large teams of scientists and engineers to validate
new knowledge.

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3.2.1.6 Quarks and antiquarks

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Properties of quarks and antiquarks: charge, baryon number
and strangeness.
Combinations of quarks and antiquarks required for baryons
(proton and neutron only), antibaryons (antiproton and
antineutron only) and mesons (pion and kaon only).
Only knowledge of up (u), down (d) and strange (s) quarks
and their antiquarks will be tested.
The decay of the neutron should be known.

3.2.1.7 Applications of conservation laws

Content Opportunities for skills
development
− +
Change of quark character in β and in β decay.
Application of the conservation laws for charge, baryon
number, lepton number and strangeness to particle
interactions. The necessary data will be provided in
questions for particles outside those specified.
Students should recognise that energy and momentum are
conserved in interactions.

3.2.2 Electromagnetic radiation and quantum phenomena

3.2.2.1 The photoelectric effect
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Threshold frequency; photon explanation of threshold PS 3.2 / MS 2.3
frequency.
Demonstration of the photoelectric
Work function , stopping potential. effect using a photocell or an
electroscope with a zinc plate
Photoelectric equation: h f =  + Ek (max attachment and UV lamp.
Ek (max   is the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons.
The experimental determination of stopping potential is
not required.

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3.2.2.2 Collisions of electrons with atoms
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Ionisation and excitation; understanding of ionisation and
excitation in the fluorescent tube.
The electron volt.
Students will be expected to be able to convert eV into J
and vice versa.

3.2.2.3 Energy levels and photon emission

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Line spectra (eg of atomic hydrogen) as evidence for AT j / MS 0.1, 0.2
transitions between discrete energy levels in atoms.
Observation of line spectra using a
h f = E1 − E2 diffraction grating.
In questions, energy levels may be quoted in J or eV.

3.2.2.4 Wave-particle duality

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Students should know that electron diffraction suggests that PS 1.2
particles possess wave properties and the photoelectric
effect suggests that electromagnetic waves have a Demonstration using an electron
particulate nature. diffraction tube.

Details of particular methods of particle diffraction are not MS 1.1, 2.3

expected. Use prefixes when expressing
h wavelength values.
de Broglie wavelength  = mv where mv is the momentum.
Students should be able to explain how and why the amount
of diffraction changes when the momentum of the particle is
changed.
Appreciation of how knowledge and understanding of the
nature of matter changes over time.
Appreciation that such changes need to be evaluated
through peer review and validated by the scientific
community.

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3.3 Waves
GCSE studies of wave phenomena are extended through a development of knowledge of the
characteristics, properties, and applications of travelling waves and stationary waves. Topics treated
include refraction, diffraction, superposition and interference.

3.3.1 Progressive and stationary waves

3.3.1.1 Progressive waves
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Oscillation of the particles of the medium; PS 2.3 / MS 0.1, 4.7 / AT a, b
amplitude, frequency, wavelength, speed, phase, phase Laboratory experiment to determine
1 the speed of sound in free air using
difference, c = f       f = T direct timing or standing waves with a
Phase difference may be measured as angles (radians and graphical analysis.
degrees) or as fractions of a cycle.

3.3.1.2 Longitudinal and transverse waves

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Nature of longitudinal and transverse waves. PS 2.2, 2.4 / MS 1.2, 3.2, 3.4, 3.5 / AT i
Examples to include: sound, electromagnetic waves, and Students can investigate the factors
waves on a string. that determine the speed of a water
wave.
Students will be expected to know the direction of
displacement of particles/fields relative to the direction of
energy propagation and that all electromagnetic waves
travel at the same speed in a vacuum.
Polarisation as evidence for the nature of transverse waves.
Applications of polarisers to include Polaroid material and
the alignment of aerials for transmission and reception.
Malus’s law will not be expected.

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3.3.1.3 Principle of superposition of waves and formation of stationary waves
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Stationary waves. MS 4.7 / PS 1.2, 2.1 / AT i
Nodes and antinodes on strings. Students can investigate the factors
1 T that determine the frequency of
f = 2l  for first harmonic. stationary wave patterns of a
The formation of stationary waves by two waves of the same stretched string.
frequency travelling in opposite directions.
A graphical explanation of formation of stationary waves will
be expected.
Stationary waves formed on a string and those produced
with microwaves and sound waves should be considered.
Stationary waves on strings will be described in terms of
harmonics. The terms fundamental (for first harmonic) and
overtone will not be used.
Required practical 1: Investigation into the variation of
the frequency of stationary waves on a string with length,
tension and mass per unit length of the string.

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3.3.2 Refraction, diffraction and interference

3.3.2.1 Interference
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Path difference. Coherence. AT i
Interference and diffraction using a laser as a source of Investigation of two-source
monochromatic light. interference with sound, light and
microwave radiation.
Young’s double-slit experiment: the use of two coherent
sources or the use of a single source with double slits to
produce an interference pattern.
D
Fringe spacing, w = s

Production of interference pattern using white light.

Students are expected to show awareness of safety issues
associated with using lasers.
Students will not be required to describe how a laser works.
Students will be expected to describe and explain interference
produced with sound and electromagnetic waves.
Appreciation of how knowledge and understanding of nature
of electromagnetic radiation has changed over time.
Required practical 2: Investigation of interference effects
to include the Young’s slit experiment and interference by a
diffraction grating.

3.3.2.2 Diffraction
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Appearance of the diffraction pattern from a single slit using
monochromatic and white light.
Qualitative treatment of the variation of the width of the
central diffraction maximum with wavelength and slit
width. The graph of intensity against angular separation is
not required.
Plane transmission diffraction grating at normal incidence.
Derivation of dsin = n
Use of the spectrometer will not be tested.
Applications of diffraction gratings.

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3.3.2.3 Refraction at a plane surface
Content Opportunities for skills
development
c
MS 0.6, 4.1
Refractive index of a substance, n = cs

Students should recall that the refractive index of air is

approximately 1.
Snell’s law of refraction for a boundary  n1sin 1 = n2sin 2
n2
Total internal reflection sin c = n1

Simple treatment of fibre optics including the function of

the cladding.
Optical fibres will be limited to step index only.
Material and modal dispersion.
Students are expected to understand the principles and
consequences of pulse broadening and absorption.

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3.4 Mechanics and materials

Vectors and their treatment are introduced followed by development of the student’s knowledge and
understanding of forces, energy and momentum. The section continues with a study of materials
considered in terms of their bulk properties and tensile strength. As with earlier topics, this section and
also the following section Electricity would provide a good starting point for students who prefer to
begin by consolidating work.

3.4.1 Force, energy and momentum

3.4.1.1 Scalars and vectors
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Nature of scalars and vectors. MS 0.6, 4.2, 4.4, 4.5 / PS 1.1
Examples should include: Investigation of the conditions for
equilibrium for three coplanar forces
velocity/speed, mass, force/weight, acceleration, acting at a point using a force board.
displacement/distance.
Addition of vectors by calculation or scale drawing.
Calculations will be limited to two vectors at right angles.
Scale drawings may involve vectors at angles other than 90
°.
Resolution of vectors into two components at right angles to
each other.
Examples should include components of forces along and
perpendicular to an inclined plane.
Problems may be solved either by the use of resolved forces
or the use of a closed triangle.
Conditions for equilibrium for two or three coplanar
forces acting at a point. Appreciation of the meaning of
equilibrium in the context of an object at rest or moving
with constant velocity.

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3.4.1.2 Moments
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Moment of a force about a point.
Moment defined as force × perpendicular distance from the
point to the line of action of the force.
Couple as a pair of equal and opposite coplanar forces.
Moment of couple defined as force × perpendicular distance
between the lines of action of the forces.
Principle of moments.
Centre of mass.
Knowledge that the position of the centre of mass of uniform
regular solid is at its centre.

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3.4.1.3 Motion along a straight line

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Displacement, speed, velocity, acceleration. MS 3.6, 3.7 / PS 1.1, 3.1
∆s
v= ∆t Distinguish between instantaneous
∆v velocity and average velocity.
a= ∆t
MS 3.5, 3.6
Calculations may include average and instantaneous speeds
and velocities. Measurements and calculations from
displacement–time, velocity–time and
Representation by graphical methods of uniform and non- acceleration–time graphs.
uniform acceleration.
MS 0.5, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4
Significance of areas of velocity–time and acceleration–time
graphs and gradients of displacement–time and velocity–time Calculations involving motion in a
graphs for uniform and non-uniform acceleration eg graphs straight line.
for motion of bouncing ball.
Equations for uniform acceleration:
v = u + at
u+v
s= 2 t
at2
 s = ut + 2

v2 = u2 + 2as
Acceleration due to gravity, g.

Required practical 3: Determination of g by a freefall MS 0.3, 1.2, 3.7 / AT d

method. Students should be able to identify
random and systematic errors in the
experiment and suggest ways to
remove them.
MS 3.9
Determine g from a graph.

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3.4.1.4 Projectile motion
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Independent effect of motion in horizontal and vertical PS 2.2, 3.1
directions of a uniform gravitational field. Problems will be
solvable using the equations of uniform acceleration. Investigation of the factors that
determine the motion of an object
Qualitative treatment of friction. through a fluid.
Distinctions between static and dynamic friction will not be
tested.
Qualitative treatment of lift and drag forces.
Terminal speed.
Knowledge that air resistance increases with speed.
Qualitative understanding of the effect of air resistance on
the trajectory of a projectile and on the factors that affect the
maximum speed of a vehicle.

3.4.1.5 Newton’s laws of motion

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Knowledge and application of the three laws of motion in PS 4.1 / MS 0.5, 3.2 / AT a, b, d
appropriate situations.
Students can verify Newton’s second
F = ma for situations where the mass is constant. law of motion.
MS 4.1, 4.2
Students can use free-body diagrams.

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3.4.1.6 Momentum
Content Opportunities for skills
development
momentum = mass × velocity MS 2.2, 2.3

Conservation of linear momentum. Students can apply conservation of

momentum and rate of change of
Principle applied quantitatively to problems in one momentum to a range of examples.
dimension.
∆ mv
Force as the rate of change of momentum, F = ∆t

Impulse = change in momentum

F∆t = ∆ mv , where F is constant.
Significance of the area under a force–time graph.
Quantitative questions may be set on forces that vary with
time. Impact forces are related to contact times (eg kicking a
football, crumple zones, packaging).
Elastic and inelastic collisions; explosions.
Appreciation of momentum conservation issues in the
context of ethical transport design.

3.4.1.7 Work, energy and power

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Energy transferred, W = Fscos  MS 0.3 / PS 3.3, 4.1 / AT a, b, f.
∆W
rate of doing work = rate of energy transfer, P = ∆t = Fv Investigate the efficiency of an electric
motor being used to raise a mass
Quantitative questions may be set on variable forces. through a measured height. Students
should be able to identify random and
Significance of the area under a force–displacement graph.
useful output power
systematic errors in the experiment
efficiency = input power and suggest ways to remove them.

Efficiency can be expressed as a percentage.

3.4.1.8 Conservation of energy

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Principle of conservation of energy. MS 0.4, 2.2
1 2
∆Ep = mg∆h and Ek = 2 mv Estimate the energy that can be
derived from food consumption.
Quantitative and qualitative application of energy
conservation to examples involving gravitational potential
energy, kinetic energy, and work done against resistive
forces.

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3.4.2 Materials
3.4.2.1 Bulk properties of solids
Content Opportunities for skills
development
m MS 0.2, 4.3 / PS 3.3, 4.1
Density,  = V
Students can compare the use of
Hooke’s law, elastic limit, analogue and digital meters.
F = k∆L , k  as stiffness and spring constant. MS 0.4, 4.3 / AT e
Tensile strain and tensile stress. Estimate the volume of an object
leading to an estimate of its density.
Elastic strain energy, breaking stress.
1
energy stored = 2 F∆L = area under  force−extension graph

Description of plastic behaviour, fracture and brittle

behaviour linked to force–extension graphs.
Quantitative and qualitative application of energy
conservation to examples involving elastic strain energy and
energy to deform.
Spring energy transformed to kinetic and gravitational
potential energy.
Interpretation of simple stress–strain curves.
Appreciation of energy conservation issues in the context of
ethical transport design.

3.4.2.2 The Young modulus

Content Opportunities for skills
development
tensile stress FL MS 3.1
Young modulus = tensile strain = A∆L

Use of stress–strain graphs to find the Young modulus.

(One simple method of measurement is required.)
Required practical 4: Determination of the Young modulus
by a simple method.

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3.5 Electricity
This section builds on and develops earlier study of these phenomena from GCSE. It provides
opportunities for the development of practical skills at an early stage in the course and lays the
groundwork for later study of the many electrical applications that are important to society.

3.5.1 Current electricity

3.5.1.1 Basics of electricity
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Electric current as the rate of flow of charge; potential AT b, f
difference as work done per unit charge.
∆Q W Students can construct circuits from
I= ∆ t ,  V = Q the range of components.
V
Resistance defined as R = I

3.5.1.2 Current–voltage characteristics

Content Opportunities for skills
development
For an ohmic conductor, semiconductor diode, and
filament lamp.
Ohm’s law as a special case where I ∝ V under constant
physical conditions.
Unless specifically stated in questions, ammeters and
voltmeters should be treated as ideal (having zero and
infinite resistance respectively).
Questions can be set where either I or V is on the horizontal
axis of the characteristic graph.

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3.5.1.3 Resistivity
Content Opportunities for skills
development
RA MS 3.2, 4.3 / PS 1.2 / AT a, b, f, g
Resistivity,  = L
Investigation of the variation of
Description of the qualitative effect of temperature on the resistance of a thermistor with
resistance of metal conductors and thermistors. temperature.
Only negative temperature coefficient (ntc) thermistors will
be considered.
Applications of thermistors to include temperature sensors
and resistance–temperature graphs.
Superconductivity as a property of certain materials which
have zero resistivity at and below a critical temperature
which depends on the material.
Applications of superconductors to include the production
of strong magnetic fields and the reduction of energy loss in
transmission of electric power.
Critical field will not be assessed.
Required practical 5: Determination of resistivity of a wire
using a micrometer, ammeter and voltmeter.

3.5.1.4 Circuits
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Resistors: MS 0.3 / PS 4.1 / AT a, b, f, g
in series,  RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + … Students can construct circuits with
1 1 1 1 various component configurations
in  parallel, R = R + R + R +  …
T 1 2 3
and measure currents and potential
Energ y and  power equations:  E = IV t; differences.
V2
P = IV = I 2R = R

The relationships between currents, voltages and

resistances in series and parallel circuits, including cells in
series and identical cells in parallel.
Conservation of charge and conservation of energy in dc
circuits.

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3.5.1.5 Potential divider

Content Opportunities for skills
development
The potential divider used to supply constant or variable MS 3.2 / PS 4.1 / AT f
potential difference from a power supply.
Students can investigate the
The use of the potentiometer as a measuring instrument is behaviour of a potential divider circuit.
not required.
MS 3.2 / AT g
Examples should include the use of variable resistors,
thermistors, and light dependent resistors (LDR) in the Students should design and construct
potential divider. potential divider circuits to achieve
various outcomes.

3.5.1.6 Electromotive force and internal resistance

Content Opportunities for skills
development
E
= Q ,= I R+r
Terminal pd; emf
Students will be expected to understand and perform
calculations for circuits in which the internal resistance of
the supply is not negligible.
Required practical 6: Investigation of the emf and internal MS 3.1, 3.3 / PS 2.2, 3.1 / AT f
resistance of electric cells and batteries by measuring the
variation of the terminal pd of the cell with current in it.

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3.6 Further mechanics and thermal physics (A-level only)
The earlier study of mechanics is further advanced through a consideration of circular motion and simple
harmonic motion (the harmonic oscillator). A further section allows the thermal properties of materials, the
properties and nature of ideal gases, and the molecular kinetic theory to be studied in depth.

3.6.1 Periodic motion (A-level only)

3.6.1.1 Circular motion (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Motion in a circular path at constant speed implies there is MS 0.4
an acceleration and requires a centripetal force.
v
Estimate the acceleration and
Magnitude of angular speed  = r = 2 f centripetal force in situations that
involve rotation.
Radian measure of angle.
Direction of angular velocity will not be considered.
v2
Centripetal acceleration a = r = 2r
The derivation of the centripetal acceleration formula will not
be examined.
mv2
Centripetal force F = r = m2r

3.6.1.2 Simple harmonic motion (SHM) (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Analysis of characteristics of simple harmonic motion (SHM). AT i, k
Condition for SHM: a ∝ − x Data loggers can be used to produce
2 s − t, v − t and a − t graphs for SHM.
Defining equation: a = −  x
2 2 MS 3.6, 3.8, 3.9, 3.12
x = Acos t and v = ±  A − x
Sketch relationships between x, v, a
Graphical representations linking the variations of x, v and a a − t  for simple harmonic oscillators.
and
with time.
Appreciation that the v − t graph is derived from the gradient
of the x − t graph and that the a − t graph is derived from
the gradient of the v − t graph.
Maximum speed = A
2
Maximum acceleration =  A

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3.6.1.3 Simple harmonic systems (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development
m
MS 4.6 / AT b, c
Study of mass-spring system: T = 2 k
l
Students should recognise the use
Study of simple pendulum: T = 2 g of the small-angle approximation in
the derivation of the time period for
Questions may involve other harmonic oscillators (eg liquid examples of approximate SHM.
in U-tube) but full information will be provided in questions
where necessary.
Variation of Ek, Ep, and total energy with both displacement
and time.
Effects of damping on oscillations.
Required practical 7: Investigation into simple harmonic
motion using a mass–spring system and a simple pendulum.

3.6.1.4 Forced vibrations and resonance (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Qualitative treatment of free and forced vibrations. AT g, i, k
Resonance and the effects of damping on the sharpness of Investigation of the factors that
resonance. determine the resonant frequency of a
driven system.
Examples of these effects in mechanical systems and
situations involving stationary waves.

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3.6.2 Thermal physics (A-level only)
3.6.2.1 Thermal energy transfer (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Internal energy is the sum of the randomly distributed kinetic MS 1.5 / PS 2.3 / AT a, b, d, f
energies and potential energies of the particles in a body.
Investigate the factors that affect the
The internal energy of a system is increased when energy change in temperature of a substance
is transferred to it by heating or when work is done on it using an electrical method or the
(and vice versa), eg a qualitative treatment of the first law of method of mixtures.
thermodynamics.
Students should be able to identify
Appreciation that during a change of state the potential random and systematic errors in the
energies of the particle ensemble are changing but not the experiment and suggest ways to
kinetic energies. Calculations involving transfer of energy. remove them.
For a change of temperature: Q = mc ∆  where c is specific PS 1.1, 4.1 / AT k
heat capacity.
Investigate, with a data logger and
Calculations including continuous flow. temperature sensor, the change in
temperature with time of a substance
For a change of state Q = ml where l is the specific undergoing a phase change when
latent heat. energy is supplied at a constant rate.

3.6.2.2 Ideal gases (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Gas laws as experimental relationships between p, V , T and
the mass of the gas.
Concept of absolute zero of temperature.
Ideal gas equation: pV = nRT for n moles and pV = NkT
for N molecules.
Work done = p∆V
Avogadro constant N A, molar gas constant R, Boltzmann
constant k
Molar mass and molecular mass.
Required practical 8: Investigation of Boyle's law (constant MS 3.3, 3.4, 3.14 / AT a
temperature) and Charles’s law (constant pressure) for a gas.

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3.6.2.3 Molecular kinetic theory model (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Brownian motion as evidence for existence of atoms.
Explanation of relationships between p, V and T in terms of
a simple molecular model.
Students should understand that the gas laws are empirical
in nature whereas the kinetic theory model arises from
theory.
1 2
Assumptions leading to pV = 3 Nm crms    including
derivation of the equation and calculations.
A simple algebraic approach involving conservation of
momentum is required.
Appreciation that for an ideal gas internal energy is kinetic
energy of the atoms.
Use of average molecular kinetic energy =
1 2 3 3RT
2m crms = 2 kT = 2N A

Appreciation of how knowledge and understanding of the

behaviour of a gas has changed over time.

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3.7 Fields and their consequences (A-level only)
The concept of field is one of the great unifying ideas in physics. The ideas of gravitation, electrostatics
and magnetic field theory are developed within the topic to emphasise this unification. Many ideas from
mechanics and electricity from earlier in the course support this and are further developed. Practical
applications considered include: planetary and satellite orbits, capacitance and capacitors, their charge
and discharge through resistors, and electromagnetic induction. These topics have considerable impact
on modern society.

3.7.1 Fields (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Concept of a force field as a region in which a body
experiences a non-contact force.
Students should recognise that a force field can be
represented as a vector, the direction of which must be
determined by inspection.
Force fields arise from the interaction of mass, of static
charge, and between moving charges.
Similarities and differences between gravitational and
electrostatic forces:
Similarities: Both have inverse-square force laws that have
many characteristics in common, eg use of field lines, use of
potential concept, equipotential surfaces etc
Differences: masses always attract, but charges may attract
or repel

3.7.2 Gravitational fields (A-level only)

3.7.2.1 Newton's law (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Gravity as a universal attractive force acting between all matter. MS 0.4
Gm1m2
Magnitude of force between point masses: F = r2 where Students can estimate the
G is the gravitational constant. gravitational force between a variety
of objects.

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3.7.2.2 Gravitational field strength (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Representation of a gravitational field by gravitational field
lines.
F
g as force per unit mass as defined by g = m

GM
Magnitude of g in a radial field given by g  = r2

3.7.2.3 Gravitational potential (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Understanding of definition of gravitational potential, MS 3.8, 3.9
including zero value at infinity.
Students use graphical
Understanding of gravitational potential difference. representations to investigate
relationships between v, r and g.
Work done in moving mass m given by ∆W = m∆V
Equipotential surfaces.
Idea that no work is done when moving along an
equipotential surface.
GM
V in a radial field given by V = − r

Significance of the negative sign.

Graphical representations of variations of g and V with r.
∆V
V related to g by: g = − ∆r

∆ V from area under graph of g against r.

3.7.2.4 Orbits of planets and satellites (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Orbital period and speed related to radius of circular orbit; MS 0.4
2 3
derivation of T ∝ r
Estimate various parameters of
Energy considerations for an orbiting satellite. planetary orbits, eg kinetic energy of a
planet in orbit.
Total energy of an orbiting satellite.
MS 3.11
Escape velocity.
Use logarithmic plots to show
Synchronous orbits. relationships between T and r for
given data.
Use of satellites in low orbits and geostationary orbits, to
include plane and radius of geostationary orbit.

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3.7.3 Electric fields (A-level only)
3.7.3.1 Coulomb's law (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Force between point charges in a vacuum: MS 0.3, 2.3
1 Q1Q2
F= 4𝀵𝀵0 r2 Students can estimate the magnitude
of the electrostatic force between
Permittivity of free space, 0 various charge configurations.
Appreciation that air can be treated as a vacuum when
calculating force between charges.
For a charged sphere, charge may be considered to be at
the centre.
Comparison of magnitude of gravitational and electrostatic
forces between subatomic particles.

3.7.3.2 Electric field strength (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Representation of electric fields by electric field lines. PS 1.2, 2.2 / AT b
Electric field strength. Students can investigate the patterns
F of various field configurations using
E as force per unit charge defined by E = Q conducting paper (2D) or electrolytic
V tank (3D).
Magnitude of E in a uniform field given by E = d

Derivation from work done moving charge between plates:

Fd =   QΔV
Trajectory of moving charged particle entering a uniform
electric field initially at right angles.
1 Q
Magnitude of E in a radial field given by E = 4𝀵𝀵0 r2

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3.7.3.3 Electric potential (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Understanding of definition of absolute electric potential,
including zero value at infinity, and of electric potential
difference.
Work done in moving charge Q given by ∆ W = Q ∆ V
Equipotential surfaces.
No work done moving charge along an equipotential surface.
1 Q
Magnitude of V in a radial field given by V = 4𝀵𝀵0 r

Graphical representations of variations of E and V with r.

∆V
V related to E by E = ∆r

∆V from the area under graph of E against r.

3.7.4 Capacitance (A-level only)

3.7.4.1 Capacitance (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Q
Definition of capacitance: C = V

3.7.4.2 Parallel plate capacitor (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development
A0r PS 1.2, 2.2, 4.3 / AT f, g
Dielectric action in a capacitor C = d
Determine the relative permittivity
Relative permittivity and dielectric constant. of a dielectric using a parallel-plate
capacitor.
Students should be able to describe the action of a simple
polar molecule that rotates in the presence of an electric field. Investigate the relationship
between C and the dimensions of a
parallel-plate capacitor eg using a
capacitance meter.

3.7.4.3 Energy stored by a capacitor (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Interpretation of the area under a graph of charge against pd.
1 1 1 Q2
E = 2 QV = 2 CV 2 = 2   C

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3.7.4.4 Capacitor charge and discharge (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Graphical representation of charging and discharging of
capacitors through resistors. Corresponding graphs for Q, V
and I against time for charging and discharging.
Interpretation of gradients and areas under graphs where
appropriate.
Time constant RC .
Calculation of time constants including their determination
from graphical data.
Time to halve, T ½ = 0.69RC
t
− RC
Quantitative treatment of capacitor discharge, Q = Q0e
Use of the corresponding equations for V and I .
t
− RC
Quantitative treatment of capacitor charge, Q = Q0 1 − e

Required practical 9: Investigation of the charge and MS 3.8, 3.10, 3.11 / PS 2.2, 2.3 / AT
discharge of capacitors. Analysis techniques should include f, k
log-linear plotting leading to a determination of the time
constant, RC

3.7.5 Magnetic fields (A-level only)

3.7.5.1 Magnetic flux density (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Force on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field: F = BIl
when field is perpendicular to current.
Fleming’s left hand rule.
Magnetic flux density B and definition of the tesla.
Required practical 10: Investigate how the force on a wire
varies with flux density, current and length of wire using a
top pan balance.

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3.7.5.2 Moving charges in a magnetic field (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Force on charged particles moving in a magnetic field, MS 4.3
F = BQv when the field is perpendicular to velocity.
Convert between 2D representations
Direction of force on positive and negative charged particles. and 3D situations.
Circular path of particles; application in devices such as the
cyclotron.

3.7.5.3 Magnetic flux and flux linkage (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Magnetic flux defined by  = BA where B is normal to A.
Flux linkage as N where N is the number of turns cutting
the flux.
Flux and flux linkage passing through a rectangular coil
rotated in a magnetic field:
flux linkage N = BANcos
Required practical 11: Investigate, using a search coil and
oscilloscope, the effect on magnetic flux linkage of varying
the angle between a search coil and magnetic field direction.

3.7.5.4 Electromagnetic induction (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Simple experimental phenomena.
Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws.
Magnitude of induced emf = rate of change of flux linkage
∆
=N ∆t

Applications such as a straight conductor moving in a

magnetic field.
emf induced in a coil rotating uniformly in a magnetic field:
 = BANsin t

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3.7.5.5 Alternating currents (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Sinusoidal voltages and currents only; root mean square,
peak and peak-to-peak values for sinusoidal waveforms only.
I0 V0
I rms = 2
;  V rms = 2

Application to the calculation of mains electricity peak and

peak-to-peak voltage values.
Use of an oscilloscope as a dc and ac voltmeter, to measure
time intervals and frequencies, and to display ac waveforms.
No details of the structure of the instrument are required but
familiarity with the operation of the controls is expected.

3.7.5.6 The operation of a transformer (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Ns Vs
MS 0.3 / AT b, h
The transformer equation:  N p = Vp Investigate relationships between
I SV S currents, voltages and numbers of
Transformer efficiency =   I coils in transformers.
PV P

Production of eddy currents.

Causes of inefficiencies in a transformer.
Transmission of electrical power at high voltage including
calculations of power loss in transmission lines.

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3.8 Nuclear physics (A-level only)

This section builds on the work of Particles and radiation to link the properties of the nucleus to the
production of nuclear power through the characteristics of the nucleus, the properties of unstable
nuclei, and the link between energy and mass. Students should become aware of the physics that
underpins nuclear energy production and also of the impact that it can have on society.

3.8.1 Radioactivity (A-level only)

3.8.1.1 Rutherford scattering (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Qualitative study of Rutherford scattering.
Appreciation of how knowledge and understanding of the
structure of the nucleus has changed over time.

3.8.1.2 α, β and γ radiation (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Their properties and experimental identification using simple
absorption experiments; applications eg to relative hazards
of exposure to humans.
Applications also include thickness measurements of
aluminium foil paper and steel.
k
Inverse-square law for γ radiation: I = x2

Experimental verification of inverse-square law.

Applications eg to safe handling of radioactive sources.
Background radiation; examples of its origins and
experimental elimination from calculations.
Appreciation of balance between risk and benefits in the
uses of radiation in medicine.
Required practical 12: Investigation of the inverse-square
law for gamma radiation.

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3.8.1.3 Radioactive decay (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Random nature of radioactive decay; constant decay MS 1.3, 3.10, 3.11 / PS 3.1, 3.2
probability of a given nucleus;
∆N Investigate the decay equation using
  ∆ t = − N a variety of approaches (including
the use of experimental data, dice
N = N 0e−t simulations etc) and a variety of
analytical methods.
Use of activity, A = N
Modelling with constant decay probability.
Questions may be set which require students to use
A = A0e−t
Questions may also involve use of molar mass or the
Avogadro constant.
ln2
Half-life equation: T ½ = 

Determination of half-life from graphical decay data

including decay curves and log graphs.
Applications eg relevance to storage of radioactive waste,
radioactive dating etc.

3.8.1.4 Nuclear instability (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Graph of N against Z for stable nuclei.
+ −
Possible decay modes of unstable nuclei including α, β , β
and electron capture.
Changes in N and Z caused by radioactive decay and
representation in simple decay equations.
Questions may use nuclear energy level diagrams.
Existence of nuclear excited states; γ ray emission;
application eg use of technetium-99m as a γ source in
medical diagnosis.

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3.8.1.5 Nuclear radius (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Estimate of radius from closest approach of alpha particles MS 1.4
and determination of radius from electron diffraction.
Make order of magnitude calculations
Knowledge of typical values for nuclear radius. of the radius of different atomic nuclei.
Students will need to be familiar with the Coulomb equation
for the closest approach estimate.
Dependence of radius on nucleon number:
R = R0 A1/3 derived from experimental data.
Interpretation of equation as evidence for constant density
of nuclear material.
Calculation of nuclear density.
Students should be familiar with the graph of intensity
against angle for electron diffraction by a nucleus.

3.8.1.6 Mass and energy (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development
2
Appreciation that E = mc applies to all energy changes,
Simple calculations involving mass difference and binding
energy.
Atomic mass unit, u.
Conversion of units; 1 u = 931.5 MeV.
Fission and fusion processes.
Simple calculations from nuclear masses of energy released
in fission and fusion reactions.
Graph of average binding energy per nucleon against
nucleon number.
Students may be expected to identify, on the plot, the
regions where nuclei will release energy when undergoing
fission/fusion.
Appreciation that knowledge of the physics of nuclear energy
allows society to use science to inform decision making.

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3.8.1.7 Induced fission (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development
Fission induced by thermal neutrons; possibility of a chain
reaction; critical mass.
The functions of the moderator, control rods, and coolant in
a thermal nuclear reactor.
Details of particular reactors are not required.
Students should have studied a simple mechanical model of
moderation by elastic collisions.
Factors affecting the choice of materials for the moderator,
control rods and coolant. Examples of materials used for
these functions.

3.8.1.8 Safety aspects (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development
Fuel used, remote handling of fuel, shielding, emergency
shut-down.
Production, remote handling, and storage of radioactive
waste materials.
Appreciation of balance between risk and benefits in the
development of nuclear power.

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3.9 Astrophysics (A-level only)

Fundamental physical principles are applied to the study and interpretation of the Universe. Students gain
deeper insight into the behaviour of objects at great distances from Earth and discover the ways in which
information from these objects can be gathered. The underlying physical principles of the devices used
are covered and some indication is given of the new information gained by the use of radio astronomy.
The discovery of exoplanets is an example of the way in which new information is gained by astronomers.

3.9.1 Telescopes (A-level only)

3.9.1.1 Astronomical telescope consisting of two converging lenses (A-level only)
Content
Ray diagram to show the image formation in normal adjustment.
Angular magnification in normal adjustment.
angle subtended by image at eye
M = angle subtended by object at unaided eye

Focal lengths of the lenses.

f
M =   fo
e

3.9.1.2 Reflecting telescopes (A-level only)

Content
Cassegrain arrangement using a parabolic concave primary mirror and convex secondary mirror.
Ray diagram to show path of rays through the telescope up to the eyepiece.
Relative merits of reflectors and refractors including a qualitative treatment of spherical and
chromatic aberration.

3.9.1.3 Single dish radio telescopes, I-R, U-V and X-ray telescopes (A-level only)
Content
Similarities and differences of radio telescopes compared to optical telescopes. Discussion should
include structure, positioning and use, together with comparisons of resolving and collecting powers.

3.9.1.4 Advantages of large diameter telescopes (A-level only)

Content
Minimum angular resolution of telescope.

Rayleigh criterion, 𑩈 𑩈 D

Collecting power is proportional to diameter 2.

Students should be familiar with the rad as the unit of angle.
Comparison of the eye and CCD as detectors in terms of quantum efficiency, resolution, and
convenience of use.
No knowledge of the structure of the CCD is required.

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3.9.2 Classification of stars (A-level only)
3.9.2.1 Classification by luminosity (A-level only)
Content
Apparent magnitude, m.
The Hipparcos scale.
Dimmest visible stars have a magnitude of 6.
Relation between brightness and apparent magnitude. Difference of 1 on magnitude scale is equal to
an intensity ratio of 2.51.
Brightness is a subjective scale of measurement.

3.9.2.2 Absolute magnitude, M (A-level only)

Content
Parsec and light year.
d
Definition of M , relation to m: m – M = 5 log 10

3.9.2.3 Classification by temperature, black-body radiation (A-level only)

Content
Stefan’s law and Wien’s displacement law.
General shape of black-body curves, use of Wien’s displacement law to estimate black-body
temperature of sources.
Experimental verification is not required.
maxT  =  constant  =  2.9  ×  10−3 m K
Assumption that a star is a black body.
Inverse square law, assumptions in its application.
Use of Stefan’s law to compare the power output, temperature and size of stars
P = AT 4

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3.9.2.4 Principles of the use of stellar spectral classes (A-level only)

Description of the main classes:
Spectral Intrinsic Temperature  /  K Prominent absorption lines
class colour
O blue 25 000 – 50 000 He+, He, H
B blue 11 000 – 25 000 He, H
A blue-white 7 500 – 11 000 H (strongest)
ionized metals
F white 6 000 – 7 500 ionized metals
G yellow-white 5 000 – 6 000 ionized & neutral metals
K orange 3 500 – 5 000 neutral metals
M red < 3 500 neutral atoms, TiO

Temperature related to absorption spectra limited to Hydrogen Balmer absorption lines: requirement for
atoms in an n = 2 state.

3.9.2.5 The Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram (A-level only)

Content
General shape: main sequence, dwarfs and giants.
Axis scales range from –10 to +15 (absolute magnitude) and 50 000 K to 2 500 K (temperature) or
OBAFGKM (spectral class).
Students should be familiar with the position of the Sun on the HR diagram.
Stellar evolution: path of a star similar to our Sun on the HR diagram from formation to white dwarf.

3.9.2.6 Supernovae, neutron stars and black holes (A-level only)

Content
Defining properties: rapid increase in absolute magnitude of supernovae; composition and density of
neutron stars; escape velocity > c for black holes.
Gamma ray bursts due to the collapse of supergiant stars to form neutron stars or black holes.
Comparison of energy output with total energy output of the Sun.
Use of type 1a supernovae as standard candles to determine distances. Controversy concerning
accelerating Universe and dark energy.
Students should be familiar with the light curve of typical type 1a supernovae.
Supermassive black holes at the centre of galaxies.
2GM
Calculation of the radius of the event horizon for a black hole, Schwarzschild radius Rs , Rs ≈   c2

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3.9.3 Cosmology (A-level only)
3.9.3.1 Doppler effect (A-level only)
Content
∆f v ∆ v
f = c and z =  = − c for v ≪ c applied to optical and radio frequencies.
Calculations on binary stars viewed in the plane of orbit.
Galaxies and quasars.

3.9.3.2 Hubble's law (A-level only)

Content
Red shift v = Hd
Simple interpretation as expansion of universe; estimation of age of universe, assuming H is constant.
Qualitative treatment of Big Bang theory including evidence from cosmological microwave
background radiation, and relative abundance of hydrogen and helium.

3.9.3.3 Quasars (A-level only)

Content
Quasars as the most distant measurable objects.
Discovery of quasars as bright radio sources.
Quasars show large optical red shifts; estimation involving distance and power output.
Formation of quasars from active supermassive black holes.

3.9.3.4 Detection of exoplanets (A-level only)

Content
Difficulties in the direct detection of exoplanets.
Detection techniques will be limited to variation in Doppler shift (radial velocity method) and the
transit method.
Typical light curve.

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3.10 Medical physics (A-level only)

Students with an interest in biological and medical topics are offered the opportunity to study some of
the applications of physical principles and techniques in medicine. The physics of the eye and ear as
sensory organs is discussed. The important and developing field of medical imaging, with both non-
ionising and ionising radiations is considered. Further uses of ionising radiation are developed in a
section on radiation therapy.

3.10.1 Physics of the eye (A-level only)

3.10.1.1 Physics of vision (A-level only)
Content
The eye as an optical refracting system, including ray diagrams of image formation.
Sensitivity of the eye; spectral response as a photodetector.
Spatial resolution of the eye; explanation in terms of the behaviour of rods and cones.

3.10.1.2 Defects of vision and their correction using lenses (A-level only)
Content
Properties of converging and diverging lenses; principal focus, focal length and power,
1 1 1 1 v
power =   f ;    u + v = f ;m = u

Myopia, hypermetropia, astigmatism.

Ray diagrams and calculations of powers (in dioptres) of correcting lenses for myopia and hypermetropia.
The format of prescriptions for astigmatism.

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3.10.2 Physics of the ear (A-level only)
3.10.2.1 Ear as a sound detection system (A-level only)
Content
Simple structure of the ear, transmission processes.

3.10.2.2 Sensitivity and frequency response (A-level only)

Content
Production and interpretation of equal loudness curves.
Human perception of relative intensity levels and the need for a logarithmic scale to reflect this.
Definition of intensity.
I −12 
Intensit y level  = 10 log I0 where the threshold of hearing I 0 = 1.0  × 10 W m
−2

Measurement of sound intensity levels and the use of dB and dBA scales; relative intensity levels
of sounds.

3.10.2.3 Defects of hearing (A-level only)

Content
The effect on equal loudness curves and the changes experienced in terms of hearing loss due to injury
resulting from exposure to excessive noise or deterioration with age (excluding physiological changes).

3.10.3 Biological measurement (A-level only)

3.10.3.1 Simple ECG machines and the normal ECG waveform (A-level only)
Content
Principles of operation for obtaining the ECG waveform; explanation of the characteristic shape of a
normal ECG waveform.

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3.10.4 Non-ionising imaging (A-level only)

3.10.4.1 Ultrasound imaging (A-level only)
Content
Reflection and transmission characteristics of sound waves at tissue boundaries, acoustic
impedance, Z , and attenuation.
Advantages and disadvantages of ultrasound imaging in comparison with alternatives including
safety issues and resolution.
Piezoelectric devices
Principles of generation and detection of ultrasound pulses.
A-scans and B-scans.
Examples of applications.
Ir Z2 − Z1 2
Use of the equations Z  =    c and Ii = Z2 + Z1

3.10.4.2 Fibre optics and endoscopy (A-level only)

Content
Properties of fibre optics and applications in medical physics; including total internal reflection at the
core–cladding interface.
Physical principles of the optical system of a flexible endoscope; the use of coherent and non-coherent
fibre bundles; examples of use for internal imaging and related advantages.

3.10.4.3 Magnetic resonance (MR) scanner (A-level only)

Content
Basic principles of MR scanner:
•• cross-section of patient scanned using magnetic fields
•• protons initially aligned with spins parallel
•• spinning hydrogen nuclei (protons) precess about the magnetic field lines of a
superconducting magnet
•• 'gradient' field coils used to scan cross-section
•• short radio frequency (RF) pulses cause excitation and change of spin state in successive
small regions
•• protons excited during the scan emit RF signals as they de-excite
•• RF signals detected and the resulting signals are processed by a computer to produce a
visual image.
Students will not be asked about the production of magnetic fields used in an MR scanner, or about
de-excitation relaxation times.

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3.10.5 X-ray imaging (A-level only)
3.10.5.1 The physics of diagnostic X-rays (A-level only)
Content
Physical principles of the production of X-rays; maximum photon energy, energy spectrum;
continuous spectrum and characteristic spectrum.
Rotating-anode X-ray tube; methods of controlling the beam intensity, the photon energy, the image
sharpness and contrast, and the patient dose.

3.10.5.2 Image detection and enhancement (A-level only)

Content
Flat panel (FTP) detector including X-ray scintillator, photodiode pixels, electronic scanning.
Advantages of FTP detector compared with photographic detection.
Contrast enhancement; use of X-ray opaque material as illustrated by the barium meal technique.
Photographic detection with intensifying screen and fluoroscopic image intensification; reasons for
using these.

3.10.5.3 Absorption of X-rays (A-level only)

Content
Exponential attenuation.
Linear coefficient , mass attenuation coefficient m, half-value thickness

I  =  I 0  e−x   m = 

Differential tissue absorption of X-rays excluding details of the absorption processes.

3.10.5.4 CT scanner (A-level only)

Content
Basic principles of CT scanner:
•• movement of X-ray tube
•• narrow, monochromatic X-ray beam
•• array of detectors
•• computer used to process the signals and produce a visual image.
Comparisons will be limited to advantages and disadvantages of image resolution, cost and safety
issues. Students will not be asked about the construction or operation of the detectors.

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3.10.6 Radionuclide imaging and therapy (A-level only)

3.10.6.1 Imaging techniques (A-level only)
Content
Use of a gamma-emitting radioisotope as a tracer; technetium-99m, iodine-131 and indium-111 and
their relevant properties.
The properties should include the radiation emitted, the half-life, the energy of the gamma radiation,
the ability for it to be labelled with a compound with an affinity for a particular organ.
The Molybdenum-Technetium generator, its basic use and importance.
PET scans.

3.10.6.2 Half-life (A-level only)

Content
1 1 1
Physical, biological and effective half-lives; TE   =   T +   T ; definitions of each term.
B P

3.10.6.3 Gamma camera (A-level only)

Content
Basic structure and workings of a photomultiplier tube and gamma camera.

3.10.6.4 Use of high-energy X-rays (A-level only)

Content
External treatment using high-energy X-rays. Methods used to limit exposure to healthy cells.

3.10.6.5 Use of radioactive implants (A-level only)

Content
Internal treatment using beta emitting implants.

3.10.6.6 Imaging comparisons (A-level only)

Content
Students will be required to make comparisons between imaging techniques. Questions will be
limited to consideration of image resolution, convenience and safety issues.

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3.11 Engineering physics (A-level only)
This option offers opportunities for students to reinforce and extend the work of core units
by considering applications in areas of engineering and technology. It extends the student’s
understanding in areas of rotational dynamics and thermodynamics. The emphasis in this option is
on an understanding of the concepts and the application of physics. Questions can be set in novel or
unfamiliar contexts, but in such cases the scene is set and any relevant required information is given.

3.11.1 Rotational dynamics (A-level only)

3.11.1.1 Concept of moment of inertia (A-level only)
Content
I = mr2 for a point mass. I = mr2 for an extended object.
Qualitative knowledge of the factors that affect the moment of inertia of a rotating object.
Expressions for moment of inertia will be given where necessary.

3.11.1.2 Rotational kinetic energy (A-level only)

Content
1
Ek = 2 I2

Factors affecting the energy storage capacity of a flywheel.

Use of flywheels in machines.
Use of flywheels for smoothing torque and speed, and for storing energy in vehicles, and in machines
used for production processes.

3.11.1.3 Rotational motion (A-level only)

Content
∆ ∆
Angular displacement, angular speed, angular velocity, angular acceleration,  = ∆t ,= ∆t

Representation by graphical methods of uniform and non-uniform angular acceleration.

Equations for uniform angular acceleration;
1 +  2
2  =  1  +  t,      =    2 t 
2
t 2 2
 = 1t + 2 , 2 = 1 + 2𝀵𝀵
Students should be aware of the analogy between rotational and translational dynamics.

3.11.1.4 Torque and angular acceleration (A-level only)

Content
T = Fr
T = I

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3.11.1.5 Angular momentum (A-level only)

Content
angular momentum = I
Conservation of angular momentum.
Angular impulse = change in angular momentum; T ∆ t = ∆ I  where T is constant.
Applications may include examples from sport.

3.11.1.6 Work and power (A-level only)

Content
W = T; P = T
Awareness that frictional torque has to be taken into account in rotating machinery.

3.11.2 Thermodynamics and engines (A-level only)

3.11.2.1 First law of thermodynamics (A-level only)
Content
Quantitative treatment of first law of thermodynamics, Q =   ∆ U + W
where Q is energy transferred to the system by heating, ∆ U is increase in internal energy and W is
work done by the system.
Applications of first law of thermodynamics.

3.11.2.2 Non-flow processes (A-level only)

Content
Isothermal, adiabatic, constant pressure and constant volume changes.
pV   =  nRT
adiabatic change :  pV γ  =  constant
isothermal change :  pV   =  constant
at constant pressure W   =   pΔV
Application of first law of thermodynamics to the above processes.

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3.11.2.3 The p–V diagram (A-level only)
Content
Representation of processes on p–V diagram.
Estimation of work done in terms of area below the graph.
Extension to cyclic processes: work done per cycle = area of loop
Expressions for work done are not required except for the constant pressure case, W   =   pΔV

3.11.2.4 Engine cycles (A-level only)

Content
Understanding of a four-stroke petrol engine cycle and a diesel engine cycle, and of the
corresponding indicator diagrams.
Comparison with the theoretical diagrams for these cycles; use of indicator diagrams for predicting
and measuring power and efficiency
input power = calorific value × fuel flow rate
Indicated power as area of p−V loop × no. of cycles per second × no. of cylinders
Output or brake power, P = T
friction power = indicated power – brake power
Engine efficiency; overall, thermal and mechanical efficiencies.
brake power
Overall efficiency = input power
indicated power
Thermal efficiency = input power
brake power
Mechanical efficiency = indicated power

A knowledge of engine constructional details is not required.

Questions may be set on other cycles, but they will be interpretative and all essential information will
be given.

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3.11.2.5 Second Law and engines (A-level only)

Content
Impossibility of an engine working only by the First Law.
Second Law of Thermodynamics expressed as the need for a heat engine to operate between a
source and a sink.
W QH − QC
efficiency = QH =  QH
T H −  T C
maximum theoretical efficiency = TH

source at TH
QH

W
QC

sink at TC

Reasons for the lower efficiencies of practical engines.

Maximising use of W and QH for example in combined heat and power schemes.

3.11.2.6 Reversed heat engines (A-level only)

Content
Basic principles and uses of heat pumps and refrigerators.
A knowledge of practical heat pumps or refrigerator cycles and devices is not required.

hot space at TH
QH
W
QC
cold space at TC

Coefficients of performance:
QC QC TC
refrigerator: COPref = W = QH − QC =  T − TC
H

QH QH TH
heat pump: COPhp = W = QH − QC =  T
H − TC

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3.12 Turning points in physics (A-level only)
This option is intended to enable key concepts and developments in physics to be studied in
greater depth than in the core content. Students will be able to appreciate, from historical and
conceptual viewpoints, the significance of major paradigm shifts for the subject in the perspectives of
experimentation and understanding. Many present-day technological industries are the consequence
of these key developments and the topics in the option illustrate how unforeseen technologies can
develop from new discoveries.

3.12.1 The discovery of the electron (A-level only)

3.12.1.1 Cathode rays (A-level only)
Content
Production of cathode rays in a discharge tube.

3.12.1.2 Thermionic emission of electrons (A-level only)

Content
The principle of thermionic emission.
1
Work done on an electron accelerated through a pd V ;   2 mv2 = eV

3.12.1.3 Specific charge of the electron (A-level only)

Content
e
Determination of the specific charge of an electron, me , by any one method.
e
Significance of Thomson’s determination of me

Comparison with the specific charge of the hydrogen ion.

3.12.1.4 Principle of Millikan’s determination of the electronic charge, e (A-level only)

Content
Condition for holding a charged oil droplet, of charge Q, stationary between oppositely charged
parallel plates.
QV
d  = mg

Motion of a falling oil droplet with and without an electric field; terminal speed to determine the mass
and the charge of the droplet.
Stokes’ Law for the viscous force on an oil droplet used to calculate the droplet radius.
F = 6𝀵𝀵rv
Significance of Millikan’s results.
Quantisation of electric charge.

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3.12.2 Wave-particle duality (A-level only)

3.12.2.1 Newton’s corpuscular theory of light (A-level only)
Content
Comparison with Huygens’ wave theory in general terms.
The reasons why Newton’s theory was preferred.

3.12.2.2 Significance of Young’s double slits experiment (A-level only)

Content
Explanation for fringes in general terms, no calculations are expected.
Delayed acceptance of Huygens’ wave theory of light.

3.12.2.3 Electromagnetic waves (A-level only)

Content
Nature of electromagnetic waves.
1
Maxwell’s formula for the speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum c = 00

where 0 is the permeability of free space and 0 is the permittivity of free space.
Students should appreciate that 0 relates to the electric field strength due to a charged object in free
space and 0 relates to the magnetic flux density due to a current-carrying wire in free space.
Hertz’s discovery of radio waves including measurements of the speed of radio waves.
Fizeau’s determination of the speed of light and its implications.

3.12.2.4 The discovery of photoelectricity (A-level only)

Content
The ultraviolet catastrophe and black-body radiation.
Planck’s interpretation in terms of quanta.
The failure of classical wave theory to explain observations on photoelectricity.
Einstein’s explanation of photoelectricity and its significance in terms of the nature of
electromagnetic radiation.

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3.12.2.5 Wave–particle duality (A-level only)
Content
h
de Broglie’s hypothesis: p =   ;
h
= 2meV  

Low-energy electron diffraction experiments; qualitative explanation of the effect of a change of

electron speed on the diffraction pattern.

3.12.2.6 Electron microscopes (A-level only)

Content
Estimate of anode voltage needed to produce wavelengths of the order of the size of the atom.
Principle of operation of the transmission electron microscope (TEM).
Principle of operation of the scanning tunnelling microscope (STM).

3.12.3 Special relativity (A-level only)

3.12.3.1 The Michelson-Morley experiment (A-level only)
Content
Principle of the Michelson-Morley interferometer.
Outline of the experiment as a means of detecting absolute motion.
Significance of the failure to detect absolute motion.
The invariance of the speed of light.

3.12.3.2 Einstein’s theory of special relativity (A-level only)

Content
The concept of an inertial frame of reference.
The two postulates of Einstein’s theory of special relativity:
1 physical laws have the same form in all inertial frames
2 the speed of light in free space is invariant.

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3.12.3.3 Time dilation (A-level only)

Content
Proper time and time dilation as a consequence of special relativity.
Time dilation:
t0
t= v2
 
1−
c2

Evidence for time dilation from muon decay.

3.12.3.4 Length contraction (A-level only)

Content
Length of an object having a speed v
v2
l = l0 1 − c2

3.12.3.5 Mass and energy (A-level only)

Content

m0c2
Equivalence of mass and energy, E = mc2 ; E = v2
1−
c2

Graphs of variation of mass and kinetic energy with speed.

Bertozzi’s experiment as direct evidence for the variation of kinetic energy with speed.

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3.13 Electronics (A-level only)
This option is designed for those who wish to learn more about modern electronic technologies as a
development of their core work in electricity. A variety of discrete devices is introduced followed by
discussions of both analogue and digital techniques ranging from the operational amplifier to digital
signal processing. The option ends with a look at the issues surrounding data communication.

3.13.1 Discrete semiconductor devices (A-level only)

3.13.1.1 MOSFET (metal-oxide semiconducting field-effect transistor) (A-level only)
Content
Simplified structure, behaviour and characteristics.
Drain, source and gate.
V DS, V GS, I DSS, and V th

Use as a switch, use as a device with a very high input resistance.

Use in N-channel, enhancement mode only is required.

3.13.1.2 Zener diode (A-level only)

Content
Characteristic curve showing zener breakdown voltage and typical minimum operating current.
Anode and cathode.
Use with a resistor as a constant voltage source.
Use to provide a reference voltage.
Use as a stabiliser is not required.

3.13.1.3 Photodiode (A-level only)

Content
Characteristic curves and spectral response curves.
Use in photo-conductive mode as a detector in optical systems.
Use with scintillator to detect atomic particles.

3.13.1.4 Hall effect sensor (A-level only)

Content
Use as magnetic field sensor to monitor attitude.
Use in tachometer.
Principles of operation are not required.

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3.13.2 Analogue and digital signals (A-level only)

3.13.2.1 Difference between analogue and digital signals (A-level only)
Content
Bits, bytes.
Analogue-to-digital conversion:
•• sampling audio signals for transmission in digital form
•• conversion of analogue signals into digital data using two voltage levels
•• quantisation
•• sampling rate
•• effect of sampling rate and number of bits per sample on quality of conversion
•• advantages and disadvantages of digital sampling
•• process of recovery of original data from noisy signal
•• effect of noise in communication systems.
Pulse code modulation.
Students should appreciate the use of a variety of sensors to collect analogue data.
The ability to carry out binary arithmetic is not required. Knowledge of binary numbers 1 to 10
is adequate.

3.13.3 Analogue signal processing (A-level only)

3.13.3.1 LC resonance filters (A-level only)
Content
1
Resonant frequency, f 0 = 2π LC

Only parallel resonance arrangements are required.

Analogy between LC circuit and mass–spring system.
Inductance as mass analogy.
Capacitance as spring analogy.
Derivation of the equation is not required.
Energy (voltage) response curve.
The response curve for current is not required.
f0
Q factor, Q = fB
f B is the bandwidth of the filter at the 50% energy points.

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3.13.3.2 The ideal operational amplifier (A-level only)
Content
Operation and characteristics of an ideal operational amplifier:
•• power supply and signal connections
•• infinite open-loop gain
•• infinite input resistance.
Open-loop transfer function for a real operational amplifier, V out = AOL V + − V −
Use as a comparator.
The operational amplifier should be treated as an important system building block.

3.13.4 Operational amplifier in:

3.13.4.1 Inverting amplifier configuration (A-level only)
Content
V Rf
Derivation of   V = −
out
Rin , calculations.
in

Meaning of virtual earth, virtual-earth analysis.

3.13.4.2 Non-inverting amplifier configuration (A-level only)

Content
V out Rf
V in =1+ Rl

Derivation is not required.

3.13.4.3 Summing amplifier configuration (A-level only)

Content
V1 V2 V3
V out = − Rf R1 + R2 + R3 +…

Difference amplifier configuration.

Derivation is not required.
Rf
V out = V + − V − Rl

Derivation is not required.

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3.13.4.4 Real operational amplifiers (A-level only)

Content
Limitations of real operational amplifiers.
Frequency response curve.
gain  × bandwidth = constant for a given device.

3.13.5 Digital signal processing (A-level only)

3.13.5.1 Combinational logic (A-level only)
Content
Use of Boolean algebra related to truth tables and logic gates.
−
A = not A
A ∙ B = A and B
A + B = A or B
Identification and use of AND, NAND, OR, NOR, NOT and EOR gates in combination in logic circuits.
Construction and deduction of a logic circuit from a truth table.
The gates should be treated as building blocks. The internal structure or circuit of the gates is
not required.

3.13.5.2 Sequential logic (A-level only)

Content
Counting circuits:
•• Binary counter
•• BCD counter
•• Johnson counter.
Inputs to the circuits, clock, reset, up/down.
Outputs from the circuits.
Modulo-n counter from basic counter with the logic driving a reset pin.
The gates should be treated as building blocks. The internal structure or circuit of the gates is
not required.

3.13.5.3 Astables (A-level only)

Content
The astable as an oscillator to provide a clock pulse.
Clock (pulse) rate (frequency), pulse width, period, duty cycle, mark-to-space ratio.
Variation of running frequency using an external RC network.
Knowledge of a particular circuit or a specific device (eg 555 chip) will not be required.

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3.13.6 Data communication systems (A-level only)
3.13.6.1 Principles of communication systems (A-level only)
Content
Communication systems, block diagram of 'real time' communication system.

information input transmitter

transducer e.g. modulator amplifier e.g. aerial
input microphone

transmission path e.g. radio waves

output information
receiver
amplifier demodulator transducer e.g.
e.g. aerial output
loudspeaker

Only the purpose of each stage is required.

3.13.6.2 Transmission media (A-level only)

Content
Transmission-path media: metal wire, optic fibre, electromagnetic (radio, microwave).
Ground wave, refraction and reflection of sky waves, diffraction of long-wavelength radiation around
the Earth’s surface.
Satellite systems and typical transmission frequencies.
Students should recognise that up-links and down-links require different frequencies so that the
receivers are not de-sensed.
Advantages and disadvantages of various transmission media. Students should consider data
transmission rate, cost, and security issues.

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3.13.6.3 Time-division multiplexing (A-level only)

Content
Basic principles of time-division multiplexing.

3.13.6.4 Amplitude (AM) and frequency modulation (FM) techniques (A-level only)
Content
Principles of modulation; bandwidth.
Carrier wave and information signal.
Details of modulation circuits for modulating a carrier signal with the information signal will not be
required.
Graphical representation of both AM and FM modulated signals.
A detailed mathematical treatment is not required.
Students will be expected to identify the carrier frequency and the information frequency from a
graph of the variation of signal voltage with time.
Bandwidth requirements of simple AM and FM:
bandwidth = 2 f M for AM
bandwidth = 2 ∆ f + f M for FM
Data capacity of a channel.
Comparison of bandwidth availability for various media.

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4 Scheme of assessment
Find past papers and mark schemes, and specimen papers for new courses, on our website at
aqa.org.uk/pastpapers
The AS specification is designed to be taken over one or two years with all assessments taken at the
end of the course. The A-level specification is designed to be taken over two years with all assessments
taken at the end of the course.
Assessments and certification for the AS specification are available for the first time in May/June 2016
and then every May/June for the life of the specification.
Assessments and certification for the A-level specification are available for the first time in May/June
2017 and then every May/June for the life of the specification.
These are linear qualifications. In order to achieve the award, students must complete all exams in May/
June in a single year. All assessments must be taken in the same series.
Questions for these specifications will be set which require students to demonstrate:
•• their knowledge and understanding of the content developed in one section or topic, including the
associated mathematical and practical skills or
•• the ability to apply mathematical and practical skills to areas of content they are not normally
developed in or
•• the ability to draw together different areas of knowledge and understanding within one answer.
A range of question types will be used, including those that require extended responses. Extended
response questions will allow students to demonstrate their ability to construct and develop a
sustained line of reasoning which is coherent, relevant, substantiated and logically structured. Extended
responses may be in written English, extended calculations, or a combination of both, as appropriate to
the question.
All materials are available in English only.

4.1 Aims
Courses based on these specifications should encourage students to:
•• develop their interest in and enthusiasm for the subject, including developing an interest in further
study and careers associated with the subject
•• develop essential knowledge and understanding of different areas of the subject and how they relate
to each other
•• develop and demonstrate a deep appreciation of the skills, knowledge and understanding of
scientific methods
•• develop competence and confidence in a variety of practical, mathematical and problem solving skills
•• understand how society makes decisions about scientific issues and how the sciences contribute to
the success of the economy and society
•• use theories, models and ideas to develop scientific explanations
•• use knowledge and understanding to pose scientific questions, define scientific problems, present
scientific arguments and scientific ideas
•• use appropriate methodology, including information and communication technology (ICT), to answer
scientific questions and solve scientific problems

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•• carry out experimental and investigative activities, including appropriate risk management, in a range
of contexts
•• analyse and interpret data to provide evidence, recognising correlations and causal relationships
•• evaluate methodology, evidence and data, and resolve conflicting evidence
•• know that scientific knowledge and understanding develops over time
•• communicate information and ideas in appropriate ways using appropriate terminology
•• consider applications and implications of science and evaluate their associated benefits and risks
•• consider ethical issues in the treatment of humans, other organisms and the environment
•• evaluate the role of the scientific community in validating new knowledge and ensuring integrity
•• evaluate the ways in which society uses science to inform decision making.

4.2 Assessment objectives

Assessment objectives (AOs) are set by Ofqual and are the same across all AS and A-level Physics
specifications and all exam boards.
The exams will measure how students have achieved the following assessment objectives.
•• AO1: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, processes, techniques and
procedures.
•• AO2: Apply knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, processes, techniques and procedures:
•• in a theoretical context
•• in a practical context
•• when handling qualitative data
•• when handling quantitative data.
•• AO3: Analyse, interpret and evaluate scientific information, ideas and evidence, including in relation
to issues, to:
•• make judgements and reach conclusions
•• develop and refine practical design and procedures.

Weighting of assessment objectives for AS Physics

Assessment objectives (AOs) Component weightings Overall weighting
(approx %) (approx %)
Paper 1 Paper 2
AO1 34 37 36
AO2 41 39 40
AO3 24 24 24
Overall weighting of components 50 50 100

40% of the overall assessment of AS Physics will contain mathematical skills equivalent to Level 2
or above.
At least 15% of the overall assessment of AS Physics will assess knowledge, skills and understanding
in relation to practical work.

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Weighting of assessment objectives for A-level Physics
Assessment objectives (AOs) Component weightings Overall weighting
(approx %) (approx %)
Paper 1 Paper 2 Paper 3
AO1 34 32 31 33
AO2 38 53 35 42
AO3 28 15 32 25
Overall weighting of components 34 34 32 100

40% of the overall assessment of A-level Physics will contain mathematical skills equivalent to Level 2
or above.
At least 15% of the overall assessment of A-level Physics will assess knowledge, skills and understanding
in relation to practical work.

4.3 Assessment weightings

The marks awarded on the papers will be scaled to meet the weighting of the components. Students'
final marks will be calculated by adding together the scaled marks for each component. Grade
boundaries will be set using this total scaled mark. The scaling and total scaled marks are shown in the
table below.

AS
Component Maximum raw mark Scaling factor Maximum scaled
mark
Paper 1 70 x1 70
Paper 2 70 x1 70
Total scaled mark: 140

A-level
Component Maximum Scaling Maximum
raw mark factor scaled mark
Paper 1 85 x1 85
Paper 2 85 x1 85
Paper 3: Section A 45 x1 45
Paper 3: Section B (Astrophysics – option) 35 x1 35
Paper 3: Section B (Medical physics – option) 35 x1 35
Paper 3: Section B (Engineering physics – option) 35 x1 35
Paper 3: Section B (Turning points in physics – option) 35 x1 35
Paper 3: Section B (Electronics – option) 35 x1 35
Total scaled mark: 250

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5 General administration
You can find information about all aspects of administration, as well as all the forms you need, at
aqa.org.uk/examsadmin

5.1 Entries and codes

You only need to make one entry for each qualification.
Every specification is given a national discount (classification) code by the Department for Education
(DfE), which indicates its subject area.
If a student takes two specifications with the same discount code, Further and Higher Education
providers are likely to take the view that they have only achieved one of the two qualifications. Please
check this before your students start their course.

Qualification title AQA entry code DfE discount

code
AQA Advanced Subsidiary GCE in Physics 7407 1210 (post-16),
RC1 (KS4)
AQA Advanced Level GCE in Physics 7408A (Astrophysics) 1210
7408B (Medical physics) 1210
7408C (Engineering physics) 1210
7408D (Turning points in physics) 1210
7408E (Electronics) 1210

These specifications comply with Ofqual’s:

•• General conditions of recognition that apply to all regulated qualifications
•• GCE qualification level conditions that apply to all GCEs
•• GCE subject level conditions that apply to all GCEs in this subject
•• all relevant regulatory documents.
Ofqual has accredited these specifications. The qualification accreditation number (QAN) for the AS is
601/4746/5. The QAN for the A-level is 601/4747/7.

5.2 Overlaps with other qualifications

There is overlapping content in the AS and A-level Physics specifications. This helps you teach the AS
and A-level together.

5.3 Awarding grades and reporting results

The AS qualification will be graded on a five-point scale: A, B, C, D and E.
The A-level qualification will be graded on a six-point scale: A*, A, B, C, D and E.
Students who fail to reach the minimum standard for grade E will be recorded as U (unclassified) and
will not receive a qualification certificate.

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5.4 Re-sits and shelf life
Students can re-sit these qualifications as many times as they wish, within the shelf life of the
qualifications.

5.5 Previous learning and prerequisites

There are no previous learning requirements. Any requirements for entry to a course based on these
specifications are at the discretion of schools and colleges.
However, we recommend that students should have the skills and knowledge associated with at least
GCSE Science and Additional Science or GCSE Physics course or equivalent.

5.6 Access to assessment: diversity and inclusion

General qualifications are designed to prepare students for a wide range of occupations and further
study. Therefore our qualifications must assess a wide range of competences.
The subject criteria have been assessed to see if any of the skills or knowledge required present any
possible difficulty to any students, whatever their ethnic background, religion, sex, age, disability or
sexuality. If any difficulties were encountered, the criteria were reviewed again to make sure that tests of
specific competences were only included if they were important to the subject.
As members of the Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ) we participate in the production of the JCQ
document Access Arrangements and Reasonable Adjustments: General and Vocational qualifications.
We follow these guidelines when assessing the needs of individual students who may require an access
arrangement or reasonable adjustment. This document is published on the JCQ website at jcq.org.uk

Students with disabilities and special needs

We can make arrangements for disabled students and students with special needs to help them access
the assessments, as long as the competences being tested are not changed. Access arrangements
must be agreed before the assessment. For example, a Braille paper would be a reasonable adjustment
for a Braille reader but not for a student who does not read Braille.
We are required by the Equality Act 2010 to make reasonable adjustments to remove or lessen any
disadvantage that affects a disabled student.
If you have students who need access arrangements or reasonable adjustments, you can apply using
the Access arrangements online service at aqa.org.uk/eaqa

Special consideration
We can give special consideration to students who have been disadvantaged at the time of the
assessment through no fault of their own – for example a temporary illness, injury or serious problem
such as the death of a relative. We can only do this after the assessment.
Your exams officer should apply online for special consideration at aqa.org.uk/eaqa
For more information and advice about access arrangements, reasonable adjustments and special
consideration please see aqa.org.uk/access or email [email protected]

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5.7 Working with AQA for the first time

If your school or college has not previously offered any AQA specification, you need to register as an
AQA centre to offer our specifications to your students. Find out how at aqa.org.uk/becomeacentre
If your school or college is new to these specifications, please let us know by completing an Intention to
enter form. The easiest way to do this is via e-AQA at aqa.org.uk/eaqa

5.8 Private candidates

A private candidate is someone who enters for exams through an AQA-approved school or college but
is not enrolled as a student there.
If you are a private candidate you may be self-taught, home-schooled or have private tuition, either with
a tutor or through a distance learning organisation. You must be based in the UK.
If you have any queries as a private candidate, you can:
•• speak to the exams officer at the school or college where you intend to take your exams
•• visit our website at aqa.org.uk/examsadmin
•• email: [email protected]

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6 Mathematical requirements
and exemplifications
In order to be able to develop their skills, knowledge and understanding in physics, students need
to have been taught, and to have acquired competence in, the appropriate areas of mathematics as
indicated in the table of coverage below.
Overall, at least 40% of the marks in assessments for physics will require the use of mathematical skills.
These skills will be applied in the context of physics A-level and will be at least the standard of higher
tier GCSE Mathematics.
The following tables illustrate where these mathematical skills may be developed during teaching or
could be assessed. Those shown in bold type would only be tested in the full A-level course.
This list of examples is not exhaustive. These skills could be developed or assessed in other areas
of specification content. Other areas where these skills could be developed have been exemplified
throughout the specifications.

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6.1 Arithmetic and numerical computation

Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the
context of A-level Physics
MS 0.1 Recognise and make use of Students may be tested on their ability to:
appropriate units in calculations •• identify the correct units for physical properties
such as m s−1, the unit for velocity
•• convert between units with different prefixes eg
cm3 to m3
MS 0.2 Recognise and use expressions in Students may be tested on their ability to:
decimal and standard form •• use physical constants expressed in standard
form such as c  =  3.00 x 108m s−1
MS 0.3 Use ratios, fractions and Students may be tested on their ability to:
percentages •• calculate efficiency of devices
•• calculate percentage uncertainties in
measurements
MS 0.4 Estimate results Students may be tested on their ability to:
•• estimate the effect of changing experimental
parameters on measurable values
MS 0.5 Use calculators to find and Students may be tested on their ability to:
use power, exponential and •• solve for unknowns in decay problems such as
logarithmic functions N  =  N 0e−t
MS 0.6 Use calculators to handle sin x, Students may be tested on their ability to:
cos x, tan x when x is expressed in •• calculate the direction of resultant vectors
degrees or radians

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6.2 Handling data
Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the
context of A-level Physics
MS 1.1 Use an appropriate number of Students may be tested on their ability to:
significant figures •• report calculations to an appropriate number
of significant figures given raw data quoted to
varying numbers of significant figures
•• understand that calculated results can only
be reported to the limits of the least accurate
measurement
MS 1.2 Find arithmetic means Students may be tested on their ability to:
•• calculate a mean value for repeated experimental
readings
MS 1.3 Understand simple probability Students may be tested on their ability to:
•• understand probability in the context of
radioactive decay
MS 1.4 Make order of magnitude Students may be tested on their ability to:
calculations •• evaluate equations with variables expressed in
different orders of magnitude
MS 1.5 Identify uncertainties in Students may be tested on their ability to:
measurements and use simple •• determine the uncertainty where two readings for
techniques to determine uncertainty length need to be added together
when data are combined by
addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division and raising to powers

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6.3 Algebra
Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the
context of A-level Physics
MS 2.1 Understand and use the symbols: Students may be tested on their ability to:
=, <, <<, >>, >, ∝, ≈, ∆ •• recognise the significance of the symbols in the
∆p
expression F  ∝   ∆ t
MS 2.2 Change the subject of an equation, Students may be tested on their ability to:
including non-linear equations •• rearrange E  =  mc2 to make m the subject
MS 2.3 Substitute numerical values Students may be tested on their ability to:
into algebraic equations using •• calculate the momentum p of an object by
appropriate units for physical substituting the values for mass m and velocity v
quantities into the equation p  =  mv
MS 2.4 Solve algebraic equations, Students may be tested on their ability to:
including quadratic equations •• solve kinematic equations for constant
acceleration such as v  =  u  +  at and
s  =  ut  +  ½ at2
MS 2.5 Use logarithms in relation to Students may be tested on their ability to:
quantities that range over several •• recognise and interpret real world examples of
orders of magnitude logarithmic scales

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6.4 Graphs
Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the
context of A-level Physics
MS 3.1 Translate information between Students may be tested on their ability to:
graphical, numerical and algebraic •• calculate Young modulus for materials using
forms stress–strain graphs
MS 3.2 Plot two variables from Students may be tested on their ability to:
experimental or other data •• plot graphs of extension of a wire against force
applied
MS 3.3 Understand that y  =  mx  +  c Students may be tested on their ability to:
represents a linear relationship •• rearrange and compare v  =  u  +  at with
y  =  mx  +  c for velocity–time graph in constant
acceleration problems
MS 3.4 Determine the slope and intercept Students may be tested on their ability to:
of a linear graph •• read off and interpret intercept point from a graph
eg the initial velocity in a velocity–time graph
MS 3.5 Calculate rate of change from a Students may be tested on their ability to:
graph showing a linear relationship •• calculate acceleration from a linear velocity–time
graph
MS 3.6 Draw and use the slope of a Students may be tested on their ability to:
tangent to a curve as a measure of •• draw a tangent to the curve of a displacement–
rate of change time graph and use the gradient to approximate
the velocity at a specific time
MS 3.7 Distinguish between instantaneous Students may be tested on their ability to:
rate of change and average rate of •• understand that the gradient of the tangent of a
change displacement–time graph gives the velocity at a
point in time which is a different measure to the
average velocity
MS 3.8 Understand the possible physical Students may be tested on their ability to:
significance of the area between a •• recognise that for a capacitor the area under a
curve and the x axis and be able voltage–charge graph is equivalent to the energy
to calculate it or estimate it by stored
graphical methods as appropriate
MS 3.9 Apply the concepts underlying Students may be tested on their ability to:
calculus (but without requiring •• determine g from distance-time plot for projectile
the explicit use of derivatives or motion
integrals) by solving equations
involving rates of change, eg
Δx
Δt = – x using a graphical method
or spreadsheet modelling
MS 3.10 Interpret logarithmic plots Students may be tested on their ability to:
•• obtain time constant for capacitor discharge
by interpreting plot of log V against time

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Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the

context of A-level Physics
MS 3.11 Use logarithmic plots to test Students may be tested on their ability to:
exponential and power law •• use logarithmic plots with decay law of
variations radioactivity / charging and discharging of a
capacitor
MS 3.12 Sketch relationships which are Students may be tested on their ability to:
modelled by y  =  k /x, y  =  kx2 •• sketch relationships between pressure and
, y  =  k /x2, y =   kx, y = sin x, volume for an ideal gas
y = cos x, y  =  e±x , and y = sin2x ,
y = cos2x as applied to physical
relationships

6.5 Geometry and trigonometry

Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the
context of A-level Physics
MS 4.1 Use angles in regular 2D and 3D Students may be tested on their ability to:
structures •• interpret force diagrams to solve problems
MS 4.2 Visualise and represent 2D and 3D Students may be tested on their ability to:
forms including two-dimensional •• draw force diagrams to solve mechanics
representations of 3D objects problems
MS 4.3 Calculate areas of triangles, Students may be tested on their ability to:
circumferences and areas of •• calculate the area of the cross–section to work
circles, surface areas and volumes out the resistance of a conductor given its length
of rectangular blocks, cylinders and and resistivity
spheres
MS 4.4 Use Pythagoras’ theorem, and the Students may be tested on their ability to:
angle sum of a triangle •• calculate the magnitude of a resultant vector,
resolving forces into components to solve
problems
MS 4.5 Use sin, cos and tan in physical Students may be tested on their ability to:
problems •• resolve forces into components
MS 4.6 Use of small angle approximations Students may be tested on their ability to:
including sin𑩈 𑩈 𑩈, tan𑩈 𑩈 𑩈 •• calculate fringe separations in interference
, cos𑩈 𑩈 1 for small  where patterns
appropriate
MS 4.7 Understand the relationship Students may be tested on their ability to:
between degrees and radians and •• convert angle in degrees to angle in radians
translate from one to the other

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7 AS practical assessment
Practical work is at the heart of physics, so we have placed it at the heart of this specification.
Assessment of practical skills in this AS specification will be by written exams only.
The practical endorsement does not apply to the AS specification. A rich diet of practical work is
essential to develop students' manipulative skills and understanding of the processes of scientific
investigation. It also contributes to teaching and learning of the concepts within this specification.
Questions in the papers have been written in the expectation that students have carried out at least the
six required practical activities in Section 7.2.
15% of the marks in the papers will relate to practical work.

7.1 Use of apparatus and techniques

All students taking an A-level Physics qualification are expected to have carried out the required
practical activities in Section 7.2. These develop skills in the use of many of the following apparatus
and techniques. This list is a compulsory element of the full A-level course. It is reproduced here for
reference and to aid co-teaching the AS and A-level specifications.

Apparatus and techniques

ATa use appropriate analogue apparatus to record a range of measurements (to include
length/distance, temperature, pressure, force, angles, volume) and to interpolate
between scale markings
ATb use appropriate digital instruments, including electrical multimeters, to obtain a range of
measurements (to include time, current, voltage, resistance, mass)
ATc use methods to increase accuracy of measurements, such as timing over multiple
oscillations, or use of fiducial marker, set square or plumb line
ATd use stopwatch or light gates for timing
ATe use calipers and micrometers for small distances, using digital or vernier scales
ATf correctly construct circuits from circuit diagrams using DC power supplies, cells, and a
range of circuit components, including those where polarity is important
ATg design, construct and check circuits using DC power supplies, cells, and a range of
circuit components
ATh use signal generator and oscilloscope, including volts/division and time-base
ATi generate and measure waves, using microphone and loudspeaker, or ripple tank, or
vibration transducer, or microwave / radio wave source
ATj use laser or light source to investigate characteristics of light, including interference and
diffraction
ATk use ICT such as computer modelling, or data logger with a variety of sensors to collect
data, or use of software to process data
ATl use ionising radiation, including detectors

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7.2 AS required practical activities

The following practicals must be carried out by all students taking this course. Written papers will
assess knowledge and understanding of these, and the skills exemplified within each practical.

Required activity Apparatus and technique

reference
1 Investigation into the variation of the frequency of stationary a, b, c, i
waves on a string with length, tension and mass per unit length of
the string.
2 Investigation of interference effects to include the Young’s slit a, j
experiment and interference by a diffraction grating.
3 Determination of g by a free-fall method. a, c, d, k
4 Determination of the Young modulus by a simple method. a, c, e
5 Determination of resistivity of a wire using a micrometer, ammeter a, b, e, f
and voltmeter.
6 Investigation of the emf and internal resistance of electric cells b, f, g
and batteries by measuring the variation of the terminal pd of the
cell with current in it.

Teachers are encouraged to vary their approach to these practical activities. Some are more suitable for
highly structured approaches that develop key techniques. Others allow opportunities for students to
develop investigative approaches.
This list is not designed to limit the practical activities carried out by students. A rich practical
experience for students will include more than the six required practical activities. The explicit teaching
of practical skills will build students’ competence. Many teachers will also use practical approaches to
the introduction of content knowledge in the course of their normal teaching.

7.3 Practical skills to be assessed in written papers

Overall, at least 15% of the marks for all AS level Physics courses will require the assessment of
practical skills.
In order to be able to answer these questions, students need to have been taught, and to have acquired
competence in, the appropriate areas of practical skills as indicated in the table of coverage below.

7.3.1 Independent thinking

Practical skill
PS1.1 Solve problems set in practical contexts
PS1.2 Apply scientific knowledge to practical contexts

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7.3.2 Use and application of scientific methods and practices
Practical skill
PS2.1 Comment on experimental design and evaluate scientific methods
PS2.2 Present data in appropriate ways
PS2.3 Evaluate results and draw conclusions with reference to measurement
uncertainties and errors
PS2.4 Identify variables including those that must be controlled

7.3.3 Numeracy and the application of mathematical concepts in a

practical context
Practical skill
PS3.1 Plot and interpret graphs
PS3.2 Process and analyse data using appropriate mathematical skills as exemplified in
the mathematical appendix for each science
PS3.3 Consider margins of error, accuracy and precision of data

7.3.4 Instruments and equipment

Practical skill
PS4.1 Know and understand how to use a wide range of experimental and practical
instruments, equipment and techniques appropriate to the knowledge and
understanding included in the specification

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8 A-level practical assessment

Practical work is at the heart of physics, so we have placed it at the heart of this specification.
Practical assessments have been divided into those that can be assessed in written exams and those
that can only be directly assessed whilst students are carrying out experiments.
A-level grades will be based only on marks from written exams.
A separate endorsement of practical skills will be taken alongside the A-level. This will be assessed by
teachers and will be based on direct observation of students’ competency in a range of skills that are
not assessable in written exams.

8.1 Use of apparatus and techniques

All students taking an A-level Physics qualification are expected to have had opportunities to use the
following apparatus and develop and demonstrate these techniques. These apparatus and techniques
are common to all A-level Physics specifications.
Carrying out the 12 required practicals in Section 8.2 means that students will have experienced use
of each of these apparatus and techniques. However, teachers are encouraged to develop students’
abilities by inclusion of other opportunities for skills development, as exemplified in the right hand
column of the content section of this specification.

Apparatus and techniques

ATa use appropriate analogue apparatus to record a range of measurements (to include
length/distance, temperature, pressure, force, angles, volume) and to interpolate
between scale markings
ATb use appropriate digital instruments, including electrical multimeters, to obtain a range of
measurements (to include time, current, voltage, resistance, mass)
ATc use methods to increase accuracy of measurements, such as timing over multiple
oscillations, or use of fiducial marker, set square or plumb line
ATd use stopwatch or light gates for timing
ATe use calipers and micrometers for small distances, using digital or vernier scales
ATf correctly construct circuits from circuit diagrams using DC power supplies, cells, and a
range of circuit components, including those where polarity is important
ATg design, construct and check circuits using DC power supplies, cells, and a range of
circuit components
ATh use signal generator and oscilloscope, including volts/division and time-base
ATi generate and measure waves, using microphone and loudspeaker, or ripple tank, or
vibration transducer, or microwave / radio wave source
ATj use laser or light source to investigate characteristics of light, including interference and
diffraction
ATk use ICT such as computer modelling, or data logger with a variety of sensors to collect
data, or use of software to process data
ATl use ionising radiation, including detectors

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8.2 A-level required practical activities
The following practicals must be carried out by all students taking this course. Written papers will
assess knowledge and understanding of these, and the skills exemplified within each practical.

Required activity Apparatus and technique

reference
1 Investigation into the variation of the frequency of stationary a, b, c, i
waves on a string with length, tension and mass per unit length of
the string.
2 Investigation of interference effects to include the Young’s slit a, j
experiment and interference by a diffraction grating.
3 Determination of g by a free-fall method a, c, d, k
4 Determination of the Young modulus by a simple method. a, c, e
5 Determination of resistivity of a wire using a micrometer, ammeter a, b, e, f
and voltmeter.
6 Investigation of the emf and internal resistance of electric cells b, f, g
and batteries by measuring the variation of the terminal pd of the
cell with current in it.
7 Investigation into simple harmonic motion using a mass-spring a, b, c, h, i
system and a simple pendulum.
8 Investigation of Boyle’s (constant temperature) law and Charles’s a
(constant pressure) law for a gas.
9 Investigation of the charge and discharge of capacitors. Analysis b, f, g, h, k
techniques should include log-linear plotting leading to a
determination of the time constant RC.
10 Investigate how the force on a wire varies with flux density, current a, b, f
and length of wire using a top pan balance.
11 Investigate, using a search coil and oscilloscope, the effect on a, b, f, h
magnetic flux linkage of varying the angle between a search coil
and magnetic field direction.
12 Investigation of the inverse-square law for gamma radiation. a, b, k, l

Teachers are encouraged to vary their approach to these practical activities. Some are more suitable for
highly structured approaches that develop key techniques. Others allow opportunities for students to
develop investigative approaches.
This list is not designed to limit the practical activities carried out by students. A rich practical
experience for students will include more than the 12 required practical activities. The explicit teaching
of practical skills will build students’ competence. Many teachers will also use practical approaches to
the introduction of content knowledge in the course of their normal teaching. Students’ work in these
activities can also contribute towards the endorsement of practical skills.

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 AS Physics (7407) and A-level Physics (7408). AS exams May/June 2016 onwards. A-level exams May/June 2017 onwards. Version 1.2

8.3 Practical skills to be assessed in written papers

Overall, at least 15% of the marks for all A-level Physics courses will require the assessment of
practical skills.
In order to be able to answer these questions, students need to have been taught, and to have acquired
competence in, the appropriate areas of practical skills as indicated in the table of coverage below.

8.3.1 Independent thinking

Practical skill
PS1.1 Solve problems set in practical contexts
PS1.2 Apply scientific knowledge to practical contexts

8.3.2 Use and application of scientific methods and practices

Practical skill
PS2.1 Comment on experimental design and evaluate scientific methods
PS2.2 Present data in appropriate ways
PS2.3 Evaluate results and draw conclusions with reference to measurement
uncertainties and errors
PS2.4 Identify variables including those that must be controlled

8.3.3 Numeracy and the application of mathematical concepts in a

practical context
Practical skill
PS3.1 Plot and interpret graphs
PS3.2 Process and analyse data using appropriate mathematical skills as exemplified in
the mathematical appendix for each science
PS3.3 Consider margins of error, accuracy and precision of data

8.3.4 Instruments and equipment

Practical skill
PS4.1 Know and understand how to use a wide range of experimental and practical
instruments, equipment and techniques appropriate to the knowledge and
understanding included in the specification

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8.4 A-level practical skills to be assessed via endorsement
8.4.1 Cross-board statement on practical endorsement
The assessment of practical skills is a compulsory requirement of the course of study for A-level
qualifications in biology, chemistry and physics. It will appear on all students’ certificates as a separately
reported result, alongside the overall grade for the qualification. The arrangements for the assessment of
practical skills will be common to all awarding organisations. These arrangements will include:
•• A minimum of 12 practical activities to be carried out by each student which, together, meet the
requirements of Appendices 5b (Practical skills identified for direct assessment and developed
through teaching and learning) and 5c (Use of apparatus and techniques) from the prescribed
subject content, published by the Department for Education. The required practical activities will be
defined by each awarding organisation.
•• Teachers will assess students against Common Practical Assessment Criteria (CPAC) issued jointly
by the awarding organisations. The CPAC (see below) are based on the requirements of Appendices
5b and 5c of the subject content requirements published by the Department for Education, and
define the minimum standard required for the achievement of a pass.
•• Each student will keep an appropriate record of their practical work, including their assessed
practical activities.
•• Students who demonstrate the required standard across all the requirements of the CPAC will
receive a ‘pass’ grade.
•• There will be no separate assessment of practical skills for AS qualifications.
•• Students will answer questions in the AS and A-level exam papers that assess the requirements of
Appendix 5a (practical skills identified for indirect assessment and developed through teaching and
learning) from the prescribed subject content, published by the Department for Education. These
questions may draw on, or range beyond, the practical activities included in the specification.

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8.4.2 Criteria for the assessment of practical competency in A-level

Biology, Chemistry and Physics
Competency Practical mastery
In order to be awarded a Pass a Learner must, by the end of the
practical science assessment, consistently and routinely meet
the criteria in respect of each competency listed below. A Learner
may demonstrate the competencies in any practical activity
undertaken as part of that assessment throughout the course of
study.
Learners may undertake practical activities in groups. However,
the evidence generated by each Learner must demonstrate that
he or she independently meets the criteria outlined below in
respect of each competency. Such evidence:
(a) will comprise both the Learner’s performance during each
practical activity and his or her contemporaneous record of
the work that he or she has undertaken during that activity,
and
(b) must include evidence of independent application of
investigative approaches and methods to practical work.
1. Follows written procedures (a) Correctly follows written instructions to carry out the
experimental techniques or procedures.
2. Applies investigative (a) Correctly uses appropriate instrumentation, apparatus and
approaches and methods materials (including ICT) to carry out investigative activities,
when using instruments and experimental techniques and procedures with minimal
equipment assistance or prompting.
(b) Carries out techniques or procedures methodically, in
sequence and in combination, identifying practical issues and
making adjustments where necessary.
(c) Identifies and controls significant quantitative variables where
applicable, and plans approaches to take account of variables
that cannot readily be controlled.
(d) Selects appropriate equipment and measurement strategies in
order to ensure suitably accurate results.
3. Safely uses a range of (a) Identifies hazards and assesses risks associated with those
practical equipment and hazards, making safety adjustments as necessary, when
materials carrying out experimental techniques and procedures in the
lab or field.
(b) Uses appropriate safety equipment and approaches to
minimise risks with minimal prompting.
4. Makes and records (a) Makes accurate observations relevant to the experimental or
observations investigative procedure.
(b) Obtains accurate, precise and sufficient data for experimental
and investigative procedures and records this methodically
using appropriate units and conventions.

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 Competency Practical mastery
5. Researches, references (a) Uses appropriate software and/or tools to process data, carry
and reports out research and report findings.
(b) Cites sources of information demonstrating that research has
taken place, supporting planning and conclusions.

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