Regulation 2018 ( CBCS SCHEME) Material Science 18ME34

MODULE 4: COMPOSITES
A composite material is a material made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical
or chemical properties that, when combined, produce a material with characteristics different from the individual
components. The individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished structure. The new material
may be preferred for many reasons, common examples include materials which are stronger, lighter, or less
expensive when compared to traditional materials.

Composites are made up of individual materials referred to as constituent materials. There are two main categories
of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. At least one portion of each type is required. The matrix
material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The
reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix properties. A
synergism produces material properties unavailable from the individual constituent materials, while the wide variety
of matrix and strengthening materials allows the designer of the product or structure to choose an optimum
combination.

Engineered composite materials must be formed to shape. The matrix material can be introduced to the
reinforcement before or after the reinforcement material is placed into the mould cavity or onto the mould surface.
A variety of moulding methods can be used according to the end-item design requirements. The principal factors
impacting the methodology are the natures of the chosen matrix and reinforcement materials. Another important
factor is the gross quantity of material to be produced. Large quantities can be used to justify high capital
expenditures for rapid and automated manufacturing technology. Small production quantities are accommodated
with lower capital expenditures but higher labour and tooling costs at a correspondingly slower rate.

Many commercially produced composites use a polymer matrix material often called a resin solution. There are
many different polymers available depending upon the starting raw ingredients. There are several broad categories,
each with numerous variations. The most common are known as polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy phenolic, polyimide,
polypropylene, PEEK, and others. The reinforcement materials are often fibres but also commonly ground minerals.
The various methods described below have been developed to reduce the resin content of the final product, or the
fibre content is increased. As a rule of thumb, lay up results in a product containing 60% resin and 40% fibre,
whereas vacuum infusion gives a final product with 40% resin and 60% fiber content. The strength of the product is
greatly dependent on this ratio. Martin Hubbe and Lucian A Lucia consider wood to be a natural composite of
cellulose fibres in a matrix of lignin.
Concept of Composite:
Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best example of modern-day composite
materials, which are mostly structural.

Laminates are composite material where different layers of materials give them the specific character of a
composite material having a specific function to perform. Fabrics have no matrix to fall back on, but in them, fibers
of different compositions combine to give them a specific character. Reinforcing materials generally withstand
maximum load and serve the desirable properties.

Further, though composite types are often distinguishable from one another, no clear determination can be really
made. To facilitate definition, the accent is often shifted to the levels at which differentiation take place viz.,
microscopic or macroscopic.

In matrix-based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount purposes viz., binding the reinforcement
phases in place and deforming to distribute the stresses among the constituent reinforcement materials under an
applied force.

The demands on matrices are many. They may need to temperature variations, be conductors or resistors of

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electricity, have moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer weight advantages, ease of handling and other merits
which may also become applicable depending on the purpose for which matrices are chosen.

Solids that accommodate stress to incorporate other constituents provide strong bonds for the reinforcing phase are
potential matrix materials. A few inorganic materials, polymers and metals have found applications as matrix
materials in the designing of structural composites, with commendable success. These materials remain elastic till
failure occurs and show decreased failure strain, when loaded in tension and compression.

Composites cannot be made from constituents with divergent linear expansion characteristics. The interface is the
area of contact between the reinforcement and the matrix materials. In some cases, the region is a distinct added
phase. Whenever there is interphase, there has to be two interphases between each side of the interphase and its
adjoint constituent. Some composites provide interphases when surfaces dissimilar constituents interact with each
other. Choice of fabrication method depends on matrix properties and the effect of matrix on properties of
reinforcements. One of the prime considerations in the selection and fabrication of composites is that the
constituents should be chemically inert non-reactive.
Classification of composite materials: Composite materials are classified based on matrix and dispersed phase in
to two basic groups, that is:-

Based on the matrix material:

1. Polymer matrix composite material.

2.Metal matrix composite material.

3. Ceramic matrix composite material.

Based on the Reinforcement material:

1. Fibre / Whiskers.

2.Laminate.

3.Particulate.

Role of matrix materials

The choice of a matrix alloy for an MMC is dictated by several considerations. Of particular importance is whether
the composite is to be continuously or discontinuously reinforced. The use of continuous fibers as reinforcements
may result in transfer of most of the load to the reinforcing filaments and hence composite strength will be
governed primarily by the fiber strength. The primary roles of the matrix alloy then are to provide efficient transfer
of load to the fibers and to blunt cracks in the event that fiber failure occurs and so the matrix alloy for
continuously reinforced composites may be chosen more for toughness than for strength. On this basis, lower
strength, more ductile, and tougher matrix alloys may be utilized in continuously reinforced composites. For
discontinuously reinforced composites, the matrix may govern composite strength. Then, the choice of matrix will
be influenced by consideration of the required composite strength and higher strength matrix alloys may be
required.

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Additional considerations in the choice of the matrix include potential reinforcement/matrix reactions, either during
processing or in service, which might result in degraded composite performance; thermal stresses due to thermal
expansion mismatch between the reinforcements and the matrix; and the influence of matrix fatigue behavior on the
cyclic response of the composite. Indeed, the behavior of composites under cyclic loading conditions is an area
requiring special consideration. In composites intended for use at elevated temperatures, an additional
consideration is the difference in melting temperatures between the matrix and the reinforcements. A large melting
temperature difference may result in matrix creep while the reinforcements remain elastic, even at temperatures
approaching the matrix melting point. However, creep in both the matrix and reinforcement must be considered
when there is a small melting point difference in the composite.

Functions of a Matrix

In a composite material, the matrix material serves the following functions:

• Holds the fibres together.

• Protects the fibres from environment.

• Distributes the loads evenly between fibres so that all fibres are subjected to the same amount of strain.

• Enhances transverse properties of a laminate.

• Improves impact and fracture resistance of a component.

• Helps to avoid propagation of crack growth through the fibres by providing alternate failure path along the
interface between the fibres and the matrix.

• Carry interlaminar shear.

The matrix plays a minor role in the tensile load-carrying capacity of a composite structure. However, selection of a
matrix has a major influence on the interlaminar shear as well as in-plane shear properties of the composite
material. The interlaminar shear strength is an important design consideration for structures under bending loads,
whereas the in-plane shear strength is important under torsion loads. The matrix provides lateral support against the
possibility of fibre buckling under compression loading, thus influencing to some extent the compressive strength
of the composite material. The interaction between fibres and matrix is also important in designing damage
tolerant structures. Finally, the processability and defects in a composite material depend strongly on the physical
and thermal characteristics, such as viscosity, melting point, and curing temperature of the matrix.

Desired Properties of a Matrix

The needs or desired properties of the matrix which are important for a composite structure are as follows:

• Reduced moisture absorption.

• Low shrinkage.

• Low coefficient of thermal expansion.

• Good flow characteristics so that it penetrates the fibre bundles completely and eliminates voids during the
compacting/curing process.

• Reasonable strength, modulus and elongation (elongation should be greater than fibre).

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• Must be elastic to transfer load to fibres.

• Strength at elevated temperature (depending on application).

• Low temperature capability (depending on application).

• Excellent chemical resistance (depending on application).

• Should be easily processable into the final composite shape.

• Dimensional stability (maintains its shape).

As stated above, the matrix causes the stress to be distributed more evenly between all fibres by causing the fibres
to suffer the same strain. The stress is transmitted by shear process, which requires good bonding between fibre and
matrix and also high shear strength and modulus for the matrix itself. One of the important properties of cured
matrix system is its glass transition temperature ( T g ) at which the matrix begins to soften and exhibits a decrease
in mechanical

properties. The glass transition temperature is not only an important parameter for dimensional stability of a
composite part under influence of heat, but it also has effect on most of the physical properties of the matrix system
at ambient temperature.

As the load is primarily carried by the fibres, the overall elongation of a composite material is governed by the
elongation to failure of the fibres that is usually 1- 1.5%. A significant property of the matrix is that it should not
crack. The function of the matrix in a composite material will vary depending on how the composite is stressed. For
example, in case of compressive loading, the matrix prevents the fibres from buckling and is, therefore, a very
critical part of the composite since without it; the reinforcement could carry no load. On the contrary, a bundle of
fibres could sustain high tensile loads in the direction of the filaments without a matrix. Some of the physical
properties of the matrix which influence the behaviour of composites are:

• Shrinkage during cure,

• Modulus of elasticity,

• Ultimate elongation,

• Strength (tensile, compressive and shear), and

• Fracture toughness.
Factors considered for Selection of Matrix

In selecting matrix material, following factors may be taken into consideration:

• The matrix must have a mechanical strength commensurate with that of the reinforcement i.e. both
should be compatible. Thus, if a high strength fibre is used as the reinforcement, there is no point using
a low strength matrix, which will not transmit stresses efficiently to the reinforcement.

• The matrix must stand up to the service conditions, viz., temperature, humidity, exposure to ultra-violet
environment, exposure to chemical atmosphere, abrasion by dust particles, etc.

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• The matrix must be easy to use in the selected fabrication process.

• Smoke requirements.

• Life expectancy.

• The resultant composite should be cost effective.

The fibres are saturated with a liquid resin before it cures to a solid. The solid resin is then said to be the matrix for
the fibres.

Advantages and Limitations of Composites Materials

Advantages of Composites

Summary of the advantages exhibited by composite materials, which are of significant use in aerospace industry
are as follows:

• High resistance to fatigue and corrosion degradation.

• High ‘strength or stiffness to weight’ ratio. As enumerated above, weight savings are significant ranging
from 25-45% of the weight of conventional metallic designs.

• Due to greater reliability, there are fewer inspections and structural repairs.

• Directional tailoring capabilities to meet the design requirements. The fibre pattern can be laid in a
manner that will tailor the structure to efficiently sustain the applied loads.
• Fibre to fibre redundant load path.

• Improved dent resistance is normally achieved. Composite panels do not sustain damage as easily as thin
gage sheet metals.
• It is easier to achieve smooth aerodynamic profiles for drag reduction. Complex double-curvature parts
with a smooth surface finish can be made in one manufacturing operation.

• Composites offer improved torsional stiffness. This implies high whirling speeds, reduced number of
intermediate bearings and supporting structural elements. The overall part count and manufacturing &
assembly costs are thus reduced.

• High resistance to impact damage.

• Thermoplastics have rapid process cycles, making them attractive for high volume commercial applications
that traditionally have been the domain of sheet metals. Moreover, thermoplastics can also be reformed.
• Like metals, thermoplastics have indefinite shelf life.

• Composites are dimensionally stable i.e. they have low thermal conductivity and low coefficient of
thermal expansion. Composite materials can be tailored to comply with a broad range of thermal expansion
design requirements and to minimise thermal stresses.

• Manufacture and assembly are simplified because of part integration (joint/fastener reduction) thereby
reducing cost.

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• The improved weatherability of composites in a marine environment as well as their corrosion resistance
and durability reduce the down time for maintenance.

• Close tolerances can be achieved without machining.

• Material is reduced because composite parts and structures are frequently built to shape rather than
machined to the required configuration, as is common with metals.

• Excellent heat sink properties of composites, especially Carbon-Carbon, combined with their lightweight
have extended their use for aircraft brakes.

• Improved friction and wear properties.

• The ability to tailor the basic material properties of a Laminate has allowed new approaches to the design
of aeroelastic flight structures.

The above advantages translate not only into airplane, but also into common implements and equipment such
as a graphite racquet that has inherent damping, and causes less fatigue and pain to the user.

Limitations of Composites

Some of the associated disadvantages of advanced composites are as follows:

• High cost of raw materials and fabrication.

• Composites are more brittle than wrought metals and thus are more easily damaged.

• Transverse properties may be weak.

• Matrix is weak, therefore, low toughness.

• Reuse and disposal may be difficult.

• Difficult to attach.

• Repair introduces new problems, for the following reasons:

Materials require refrigerated transport and storage and have limited shelf life. Hot curing is
necessary in many cases requiring special tooling.
Analysis is difficult.

Matrix is subject to environmental degradation.

However, proper design and material selection can circumvent many of the above disadvantages

APPLICATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIAL

1. In Aerospace- Approximately 50% component of the airspace is made from composites. The primary benefits
that composite components are reduced weight and assembly simplification. The large scale use of composites in
current program of development of helicopters, military fighter aircraft, small and big civil transport aircraft,
satellites, launch vehicles and missiles. Various components of aircraft are fabricated by composites, e.g. rudder,

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spoilers, airbrakes, elevators, LG doors, engine cowlings, keel beam, rear bulkhead, wing ribs, main wings, turbine
engine fan blades, propellers, Interior components etc.

2. In Automotive - Composites are being considered to make low weight, safer and more fuel-efficient vehicles. A
composite is composed of a high strength fiber (carbon or glass) in a matrix material (epoxy polymer) that when
combined provides magnify properties compared with the individual materials by themselves. Many components
like steering wheel, dashboard, seat, roof, hatch, mats, energy absorber, instrument cluster, interior and exterior
panel, leaf spring, wheels, engine cover etc. fabricated by composite materials .

3. In Medical- A composite is a nonviable material used in a medical device and intended to interact with biological
system. Over the centuries, advancement in synthetic materials, surgical technique and sterilization methods have
permitted the use of composite material in many ways. Medical practice today utilizes a large number of devices
and implants. Composites in the form of sutures, bone and joint replacements, vascular grafts, heart valves,
intraocular lenses, dental implants, pacemakers, biosensors, artificial hearts etc. widely used to replace and/or
restore the function of disturbed or degenerated tissues or organs, to improve function, to assist in healing, to
correct abnormalities and thus improve the quality of life of the patients.

4. In Electrical field- Composite materials have strength, high modulus; electronic composites emphasize high
thermal conductivity, low thermal expansion, low dielectric constant and high/low electrical conductivity
depending on the particular electronic applications. Electronics composites can use expensive fillers, such as silver
particles, which serve to provide high electrical conductivity. The application of composites in electronics include
interconnections, printed circuit boards, interlayer dielectrics, die attach, lids, thermal interface materials, electrical
contacts, connectors, heat sinks, housings etc.

5. In Sports- Composite materials are used in sports equipment because they offer ease of transport, resistance, low
weight, low maintenance and durability. Initially, natural materials, like wood, were used due to its good shock
absorption, but these materials had some drawbacks. The anisotropic nature resulted in low resistance and the
variation in properties and high moisture absorption allocate various deformations. The composite material has
characteristics of fatigue resistance break resistance, superior thermo stability, friction resistance, abrasion
resistance and vibration attenuation, and it has light weight, high strength and high design freedom, and can be
processed and shaped easily, so it is widely used in sports equipment. There are various goods made of composite
materials, including the planning boats, sailing boats, sailboards tennis rackets, badminton rackets, softball bats, ice
hockey sticks, bows and arrows etc.

6. In Chemical Industry- Advantages of composites of fire resistance properties, lightweight, mold ability, and
resistance to chemicals has made the material used in the chemical industry. Composites are extensively used in
industrial gratings, scrubbers, ducting, piping, exhaust stacks, pumps & blowers, structural supports, storage tanks,
columns, reactors etc. for alkaline & acidic environments. Some applications are drive shaft, fan blades, ducts,
stacks, underground storage tanks, casings, composite vessels etc. Internationally, composites applications in
chemical industry are a relatively small segment in relation to the total usage of composites.

7. Other- Composites have long been used in the construction for industrial supports, buildings, long span roof
structures, tanks, bridge components and complete bridge systems. With composites exhibiting excellent resistance
to the marine environment. With the help of composite we make light weight doors, window, furniture, building,
bridge etc. for domestic and construction purpose.

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels:

• The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The major composite
classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix
Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of

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composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to
as carbon-carbon composites.

• The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre reinforced composites, laminar
composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced composites (FRP) can be further divided into those
containing discontinuous or continuous fibres.

• Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a composite is
considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On the
other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further increase, the
elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are
small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties.
These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling.

• Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. Sandwich structures fall
under this category.

• Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The particles
may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this category.

Classification of composites

Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)/Carbon Matrix Composites or Carbon-Carbon Composites

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and desirable mechanical
properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are extensively used in aeronautical applications.

Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded
three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely
changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and determine its
other characteristics. They can be retained in a partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time,
rendering Thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber
reinforced composites. Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form
particularly when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens to be
starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins.

Thermoplastics have one- or two-dimensional molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated temperature and
show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of softening at elevated temperatures can

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reversed to regain its properties during cooling, facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to
mould the compounds.

Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites. The theme of most
experiments in this area to improve the base properties of the resins and extract the greatest functional advantages
from them in new avenues, including attempts to replace metals in die-casting processes. In crystalline
thermoplastics, the reinforcement affects the morphology to a considerable extent, prompting the reinforcement to
empower nucleation. Whenever crystalline or amorphous, these resins possess the facility to alter their creep over
an extensive range of temperature. But this range includes the point at which the usage of resins is constrained, and
the reinforcement in such systems can increase the failure load as well as creep resistance.

A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are also to be accounted for.
But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of thermoplastics systems over thermosets are
that there are no chemical reactions involved, which
often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating, shaping and
cooling the structures.

Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these resins. Since the
fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic. However, when subjected to moulding
processes, they can be aligned directionally.

There are a few options to increase heat resistance in thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises the heat resistance.
But all thermoplastic composites tend loose their strength at elevated temperatures. However, their redeeming
qualities like rigidity, toughness and ability to repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite
materials bracket. They are used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc.

Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics. Huge sheets of
reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling and heating to be moulded into the
required shapes. This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky components, doing away with the more cumbersome
moulding compounds.

Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and development in
structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components, automobile parts, defense systems etc., use
a great deal of this type of fiber composites. Epoxy matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar
areas.

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Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form heterocyclic entities is the
method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a product of the reaction, in both methods, hinders
production of void-free composites. These voids have a negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of
strength and dielectric properties. Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of thermoset
resins.

Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for moulding prepress. They are
reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having slow shrinkage during curing and no
emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however, make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they cannot
be expected beyond a temperature of 140ºC. Their use in high technology areas where service temperatures are
higher, as a result, is ruled out.

Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide range of fields. Liquid
polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for years and the mere addition of a catalyst can
cure the matrix material within a short time. They are used in automobile and structural applications.

The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent. Polyesters withstand the
variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending on the formulation of the resin or service
requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75ºC or higher. Other advantages of polyesters include
easy compatibility with few glass fibers and can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey.

Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber composites for
structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service at around 200-250ºC .

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)

Metal matrix composites, at present though generating a wide interest in research fraternity, are not as widely in use
as their plastic counterparts. High strength, fracture toughness and stiffness are offered by metal matrices than
those offered by their polymer counterparts. They can withstand elevated temperature in corrosive environment
than polymer composites. Most metals and alloys could be used as matrices and they require reinforcement
materials which need to be stable over a range of temperature and non-reactive too. However the guiding aspect for
the choice depends essentially on the matrix material. Light metals form the matrix for temperature application and
the reinforcements in addition to the aforementioned reasons are characterized by high moduli.

Most metals and alloys make good matrices. However, practically, the choices for low temperature applications
are not many. Only light metals are responsive, with their low density proving an advantage. Titanium, Aluminium
and magnesium are the popular matrix metals currently in vogue, which are particularly useful for aircraft
applications. If metallic matrix materials have to offer high strength, they require high modulus reinforcements.
The strength-to-weight ratios of resulting composites can be higher than most alloys.

The melting point, physical and mechanical properties of the composite at various temperatures determine the
service temperature of composites. Most metals, ceramics and compounds can be used with matrices of low
melting point alloys. The choice of reinforcements becomes more stunted with increase in the melting temperature
of matrix materials.
Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)

Ceramics can be described as solid materials which exhibit very strong ionic bonding in general and in few cases
covalent bonding. High melting points, good corrosion resistance, stability at elevated temperatures and high
compressive strength, render ceramic-based matrix materials a favourite for applications requiring a structural

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material that doesn’t give way at temperatures
above 1500ºC. Naturally, ceramic matrices are the obvious choice for high temperature applications.

High modulus of elasticity and low tensile strain, which most ceramics posses, have combined to cause the failure
of attempts to add reinforcements to obtain strength improvement. This is because at the stress levels at which
ceramics rupture, there is insufficient elongation of the matrix which keeps composite from transferring an
effective quantum of load to the reinforcement and the composite may fail unless the percentage of fiber volume
is high enough. A material is reinforcement to utilize the higher tensile strength of the fiber, to produce an increase
in load bearing capacity of the matrix. Addition of high-strength fiber to a weaker ceramic has not always been
successful and often the resultant composite has proved to be weaker.

The use of reinforcement with high modulus of elasticity may take care of the problem to some extent and presents
pre-stressing of the fiber in the ceramic matrix is being increasingly resorted to as an option.

When ceramics have a higher thermal expansion coefficient than reinforcement materials, the resultant composite
is unlikely to have a superior level of strength. In that case, the composite will develop strength within ceramic at
the time of cooling resulting in microcracks extending from fiber to fiber within the matrix. Microcracking can
result in a composite with tensile strength lower than that of the matrix.
CMC materials overcome the major disadvantages of conventional technical ceramics, namely brittle failure and
low fracture toughness, and limited thermal shock resistance. Therefore, their applications are in fields requiring
reliability at high-temperatures (beyond the capability of metals) and resistance to corrosion and wear. These
include:

• Heat shield systems for space vehicles, which are needed during the re-entry phase, where high temperatures,
thermal shock conditions and heavy vibration loads take place.
• Components for high-temperature gas turbines such as combustion chambers, stator vanes and
turbine blades.
• Components for burners, flame holders, and hot gas ducts, where the use of oxide CMCs has found its way.
• Brake disks and brake system components, which experience extreme thermal shock (greater than throwing a
glowing part of any material into water)
• Components for slide bearings under heavy loads requiring high corrosion and wear resistance.

Types of reinforcements in composites

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Reinforcing constituents in composites, as the word indicates, provide the strength that makes the composite what it
is. But they also serve certain additional purposes of heat resistance or conduction, resistance to corrosion and
provide rigidity. Reinforcement can be made to perform all or one of these functions as per the requirements.

A reinforcement that embellishes the matrix strength must be stronger and stiffer than the matrix and capable of
changing failure mechanism to the advantage of the composite. This means that the ductility should be minimal or
even nil the composite must behave as brittle as possible.

Fiber Reinforced Composites/Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites

Fibers are the important class of reinforcements, as they satisfy the desired conditions and transfer strength to the
matrix constituent influencing and enhancing their properties as desired.

Glass fibers are the earliest known fibers used to reinforce materials. Ceramic and metal fibers were subsequently
found out and put to extensive use, to render composites stiffer more resistant to heat.

Fibers fall short of ideal performance due to several factors. The performance of a fiber composite is judged by its
length, shape, orientation, and composition of the fibers and the mechanical properties of the matrix.

The orientation of the fiber in the matrix is an indication of the strength of the composite and the strength is
greatest along the longitudinal directional of fiber. This doesn’t mean the longitudinal fibers can take the same
quantum of load irrespective of the direction in which it is applied. Optimum performance from longitudinal fibers
can be obtained if the load is applied along its direction. The slightest shift in the angle of loading may drastically
reduce the strength of the composite.

Unidirectional loading is found in few structures and hence it is prudent to give a mix of orientations for fibers in
composites particularly where the load is expected to be the heaviest.

Monolayer tapes consisting of continuous or discontinuous fibers can be oriented unidirectional stacked into plies
containing layers of filaments also oriented in the same direction. More complicated orientations are possible too
and nowadays, computers are used to make projections of such variations to suit specific needs. In short, in planar
composites, strength can be changed from unidirectional fiber oriented composites that result in composites with
nearly isotropic properties.

Properties of angle-plied composites which are not quasi-isotropic may vary with the number of plies and their
orientations. Composite variables in such composites are assumed to have a constant ratio and the matrices are
considered relatively weaker than the fibers. The strength of the fiber in any one of the three axes would, therefore
be one-third the unidirectional fiber composite, assuming that the volume percentage is equal in all three axes.

However, orientation of short fibers by different methods is also possible like random orientations by sprinkling on
to given plane or addition of matrix in liquid or solid state before or after the fiber deposition. Even three-
dimensional orientations can achieve in this way.

There are several methods of random fiber orientations, which in a two-dimensional one, yield composites with
one-third the strength of an unidirectional fiber-stressed composite, in the direction of fibers. In a 3-dimension, it
would result in a composite with a comparable ratio, about less than one-fifth.

In very strong matrices, moduli and strengths have not been observed. Application of the strength of the composites
with such matrices and several orientations is also possible. The longitudinal strength can be calculated on the basis
of the assumption that fibers have been reduced to their effective strength on approximation value in composites

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with strong matrices and non-longitudinally orientated fibers.

It goes without saying that fiber composites may be constructed with either continuous or short fibers. Experience
has shown that continuous fibers (or filaments) exhibit better orientation, although it does not reflect in their
performance. Fibers have a high aspect ratio, i.e., their lengths being several times greater than their effective
diameters. This is the reason why filaments are manufactured using continuous process. This finished filaments.

Mass production of filaments is well known and they match with several matrices in different ways like winding,
twisting, weaving and knitting, which exhibit the characteristics of a fabric.

Since they have low densities and high strengths, the fiber lengths in filaments or other fibers yield considerable
influence on the mechanical properties as well as the response of composites to processing and procedures. Shorter
fibers with proper orientation composites that use glass, ceramic or multi-purpose fibers can be endowed with
considerably higher strength than those that use continuous fibers. Short fibers are also known to their theoretical
strength. The continuous fiber constituent of a composite is often joined by the filament winding process in which
the matrix impregnated fiber wrapped around a mandrel shaped like the part over which the composite is to be
placed, and equitable load distribution and favorable orientation of the fiber is possible in the finished product.
However, winding is mostly confined to fabrication of bodies of revolution and the occasional irregular, flat
surface.

Short-length fibers incorporated by the open- or close-mould process are found to be less efficient, although the
input costs are considerably lower than filament winding.

Most fibers in use currently are solids which are easy to produce and handle, having a circular cross-section,
although a few non-conventional shaped and hollow fibers show signs of capabilities that can improve the
mechanical qualities of the composites.

Given the fact that the vast difference in length and effective diameter of the fiber are assets to a fiber composite, it
follows that greater strength in the fiber can be achieved by smaller diameters due to minimization or total
elimination of surface of surface defects.

After flat-thin filaments came into vogue, fibers rectangular cross sections have provided new options for
applications in high strength structures. Owing to their shapes, these fibers provide perfect packing, while hollow
fibers show better structural efficiency in composites that are desired for their stiffness and compressive strengths.
In hollow fibers, the transverse compressive strength is lower than that of a solid fiber composite whenever the
hollow portion is more than half the total fiber diameter. However, they are not easy to handle and fabricate.

Fibre Reinforcements

Organic and inorganic fibers are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost all organic fibers have low
density, flexibility, and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are of high modulus, high thermal stability and possess greater
rigidity than organic fibers and not withstanding the diverse advantages of organic fibers which render the
composites in which they are used.

Mainly, the following different types of fibers namely, glass fibers, silicon carbide fibers, high silica and quartz
fibers, aluminina fibers, metal fibers and wires, graphite fibers, boron fibers, aramid fibers and multiphase fibers
are used. Among the glass fibers, it is again classified into E-glass, A-glass, R-glass etc.

There is a greater marker and higher degree of commercial movement of organic fibers.
The potential of fibers of graphite, silica carbide and boron are also exercising the scientific mind due to their

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applications in advanced composites.

Whiskers
Single crystals grown with nearly zero defects are termed whiskers. They are usually discontinuous and short fibers
of different cross sections made from several materials like graphite, silicon carbide, copper, iron etc. Typical
lengths are in 3 to 55 N.M. ranges. Whiskers differ from particles in that, whiskers have a definite length to width
ratio greater than one. Whiskers can have extraordinary strengths upto 7000 MPa.

Whiskers were grown quite incidentally in laboratories for the first time, while nature has some geological
structures that can be described as whiskers. Initially, their usefulness was overlooked as they were dismissed as
incidental by-products of other structure. However, study on crystal structures and growth in metals sparked off an
interest in them, and also the study of defects that affect the strength of materials, they came to be incorporated in
composites using several methods, including power metallurgy and slip-casting techniques.

Metal-whisker combination, strengthening the system at high temperatures, has been demonstrated at the laboratory
level. But whiskers are fine, small sized materials not easy to handle and this comes in the way of incorporating
them into engineering materials to come out with a superior quality composite system.

Early research has shown that whisker strength varies inversely with effective diameter. When whiskers were
embedded in matrices, whiskers of diameter upto 2 to 10µm yielded fairly good composites.

Ceramic material’s whiskers have high moduli, useful strengths and low densities. Specific strength and specific
modulus are very high and this makes ceramic whiskers suitable for low weight structure composites. They also
resist temperature, mechanical damage and oxidation more responsively than metallic whiskers, which are denser
than ceramic whiskers. However, they are not commercially viable because they are damaged while handling.

Laminar Composites/Laminate Reinforced Composites

Laminar composites are found in as many combinations as the number of materials. They can be described as
materials comprising of layers of materials bonded together. These may be of several layers of two or more metal
materials occurring alternately or in a determined order more than once, and in as many numbers as required for a
specific purpose.

Clad and sandwich laminates have many areas as it ought to be, although they are known to follow the rule of
mixtures from the modulus and strength point of view. Other intrinsic values pertaining to metal-matrix, metal-
reinforced composites are also fairly well known.

Powder metallurgical processes like roll bonding, hot pressing, diffusion bonding, brazing and so on can be
employed for the fabrication of different alloys of sheet, foil, powder or sprayed materials. It is not possible to
achieve high strength materials unlike the fiber version. But sheets and foils can be made isotropic in two
dimensions more easily than fibers. Foils and sheets are also made to exhibit high percentages of which they are
put. For instance, a strong sheet may use over 92% in laminar structure, while it is difficult to make fibers of such
compositions. Fiber laminates cannot over 75% strong fibers.

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 Figure shows formation of laminate composite

The main functional types of metal-metal laminates that do not posses high strength or stiffness are single layered
ones that endow the composites with special properties, apart from being cost-effective. They are usually made by
pre-coating or cladding methods.

Pre-coated metals are formed by forming by forming a layer on a substrate, in the form of a thin continuous film.
This is achieved by hot dipping and occasionally by chemical plating and electroplating. Clad metals are found to
be suitable for more intensive environments where denser faces are required.

There are many combinations of sheet and foil which function as adhesives at low temperatures. Such materials,
plastics or metals, may be clubbed together with a third constituent. Pre-painted or pre-finished metal whose
primary advantage is elimination of final finishing by the user is the best known metal-organic laminate. Several
combinations of metal-plastic, vinyl-metal laminates, organic films and metals, account for upto 95% of metal-
plastic laminates known. They are made by adhesive bonding processes.
Flake Composites

Flakes are often used in place of fibers as can be densely packed. Metal flakes that are in close contact with each
other in polymer matrices can conduct electricity or heat, while mica flakes and glass can resist both. Flakes are not
expensive to produce and usually cost less than fibers.

But they fall short of expectations in aspects like control of size, shape and show defects in the end product. Glass
flakes tend to have notches or cracks around the edges, which weaken the final product. They are also resistant to
be lined up parallel to each other in a matrix, causing uneven strength. They are usually set in matrices, or more
simply, held together by a matrix with a glue-type binder. Depending on the end-use of the product, flakes are
present in small quantities or occupy the whole composite.

Flakes have various advantages over fibers in structural applications. Parallel flakes filled composites provide
uniform mechanical properties in the same plane as the flakes. While angle-plying is difficult in continuous fibers
which need to approach isotropic properties, it is not so in flakes. Flake composites have a higher theoretical
modulus of elasticity than fiber reinforced composites. They are relatively cheaper to produce and be handled in
small quantities.

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Filled composites result from addition of filer materials to plastic matrices to replace a portion of the matrix,
enhance or change the properties of the composites. The fillers also enhance strength and reduce weight.

Another type of filled composite is the product of structure infiltrated with a second-phase filler material. The
skeleton could be a group of cells, honeycomb structures, like a network of open pores. The infiltrant could also be
independent of the matrix and yet bind the components like powders or fibers, or they could just be used to fill
voids. Fillers produced from powders are also considered as particulate composite.

In the open matrices of a porous or spongy composite, the formation is the natural result of processing and such
matrices can be strengthened with different materials. Metal impregnates are used to improve strength or tolerance
of the matrix. Metal casting, graphite, powder metallurgy parts and ceramics belong to this class of filled
composites.

In the honeycomb structure, the matrix is not naturally formed, but specifically designed to a predetermed shape.
Sheet materials in the hexagonal shapes are impregnated with resin or foam and are used as a core material in
sandwich composites.

Fillers may be the main ingredient or an additional one in a composite. The filler particles may be irregular
structures, or have precise geometrical shapes like polyhedrons, short fibers or spheres.

While their purpose is far from adding visual embellishment to the composites, they occasionally impart colour or
opacity to the composite which they fill.

As inert additives, fillers can change almost any basic resin characteristic in all directions required, to tide over the
many limitations of basic resins as far as composites are concerned. The final composite properties can be affected
by the shape, surface treatment, blend of particle types, size of the particle in the filler material and the size
distribution.

Filled plastics tend to behave like two different constituents. They do not alloy and accept the bonding. They are
meant to develop mutually; they desist from interacting chemically with each other. It is vital that the constituents
remain in co-ordination and do not destroy each others desired properties.

Matrix in a few filled composites provides the main framework while the filler furnishes almost all desired
properties. Although the matrix forms the bulk of the composite, the filler material is used in such great quantities
relatively that it becomes the rudimentary constituent.

The benefits offered by fillers include increase stiffness, thermal resistance, stability, strength and abrasion
resistance, porosity and a favorable coefficient of thermal expansion.

However, the methods of fabrication are very limited and the curing of some resins is greatly inhibited. They also
shorten the life span of some resins and are known to weaken a few composites.

Microspheres

Microspheres are considered to be some of the most useful fillers. Their specific gravity, stable particle size,
strength and controlled density to modify products without compromising on profitability or physical properties are
it’s their most-sought after assets.

Solid glass Microspheres, manufactured from glass are most suitable for plastics. Solid glass Microspheres are
coated with a binding agent which bonds itself as well as the sphere’s surface to the resin. This increases the

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bonding strength and basically removes absorption of liquids into the separations around the spheres.

Solid Microspheres have relatively low density, and therefore, influence the commercial value and weight of the
finished product. Studies have indicated that their inherent strength is carried over to the finished moulded part of
which they form a constituent.

Hollow microspheres are essentially silicate based, made at controlled specific gravity. They are larger than solid
glass spheres used in polymers and commercially supplied in a wider range of particle sizes. Commercially, silicate-
based hollow microspheres with different compositions using organic compounds are also available. Due to the
modification, the microspheres are rendered less sensitive to moisture, thus reducing attraction between particles.
This is very vital in highly filled liquid polymer composites where viscosity enhancement constraints the quantum of
filler loading.

Formerly, hollow spheres were mostly used for thermosetting resin systems. Now, several new strong spheres are
available and they are at least five times stronger than hollow microspheres in static crush strength and four times
long lasting in shear.

Recently, ceramic alumino silicate microspheres have been introduced in thermoplastic systems. Greater strength
and higher density of this system in relation to siliceous microspheres and their resistance to abrasions and
considerable strength make then suitable for application in high pressure conditions.

Hollow microspheres have a lower specific gravity than the pure resin. This makes it possible to use them for
lightning resin dominant compounds. They find wide applications in aerospace and automotive industries where
weight reduction for energy conservation is one of the main considerations.
But their use in systems requiring high shear mixing or high-pressure moulding is restricted as their crush
resistance is in no way comparable to that of solid spheres. Fortunately, judicious applications of hollow spheres
eliminate crazing at the bends in the poly-vinyl chloride plastisol applications, where the end component is
subjected to bending stresses.

Microspheres, whether solid or hollow, show properties that are directly related to their spherical shape let them
behave like minute ball bearing, and hence, they give better flow properties. They also distribute stress uniformly
throughout resin matrices.

In spherical particles, the ratio of surface area to volume is minimal (smallest). In resin-rich surfaces of reinforced
systems, the Microspheres which are free of orientation and sharp edges are capable of producing smooth surfaces.

Particulate Reinforced Composites

Microstructures of metal and ceramics composites, which show particles of one phase strewn in the other, are
known as particle reinforced composites. Square, triangular and round shapes of reinforcement are known, but the
dimensions of all their sides are observed to be more or less equal. The size and volume concentration of the
dispersoid distinguishes it from dispersion hardened materials.

The dispersed size in particulate composites is of the order of a few microns and volume concentration is greater
than 28%. The difference between particulate composite and dispersion strengthened ones is, thus, oblivious. The
mechanism used to strengthen each of them is also different. The dispersed in the dispersion-strengthen materials

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reinforces the matrix alloy by arresting motion of dislocations and needs large forces to fracture the restriction
created by dispersion.

In particulate composites, the particles strengthen the system by the hydrostatic coercion of fillers in matrices and
by their hardness relative to the matrix.

Three-dimensional reinforcement in composites offers isotropic properties, because of the three systematical
orthogonal planes. Since it is not homogeneous, the material properties acquire sensitivity to the constituent
properties, as well as the interfacial properties and geometric shapes of the array. The composite’s strength
usually depends on the diameter of the particles, the inter-particle spacing, and the volume fraction of the
reinforcement. The matrix properties influence the behaviour of particulate composite too.

Cermets/Ceramal

The Cermet is an abbreviation for the "'ceramic" and "metal." A CerMet is a composite material composed of
ceramic (Cer) and metallic (Met) materials. A Cermet is ideally designed to have the optimal properties of both a
ceramic, such as high temperature resistance and hardness, and those of a metal, such as the ability to undergo
plastic deformation. The metal is used as a binder for an oxide, boride, carbide, or alumina. Generally, the metallic
elements used are nickel, molybdenum, and cobalt. Depending on the physical structure of the material, cermets
can also be metal matrix composites, but cermets are usually less than 20% metal by volume.

It is used in the manufacture of resistors (especially potentiometers), capacitors, and other electronic components
which may experience high temperatures. Some types of cermet are also being considered for use as spacecraft
shielding as they resist the high velocity impacts of micrometeoroids and orbital debris much more effectively than
more traditional spacecraft materials such as aluminum and other metals.

One application of these materials is their use in vacuum tube coatings, which are key to solar hot water systems.
Cermets are also used in dentistry as a material for fillings and prostheses. Also it used in machining on cutting
tools.
Cermets are one of the premier groups of particle strengthened composites and usually comprises ceramic grains
of borides, carbides or oxides. The grains are dispersed in a refractory ductile metal matrix, which accounts for 20
to 85% of the total volume. The bonding between ceramic and metal constituents is the result of a small measure of
mutual solutions.

Metal oxide systems show poor bonding and require additional bonding agents. Cermet structures are usually
produced using power metallurgy techniques. Their potential properties are several and varied depending on the
relative volumes and compositions and of the metal and ceramic constituents. Impregnation of a porous ceramic
structure with a metallic matrix binder is another method used to produce cermets. Cermets may be employed as
coating in a power form. The power is sprayed through a gas flame and fused to a base material. A wide variety of
cermets have been produced on a small scale, but only a few have appreciable value commercially.
Common Categories of Composite Materials based on fibre length:

Based on the form of reinforcement, common composite materials can be classified as follows:

1. Fibers as the reinforcement (Fibrous Composites):

a. Random fiber (short fiber) reinforced composites

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 Figure Short-fibre reinforced composites
b. Continuous fiber (long fiber) reinforced composites

Figure: Long- fibre reinforced composites

2. Particles as the reinforcement (Particulate composites):

Figure : Particulate Composites

3. Flat flakes as the reinforcement (Flake composites):

Figure : Flake Composites

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4. Fillers as the reinforcement (Filler composites)

Figure: Filler Composites

Examples for composite materials:

• Fibre reinforced plastics:

o Classified by type of fiber:

Wood (cellulose fibers in a lignin and hemicellulose matrix)

Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic (CRP)

Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) (informally, "fiberglass")

o Classified by matrix:
Thermoplastic Composites

• short fiber thermoplastics

• long fiber thermoplastics or long fiber reinforced thermoplastics

• glass mat thermoplastics

• continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastics Thermoset

Composites
• Reinforced carbon-carbon (carbon fibre in a graphite matrix)

• Metal matrix composites (MMCs):

o White cast iron

o Hardmetal (carbide in metal matrix)
o Metal-intermetallic laminate

• Ceramic matrix composites:

o Bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibers)
Cermet (ceramic and metal)
o Concrete

• Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites

o Asphalt concrete
o Dental composite
o Syntactic foam
o Mother of Pearl

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 • Chobham armour (see composite armour)

• Engineered wood

o Plywood
o Oriented strand board
o Wood plastic composite (recycled wood fiber in polyethylene matrix) o Pykrete (sawdust
in ice matrix)
• Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles o Arborite

o Formica (plastic)
Matrix Materials
Matrix Selection Thermodynamically stable dispersoids are essential for the use of metal matrix composites for
high temperature applications. This can be done by using an alloy dispersoid system in which solid state
diffusivity, interfacial energies and elemental solubility are minimized, in turn reducing coarsening and
interfacial reactions. Aluminium and magnesium alloys are regarded as widely used matrices due to low density
and high thermal conductivity. Composites with low matrix alloying additions result in attractive combinations of
ductility, toughness and strength. In discontinuous reinforced metal matrix composites minor alloying elements,
used in wrought alloys as grain refiners, are not required. These additions should be avoided since coarse inter-
metallic compounds get formed during consolidation, thus, reducing the tensile ductility of the composite.

Fundamentals of production of metal-matrix composite:

There are several methods of fabricating metal matrix composites. Important among them are foundry techniques,
powder metallurgy technique, liquid metal infiltration, diffusion bonding, electro forming, vapour deposition etc.
Metal matrix composite are formed with all the different dispersoids namely fibres, whiskers and particulates.

Foundry Technique: Metal matrix composite can be produced by foundry techniques in a simple and cost
effective manner. Components of even complex shapes can be manufactured in large numbers at high production
rates. These composites are generally known as cast MMCs. The different types of casting generally used to
produce cast MMCs are Sand casting, Die casting, Centrifugal casting, Squeeze castings etc.

Sand Casting: Sand casting involves pouring of hot molten slurries of the composite material into sand moulds
which are prepared so as to obtain components of desired shape and size. A composite material complete with
reinforcement is obtained often solidification. Before pouring the molten into the mould, the reinforcement such as
fibres or particles are introduced into the molten or semi-solid metal. Sometimes the reinforcement is added during
pouring or even after the molten metal is poured into the moulds. Different methods are employed for uniformly
dispersing the reinforcement in the base matrix.

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 Preparation of composite material

Sand mould used for die casting

The matrix reinforcement mixture which is stirred vigorously with the help of a mechanical stirrer is then
poured into a sand mould through the pouring basin. The reinforced material tries to segregate either to
the top or to the bottom of the casting depending on its density. This segregation of particles to specific
areas is reduced by decreasing pouring temperature or by increasing the rate of solidification.

Die casting: In these types of casting, the molten slurry of the composite material is forced under
pressure into split metal dies and allowed to solidify. The relatively rapid solidification rates in these
metallic moulds give rise to a more homogeneous distribution of particles in the cast composite.

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 Figure Metallic moulds used for die casting

Centrifugal Casting: In Centrifugal casting, molten metal is poured into moulds which will be rotating
about their axis. The metal falling at the centre of the mould is thrown out by the centrifugal force under
sufficient pressure towards the periphery. Therefore if the reinforcement material is heavier than the base
matrix we get a composite whose surface is rich in reinforcement while if it has less density than the
matrix material, the reinforcement particles collect around the axis of rotation.

Centrifugal casting

Powder Metallurgy Technique: Metal-matrix composite are extensively produced by powder metallurgy
technique. Metallic materials such as copper, nickel, aluminum, cobalt and steel are used in their powder form as
matrix materials. The metal matrices in the form of powders are first mixed with whiskers, fibres or particles and
then fed into a mould of desired shape. Pressure is then applied to compact the powder. This is followed by
sintering in order to strongly bind the particles. Composites manufactured by powder metallurgy are uniform in
composition and distribution of reinforcement. Cutting tool materials like Cermets are produced by this technique
because of the high hardness and compactness achieved

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Fundamentals of Production of Fibre- Reinforced Plastics (FRP):

Fibre-reinforced plastics are manufactured by several methods, the classification of which is given below:

1) Open mould processes

(i) Hand Lay- up process

p Bag moulding process

Pressure –bag moulding

Vacuum- bag moulding

Autoclave process
(iii) Filament winding process

(iv) Spray- up process

2) Closed – mould process

(i) Sheet- Moulding Compound (SMC) process

(ii) Pultrusion process

(iii) Injection moulding

(iv) Resin transfer moulding

(v) Blow moulding

(vi) Pulforming
3) Fiber reinforced plastics are perhaps the most widely used group of composite materials in the world today.
This is because fibres of different materials are very popular as reinforcement while plastics are most easily
a4)vailable and very economical.

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OPEN MOULD PROCESSES:

Hand Lay – Up Process: This is one of the simplest methods of producing a fibre reinforced plastic. In
order to produce a composite by using glass fibres and polyester resin, a get coat is first applied to the
open mould. Fibre glass reinforcement which is normally in the form of a cloth or mat is applied by
pouring, brushing or spraying. Rollers are used to thoroughly wet the reinforcement with the resin matrix
material and to remove entrapped air. To increase the thickness of the composite being produced, more
layers of fibre glass mat and resin are added.

Hand Lay-up process

The moulds in the land lay-up process are generally made of wax, clay or wood and the gel coat is applied to
facilitate easy removal of the product from the mould. Applications of this method include boat hulls, tanks,
housings, chairs etc.

Advantages:
• Simple in operation
• Low investment
• Lower manufacturing cost
• Both large and smaller parts can be made.
Disadvantages:
• High labour cost
• Quality depends on the skill of the labour.
• Low volume production process

Spray Lay-Up Process: Spray Lay-Up Process is also known as chop - up method of creating fiberglass objects by
spraying short strands of glass out of a pneumatic gun. This method is used often when one side of the finished
product is not seen, or when large quantities of a product must be made cheaply and quickly without regards to
strength. boat dinghies are commonly manufactured this way. It is very different from the hand lay-up process. The
difference comes from the application of the fibre and resin material to the mould. Spray-up is an open-moulding
composites fabrication process where resin and reinforcements are sprayed onto a reusable mould. The resin and
glass may be applied separately or simultaneously "chopped" in a combined stream from a chopper gun. Workers

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roll out the spray-up to compact the laminate. Wood, foam, or other core material may then be added, and a
secondary spray-up layer embeds the core between the laminates. The part is then cured, cooled, and removed from
the mould.

Spray Lay-up process

Advantages:
 Simple in operation
 Quick depositing of fibers & resin
 Faster than hand lay up process
 Both large and smaller parts can be made.

Disadvantages:
 Low viscosity resins give good result.
 Quality depends on the skill of the labour.
 Difficult to control thickness of composites.

Applications:

 This process are generally used in the manufacture of lightly loaded structural panels , bath tubs. Boat
hulls, shower trays etc.
Bag- Moulding: Bag moulding is an improvement over the hand lay-up process and Spray Lay-Up Process in that
it further removes the entrapped air. The three basic bag moulding methods are Pressure bag, Vacuum –bag and
Autoclave processes. In all the different types of bag moulding, plastic resin is first poured over fibre reinforcement
mats placed in an open mould. Hence the composite parts produced by bag moulding technique will have fewer
defects when compared to hand lay-up process and Spray Lay-Up Process. This mixture of fibre and resin is
covered by a flexible sheet. Pressure is then applied to the sheet in various ways so as to compact the fibre and
matrix material. In case of pressure bag moulding high pressure air is used to compact the mixture in the mould to
the required extent.

In Vacuum- bag moulding a vacuum pump is used to evacuate the mould cavity. The vacuum created results in the
elimination of voids, trapped air and excess resin and at the same time has a compacting effect.

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 Pressure bag moulding process

Vacuum bag moulding process

Advantages:

 Simple in operation
 Can produce laminates with uniform degree of consolidation.
 Higher reinforcement to resin ratio can be achieved.
 Both large and smaller parts can be made.
Disadvantages:

 Problem in disposing of bagging materials.

 Quality depends on the skill of the labour.
 Primarily suited for prepreg materials.
Applications:
This process are generally used in the manufacture aerospace parts, automobile body etc

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Autoclave molding technique: Autoclave molding technique is similar to vacuum bag and pressure bag molding
method with some modifications. This method employs an autoclave to provide heat and pressure to the composite
product during curing. In this method, prepregs are stacked in a mold in a definite sequence and then spot welded to
avoid any relative movement in between the prepreg sheets. After stacking the prepregs, the whole assembly is
vacuum bagged to remove any air entrapped in between the layers. The schematic of autoclave molding process is
shown in Figure 14. After a definite period of time when it is ensured that all air is removed, the entire assembly is
transferred to autoclave. Here, heat and pressure is applied for a definite interval of time. In this process, matrix is
uniformly distributed and intimate contact is achieved through proper bonding between fibers and matrix. After the
processing, the assembly is cooled to a definite rate and then vacuum bag is removed. The composite part is taken
out from the mold. Initially, a release gel is applied onto the mold surface to avoid sticking of polymer to the mold
surface.

Autoclave moulding process

The autoclave process gives higher reinforcement levels and better properties in the components. Composite
materials produced by this method are particularly important for aircraft and aerospace application.

Advantages:

 Simple in operation
 Can produce laminates with uniform degree of consolidation.
 Higher reinforcement to resin ratio can be achieved.
 Both large and smaller parts can be made.
 Laminates thickness can be easily controlled.
Disadvantages:

 Moulds should be robust since the operating pressures are high.

 Quality depends on the skill of the labour.
 Primarily suited for prepreg materials.

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  High equipment cost.

Applications:
These processes are generally used in the manufacture structural components for aerospace parts, since it
guarantees reproducibility.

Filament winding process: In this process, strands of fibre reinforcement is fed through a plastic resin bath and
then wound on a suitable mandrel in pre-determined orientations. While the mandrel rotates and rolls up the resin
impregnated fibres, the traversing carriage runs along the length of the mandrel. The filaments are wound along
different orientations, so as to utilize their strength in an efficient manner. When sufficient layers have been taken
up, the wound mandrel is either cured at room temperature ‘or’ at an elevated temperature in an oven. The molded
composite is then stripped from the mandrel. In some cases the mandrel is difficult to free from the hollow
composite cylinders. In such cases the mandrels are usually made of low-melting point alloys and are later melted
down

Filament winding process

Advantages:
 Excellent mechanical properties due to use of continuous fibers.
 Highest strength to weight ratio.
 Fast & economical method for manufacturing hollow parts.
 Can produce laminates with uniform degree of consolidation.
 Process can be automated easily.

Disadvantages:

 Limited to convex parts.

 Difficult to wind complex parts.
 Requires low viscosity resins.
 High equipment cost.

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Applications:

 Used in the fabrication of chemical storage tanks, and pipe lines, gas cylinders. Rocket motors, pressure
vessels, golf pipes etc.
CLOSED MOULD PROCESSES

Pultrusion is a continuous process for manufacture of composite materials with constant cross-section. As opposed
to extrusion, which pushes the material, Pultrusion works by pulling the material.
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Pultrusion process

In the standard Pultrusion process the reinforcement materials like fibers or woven or braided strands are
impregnated with resin, possibly followed by a separate preforming system, and pulled through a heated stationary
die where the resin undergoes polymerization. The impregnation is either done by pulling the reinforcement
through a bath or by injecting the resin into an injection chamber which typically is connected to the die. Many
resin types may be used in pultrusion including polyester, polyurethane, vinylester and epoxy. Resin provides the
resistance to the environment, and the glass provides strength, in addition to safety from fire. Whether the stages
are moving linear or circular depends on the type of profiles to be manufactured. The minimum radius for a linear
machine with rotating stages is approximately 2m. For smaller radii a circular movement of the mould and gripper
stage is necessary.
Advantages:
 Process parameters are easily controllable.

 High productivity.

 Lower rejection rate.

 Lower labour cost.

 Good surface quality can be obtained.

Disadvantages:
 Long tooling time.

 High equipment cost.

 Limited to constant cross section profiles.

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Applications:

Used in the fabrication of constant cross section profile components such as I-beam, C-channels, tubes, pipes, poles
etc

Compression molding: Compression molding is a forming process in which a polymer matrix composite material
is placed directly into a heated metal mold, then is softened by the heat, and forced to conform to the shape of the
mold as the mold closes.

Compression moulding process

Compression molding is a high-volume, high-pressure method suitable for molding complex, high-strength fiber
glass reinforcements. Advanced composite thermoplastics can also be compression molded with unidirectional
tapes, woven fabrics, randomly oriented fiber mat or chopped strand. The advantage of compression molding is its
ability to mold large, fairly intricate parts. Also, it is one of the lowest cost molding methods compared with other
methods such as transfer molding and injection molding; moreover it wastes relatively little material, giving it an
advantage when working with expensive compounds.

Process characteristics: The use of thermoset plastic compounds characterizes this molding process from many of
the other molding processes. These thermoset can be in either preform or granule shapes. Unlike some of the other
processes we find that the materials are usually preheated and measured before molding. This helps to reduce
excess flash. As a side note, remember not to allow any undercuts on the shape, it will make ejection especially
difficult. Thermoplastic matrices with an inherent indefinite shelf-life and shorter cycle moulding times are widely
used.
Advantages:

 Process parameters are easily controllable.

 High productivity.

 Lower rejection rate.

 Ability to produce large and intricate parts.

 Good surface quality can be obtained.

 Precise cross-sectional dimensions of products can be produced.

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Disadvantages:
 Moulds should be precise.

 High equipment cost.

 secondary operations are sometimes Required.

Applications:
Used in the fabrication of electrical components such as switch and sockets, automobile
parts etc.
Injection moulding: Injection moulding is a manufacturing process for producing parts by injecting material into a
mould. Injection moulding can be performed with a host of materials, including metals, glasses, elastomers,
confections, both thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers. Material for the part is fed into a heated barrel, mixed,
and forced into a mould cavity, where it cools and hardens to the configuration of the cavity. After a product is
designed, usually by an industrial designer or an engineer, moulds are made by a mould maker from metal, usually
either steel or aluminum, and precision-machined to form the features of the desired part. Injection moulding is
widely used for
manufacturing a variety of parts, from the smallest components to entire body panels of cars. Parts to be injection
molded must be very carefully designed to facilitate the moulding process. The material used for the part, the
desired shape and features of the part, the material of the mould, and the properties of the moulding machine must
all be taken into account. The versatility of injection moulding is facilitated by this breadth of design considerations
and possibilities.

Advantages:

 Process parameters are easily controllable.

 High productivity.

 Lower rejection rate.

 Ability to produce large and intricate parts.

 Good surface quality can be obtained.

 Precise cross-sectional dimensions of products can be produced.

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 MATERIAL SCIENCE – 18ME34
Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme)
Other Materials, Material Selection

Disadvantages:

 Moulds should be precise.

 High equipment cost.

 Limited length of fibers decreases their reinforcing effect.

Applications:
Used in the fabrication of automobile parts, front and rear bumpers and other parts

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