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What is Research?

Characteristics of Research

Types of Research
Based on Application:
Based on Objectives:
Based on Inquiry Mode:
Positivism:
Post positivism:
Research Methods:
Research Methods Vs. Research Design

Types of Research Methods

Descriptive or Survey Method
Historical Method
Experimental Method
Qualitative Methods and Quantitative Methods
Steps in Research Process:
STEP 1. FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
Study population:
Subject area:
Steps in Formulation of a Research Problem:
STEP 2. REVIEWING THE LITERATURE:
Bring clarity and focus to research problem:
Improve methodology:
Broaden knowledge base in research area:
Contextualise findings:
STEP 3 - FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES (HYPOTHESES)

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 Identifying Variables:
Difference between Concept and Variable:
Nominal or Categorical:
Ordinal or Ranking Scale:
Interval Scale:
Ratio Scale:
Parametric vs. Non-parametric:
Continuous and Discrete Variables:
CONSTRUCTING HYPOTHESES:
Types of Hypotheses
Alternative Hypotheses
STEP 4 – PREPARING RESEARCH DESIGN
Methods of primary data collection:
Contact Methods:
Mail Questionnaires:
Telephone Interviewing:
Personal Interviewing:
Intercept interviewing:
Focus Group Interviewing:
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Determining Sample Design:
Types of Sampling:
Different types of Sampling (Brief)
Guidelines to Construct a Research Tool:
Questionnaire:
Closed –ended Questionnaire:
Open-ended Questionnaire:
Combination of both:
Piloting the Questionnaire:
STEP 5: COLLECTING DATA:
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 STEP 6: PROCESSING AND ANALYSING DATA
Qualitative Data Analysis:
Quantitative Data Analysis:
Data Analysis Using a Computer:
STEP 7: REPORTING THE FINDINGS:
Title Page
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Theoretical Framework and Review of Literature
Research design:
Data Analysis and Interpretation:
Summary and Conclusion:
Recommendation:
Suggestion for Further Research:
List of References/Bibliography:
Annexures
Curriculum vitae (optional):
Appendices (optional):
Comparison Between Citation and Reference

Types of Citation/References:
Components of an ICT system

Application of ICT in Research

Applications of ICT in pre-data analysis:
Some other Famous Database for Research Articles and literature:
Important Data Collection Application of ICT:
Applications of ICT in data analysis
List of Statistical Software Packages -
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 Application of ICT in post-data analysis

Ethical Issues Relating to The Researcher

Accuracy
Alpha Level
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
Anonymity
Attrition
Average
Axiom
Bell-Shaped Curve
Beta Level
Bimodal Distribution
Bootstrapping
Case Study
Categorical Data
Causal Analysis
Ceiling
Census
Central Limit Theorem
Central Tendency
Chi Square
Cluster Analysis
Coefficient of Determination
Cohort
Confidence Interval
Confidence Level
Confounding Variable
Construct Validity
Continuous Variable
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 Control
Control Variable
Controlled Experiment
Cooperation Rate
Correlation
Correlation Coefficient
Coverage
Cross-Sectional Data
Cross-Tabulation
Curvilinear
Data
Data Analysis
Data Imputation
Deduction
Deductive Method
Degrees of Freedom
Dependent Variable
Descriptive Statistics
Dichotomous Variables
Discomfirming Evidence
Discrete Variables
Dispersion
Distribution
Double Barreled Question
Double Blind Experiment
Dummy Coding
Dummy Variables
Ecological Fallacy
Econometrics
Effect Size
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 Endogeneity
Epistemology
Error
Estimated Sampling Error
Ethnographic Decision Models
Ethnographic Interviewing
Factor Analysis
Fixed Effects Regression
Focus Group
Frequency Distribution
GIS (Geographical Information Systems)
Gini Coefficient
Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM)
Histogram
Index
Index Variable
Inductive Method
Jackknife Technique
Kurtosis
Least Squares
Level of Significance
Likert Scale
Linear Regression
Logit Model
MANOVA (Multivariate Analysis of Variance)
Mean
Median
Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA)
Missing Completely at Random (MCAR)
Mode
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 Moving Average
Multivariate Analysis
Multivariate Probit Model
Mutually Exclusive
Non-sampling Error
Normal Distribution
Null Hypothesis
One-Way ANOVA
P-Value
Paired T-Test
Parameter
Pearson's Correlational Coefficient
Pilot Studies
Poisson Distribution
Population
Quasi-Experimental Research
R-Squared
Random Coefficient
Random Error
Range
Rank Order
Rating Scale
Ratio
Regression Analysis
Regression Coefficient
Regression Equation
Sampling Error
Scatter Plot
Semantic Differential Scale
Significance Level
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 Simple Linear Regression
Simulation
Skewness
Slope
Sociogram
Spurious Relationship
Standard Deviation
Standard Error
Statistic
Statistical Analysis
Statistical Significance
T Distribution
T-Test
Target Population
Test-Retest Reliability
Theoretical Sampling
Time Series
Two-Tailed Test
Two-Way ANOVA
Type I Error
Type II Error
Univariate Analysis
Variance
Z Score
Z Test

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What is Research?
It is careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or problem
using scientific methods.
According to the Earl Robert Babbie, an American sociologist, “a systematic
inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon
termed as research. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”
The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. “re” is a prefix
meaning again, a new or over again and “search” is a verb meaning to examine
closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe. Together they form a noun
describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field
of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.

Research is a structured enquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific

methodology to solve problems and create new knowledge that is generally
applicable.

In a research study to find answers to a question, we are implying that the

process;
● to undertake within a framework of a set of philosophies (approaches);
● to uses procedures, methods, and techniques that have been tested for
their validity and reliability;
● to designed to be unbiased and objective.

Philosophies mean approaches, e.g., qualitative, quantitative, and the academic

discipline in which you have been trained.

Validity means that correct procedures have been applied to find answers to a
question.

Reliability refers to the quality of a measurement procedure that provides

repeatability and accuracy.
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Unbiased and objective means that you have taken each step in an unbiased
manner and drawn each conclusion to the best of your ability and without
introducing your own vested interest. (Bias is a deliberate attempt to either
conceal or highlight something).

Characteristics of Research

Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to

answer questions. But to qualify as research, the process must have certain
characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic,
valid and verifiable, empirical and critical.

Controlled- in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The
concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two
variables (factors), you set up your study in a way that minimizes the effects of
other factors affecting the relationship. This can be achieved to a large extent
in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most of the research is done in a
laboratory. However, in the social sciences (Hospitality and Tourism) it is
extremely difficult as research is carried out on issues related to human beings
living in society, where such controls are not possible. Therefore, in Hospitality
and Tourism, as you cannot control external factors, you attempt to quantify
their impact.

Rigorous-you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to

find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the
degree of rigor varies markedly between the physical and social sciences and
within the social sciences.

Systematic-this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an

investigation follow a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be
taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must follow others.
Valid and verifiable-this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the
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basis of your findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.

Empirical-this means that any conclusion drawn are based upon hard evidence
gathered from information collected from real life experiences or observations
Critical-critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is
crucial to a research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof
and free from drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must
be able to withstand critical scrutiny.

For a process to be called research, it is imperative that it has the above

characteristics

Types of Research

Research can be classified from three perspectives:

1. Application of research study
2. Objectives in undertaking the research
3. Inquiry Mode employed

Based on Application:
From the point of view of application, there are two broad categories of
research:

A. Pure Research
B. Applied Research,

Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are
intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical
application at the present time or
in the future. The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in
order to add to the existing body of research methods.

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Applied research is done to solve specific, practical questions; for policy
formulation, administration and understanding of a phenomenon. It can be
exploratory but is usually descriptive. It is almost always done on the basis of
basic research.

Applied research can be carried out by academic or industrial institutions.

Often, an academic institution such as a university will have a specific applied
research program funded by an industrial partner interested in that program.

Based on Objectives:
From the viewpoint of objectives, a research can be classified as
A. Descriptive
B. Correlational
C. Explanatory
D. Exploratory

A. Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a situation,

problem, phenomenon, service or programme, or provides information
about, say, living condition of a community, or describes attitudes
towards an issue.

B. Correlational research attempts to discover or establish the existence

of a relationship/ interdependence between two or more aspects of a
situation.

C. Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a

relationship between two or more aspects of a situation or
phenomenon.

D. Exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area where little is

known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular
research study (feasibility study pilot study).

In practice most studies are a combination of the first three categories.

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Based on Inquiry Mode:
From the process adopted to find answer to research questions – the two
approaches are:
E. Structured approach
F. Unstructured approach

A. Structured approach: The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified

as quantitative research. Everything that forms the research process-
objectives, design, sample, and the questions that you plan to ask of
respondents- is predetermined. It is more appropriate to determine the
extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon by quantifying the variation. e.g.
how many people have a particular problem? How many people hold a
particular attitude?

B. Unstructured approach: The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually

classified as qualitative research. This approach allows flexibility in all
aspects of the research process.

It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or

phenomenon without quantifying it. Main objective is to describe the variation
in a phenomenon, situation or attitude. e,g, description of an observed
situation, the historical enumeration of events, an account of different
opinions different people have about an issue, description of working
condition in a particular industry.

Both approaches have their place in research. Both have their strengths and
weaknesses.
In many studies, there is a combination of both qualitative and quantitative
approaches.

For example, suppose you have to find the types of cuisine / accommodation
available in a city and the extent of their popularity.

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Types of cuisine is the qualitative aspect of the study as finding out about
them entails description of the culture and cuisine

The extent of their popularity is the quantitative aspect as it involves

estimating the number of people who visit restaurant serving such cuisine and
calculating the other indicators that reflect the extent of popularity.

Positivism and Post positivism Approach to

Research
Positivism:
Positivism argues for the existence of a true and objective reality that can be
studied through applying the methods and principles of natural sciences and
scientific inquiry. It maintains that “the object of study is independent of
researchers; knowledge is discovered and verified through direct observations
or measurements of phenomena; facts are established by taking apart a
phenomenon to examine its component parts.” According to this paradigm, the
role of the researcher is to provide material for the development of laws by
testing theories.

Positivists believe in five principles which include

● Phenomenalism (knowledge confirmed by the senses can be regarded
as knowledge),
● Deductivism (the purpose of theory is to generate
hypotheses that can be tested to make laws),
● Inductivism (the gathering of facts provides the basis for laws and
knowledge),
● objectivism (science should be value-free) and
● scientific statements

Post positivism:
Post Positivism is considered a contemporary paradigm that developed as a
result of the criticism of positivism. Like positivists, post positivists also
believe in the existence of a single reality, however, they acknowledge that

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reality can never be fully known and efforts to understand reality are limited
owing to the human beings’ sensory and intellectual limitations.

The aim of post positivist research is also prediction and explanation. Like
positivists, post positivists also strive to be objective, neutral and ensure that
the findings fit with the existing knowledge base. However, unlike positivists,
they acknowledge and spell out any predispositions that may affect the
objectivity

Positivism and post positivism were precluded from use in this study for
several reasons. Firstly, research conducted under both of these paradigms is
usually quantitative where a hypothesis is tested while the researcher remains
objective and separate from the area of investigation.

METHODS OF RESEARCH
When constructing a building there is no point ordering materials or setting
critical dates for completion of project stages until we know what sort of
building is being constructed. The rest decision is whether we need a high-rise
office building, a factory for manufacturing machinery, a school, a residential
home or an apartment block. Until this is done, we cannot sketch a plan,
obtain permits, work out a work schedule or order materials.

Similarly, social research needs a design or a structure before data collection

or analysis can commence. A research design is not just a work plan. A work
plan details what has to be done to complete the project but the work plan will
flow from the project's research design.

The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained

enables us to answer the initial question as unambiguously as possible.
Obtaining relevant evidence entails specifying the type of evidence needed to
answer the research question, to test a theory, to evaluate a programme or to
accurately describe some phenomenon. In other words, when designing

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research, we need to ask: given this research question (or theory), what type of
evidence is needed to answer the question (or test the theory) in a convincing
way?

Research design `deals with a logical problem and not a logistical problem'.

Before a builder or architect can develop a work plan or order materials, they
must rest establish the type of building required, its uses and the needs of the
occupants. The work plan flows from this. Similarly, in social research the
issues of sampling, method of data collection (e.g. questionnaire, observation,
document analysis), design of questions is all subsidiary to the matter of `What
evidence do I need to collect?'

So, we can define it as

“Research Design is a framework or plan for conducting a research project. It
details the procedures necessary for obtaining the information needed to
structure or solve research problems.”

Types of Research Design (Brief)

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 (Source: Marketing Research, Malhotra)
Research Methods:
Research methods are the strategies, processes or techniques utilized in the
collection of data or evidence for analysis in order to uncover new information
or create better understanding of a topic.

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 Research Methods Vs. Research Design

(Source: Wikimedia)

Types of Research Methods

George J. Mouly has classified research method into three basic types:

● Descriptive or Survey Method

● Historical Method, and
● Experimental Method

Descriptive or Survey Method

It is concerned with the present and attempts to determine the status of the
phenomena under investigation. This method has been further classified into
four categories:

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 (a) Descriptive or Normative
(b) Analytical
(c) School survey and
(d) Genetic

Descriptive survey is of four types

o Testing survey method,

o Questionnaire survey method,
o Interview survey method.
(b) Analytical survey is of five types

● Documentary frequency,
● Observational survey,
● Rating survey,
● Critical incident,
● Factor analysis

Historical Method
This method is concerned with the past and which attempts to trace the past
as a means for seeing the present prospective. The historical method collects
facts by going to the past in different periods. The sources of information
include written records, newspapers, diaries, letters, travelers’ accounts, etc.
Social researchers generally confine themselves to three major sources of
historical information.

(a) Documents and various historical sources to which

historians have access
(b) Materials of cultural history and of analytical history and
(c) Personal sources of authentic observers and witnesses.

The historical method can be classified into three types:

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 (a)Historical
(b) Legal, and

(c)Documentary

Moreover, the documents which you may study, may be personal documents
like biographies, diaries, letters, and memoirs or may be public documents like
magazines and newspapers, and other published data.

Experimental Method
It is oriented towards the discovery of basic relationship among phenomenon
as means of predicting and eventually, controlling their occurrence into four
types as given below:

1. Simple experimental design

2. Multivariate analysis
3. Case study
4. Predictive or correlation

Qualitative Methods and Quantitative Methods

Qualitative Research (QR) is way to gain a deeper understanding of an event,
organization or culture. Depending on what type of phenomenon you are
studying, QR can give you a broad understanding of events, data about human
groups, and broad patterns behind events and people. While traditional
lab-based research looks for a specific “something” in the testing
environment, qualitative research allows the meaning, themes, or data to
emerge from the study.

Qualitative research uses non-statistical methods to gain understanding about

a population.
Types of Qualitative Research Methods:
● Anthropological
● Ethical Inquiry
● Participant observation
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 ● Face-to-face interviewing

Quantitative Research Method is about collecting and analysing data to explain

phenomena. Information from a sample is used to make generalizations or
predictions about a population. Some questions that are easily answered using
information from samples include:
● What percentage of high school teachers belong to minority
groups?
● How many females in college study mathematics compared
to males?
● Has the high school graduation rate in our district increased
over time?

However, data doesn’t always naturally happen in a numerical way. You may
want to answer questions like:
● What do high school students think of their teachers?
● What is the general public opinion of health care reform?
● What do customers at a particular business think of customer service?

Methods for Quantitative Research

o Survey
o Secondary data/ databases
o Panel
o Structured Observation
o Experiment

Differences Between Qualitative Method and Quantitative Methods

Qualitative Methods Quantitative Methods
Methods include focus groups, Surveys, structured interviews &
in-depth interviews, and reviews observations, and reviews of
of documents for types of themes records or documents for
numeric information
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Primarily inductive process Primarily deductive process used to
used to formulate theory or test pre- specified concepts,
hypotheses constructs, and hypotheses that
make up a theory
More subjective: describes a More objective: provides observed
problem or condition from the effects (interpreted by researchers)
point of view of those of a program on a problem or
experiencing it condition
Text-based Number-based
More in-depth information on a few Less in-depth but more breadth of
cases information across a large number
of cases
Unstructured or semi-structured Fixed response options
response options
No statistical tests Statistical tests are used for analysis
Can be valid and reliable: largely Can be valid and reliable: largely
depends on skill and rigor of the depends on the measurement
researcher device or instrument used
Time expenditure lighter on the Time expenditure heavier on the
planning end and heavier during planning phase and lighter on the
the analysis phase analysis phase
Less generalizable More generalizable

STEPS OF RESEARCH PROCESS.

The research process is like undertaking a journey. For a research journey,
there are two crucial decisions to make:
1. What you want to find out about or what research
questions (problems) you want to find answers to;
2. How to go about finding their answers?

There are practical steps through which you must pass on your research
journey to find answers to your research questions.

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The path to finding answers to your research questions constitutes research
methodology.
At each operational step in the research process, you are required to choose
from a multiplicity of methods, procedures, and models of research
methodology, which will help you to best achieve your objectives.

Steps in Research Process:

1. Formulating the Research Problem
2. Extensive Literature Review
3. Developing the objectives (and Hypotheses)
4. Preparing the Research Design including Sample Design
5. Collecting the Data
6. Processing and Analysis of Data
7. Preparation of the Report or Presentation of Results
(Formal write-ups of conclusions reached)

STEP 1. FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM:

It is the first and most crucial step in the research process. The main function
is to decide what you want to find out about.
Sources of research problems:
Research in social sciences revolves around four Ps:
▪ People: a group of individuals
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 ▪ Problems: examine the existence of certain issues or
▪ problems relating to their lives; to ascertain the attitude of a
group of people towards an issue
▪ Programs: to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention
▪ Phenomena: to establish the existence of regularity.
In practice, most research studies are based upon at least a combination of
two Ps.

Every research study has two aspects:

Study population:
▪ People: individuals, organizations, groups, communities. (They provide
you with the information or you collect information about them)
Subject area:
▪ Problems: issues, situations, associations, needs, profiles
▪ Program: content, structure, outcomes, attributes, satisfactions,
consumers, Service providers, etc.
▪ Phenomenon: cause-and-effect relationships, the study of a phenomenon
itself (Information that you need to collect to find answers to your
research questions)

You can examine the professional field of your choice in the context of the
four Ps in order to identify anything that looks interesting.
Considerations in selecting a research problem:
These help to ensure that your study will remain manageable and that you will
remain motivated.
1. Interest: a research endeavour is usually time consuming and
involves hard work and possibly unforeseen problems. One should
select topic of great interest to sustain the required motivation.
2. Magnitude: It is extremely important to select a topic that you can
manage within the time and resources at your disposal. Narrow the
topic down to something manageable, specific and clear.
3. Measurement of concepts: Make sure that you are clear about
the indicators and measurement of concepts (if used) in your study.
4. Level of expertise Make sure that you have adequate level of
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 expertise for the task you are proposing since you need to do the
work yourself.
5. Relevance: Ensure that your study adds to the existing body of
knowledge, bridges current gaps and is useful in policy formulation.
This will help you to sustain interest in the study.
6. Availability of data: Before finalizing the topic, make sure that data
are available.
7. Ethical issues: How ethical issues can affect the study population
and how ethical problems can be overcome should be thoroughly
examined at the problem formulating stage.

Steps in Formulation of a Research Problem:

Working through these steps presupposes a reasonable level of knowledge in
the broad subject area within which the study is to be undertaken. Without
such knowledge, it is difficult to clearly and adequately ‘dissect’ a subject area.

Step1: Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you.

Step 2: Dissect the broad area into subareas.
Step 3: Select what is of most interest to you.
Step 4: Raise research questions.
Step 5: Formulate objectives
Step 6: Assess your objectives.
Step 7: Double check
So far, we have focused on the basis of your study, the research problem. But
every study in social sciences has a second element, the study population from
whom the required information to find answers to your research questions is
obtained.

As you narrow the research problem, similarly you need to decide very
specifically who constitutes your study population, in order to select the
appropriate respondents.

STEP 2. REVIEWING THE LITERATURE:

● Essential preliminary task in order to acquaint yourself
with the available body of knowledge in your area of
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 interest.
● Literature review is integral part of entire research
process and makes valuable contribution to every
operational step.
● Reviewing literature can be time-consuming, daunting
and frustrating, but is also rewarding.

Its functions are:

a. Bring clarity and focus to research problem;
b. Improve methodology;
c. Broaden knowledge;
d. Contextualise findings.

Bring clarity and focus to research problem:

The process of reviewing the literature helps you to understand the subject
area better and thus helps you to conceptualise your research problem clearly
and precisely. It also helps you to understand the relationship between your
research problem and the body of knowledge in the area.

Improve methodology:
A literature review tells you if others have used procedures and methods
similar to the ones that you are proposing, which procedures and methods
have worked well for them, and what problems they have faced with them.
Thus, you will be better positioned to select a methodology that is capable of
providing valid answer to your research questions.

Broaden knowledge base in research area:

It ensures you to read widely around the subject area in which you intend to
conduct your research study. As you are expected to be an expert in your area
of study, it helps fulfill this expectation. It also helps you to understand how
the findings of your study fit into the existing body of knowledge.

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Contextualise findings:
How do answers to your research questions compare with what others have
found? What contribution have you been able to make into the existing body of
knowledge? How are your findings different from those of others? For you to
be able to answer these questions, you need to go back to your literature
review. It is important to place your findings in the context of what is already
known in your field of enquiry.

Procedure for reviewing the literature:

i. search for existing literature in your area of study;
ii. review the literature selected;
iii. develop a theoretical framework;
iv. develop a conceptual framework.

STEP 3 - FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES (HYPOTHESES)

● Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study.
● They inform a reader what you want to attain through the study.
● It is extremely important to word them clearly and specifically.

Objectives should be listed under two headings:

(a) main objectives (aims);
(b)Sub-objectives.
The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of your study. It is also
a statement of the main associations and relationships that you seek to
discover or establish.
The sub-objectives are the specific aspects of the topic that you want to
investigate within the main framework of your study.
● They should be numerically listed.
● Wording should clearly, completely and specifically
communicate to readers.
● Each objective should contain only one aspect of the
Study.
● Use action-oriented words or verbs when writing
objectives.
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Identifying Variables:
In a research study it is important that the concepts used should be
operationalised in measurable terms so that the extent of variations in
respondents’ understanding is reduced if not eliminated.

Techniques about how to operationalise concepts, and knowledge about

variables, play an important role in reducing this variability.

Their knowledge, therefore, is important in ‘fine tuning’ your research

problem. For example:
● ‘Jet Airways’ is a perfect example of quality cabin service.
● Food in this restaurant is excellent.
● The middle class in India is getting more prosperous.

When people express these feelings or preferences, they do so on the basis of

certain criteria in their minds. Their judgement is based upon indicators that
lead them to conclude and express that opinion.

These are judgements that require a sound basis on which to proclaim. This
warrants the use of a measuring mechanism and it is in the process of
measurement that knowledge about variables plays an important role.

Variable:An image, perception or concept that can be measured – hence

capable of taking on different values- is called a variable.

Concept: Concepts are mental images or perceptions, and therefore, their

meaning varies markedly from individual to individual.

Difference between Concept and Variable:

A concept cannot be measured whereas a variable can be subjected to

measurement by crude/refined or subjective/objective units of measurement. It
is therefore important for the concept to be converted into variables.
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 Concept Variable
Subjective impression Measurable though the degree of
No uniformity as to its precision varies from scale to scale
understanding among different and from variable to variable (e.g.
people attitude - subjective, income -
As such cannot be measured objective)
Examples; Examples;
Effectiveness Gender (male/female)
Satisfaction Attitude
Impact Age (x years, y months)
Excellent Income ($ per year)
High achiever Weight ( kg)
Self-esteem Height ( cm)
Rich Religion (Catholic, protestant,
Domestic violence Jew, Muslim), etc.
Extent and pattern of alcohol
consumption, etc.

Measurement of Scales (Types of DATA)

There are four types of data that may be gathered in social research, each one
adding more to the next. Thus, ordinal data is also nominal, and so on.
A useful acronym to help remember this is NOIR (French for 'black').

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Nominal or Categorical:
A nominal scale enables the classification of individuals, objects or responses into
subgroups based on a common/shared property or characteristic. A variable measured on a
nominal scale may have one, two, or more subcategories depending upon the extent of
variation.
For example: ’water’ or ‘tree’ have only one subgroup, whereas the variable “gender” can be
classified into two sub-categories: male and female. ‘Hotels’ can be classified into different
sub- categories.

The sequence in which subgroups are listed makes no difference as there is no relationship
among subgroups. Nominal items are usually categorical, in that they belong to a definable
category, such as 'employees'.

Ordinal or Ranking Scale:

Besides categorizing individuals, objects, responses or a property into

subgroups on the basis of common characteristic, it ranks the subgroups in a
certain order. They are arranged either in ascending or descending order
according to the extent a subcategory reflects the magnitude of variation in the
variable.

For example: ‘income’ can be measured either quantitatively (in rupees and
paise) or qualitatively using subcategories ‘above average’, ‘average’ and
‘below average’. The ‘distance’ between these subcategories are not equal as
there is no quantitative unit of measurement. ‘Socioeconomic status’ and
‘attitude’ are other variables that can be measured on ordinal scale.
Interval Scale:
An interval scale has all the characteristics of an ordinal scale. In addition, it
uses a unit of measurement with an arbitrary starting and terminating points.
For example:
Celsius scale: 0°C to 100°C
Fahrenheit scale: 32°F to 212°F
Attitudinal scales: 10-20
21-30

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 31-40 etc.

Ratio Scale:
A ratio scale has all the properties of nominal, ordinal, and interval scales plus its own
property: the zero point of a ratio scale is fixed, which means it has a fixed starting point.
Since the difference between intervals is always measured from a zero point, this scale can
be used for mathematical operations.
The measurement of variables like income, age, height, and weight are examples of this
scale. A person who is 40 years old is twice as old as one who is 20 years old.

Parametric vs. Non-parametric:

Interval and ratio data are parametric and are used with parametric tools in which
distributions are predictable (and often Normal).

Nominal and ordinal data are non-parametric and do not assume any particular distribution.
They are used with non-parametric tools such as the Histogram.

Continuous and Discrete Variables:

Continuous Variables are measured along a continuous scale, which can be divided into
fractions, such as temperature. Continuous variables allow for infinitely fine sub-division,
which means if you can measure sufficiently accurately, you can compare two items and
determine the difference.

Discrete variables are measured across a set of fixed values, such as age in years (not
microseconds). These are commonly used on arbitrary scales, such as scoring your level of
happiness, although such scales can also be continuous.

CONSTRUCTING HYPOTHESES:

As a researcher, you do not know about a phenomenon, but you do have a hunch to form
the basis of certain assumptions or guesses. You test these by collecting information that
will enable you to conclude if your notion was right.
The verification process can have one of the three outcomes. Your hunch may prove to be:
1. Right;
2. partially right;or
3. Wrong.
Without this process of verification, you cannot conclude anything about the validity of your

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 assumption.

Hence, a hypothesis is an intelligent guess, hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion, or an

idea about a phenomenon, relationship, or situation, the reality or truth of which you do not
know. A researcher calls these assumptions/ hunches hypotheses, and they become the
basis of an inquiry.
In most studies, the hypotheses will be based upon your own or someone else’s observation.
Hypotheses bring clarity, specificity, and focus on a research problem, but are not essential
for a study.
You can conduct a valid investigation without constructing formal hypotheses.
Functions of Hypotheses:
● The formulation of the hypothesis provides a study with focus. It tells you what specific
aspects of a research problem to investigate.
● A hypothesis tells you what data to collect and what not to collect, thereby providing focus
to the study.
● As it provides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis enhances objectivity in a study.
● A hypothesis may enable you to add to the formulation of a theory. It allows you to
conclude what is true or what is false accurately.

Types of Hypotheses
1. Null Hypotheses
2. Alternative Hypotheses

1. Null Hypotheses: A null hypothesis is a type of hypothesis used in statistics

that proposes that no statistical significance exists in a set of given
observations. The null hypothesis attempts to show that no variation exists
between variables or that a single variable is no different than its mean. It is
presumed to be true until statistical evidence nullifies it for an alternative
hypothesis.

2. Alternative Hypotheses: The alternate hypothesis is just an alternative to the

null. For example, if your null is “I’m going to win up to $1000” then your
alternate is “I’m going to win more than $1000.” Basically, you’re looking at
whether there’s enough change (with the alternate hypothesis) to be able to
reject the null hypothesis.

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 STEP 4 – PREPARING RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design is the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted.

The function of the research design is to provide for the collection of relevant information
with minimal expenditure of effort, time, and money.

The preparation of research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves
the consideration of the following:

a. Objectives of the research study.

b. Method of Data Collection to be adopted
c. Source of information (Sample Design)
d. Tool for Data collection
e. Data Analysis-- qualitative and quantitative

Objectives of the Research Study: Objectives identified to answer the research questions
have to be listed, making sure that they are:

(a) numbered, and

(b) the statement begins with an action verb.

Methods of Data Collection: There are two types of data

1. Primary Data - collected for the first time
2. Secondary Data - those which have already been collected
and analyzed by someone else.

Methods of primary data collection:

A. Observation Method:
Commonly used in behavioural sciences. It is the gathering of primary data by
the investigator’s own direct observation of relevant people, actions, and
situations without asking from the respondent.
e.g.
● A hotel chain sends observers posing as guests into its coffee shop to check on
cleanliness and customer service.
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● A foodservice operator sends researchers into competing restaurants to learn
menu items prices, check portion sizes and consistency, and observe
point-of-purchasee merchandising.
Observation can yield information that people are normally unwilling or
unable to provide.

B. Survey Method: Survey Method Approach is most suited for gathering

descriptive information.
Structured Surveys: use formal lists of questions asked of all respondents in
the same way.
Unstructured Surveys: let the interviewer probe respondents and guide the
interview according to their answers.

Survey research may be Direct or Indirect.

Direct Approach: The researcher asks direct questions about behaviours and
thoughts.
e.g. Why don’t you eat at MacDonald’s?

Indirect Approach: The researcher might ask: “What kind of people eat at
MacDonald’s?”

From the response, the researcher may be able to discover why the consumer
avoids MacDonald’s. It may suggest factors of which the consumer is not
consciously aware.

C. Contact Methods:
Information may be collected by

Mail Questionnaires:
Advantages:
● Can be used to collect large amounts of information at a low cost per
respondent.
● Respondents may give more honest answers to personal questions on a mail
questionnaire.
● No interviewer is involved to bias the respondent’s answers.

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 ● Convenient for respondent’s who can answer when they have time.
● Good way to reach people who often travel.

Limitations:
● not flexible
● take longer to complete than telephone or personal interview
● the response rate is often very low
● A researcher has no control over who answers.

Telephone Interviewing:
● quick method
● more flexible as the interviewer can explain questions not understood by the respondent
● depending on respondent’s answer they can skip some Qs and probe more on others
● allows greater sample control
● response rate tends to be higher than mail

Drawbacks:
● Cost per respondent higher
● Some people may not want to discuss personal Qs with interviewer
● Interviewer’s manner of speaking may affect the respondent’s answers
● Different interviewers may interpret and record response in a
variety of ways
● under time pressure, data may be entered without actually interviewing

Personal Interviewing:
It is very flexible and can be used to collect large amounts of information.
Trained interviewers can hold the respondent’s attention and are available to
clarify difficult questions. They can guide interviews, explore issues, and probe
as the situation requires. Personal interviews can be used in any type of
questionnaire and can be conducted fairly quickly. Interviewers can also show
actual products, advertisements, packages, and observe and record their
reactions and behaviour.

It has two forms-

1. Individual- Intercept interviewing
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 2. Group - Focus Group Interviewing

Intercept interviewing:

● Widely used in tourism research.

● Allows researcher to reach known people in a short period of time.
● only method of reaching people whose names and addresses are
unknown
● Involves talking to people at homes, offices, on the street, or in
shopping malls.
● interviewer must gain the interviewee’s cooperation
● time involved may range from a few minutes to several hours (for
longer surveys compensation may be offered)
● involves the use of judgmental sampling i.e. interviewer has
guidelines as to whom to “intercept”, such as 25% under age 20 and
75% over age 60
Drawbacks:
● Room for error and bias on the part of the interviewer who may
not be able to correctly judge age, race, etc.
● Interviewer may be uncomfortable talking to certain ethnic or age
groups.
Focus Group Interviewing:
It is rapidly becoming one of the major research tools to understand people’s
thoughts and feelings.

It is usually conducted by inviting six to ten people to gather for a few hours
with a trained moderator to talk about a product, service, or organization. The
meeting is held in a pleasant place, and refreshments are served to create a
relaxed environment.
The moderator needs objectivity, knowledge of the subject and industry, and
some understanding of group and consumer behaviour.

The moderator starts with a broad question before moving to more specific
issues, encouraging open and easy discussion to bring out true feelings and
thoughts. At the same time, the interviewer focuses the discussion, hence the
name focus group interviewing.

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Drawbacks:
● Cost: may cost more than the telephone survey
● Sampling: group interview studies keep small sample size to keep time
and cost down; therefore, it may be difficult to generalize from the
results.
● Interviewer bias.

D. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Experimental research is data-based research. It is appropriate when the proof
is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way, it is coming
up with conclusions that are capable of being verified with observation or
experiment.
So it is also known as Empirical Research or Cause and Effect Method,
e.g.
● Tenderisers(independent variable) affect cooking time and
texture of meat( dependent variable) .
● The effect of substituting one ingredient in whole or in part for
another such as soya flour to flour for making high protein bread.
● Develop recipes to use products.

Determining Sample Design:

Researchers usually draw conclusions about large groups by taking a sample.

A Sample is a segment of the population selected to represent the population
as a whole. Ideally, the sample should be representative and allow the
researcher to make accurate estimates of the thoughts and behaviour of the
larger population.
Designing sample calls for three decisions:

Who will be surveyed? (The Sample)

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 ●The researcher must determine what type of information is
needed and who is most likely to have it.
How many people will be surveyed? (Sample Size)
● Large samples give more reliable results than small samples.
However, it is not necessary to sample the entire target
population.
How should the sample be chosen? (Sampling)
● Sample members may be chosen at random from the entire
population (probability sampling)
● The researcher might select people who are easier to obtain
information from (nonprobability sampling)

The needs of the research project will determine which method is most
effective.

Types of Sampling:
A. Probability sampling: A sampling procedure in which each
element of the population has a fixed probabilistic chance
of being selected for the sample.
Probability sampling is further divided into the following:

1. Simple random sample: A probability sampling technique in which

each element has a known and equal probability of selection. Every
element is selected independently of every other element, and the
sample is drawn by a random procedure from a sampling frame. This
method is equivalent to a lottery system in which names are placed in
a container, the container is shaken, and the names of the winners
are then drawn out in an unbiased manner. To draw a simple random
sample, the researcher first compiles a sampling frame in which each
element is assigned a unique identification number. Then random
numbers are generated to determine which elements to include in the
sample.

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 2. Systematic sampling: In systematic sampling, the sample is chosen by
selecting a random starting point and then picking every ith element
in succession from the sampling frame.25 The sampling interval, i, is
determined by dividing the population size N by the sample size n and
rounding to the nearest whole number. For example, there are
100,000 elements in the population, and a sample of 1,000 is desired.
In this case, the sampling interval, i, is 100. A random number
between 1 and 100 is selected. If, for example, this number is 23, the
sample consists of elements 23, 123, 223, 323, 423, 523, and so on.

3. Stratified random sample: Population is divided into mutually

exclusive (heterogeneous) groups (strata) then random sampling
is drawn from each group (stratum).
It is a two-step process in which the population is partitioned into subpopulations
or strata. The strata should be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive
in that every population element should be assigned to one and only one
stratum and no population elements should be omitted. Next, elements are
selected from each stratum by a random procedure, usually Simple Random
Sampling.

4. Cluster (area) sample: The population is divided into mutually

exclusive groups (Homogeneous) such as blocks, and the researcher
draws a sample of the group to interview. A two-step probability
sampling technique where the target population is first divided into
mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive subpopulations called
clusters, and then a random sample of clusters is selected based on a
probability sampling technique such as SRS. For each selected
cluster, either all the elements are included in the sample, or a sample
of elements is drawn probabilistically.

Differences between Stratified Sampling and Cluster Sampling

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B. Non-probability sampling: Sampling techniques that do not use chance
selection procedures but rather rely on the personal judgment of the
researcher.
Further divided into the following:
5. Convenience sampling: Convenience sampling attempts to obtain a
sample of convenient elements. The selection of sampling units is left
primarily to the interviewer. Often, participants are selected because
they happen to be in the right place at the right time.
6. Judgemental sampling: It is a form of convenience sampling in which
the population elements are selected based on the judgement of the
researcher. The researcher, exercising judgement or expertise,
chooses the elements to be included in the sample because it is
believed that they are representative of the population of interest, or
are otherwise appropriate.
7. Quota sampling: It is a two-stage restricted judgemental sampling.
The first stage consists of developing control categories or quotas of
population elements. In the second stage, sample elements are
selected based on convenience or judgement.
8. Snowball Sampling: A strategy used to gather a sample for a research
study, in which study participants give the researcher referrals to
other individuals who fit the study criteria. Snowball samples cannot
be generalized to the population because they are not selected
randomly. Snowball samples are usually used to investigate groups
that have some unique, rare, or unusual quality and groups in which
members know each other through an organization or common
experience. For example, snowball samples might be used to identify
marathon runners or cancer survivors who attend support groups.

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 Different types of Sampling (Brief)

TOOL FOR DATA COLLECTION (RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS)

The construction of a research instrument or tool for data collection is the
most important aspect of a research project because anything you say by way
of findings or conclusions is based up the type of information you collect, and
the data you collect is entirely dependent upon the questions that you ask of
your respondents. The famous saying about computers- “garbage in garbage
out”- is also applicable for data collection. The research tool provides the input
into study, and therefore, the quality and validity of the output (the findings),
are solely dependent on it.

Guidelines to Construct a Research Tool:

The underlying principle behind the guidelines suggested below is to ensure
the validity of your instrument by making sure that your questions relate to the
objectives of your study.
Step I: Clearly define and individually list all the specific objectives or research
Questions for your study.
Step II: For each objective or research questions, list all the associated
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 questions That you want to answer through your study.
Step III: Take each research question listed in step II and list the information
required to answer it.
Step IV: Formulate question(s) to obtain this information.

Questionnaire:
A questionnaire consists of a set of questions presented to a respondent for
answers. The respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and
then write down the answers themselves.

Interview Schedule: It is called an Interview Schedule when the researcher

asks the questions (and if necessary, explain them) and record the
respondent’s reply on the interview schedule.

Because there are many ways to ask questions, the questionnaire is very
flexible. The questionnaire should be developed and tested carefully before
being used on a large scale.

There are three basic types of questionnaire:

● Closed–ended
● Open-ended
● Combination of both
1) Closed –ended Questionnaire:
▪ Closed ended questions include all possible answers/prewritten
response categories, and respondents are asked to choose among
them. E.g. multiple-choice questions, scale questions.
▪ Type of questions used to generate statistics in quantitative research.
▪ As these follow a set format, and most responses can be entered
easily into a computer for ease of analysis, greater numbers can be
distributed.

2) Open-ended Questionnaire:
● Open-ended questions allow respondents to answer in

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 their own words.
● Questionnaire does not contain boxes to tick but instead
leaves a blank section for the respondents to write in an
answer.
● Whereas closed –ended questionnaires might be used to
find out how many people use an open-ended
questionnaire might be used to find out what people think
about a service.
● As there are no standard answers to these questions, data
analysis is more complex.
● As it is opinions which are sought rather than numbers,
fewer questionnaires need to be distributed.

3) Combination of both:
● This way it is possible to find out how many people use
a service and what they think of the service in the same
form.
● Begins with a series of closed –ended questions, with
boxes to tick or scales to rank, and the finish with a
section of open-ended questions or a more detailed
response.

Piloting the Questionnaire:

Once you have constructed your questionnaire, you must pilot it. This means
that you must test it out to see if it is obtaining the result you require. This is
done by asking people to read it through and see if there are any ambiguities
that you have not noticed. They should also be asked to comment about the
length, structure, and wording of the questionnaire, alter the questions
accordingly

STEP 5: COLLECTING DATA:

Having formulated the research problem, developed a study design,
constructed a research instrument, and selected a sample, then collect the data
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from which you will draw inferences and conclusions for the study. Depending
upon your plans, you might commence interviews, mail out a questionnaire,
conduct experiments and/or make observations.

STEP 6: PROCESSING AND ANALYSING DATA

Processing and analysing data involves a number of closely related operations
which are performed with the purpose of summarizing the collected data and
organizing these in a manner that they answer the research
questions(objectives).

The Data Processing operations are:

1. Editing- a process of examining the collected raw data to detect

errors and omissions and to correct these when possible.
2. Classification- a process of arranging data in groups or classes on
the basis of common characteristics. Depending on the nature of
phenomenon involved.

(a) Classification according to attributes: here, data is analysed on the basis

of common characteristics which can either be:
● Descriptive such as literacy, sex, religion, etc. or
● Numerical such as weight, height, income, etc.

(b) Classification according to class –intervals: is done with data relating to

income, age, weight, tariff, production, occupancy, etc. Such quantitative
data are known as the statistics of variables and are classified on the basis
of class–intervals.
e.g. persons whose income are within Rs 2001 to Rs 4000 can form one group
or class, those with income within Rs. 4001 to Rs. 6000 can form another group
or class and soon.

Tabulation-Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying

the same in compact form for further analysis. It is an orderly arrangement of
data in columns and rows. Tabulation is essential because:
a) It conserves space and reduces explanatory and
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 descriptive statements to a minimum.
b) It facilitates the process of comparison.
c) It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and
omissions.
d) It provides the basis for various statistical computations.

Tabulation may also be classified as simple and complex tabulation. Simple

tabulation generally results in one-way tables which supply answers to
questions about one characteristic of data only. Complex tabulation usually
results on two- way tables (which give information about two inter-related
characteristics of data), three –way tables or still higher order tables, also
known as manifold tables.

DATA ANALYSIS METHODS

Qualitative Data Analysis:
Qualitative data analysis is a very personal process with few rigid rules and
procedures. For this purpose, the researcher needs to go through a process
called Content Analysis.
Content Analysis means analysis of the contents of an interview in order to
identify the main themes that emerge from the responses given by the
respondents. This process involves a number of steps:

Step 1. Identify the main themes: The researcher needs to carefully go through
the descriptive responses given by respondents to each question in order to
understand the meaning they communicate. From these responses, the
researcher develops broad themes that reflect these meanings. People use
different words and language to express themselves. It is essential that the
researcher select wording of the theme in a way that accurately represents the
meaning of the responses categorized under a theme. These themes become
the basis for analyzing the text of unstructured interviews.

Step 2. Assign codes to the main themes: If the researcher wants to count the
number of times a theme has occurred in an interview, he/she needs to select a
few responses to an open-endedd question and identify the main themes.
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He/she continues to identify these themes from the same question until a
saturation point is reached. Write these themes and assign a code to each of
them, using numbers or keywords.

Step 3. Classify responses under the main themes: Having identified the themes
Next step is to go through the transcripts of all the interviews and classify the
responses under the different themes.
Step 4. Integrate themes and responses into the text of your report: Having
identified responses that fall within different themes, the next step is to
integrate into the text of your report. While discussing the main themes that
emerged from their study, some researchers use verbatim
responses to keep the feel of the response. There are others who count how frequently a
theme has occurred, and then provide a sample of the responses. It entirely depends upon
the way the researcher wants to communicate the findings to the readers.

Quantitative Data Analysis:

This method is most suitable for large well designed and well-administered surveys using a
properly constructed and worded questionnaire. Data can be analysed either manually or
with the help of a computer.

Manual Data Analysis: This can be done if the number of respondents is reasonably small,
and there are not many variables toanalyse.However, this is useful only for calculating
frequencies and for simple cross- tabulations.

Manual data analysis is extremely time consuming. The easiest way to do this is to code it
directly onto large graph paper in columns. Detailed headings can be used or question
numbers can be written on each column to code information about the question.
To manually analyse data (frequency distribution), count various codes in a column and
then decode them.

In addition, if you want to carry out statistical tests, they have to be calculated manually.
However, the use of statistics depends on your expertise and the desire/need to
communicate the findings in a certain way.

Data Analysis Using a Computer:

If you want to analyse data using a computer, you should be familiar with the appropriate
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program. In this area, knowledge of computers and statistics plays an important role.

The most common software is SPSS. However, data input can be a long and laborious
process, and if data is entered incorrectly, it will influence the final results.

STEP 7: REPORTING THE FINDINGS:

Writing the report is the last, and for many, the most challenging stage of the research
process. The report informs the world what you have done, what you have discovered, and
what conclusions you have drawn from your findings. The report should be written in an
academic style. Language should be formal and not journalistic.

Thesis and Article Writing

The thesis is a treatise that represents the fulfillment of the scholarly aspiration of the
student. A good thesis should be clear and unambiguous and have a logical structure that
should assist the reader’s understanding of the argument being presented and not obscure
it. In order to achieve this objective, the layout and physical appearance of the thesis should
conform to a set pattern. Note: The following format of thesis writing is a general standard
and accepted format. But universities and institutions have their own prescribed format
with this core structure of thesis writing. Please consider the specific format suggested by
your institutions, organisations, and universities.

Example: Guidelines for Thesis writing suggested by an Institution

The generally accepted format of thesis or report writing tend to be produced in the
following way:

Title Page
● Title of the Research Project,
● Name of the researcher,
● Purpose of the research project, e.g., “A research project submitted in partial
fulfillment of the requirements of National Council for Hotel Management and
Catering Technology, New Delhi for the degree of Ph.D. in Hospitality and Hotel
Administration”
● Date of Publication

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Table of Contents
This section is listed the contents of the report, either in chapters or in subheadings.

List of Tables
This section includes title and page number of all tables

List of Figures
This section contains the title and page number of all graphs, pie charts, etc.

Acknowledgements
Here, the researcher may acknowledge Institute Principal, Faculty Guide, both research
guide and technical guide, research participants, friends etc.

Introduction
This section introduces the research setting out aims and objectives. It includes a rationale
for the research.

Theoretical Framework and Review of Literature

This section is included all your background research, which may be obtained from the
literature review. You must indicate where all the information has come, so remember to
keep a complete record of everything you read. If you do not do this, you could be accused
of plagiarism which is
a form of intellectual theft. When you are referring to a particular book or journal article,
use the Harvard system.

Research design:
This section includes all practical details followed for research. After reading this, any
interested party should be able to replicate the research study. The methods used for data
collection, how many people took part, how they were chosen, what tool was used for data
collection, how the data was analysed etc.

Data Analysis and Interpretation:

If you have conducted a large quantitative survey, this section may contain tables, graphs,
pie charts, and associated statistics. If you have conducted a qualitative piece of research,
this section may be descriptive prose.

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Summary and Conclusion:
In this section, you sum up your findings and draw conclusions from them, perhaps in
relation to other research or literature.

Recommendation:
If you have conducted a piece of research for a hotel or any other client organization, this
section could be the most important part of the report. A list of clear recommendations that
have been developed from the research is included. Sometimes, this section is included at
the beginning of the report.

Suggestion for Further Research:

It is useful in both academic reports and work-related reports to include a section that
shows how the research can be continued. Perhaps some results are inconclusive, or
perhaps the research has thrown up many more research questions that need to be
addressed. It is useful to include this section because it shows that you are aware of the
wider picture and that you are not trying to cover up something which you feel may be
lacking in your own work.

List of References/Bibliography:
● List of references contains details only of those works cited in the text.
● A bibliography includes sources not cited in the text, but which are relevant to the
subject. (larger dissertations or thesis)
● Small research projects will need only a reference section. It includes all the
literature to which you have referred in your report.

Annexures
List of publications:
List of publications obtained by the student from the PhD work should be included in the
Thesis. Students are strongly encouraged to place the accepted versions of the manuscripts
(maximum two), which were integral part of thesis work.

Curriculum vitae (optional):

Provide one page giving academic qualifications, academic achievements and list of
publications.

Appendices (optional):
Appendices may include the formulas, diagrams, protocols, or any similar data that are not
contained in the body of the thesis. The number can be given as A-1, A-2 and listed as such
in the table of contents.
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Format of Citations/References
Citations or in-text citations are similar to references but occur in the body of the text with
direct quotes and paraphrases to identify the author/publication for the material you have
used. Citations are used:
● to show which reference supports a particular statement
● for direct quotes – when you repeat a passage from a text (or speech, video, etc.) in
your assignment without changing any words
● when you paraphrase – this is when you use your own words to restate the meaning
of a text in your assignment.
● One of the most important things to remember is that every citation should also have
a corresponding entry in your reference list.

A reference list is a list of the resources that you used when writing your assignment or
doing your research. These resources may include:
● books, including electronic books, journals (online and paper-based)
● online sources including websites, blogs, and forums
● speeches
● conference papers, proceedings, and theses
● other sources of information such as film, television, video, etc.
● Reference lists come at the end of an assignment and are arranged in alphabetical
order, usually by author or editor. If there is not an author or an editor, the title is
used.

Comparison Between Citation and Reference

BASIS FOR
COMPARISON CITATION REFERENCE

Meaning Citation is a way of disclosing within Reference is a list that

the main body, that the quote, image, contains all the sources which
chart, statistics, etc. are taken from have been sought or cited
an outside source. while writing the article or
assignment.

Use It informs the readers, the basic It informs the reader, the
source of information. complete source of
information.

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 BASIS FOR
COMPARISON CITATION REFERENCE

Purpose To indicate the source of the material To support or criticize an

taken. argument or point.

Placement Presented in the bracket. Presented as endnote or end

of the document.

Information It contains information like It contains information like

publication year and last name of the publication date, title of
author. book/journal, author's name,
page number.
(source: keydifferences.com)

Types of Citation/References:
1. MLA (Modern Language Association) style is most commonly used
to write papers and cite sources within the liberal arts and humanities.
Book - Kothari, Chakravanti Rajagopalachari. Research methodology: Methods
and techniques. New Age International, 2004.

Journal - Ghosh, Madhusudan. "Micro-Finance and Rural Poverty in India

SHG-Bank Linkage Programme." Journal of Rural Development 31.3 (2012):
347-363.

2. APA (American Psychological Association) is most commonly

used to cite sources within the health sciences and social sciences fields.

Book - Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques.

New Age International.
Journal - Ghosh, M. (2012). Micro-Finance and Rural Poverty in India
SHG-Bank Linkage Programme. Journal of Rural Development, 31(3), 347-363.

3. Chicago Manual of Style, are quite flexible and cover both

parenthetical and note citation systems.
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 Book - Kothari, Chakravanti Rajagopalachari. Research methodology:
Methods and techniques. New Age International, 2004.
Journal - Ghosh, Madhusudan. "Micro-Finance and Rural Poverty in India
SHG-Bank Linkage Programme." Journal of Rural Development 31, no. 3
(2012): 347-363.

4. Parenthetical referencing, also known as Harvard referencing,

is a citation style in which partial citations—for example, "(Smith 2010,
p. 1)"—are enclosed within parentheses and embedded in the text, either
within or after a sentence.
Book - Kothari, C.R., 2004. Research methodology: Methods and techniques.
New Age International.

Journal - Ghosh, M., 2012. Micro-Finance and Rural Poverty in India

SHG-Bank Linkage Programme. Journal of Rural Development, 31(3),
pp.347-363.

5. The Vancouver system, also known as Vancouver reference style or

the author–number system, is a citation style that uses numbers within
the text that refer to numbered entries in the reference list.

Book - Kothari CR. Research methodology: Methods and techniques. New

Age International; 2004.

Journal - Ghosh M. Micro-Finance and Rural Poverty in India SHG-Bank

Linkage Programme. Journal of Rural Development. 2012 Sep
1;31(3):347-63.

Standard Format for Printing a report

Paper: Bond Paper (need not be executive bond)

Size: 8.5inches X 11inches
Margin: Left - Top - 1.5inch
Bottom - 1inch 1inch
Right - 1inch
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 Font: Times New Roman 12
FontSize: Double
Spacing: BlackRexin
Binding:

Gold Embossing on Research Title

Cover: Student Name Name
of Institute Year of
Submission

Paper: Bond Paper (need not be executive bond)s

Size: 8.5inches X 11inches

Margin:
Left - 1.5inch
Top - 1inch
Bottom - 1inch
Right - 1inch

Font: TimesNewRoman

FontSize: 12

Spacing: Double

Binding: BlackRexin

Gold Embossing on Cover:

Research Title
Student Name
Name of Institute
Year of Submission

Note: The format of Thesis and Article writing, mentioned above, is a general and standard
format. Please follow your universities or institutions guidelines for writing a thesis and
articles.

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Application of ICT in Research
Application of ICT in Research: Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) refers
to technologies that provide access to information through telecommunications. It is similar
to Information Technology (IT) but focuses primarily on communication technologies. This
includes the Internet, wireless networks, cell phones, and other communication mediums.

Information and communication technologies (ICT) have provided society with a vast array
of new communication capabilities. For example, people can communicate in real-time with
others in different countries using technologies such as instant messaging, voice over IP
(VoIP), and video-conferencing. Social networking websites like Facebook allow users from
all over the world to remain in contact and communicate on a regular basis.

ICT, or information and communications technology (or technologies), is the

infrastructure and components that enable modern computing.

Although there is no single, universal definition of ICT, the term is generally accepted to
mean all devices, networking components, applications and systems that combined allow
people and organizations (i.e., businesses, nonprofit agencies, governments and criminal
enterprises) to interact in the digital world.

Components of an ICT system

ICT encompasses both the internet-enabled sphere as well as the mobile one powered by
wireless networks. It also includes antiquated technologies, such as landline telephones,
radio and television broadcast - all of which are still widely used today alongside
cutting-edge ICT pieces such as artificial intelligence and robotics.
The list of ICT components is exhaustive, and it continues to grow. Some components, such
as computers and telephones, have existed for decades. Others, such as smartphones,
digital TVs and robots, are more recent entries.

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 (source: searchcio.techtarget.com)

Application of ICT in Research

Applications of ICT are mainly used by researchers for its ability to ease the
knowledge- gathering process and to enhance resource development.
Researcher in general value creativity and originality, thus the ICT tools
which provide with the most open situations with great autonomy to the
researcher can really help in identifying and solving research problems in the
most creative ways. The use of ICT is based on the individual’s logical
assessment of how various applications increase his/her effectiveness and
efficiency in work and provide ease in communication with peers.

Use of ICT tools or application for making research data and information
available are plenty in numbers today, but the best use of ICT tools would be
to improve cognitive skills and thus help discriminate, analyse and create
information rather than simply accumulate. As usually research process deals
with a large amount of complex information and requires a lot of skills to
analyse and organize these well, any ICT tool which helps the researcher give
meaning and precision along with adding value to the information generated

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would be rated above the ones which help in just gathering information.

Generally, Applications of ICT help the researcher in the following

research-related tasks:

● identify appropriate information sources

● critically analyze information
● research effectively
● manage information
● use the information to extend and communicate knowledge across
subject fields
● search up to ten databases and electronic resources simultaneously
● receive results in a common format
● link to individual databases for more specialized searching
● select favourite resources and e-journals, save searches and records,
and set up email alerts.

Applications of ICT have many effects on research. They can

be classified into three categories which include:

1. Applications of ICT in pre-data analysis

2. Applications of ICT in data analysis, and
3. Applications of ICT in post-data analysis

Applications of ICT in pre-data analysis:

Applications of ICT in pre-data analysis refers to the activities how ICTs are
applied on activities of social science research before reaching the stage of
data analysis.

ICT application in pre-data analysis includes:

1. Literature Search, Article Availability, Thesis and Dissertation

Availability
2. Content Search
3. Literature Tracking
4. Data Collection
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1. Literature Search: Last time researchers need to perform a manual search on
hard copies of literature in libraries whereby this is a tedious effort and the
search results were limited. On the contrary, a lot of research materials,
literature and artefacts today can be searched using Internet search engines
and databases.

● ShodhGanga: Indian theses repository where you can search and

download the theses.
● Google Scholar: Provides a way to broadly search for
scholarly literature across disciplines and sources.
● Microsoft Academic Search: Find information about academic papers,
authors, conferences, journals, and organizations from multiple
sources.
● Mendeley: A unique platform comprising a social
network, reference manager, article visualization
tools.
● SSRN: Multi-disciplinary online repository of scholarly research and
related materials in social sciences.

Some other Famous Database for Research Articles and literature:

● AMS
● Annual Reviews
● ASME Digital Collection
● Cambridge Core
● Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS)
● Cochrane Library
● eBook Academic collection
● EBSCO Databases, Discovery Service, eBooks, Point of
Care Products, DynaMed and Journal Collections
● EBSCO Information Services
● Economic & Political Weekly
● Elsevier
● Emerald eJournals
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 ● Encyclopedia Britannica
● IEEE Xplore
● Indian Citation Index.
● Indian Journals
● IOPscience
● JSTOR
● Portland Press
● Project Euclid
● Project MUSE
● ProQuest databases
● Royal Society of Chemistry Journals
● Royal Society of Chemistry Publications Online
● Sage Online Journals
● Science Mag
● Scitation
● SIAM Journals Online
● Springer Link
● Supreme Court Cases Online
● Taylor & Francis Online
● Web of Knowledge
● Wiley Online Library

2. Content Search: In today’s world of research, researchers can utilize the

softcopy literature’s search or find function (also called content search) to
search for specific keywords or phrases in which this is more effective and
productive. This observation is also supported what Sekaran (2003) had
stated that online search using technology is inexpensive and can improve
the identification of relevant sources of literature. Such content search also
enables a researcher to evaluate quickly whether a particular article or
thesis et al. is worthy for his or her deeper review. Moreover, the content
search also helps a qualitative researcher to count the frequency of certain
keywords appears in an interviewed transcript more effectively.
3. Literature Tracking – In the past, researchers have to sort, classify and
store all their literature or artefacts that they had reviewed into computer
folders or physical folders/place holders. Researchers also need to create
their own tracking mechanism e.g. in a word document or spreadsheet

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 format to track and manage their reviewed literature so that they can
re-use or refer to in future. Doing these manually can be daunting tasks.

With the advancement of ICT, researchers can still use the old approaches
but more and more researchers now are using software like Mendeley
which can help manage, share and discover the literature contents and
contacts that they had reviewed. Using software like Mendeley to track a
researcher’s literature is saving time and effort as well as capable to
manage lots of literature that the researcher was not possible in the past.

4. Data Collection – with the help of application of ICT, Data collection can be
collected via online, web-based or Internet survey. Using this purpose-built
software and Internet technology which are greener technology in data
collection can reduce the time and cost to collect surveyed responses from
the respondents. Not only an online survey can be administered more
effectively, but the data collected in its original format can also be input
directly into the statistical software.

Important Data Collection Application of ICT:

1. Google Forms
2. SurveyMonkey

Applications of ICT in data analysis

Application of ICT in data analysis includes the ICTs are applied on activities
during the stage of data analysis and can be divided into:

1. Quantitative Data Analysis

2. Qualitative Data Analysis

1. Quantitative Data Analysis:

The exploratory factor analysis, multiple regression, t-test and Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA) are some common data analysis techniques used among researchers conducting
quantitative research. There are also some advanced and popular data analysis techniques
like path analysis, covariance-based Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), variance-based
SEM (partial least squares), hierarchical regression analysis, hierarchical linear modelling
et al.

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 ● Statistical Package for Social Science / SPSS are more
advanced and rich with a lot of features and functionalities
● R (R Foundation for Statistical Computing)
● MATLAB (The Mathworks)
● Microsoft Excel
● SAS (Statistical Analysis Software)
● GraphPad Prism
● Minitab

List of Statistical Software Packages -

2. Qualitative Data Analysis:

The following statistical software packages are for qualitative data analysis:

● NVivo
● ATLAS.ti
● MAXQDA
● SPSS Text Analytics
● Transana can be used for video transcribing in certain
qualitative research

Application of ICT in post-data analysis

Application of ICT in post-data analysis refers to the ICTs are applied on activities of
research after completing the stage of data analysis which covers:

1. References and Bibliography Compilation

2. Article and Thesis / Dissertation’s Discussion among Researchers, Supervisors, Supervisees
etc.
3. Plagiarism Detection
4. Journal Manuscripts Submission

1.References and Bibliography Compilation:

A few years back, researchers tend to compile references and bibliography

manually. They literally typing in to build the entire section of the references or
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 bibliography then followed by sorting them in ascending order. Recently, while
researchers are writing, they can use citation or reference management
software to help select citations and populate the references or bibliography
automatically. This type of software can improve researchers’ efficiency and
accuracy while preparing their articles or theses.

The following software is used for referencing and bibliography compilation:

⮚ EndNote
⮚ Zotero
⮚ Mendeley

2.Article and Thesis / Dissertation’s Discussion:

In the course of producing an article, thesis or dissertation, there are needs for
discussions or communications among researchers, supervisors, supervisees
or during the viva voce. Now, we have the advanced application of ICT to
facilitate sharing of research materials, seeking comments from subject matter
experts, enable analytics to monitor papers published, as well as following
some scholarly works.
There are online platforms or websites which can be used for such discussion:

⮚ Academia.edu
⮚ ResearchGate

3.Plagiarism Detection:

In the past, plagiarism acts were slow and hard to detect as the authority of
universities or journals dependent on readers to identify them manually while
they were reading through the submitted articles or theses/dissertations. With
the advancement of ICT, readers or researchers can use plagiarism checker
software available in the market like:

⮚ Grammarly
⮚ Article Checker
⮚ Turnitin
⮚ DupliChecker etc.
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4.Journal Manuscripts Submission:

In the past, journal manuscript submission used to be via email

communications between researchers/authors and journal’s
editors/coordinators. Now web-based journal manuscript management and
peer-review software, electronic manuscript submission or management
systems are commonly used among the community of researchers and
journals/publishers. Using such systems can reduce their time of submission
and checking the status of publishing.
Moreover, using such systems can greatly improve the productivity and quality
of work to administer the submission as well as the peer-review management
in which miscommunication, lost or delay of communication can be
minimized.

The following are the Application of ICT for Manuscripts Submission and
publicising:
⮚ Elsevier
⮚ Wiley
⮚ Sage Publications etc.

Apart from the above-mentioned ICT tools for research, there is a long list of
ICT applications which can be used for quality research papers and theses.

Research Ethics
Research Ethics: The application of moral rules and professional codes of
conduct to the collection, analysis, reporting, and publication of information
about research subjects, in particular active acceptance of subjects' right to
privacy, confidentiality, and informed consent.

Collecting data through any of the methods may involve some ethical issues
concerning the participants and the researcher:
● Those from whom information is collected or those who are studied by a
researcher become participants of the study.
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 ● Anyone who collects information for a specific purpose, adhering to the
accepted code of conduct, is a researcher.

Ethical issues concerning research participants: There are many ethical issues
in relation to participants of research activity.

i. Collecting information:
Your request for information may put pressure or create anxiety on a
respondent. Is it ethical? Research is required to improve conditions. Provided
any piece of research is likely to help society directly or indirectly, it is
acceptable to ask questions if you first obtain the respondents’ informed
consent.
If you cannot justify the relevance of the research you are conducting, you are
wasting your respondents’ time, which is unethical.

ii. Seeking consent:

In every discipline, it is considered unethical to collect information without the
knowledge of the participant and their expressed willingness and informed
consent.

Informed consent implies that subjects are made adequately aware of the type
of information you want from them, why the information is being sought, what
purpose it will be put to, how they are expected to participate in the study, and
how it will directly or indirectly affect them. It is important that the consent
should be voluntary and without the pressure of any kind.

iii. Providing incentives:

Most people do not participate in a study because of incentives, but because
they realize the importance of the study.

Is it ethical to provide incentives to respondents to share information with you

because they are giving their time?
Giving a present before data collection is unethical.

iv. Seeking sensitive information:

Certain types of information can be regarded as sensitive or confidential by
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 some people and thus an invasion to their privacy, asking for such information
may upset or embarrass a
respondent.

For most people, questions on drug use, pilferage, income, age, marital status,
etc. are intrusive. In collecting data, you need to be careful about the
sensitivities of your respondents.
It is not unethical to ask such questions provided that you tell your
respondents the type of information you are going to ask clearly and frankly,
and give them sufficient time to decide if they want to participate, without any
significant inducement.

v. The possibility of causing harm to participant:

When you collect data from respondents or involve subjects in an experiment,
you need to examine carefully whether their involvement is likely to harm
them in any way. Harm includes l research that might consist of hazardous
experiments, discomfort, anxiety, harassment, invasion of privacy, or
demeaning or dehumanizing procedures. If it is likely to, you must make sure
that the risk is minimal, i.e., the extent of harm or discomfort is not greater
that ordinarily encountered in daily life. If the way information is sought
creates anxiety or harassment, you need to take steps to prevent this.

vi. Maintaining confidentiality:

Sharing information about a respondent with others for purposes other than
research is unethical. Sometimes you need to identify your study population to
put your findings into context. In such a situation, you need to make sure that
at least the information provided by respondents is kept anonymous.
It is unethical to identify an individual’s responses. Therefore you need to
ensure that after the information has been collected, the source cannot be
known.

Ethical Issues Relating to The Researcher

ii) Avoiding bias:
Bias on the part of the researcher is unethical. Bias is a deliberate attempt to
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 either hiding what you have found in your study or highlight something
disproportionately to its actual existence.

iii) Provision or deprivation of a treatment:

Both the provision and denial of a treatment/ intervention may pose an ethical
dilemma for you as a researcher. Is it ethical to provide a study population
with an intervention/ treatment that has not yet been conclusively proven
effective or beneficial? But if you do not test, how can you prove or disprove
its effectiveness or benefits?

There are no simple answers to these dilemmas. Ensuring informed consent,

‘minimum risk,’ and frank discussion as to the implications of participation in
the study will help to resolve ethical issues.

iv) Using inappropriate research methodology:

It is unethical to use a method or procedure you know to be inappropriate,
e.g., selecting a highly biased sample, using an invalid instrument, or drawing
wrong conclusions.
v) Incorrect reporting:
To report the findings in a way that changes or slants them to serve your own
or someone else’s interest is unethical.

vi) Inappropriate use of the information:

The use of information in a way that directly or indirectly adversely affects the
respondents is unethical. If so, the study population needs to be protected.
Sometimes it is possible to harm individuals in the process of achieving
benefits for the organizations. An example would be a study to examine the
feasibility of restructuring an organization. The restructuring may be beneficial
to the organization as a whole but may be harmful to some individuals.
Should you ask respondents for information that is likely to be used against
them? It is ethical to ask questions provided you tell respondents of the
potential use of the information, including the possibility of it being used
against
Some of them, and you let them decide if they want to participate.

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Important Terms
Seminars are educational events that feature one or more subject matter
experts delivering information
primarily via lecture and discussion.

Workshops tend to be smaller and more intense than seminars. This format
often involves students practicing their new skills during the event under the
watchful eye of the instructor.

Conferences often features keynote presentations delivered to all attendees, as

well as multiple breakout sessions. Attendees often expect to receive
information about industry trends and developments.

Symposium is typically a more formal or academic gathering, featuring

multiple experts delivering short
presentations on a particular topic.

Summit is a gathering of the highest level of leaders and experts.

Teleseminars are seminars that are delivered via a conference call over the
telephone and/or over the Internet. The instructor moderates the call, while
the attendees listen. To engage listeners, many instructors provide outlines,
notes sheets or copies of PowerPoint slides to follow when listening to the
presentation.

Webinars or Webconferences are presentations that involve an audio and video

component. The audio portion of the event is delivered via phone or over the
Internet, so that participants can
listen via their computer speakers. The video portion of the event is delivered
via the Internet, giving participants a presentation to watch while listening to
the instructor.
Accuracy
A term used in survey research to refer to the match between the target
population and the sample.

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Alpha Level
The probability that a statistical test will find significant differences between
groups (or find significant predictors of the dependent variable), when in fact
there are none. This is also referred to as the probability of making a Type I
error or as the significance level of a statistical test. A lower alpha level is
better than a higher alpha level, with all else equal.
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)
Same method as ANOVA, but analyzes differences between dependent
variables.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
A statistical test that determines whether the means of two or more groups are
significantly different.
Anonymity
An ethical safeguard against invasion of privacy whereby the researcher is
unable to identify the respondents by their responses.
Attrition
The rate at which participants drop out of a longitudinal study. If particular
types of study participants drop out faster than other types of participants, it
can introduce bias and threaten the internal validity of the study.
Average
A single value (mean, median, mode) representing the typical, normal, or
middle value of a set of data.
Axiom
A statement widely accepted as truth.
Bell-Shaped Curve
A curve characteristic of a normal distribution, which is symmetrical about the
mean and extends infinitely in both directions. The area under curve=1.0.
Beta Level
The probability of making an error when comparing groups and stating that
differences between the groups are the result of the chance variations when in
reality the differences are the result of the experimental manipulation or
intervention. Also referred to as the probability of making a Type II error.

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Bimodal Distribution
A distribution in which two scores are the most frequently occurring score.
Interpretation of an average of biomodial distribution is problematic because
the data represents non-normal distribution. Identifying biomodial
distributions is done by examining frequency distribution or by looking at
indices of skew or kutosis, which are frequently available with statistical
software.
Bootstrapping
A popular method for variance estimation in surveys. It consists of
subsampling from the initial sample. Within each stratum in the sample, a
simple random subsample is selected with replacement. This creates a finite
number of new samples (or repetitions). The same parameter estimate is then
calculated for each of the subsamples. The variance of the estimated
parameter is then equal to the variance of the estimates from these
subsamples.
Case Study
An intensive investigation of the current and past behaviors and experiences of
a single person, family, group, or organization.
Categorical Data
Variables with discrete, non-numeric or qualitative categories (e.g. gender or
marital status). The categories can be given numerical codes, but they cannot
be ranked, added, multiplied or measured against each other. Also referred to
as nominal data.
Causal Analysis
An analysis that seeks to establish the cause and effect relationships between
variables.
Ceiling
The highest limit of performance that can be assessed or measured by an
instrument or process. Individuals who perform near to or above this upper
limit are said to have reached the ceiling, and the assessment may not be
providing a valid estimate of their performance levels.
Census
The collection of data from all members, instead of a sample, of the target
population.

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Central Limit Theorem
A mathematical theorem that is central to the use of statistics. It states that for
a random sample of observations from any distribution with a finite mean and
a finite variance, the mean of the observations will follow a normal
distribution. This theorem is the main justification for the widespread use of
statistical analyses based on the normal distribution.
Central Tendency
A measure that describes the ¿typical¿ or average characteristic; the three
main measures of central tendency are mean, median and mode.
Chi Square
A statistic used when testing for associations between categorical, or
non-numeric, variables. It is also used as a goodness-of-fit test to determine
whether data from a sample come form a population with a specific
distribution.
Cluster Analysis
A type of multivariate analysis where the collected data are classified based on
several characteristics in order to determine groups (or clusters) of cases that
would be useful to explore further. This type of analysis can help one
determine which groups of variables best predict an outcome.
Coefficient of Determination
A coefficient, ranging between 0 and 1, that indicates the goodness of fit of a
regression model.
Cohort
A group of people sharing a common demographic experience who are
observed through time. For example, all the people born in the same year
constitute a birth cohort. All the people married in the same year constitute a
marriage cohort.
Confidence Interval
A range of estimated values that is the best guess as to the true population's
value. Confidence intervals are usually calculated for the sample mean. In
behavioral research, the acceptable level of confidence is usually 95%.
Statistically, this means that if 100 random samples were drawn from a
population and confidence intervals were calculated for the mean of each of
the samples, 95 of the confidence intervals would contain the population's
mean. For example, a 95% confidence interval for IQ of 95 to 105, indicates
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with 95% certainty that the actual average IQ in the population lies between 95
and 105.
Confidence Level
The percentage of times that a confidence interval will include the true
population value. If the confidence level is .95 this means that if a researcher
were to randomly sample a population 100 times, 95% of the time the estimated
confidence interval for a value will contain the population's true value. In other
words, the researcher can be 95% confident that the confidence interval
contains the true population value.
Confounding Variable
A variable that is not of interest, but which distorts the results if the researcher
does not control for it in the analysis. For example, if a researcher is interested
in the effect of education on political views, the researcher must control for
income. Income is a confounding variable because it affects political views and
education is related to income.
Construct Validity
The degree to which a variable, test, questionnaire or instrument measures the
theoretical concept that the researcher hopes to measure. For example, if a
researcher is interested in the theoretical concept of "marital satisfaction," and
the researcher uses a questionnaire to measure marital satisfaction, if the
questionnaire has construct validity it is considered to be a good measure of
marital satisfaction.
Continuous Variable
A variable that, in theory, can take on any value within a range. The opposite of
continuous is discrete. For example, a person's height could be 5 feet 1 inch, 5
feet 1.1 inches, 5 feet 1.11 inches, and so one, thus it is continuous. One's
gender is either "male" or "female", thus it is discrete.
Control
The processes of making research conditions uniform or constant, so as to
isolate the effect of the experimental condition. When it is not possible to
control research conditions, statistical controls often will be implemented in
the analysis.
Control Variable
A variable that is not of interest to the researcher, but which interferes with
the statistical analysis. In statistical analyses, control variables are held
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constant or their impact is removed to better analyze the relationship between
the outcome variable and other variables of interest. For example, if one
wanted to examine the impact of education on political views, a researcher
would control income in the statistical analysis. This removes the impact of
income on political views from the analysis.
Controlled Experiment
A form of scientific investigation in which one variable, termed the
independent variable, is manipulated to reveal the effect on another variable,
termed the dependent or responding variable, while all other variables in the
system are held fixed.
Cooperation Rate
In survey research, this is the ratio of completed interviews to all contacted
cases capable of being interviewed.
Correlation
The degree to which two variables are associated. Variables are positively
correlated if they both tend to increase at the same time. For example, height
and weight are positively correlated because as height increases weight also
tends to increases. Variables are negatively correlated if as one increases the
other decreases. For example, number of police officers in a community and
crime rates are negatively correlated because as the number of police officers
increases the crime rate tends to decrease.
Correlation Coefficient
A measure of the degree to which two variables are related. A correlation
coefficient in always between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is
between 0 and +1 then the variables are positively correlated. If the correlation
coefficient is between 0 and -1 then the variables are negatively correlated.
Coverage
In survey research, this is the process of selecting a sample of individuals that
reflect the larger population that the researchers wish to describe.
Cross-Sectional Data
Data collected about individuals at only one point in time. This is contrasted
with longitudinal data, which is collected from the same individuals at more
than one point in time.

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Cross-Tabulation
A method to display the relationship between two categorical variables. A
table is created with the values of one variable across the top and the values of
the second variable down the side. The number of observations that
correspond to each cell of the table are indicated in each of the table cells.
Curvilinear
A statistical relationship between two variables that is not linear when plotted
on a graph, but rather forms a curve.
Data
Information collected through surveys, interviews, or observations. Statistics
are produced from data, and data must be processed to be of practical use.
Data Analysis
The process by which data are organized to better understand patterns of
behavior within the target population. Data analysis is an umbrella term that
refers to many particular forms of analysis such as content analysis,
cost-benefit analysis, network analysis, path analysis, regression analysis, etc.
Data Imputation
A method used to fill in missing values (due to nonresponse) in surveys. The
method is based on careful analysis of patterns of missing data. Types of data
imputation include mean imputation, multiple imputation, hot deck and cold
deck imputation. Data imputation is done to allow for statistical analysis of
surveys that were only partially completed.
Deduction
The process of reasoning from the more general to the more specific.
Deductive Method
A method of study that begins with a theory and the generation of a hypothesis
that can be tested through the collection of data, and ultimately lead to the
confirmation (or lack thereof) of the original theory.
Degrees of Freedom
The number of independent units of information in a sample used in the
estimation of a parameter or calculation of a statistic. The degrees of freedom
limits the number variables that can be included in a statistical model. Models
with similar explanatory power, but more degrees of freedom are generally
prefered because they offer a simpler explanation.

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Dependent Variable
The outcome variable. In experimental research, this variable is expected to
depend on a predictor (or independent) variable.
Descriptive Statistics
Basic statistics used to describe and summarize data. Descriptive statistics
generally include measures of the average values of variables (mean, median,
and mode) and measures of the dispersion of variables (variance, standard
deviation, or range).
Dichotomous Variables
Variables that have only two categories, such as gender (male and female).
Discomfirming Evidence
A procedure whereby, during an open-ended interview, \ a researcher actively
seeks accounts from other respondents that differs from the main or
consensus accounts in critical ways
Discrete Variables
A variable that can assume only a finite number of values; it consists of
separate, indivisible categories. The opposite of discrete is continuous. For
example, one's gender is either "male" or "female", thus gender is discrete. A
person's height could be 5 feet 1 inch, 5 feet 1.1 inches, 5 feet 1.11 inches, and
so on, thus it is continuous.
Dispersion
The spread of a variable's values. Techniques that describe dispersion include
range, variance, standard deviation, and skew.
Distribution
The frequency with which values of a variable occur in a sample or a
population. To graph a distribution, first the values of the variables are listed
across the bottom of the graph. The number of times the value occurs are
listed up the side of the graph. A bar is drawn that corresponds to how many
times each value occurred in the data. For example, a graph of the distribution
of women's heights from a random sample of the population would be shaped
like a bell. Most women's height are around 5'4" This value would occur most
frequently, so it would have the highest bar. Heights that are close to 5'4", such
as 5'3" and 5'5" would have slightly shorter bars. More extreme heights, such as
4'7" and 6'1" would have very short bars.

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Double Barreled Question
A survey question whereby two separate ideas are erroneously presented
together in one question.
Double Blind Experiment
A research design where both the experimenter and the subjects are unaware
of which is the treatment group and which is the control.
Dummy Coding
A coding strategy where each value of a categorical variable is turned into its
own dichotomous variable. The dichotomous variable is coded as either 0 or 1.
Dummy coding is used in regression analysis to measure the effect of a
categorical variable on the outcome when the categorical variable has more
than 2 values.
Dummy Variables
Categorical variables that are assigned a value of 0 or 1 for use in a statistical
analysis (see Dummy Coding).
Ecological Fallacy
False conclusions made by assuming that one can infer something about an
individual from data collected about groups.
Econometrics
A field of economics that applies mathematical statistics and the tools of
statistical inference to the empirical measurement of relationships postulated
by economic theory.
Effect Size
A measure of the strength of the effect of the predictor (or independent)
variable on the outcome (or dependent) variable.
Endogeneity
A threat to the assumption that the independent (exogenous) variable actually
causes the dependent (or endogenous) variable. Endogeneity occurs when the
dependent variable may actually be a cause of the independent variable.
Sometimes this is referred to as reverse causality. For example, a researcher
may note that states with the death penalty also have high murder rates. The
researcher may conclude that the death penalty causes an increase in the
murder rate; however, it could be that states that experience a high murder
rate are more likely to institute the death penalty. Endogeneity is the opposite
of exogeneity.
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Epistemology
A way of understanding and explaining how we know what we know. Each
research methodology is underpinned by an epistemology that serves as a
guiding philosophy and provides a concrete process of research steps.
Error
The difference between the actual observed data value and the predicted or
estimated data value. Predicted or estimated data values are calculated in
statistical analyses, such as regression analysis.
Estimated Sampling Error
The predictable and built-in level of error that accompanies all samples of a
given size.
Ethnographic Decision Models
A qualitative method for examining behavior under specific circumstances. An
EDM is often referred to as a decision tree or flow chart and comprises a series
of nested ¿if-then¿ statements that link criteria (and combinations of criteria)
to the behavior of interest.
Ethnographic Interviewing
A research method in which face-to-face interviews with respondents are
conducted using open- ended questions to explore topics in great depth.
Questions are often customized for each interview, and topics are generally
probed extensively with follow-up questions.
Factor Analysis
An exploratory form of multivariate analysis that takes a large number of
variables or objects and aims to identify a small number of factors that explain
the interrelations among the variables or objects.
Fixed Effects Regression
Regression techniques that can be used to eliminate biases associated with the
omission of unmeasured characteristics. Biases are eliminated by including an
individual-specific intercept term for all cases.
Focus Group
An interview conducted with a small group of people, all at one time, to
explore ideas on a particular topic. The goal of a focus group is to uncover
additional information through participants' exchange of ideas.

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Frequency Distribution
The frequency with which values of a variable occur in a sample or a
population. To graph a distribution, first the values of the variables are listed
across the bottom of the graph. The number of times the value occurs are
listed up the side of the graph. A bar is drawn that corresponds to how many
times each value occurred in the data. For example, a graph of the distribution
of women's heights from a random sample of the population would be shaped
like a bell. Most women's height are around 5'4" This value would occur most
frequently, so it would have the highest bar. Heights that are close to 5'4", such
as 5'3" and 5'5" would have slightly shorter bars. More extreme heights, such as
4'7" and 6'1" would have very short bars.
GIS (Geographical Information Systems)
A computer system that enables one to assemble, store, manipulate, and
display geographically referenced information.
Gini Coefficient
A measure of inequality or dispersion in a group of values (e.g.; racial
inequality in a population). The larger the coefficient the greater the
dispersion.
Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM)
A multi-level modeling procedure that works well for nested circumstances
(e.g., estimating the effects of children nested within classrooms nested within
schools). HLM enables a researcher to estimate effects within individual units,
formulate hypotheses about cross level effects and partition the variance and
covariance components among levels.
Histogram
A visual presentation of data that shows the frequencies with which each value
of a variable occurs. Each value of a variable typically is displayed along the
bottom of a histogram, and a bar is drawn for each value. The height of the bar
corresponds to the frequency with which that value occurs.
Index
A type of composite measure that summarizes several specific observations
and represents a more general dimension.
Index Variable
A variable that is a summed composite of other variables that are assumed to
reflect the same underlying construct.
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Inductive Method
A method of study that begins with specific observations and measures, from
which patterns and regularities are detected. These patterns lead to the
formulation of tentative hypotheses, and ultimately to the construction of
general conclusions or theories
Jackknife Technique
A (usually) computer-intensive method to estimate parameters, and/or to
gauge uncertainty in these estimates. The name is derived from the method
that each observation is removed (i.e. cut with the knife) one at a time (or two
at a time for the second-order Jackknife, and so on) in order to get a feeling for
the spread of data.
Kurtosis
A statistical equation that measures how peaked a distribution is. The kurtosis
of a normal distribution is 0. If kurtosis is different than 0, then the distribution
is either flatter or more peaked than normal.
Least Squares
A commonly used method for calculating a regression equation. This method
minimizes the difference between the observed data points and the data points
that are estimated by the regression equation.
Level of Significance
See significance level.
Likert Scale
A scale that on which survey respondents can indicate their level of agreement
or disagreement with a series of statements. The responses are often scaled
and summed to give a composite measure of attitudes about a topic.
Linear Regression
A statistical technique used to find a linear relationship between one or more
(multiple)
continuous or categorical predictor (or independent) variables and a
continuous outcome (or dependent) variable.
Logit Model
A special form of regression used to analyze the relationship between
predictor variables and a categorical outcome variable.

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MANOVA (Multivariate Analysis of Variance)
A statistical test that measures that varying group effects on many dependent
variables.
Mean
A descriptive statistic used as a measure of central tendency. To calculate the
mean, all the values of a variable are added and then the sum is divided by the
number of values. For example, if the age of the respondents in a sample were
21, 35, 40, 46, and 76, the mean age of the sample would be
(21+35+40+46+76)/5 = 43.6
Median
A descriptive statistic used to measure central tendency. The median is the
value that is the middle value of a set of values. 50% of the values lie above the
median, and 50% lie below the median. For example, if a sample of individuals
are ages 21, 34, 46, 55, and 76 the median age is 46.
Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA)
A term used by the U.S. Census Bureau to designate an area of adjacent
counties (except in New England where they are defined by adjacent cities).
Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs) are often used to geographically
understand labor markets because individuals often look for work outside of
the city or county in which they live.
Missing Completely at Random (MCAR)
The term implies that all respondents are equally likely/unlikely to respond to
the item and that the estimate is approximately unbiased. To ignore the
missing data and restrict analyses to those records with reported values for the
variables in the analysis, implicitly invokes the assumption that the missing
cases are a random subsample of the full sample, that is, they are missing
completely at random (MCAR). This is a strong assumption.
Mode
A descriptive statistic that is a measure of central tendency. It is the value that
occurs most frequently in the data. For example, if survey respondents are
ages 21, 33, 33, 45, and 76, the modal age is 33.
Moving Average
A form of average which has been adjusted (or “smoothed”) to allow for
seasonal or cyclical components of a time series.

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Multivariate Analysis
Any of several statistical methods for examining more than one predictor
(independent) variable or more than one outcome (dependent) variable or
both. Allows researchers to examine the relation between two variables while
simultaneously controlling for the influence of other variables.
Multivariate Probit Model
The multivariate probit model is a generalization of the bivariate probit, which
includes several distinct indicators as right-hand side variables.
Mutually Exclusive
Said of variables, events or conditions that can be placed into one category
and no other. If there is no overlapping part between two events, we say they
are mutually exclusive. However, mutually exclusive doesn’t mean the two
events are independent.
Non-sampling Error
Errors that can occur at any phase of the sampling process. Non sampling
error can result from nonresponse to surveys or from mismeasurement of
survey responses.
Normal Distribution
This distribution describes a frequency distribution of data points that
resembles a bell shape. (To graph a distribution, first the values of the
variables are listed across the bottom of the graph. The number of times the
value occurs are listed up the side of the graph. A bar is drawn that
corresponds to how many times each value occurred in the data. See
Frequency Distribution) In a normal distribution, the mean data point is the
most likely data point to occur, data points that are equally higher or lower
than the mean have an equal chance of occurring, and the farther a data point
is from the mean the less likely it is to occur. The normal distribution exhibits
important mathematical properties that are necessary for performing most
statistical tests.
Null Hypothesis
This hypothesis states that there is no difference between groups. The
alternative hypothesis states that there is some real difference between two or
more groups.
One-Way ANOVA
A test of whether the mean for more than two groups are different. For
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example, to test whether the mean income is different for individuals who live
in France, England, or Sweden, one would use a one-way ANOVA.
P-Value
The probability that the results of a statistical test were due to chance. A
p-value greater than .05 is usually interpreted to mean that the results were not
statistically significant. Sometimes researchers use a p-value of .01 or a p-value
of .10 to indicate whether a result is statistically significant. The lower the
p-value the more rigorous the criteria for concluding significance.
Paired T-Test
This test is usually used to determine whether an intervention brought about a
change in some characteristic of respondents (e.g., respondents' math
knowledge). To perform a paired t-test, respondents' math knowledge would
be measured prior to the intervention, then the intervention would be
performed (e.g., teaching a class on math), then respondent's math knowledge
would be measured after the intervention. The change from before to after the
intervention is used to assess whether the intervention was successful.
Parameter
A characteristic of a population.
Pearson's Correlational Coefficient
Usually denoted by r, this is a measure of the degree to which two variables
are associated.
Pearson's correlational coefficient is used when the two variables are
continuous. The coefficient can range from -1 to +1. If the coefficient is
between 0 and +1, the variables are positively correlated, which means they
both tend to increase at the same time. For example, height and weight are
positively correlated because as height increases weight also tends to
increases. If the coefficient is between 0 and -1, the variables are negatively
correlated, which means as one increases the other decreases. For example,
number of police officers in a community and crime rates are negatively
correlated because as the number of police officers increase the crime rate
tends to decrease. The closer the coefficient is to either -1 or +1, the stronger
the association between the two variables. This is also called a Product
Moment Correlation
Pilot Studies
A small scale research study that is conducted prior to the larger, final study.
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The pilot study gives researchers a chance to identify any problems with their
proposed sampling scheme, methodology, or data collection process. These
studies are very useful in accessing strengths and weakness of a potential
study.
Poisson Distribution
A distribution that describes the number of events that occur in a certain time
interval or spatial area. For example, the number of child care arrangements
during a given period of time.
Population
A clearly defined group of people or objects. Samples are drawn from the
population and statistical results that are
Quasi-Experimental Research
Research in which individuals cannot be assigned randomly to two groups, but
some environmental factor influences who belongs to each group. For
example, if researchers want to look at the effects of smoking on health, they
cannot ethically assign individuals to a group that smokes and a group that
does not smoke. Researchers might rely on some environmental factor, for
example an ad campaign that discourages smoking, to examine changes in
health following the campaign. The theory behind quasi-experimental designs
is that following an environmental intervention, individuals' characteristics
play a smaller role in determining whether they smoke or do not smoke, and
thus membership in these groups is closer to random assignment.
R-Squared
A measure of how well the independent, or predictor, variables predict the
dependent, or outcome, variable. A higher R-square indicates a better model.
The R-square denotes the percentage of variation in the dependent variable
that can be explained by the independent variables. An Adjusted R-squared is a
better comparison between models that have with different numbers of
variables and different sample sizes than is the R-Squared. Please see Adjusted
R- squared for more information.
Random Coefficient
A variable that varies in ways the researcher does not control. For instance, if
research subjects sign up for a study after seeing a posting asking for people
between the ages of 20 and 24, age would not be a random coefficient, but
factors such as gender and race would be.

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Random Error
An error that affects data measurements in a non-systematic way because of
random chance.
Range
A measure of dispersion of data. The range is calculated by subtracting the
value of the lowest data point from the value of the highest data point.
Rank Order
A scale of objects presented to research subjects, Whereby they are asked to
rank the objects according to a specific criterion.
Rating Scale
A rating scale is a measuring instrument for which judgments are made in
order to rate a subject or case at a specified scale level with respect to an
identified characteristic or characteristics.
Ratio
The quotient of two values.
Regression Analysis
A statistical technique that measure the relationship between a dependent
(outcome) variable and one or more independent (predictor) variables (see
linear, logistic and multiple regression).
Regression Coefficient
A coefficient that is calculated for each independent (predictor) variable. The
regression coefficient indicates how much the dependent (outcome) variable
will change, on average, with each unit change in the independent variables.
Regression Equation
An mathematical equation that indicates the relationship between a dependent
(outcome) variable and one or more independent (predictor) variables. The
equation indicates the extent to which the dependent variables can be
predicted by knowing the value of the independent variables.
Sampling Error
Fluctuation in the value of a statistic that is calculated from different samples
that are drawn from the same population. For example, if several different
samples of 5 people are drawn at random from the U.S. population, the
average income of the 5 people in those samples will vary. (In one sample, Bill
Gates may have been selected at random from the population, which would

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lead to a very high mean income for that sample.) It is not incorrect to have
sampling error, and in fact statistical techniques take into account that
sampling error will occur.
Scatter Plot
A display of the relationship between two quantitative or numeric variables. A
scatter plot shows the value of one variable plotted against the value of
another variable.
Semantic Differential Scale
A type of categorical, non-comparative scale with two opposing adjectives
separated by a sequence of unlabelled categories.
Significance Level
The probability that a relationship observed in statistical analyses were
actually due to chance. The significance level is established before the
statistical analysis is undertaken. If the statistical tests indicate that the
chances of finding the observed results are higher than the set significance
level, the results are "not significant." Significance levels are usually set at .05,
which means that significant results may actually be due to chance 5 out of 100
times.
Simple Linear Regression
A statistical technique that measure the relationship between a dependent
(outcome) variable and one independent (predictor) variable.
Simulation
A process whereby a researcher uses either a table or a computer program to
produce random digits to be used in studying random phenomena.
Skewness
The tendency of a distribution to depart from symmetry or balance.
Slope
The coefficient of the independent variable indicating the change in dependent
variable per unit change in the independent variable.
Sociogram
A display of networks of relationships among variables, designed to enable
researchers to identify the nature of relationships that would otherwise be too
complex to conceptualize.

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Spurious Relationship
A statistical association between two variables is produced by a third variable
rather than by a causal link between the two original variables. For example,
children start school at the same time of year that the leaves begin to fall from
the trees. This does not mean that leaves falling from trees affects when
children start school or vice versa, instead both leaves falling from trees and
children starting school occur during autumn.
Standard Deviation
A measure of variability or dispersion of a set of data. The standard deviation
(SD) is the square root of the variance. It is calculated based on the difference
between each individual observation and the mean observation.
Standard Error
A measure of the extent to which the sample mean fluctuates. The standard
error is the standard deviation (SD) of the sample means. Conceptually, the
standard error of the mean would be calculated by selecting multiple samples
at random from a population, calculating the mean for each of the samples,
then calculating the standard deviation of these sample means. Because only
one sample is generally drawn from a population for a research study, the
standard error is calculated by dividing the sample deviation by the number of
the observations in the sample.
Generally speaking, the larger the sample, the smaller the standard error.
Statistic
A measure of the characteristics of a sample (e.g., the mean is a statistic that
measures the average of a sample). It gives an estimate of the same value for
the population from which the sample was selected.
Statistical Analysis
The principle of gathering data from a sample of individuals and using those
data to make inferences about the wider population from which the sample
was drawn.
Statistical Significance
If there is a very small probability that a relationship observed in statistical
analyses is due to chance, the results are said to reach statistical significance.
This means that the researcher concludes that there is a real relationship
between the observed variables or a real difference between two groups. See
Significance Level for additional information.

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T Distribution
A symmetrical bell-shaped distribution that is used for testing samples smaller
than 30 or where the variance is unknown.
T-Test
A statistical test that is used to compare the means of two samples or the mean
of one sample with some fixed value. The test is appropriate for small sample
sizes (less than 30).
Target Population
The population to which the researcher would like to generalize her or his
results based on analysis of a sample. The sample is selected from a target
population.
Test-Retest Reliability
The degree to which a measure produces consistent results over several
administrations.
Theoretical Sampling
The selection of individuals within a naturalistic research study based on
emerging findings as the study progresses to ensure that key issues are
adequately represented.
Time Series
A sequence of observations which are ordered in time or space.
Two-Tailed Test
A type of test that is used when a researcher is unsure of whether the
independent (predictor) variable has a positive or negative effect on the
dependent (outcome) variable.
Two-Way ANOVA
A statistical test to study the effect of two categorical independent variables
on a continuous outcome variable. Two-way ANOVAs analyze the direct effect
of the independent variables on the outcome, as well as the interaction of the
independent variables on the outcome.
Type I Error
An error that occurs when a researcher concludes that a statistically
significant relationship between two variables exists (based on the analysis of
the sample), when in fact it the relationship does not exist in the population
from which the sample was selected. The probability of making a type I error
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is decided at the outset of the statistical analysis. This probability is also called
a significance level.
Type II Error
An error that occurs when a researcher concludes that no significant
relationship between two variables (based on analysis of sample data) when in
fact the relationship does exist in the population from which the sample was
drawn. The probability of not making a type II error is also called the power of
a statistical test.
Univariate Analysis
Examination of the properties of one variable only and not the relationship
between variables. Generally univariate analysis is performed by examining
the mean and standard deviation of a variable.
Variance
A commonly used measure of dispersion for variables. The variance is
calculated by squaring the standard deviation. The variance is based on the
square of the difference between the values for each observation and the mean
value.
Z Score
A score that is produced by subtracting the mean value from an individual data
value and dividing by the standard deviation. This standardizes data values and
allows for individual data values from different distributions (distributions
with different means and standard deviations) to be compared.
Z Test
A statistical test that is used to compare the means of two samples or the mean
of one sample with some fixed value. The test is appropriate for larger samples
(over 30) and for smaller samples in which the variance of the population is
known.

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