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Cambridge IGCSE™ Physics Practical Skills Workbook (Heather Kennett)

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Cambridge IGCSE

Physics
Practical Skills

Heather Kennett

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The Publishers would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce copyright material.
Cambridge International copyright material in this publication is reproduced under licence and
remains the intellectual property of Cambridge Assessment International Education. Reproduced
by permission of Cambridge Assessment International Education.
Cambridge Assessment International Education bears no responsibility for the example answers to
questions taken from its past question papers which are contained in this publication.
Exam-style questions [and sample answers] have been written by the authors. In examinations, the
way marks are awarded may be different. References to assessment and/or assessment preparation
are the publisher’s interpretation of the syllabus requirements and may not fully reflect the
approach of Cambridge Assessment International Education.
Third-party websites and resources referred to in this publication have not been endorsed by
Cambridge Assessment International Education.
Photo credits
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Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently
overlooked, the Publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first
opportunity.
We have carried out a health and safety check of this text and have attempted to identify all
recognised hazards and suggest appropriate cautions. However, the Publishers and the authors
accept no legal responsibility on any issue arising from this check; whilst every effort has been
made to carefully check the instructions for practical work described in this book, it is still the
duty and legal obligation of schools to carry out their own risk assessments for each practical in
accordance with local health and safety requirements.
For further health and safety information (e.g. Hazcards) please refer to CLEAPSS at
www.cleapss.org.uk.
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ISBN: 978 1 3983 1055 1
© Heather Kennett 2021
First published in 2021 by
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Cover photo © Zffoto – stock.adobe.com
Illustrations by Integra Software Services and Aptara, Inc.
Typeset in India by Aptara, Inc.
Printed in the UK
A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.

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Contents
How to use this book 4
Experimental skills and abilities 5

1 Motion, forces and energy 18

1.1 Simple pendulum 18
1.2 Density 22
1.3 Motion 26
1.4 Stretching a spring 29
1.5 Balancing a ruler 33
1.6 Centre of gravity 37
1.7 Pressure 40

2 Thermal physics 43
2.1 Supplement: Specific heat capacity 43
2.2 Cooling curves 47
2.3 Conduction and radiation 51

3 Waves 56
3.1 Ripple tank experiments (Teacher demonstration) 56
3.2 Reflection in a plane mirror 61
3.3 Refraction of light 66
3.4 Images formed by a converging lens 71
3.5 Speed of sound in air 76
3.6 Investigating pitch and loudness of sound waves (Teacher demonstration) 80

4 Electricity and magnetism 85

4.1 Magnetism 85
4.2 Electric charges (Teacher demonstration) 88
4.3 Measuring current 92
4.4 Measuring resistance 95
4.5 Supplement: Potential divider 100
4.6 Supplement: Measuring electrical power 104
4.7 Electromagnetism 108
4.8 Supplement: Investigating beams of electrons (Teacher demonstration) 113

5 Space physics 116

5.1 Phases of the Moon 116

Past paper questions 119

Practical Test past paper questions
Alternative to Practical past paper questions

Note that there are no practicals provided in this book for the Nuclear physics topic, due to safety
considerations in this area. Due to this omission, we have renumbered the sections in this book, so
they will differ from the section numbers in the accompanying Student’s Book and Workbook.

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How to use this book
This Practical Skills Workbook will help you to keep a record of the practicals you have completed, as
well as your results and conclusions. It provides additional practice for the practical skills required by the
Cambridge IGCSETM Physics syllabuses (0625/0972) for examination from 2023.
This resource covers Core and Supplement content. Supplement investigations and questions are indicated by
a lined box around the text, as shown below.

1 The average value for the refractive index of the glass block is

Some practicals also have Going Further sections, which provide additional questions that apply the
scientific theory learned from the practical to different contexts. These go beyond Core and Supplement
level, and the requirements of the syllabus, and can be used as stretch activities.

GOING FURTHER
2 Suggest, in terms of its specific heat capacity, why water is used in the radiators of central heating systems.

...................................................................................................................................................................................................

Completing the investigations

At the start of each investigation, we have provided a brief piece of context to help explain how the
science behind the practical ties into the wider syllabus. Key terms and equations that are relevant to each
investigation are also provided.
The aim of each practical is then given, along with a list of apparatus needed to complete the practical as
suggested. Your teacher will inform you whether they have decided to change any of the equipment and if
the method needs to be adapted as a result.
Before you begin the practical and start on the method, it is vital that you read and understand the safety
guidance, as well as taking any necessary precautions. Once you have carried out a risk assessment and made
everything safe, you should check with your teacher that it is appropriate to begin working through the method.
The method is presented as step-by-step instructions and you should read it through at least once before
starting, making sure you understand everything. Then, ensuring that you don’t miss anything out, you
should work through the practical safely. Tips may be provided to help with particularly problematic steps.

Questions and answers

Within each practical, there are clear sections laid out for observations where you should record your results
as you complete the practical. Scaffolded questions are also provided to help you develop conclusions and
evaluate the success of the experiment.
At the end of the book are past paper questions that relate to the practicals within this book and provide
useful exam practice. Your teacher may decide to set this as part of the lesson, or at a later date.
Answers to all of the questions are provided in the accompanying Cambridge IGCSE Physics Teacher’s Guide
with Boost Subscription.

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Experimental skills and abilities
Skills for scientific enquiry
The aim of this book is to help you develop the skills and abilities needed to perform practical laboratory
work. This section begins with an introduction to some common apparatus and measuring techniques.
Some methods for making and recording accurate measurements will follow, along with descriptions of
how to handle the observations and data you have collected. At the end of the section, we discuss how to
plan, carry out and evaluate an investigation. You should then be ready to work successfully through the
experiments and laboratory activities in this book.

Safety
Here are a few simple precautions to help ensure your safety when carrying out physics experiments in the
laboratory.
l Always wear shoes: this will mean that your feet are protected if a heavy weight falls on them.
l Turn off the power: when connecting electrical circuits, ensure the power is turned off. When you are
ready to take measurements, check the circuit and set the power to a low output before turning it on.
Large currents can cause burns and electric shocks, and damage sensitive meters. Switch the power off
between readings.
l Set up circuits away from water (taps or sink) and do not touch electrical equipment with wet hands.
l Take care with hot liquids and solids: set them in a safe position where they will not be accidentally
knocked over; handle them with caution to avoid burns.
l Protect eyes: avoid looking directly into a laser beam or ultraviolet lamp; radiation can damage your eyes
so wear eye protection when instructed.
l Take care with toxic materials: materials such as mercury are toxic; take care not to allow a mercury
thermometer to roll onto the floor and break.
l Tie back long hair to prevent it being caught in a flame, for example.
l Put away personal belongings: leave them in a sensible place so that no one will trip over them!

Special note to teachers

We believe that the experiments can be carried out safely in school laboratories. However, it is the responsibility
of the teacher to make the final decision depending on the circumstances at the time. Teachers must ensure that
they follow the safety guidelines set down by their employers, and a risk assessment must be completed for any
experiment that is carried out. Teachers should draw students’ attention to the hazards involved in the particular
exercise to be performed. The hazards are shown within the ‘Safety guidance’ section of the individual practicals.
It is recognised that, in some instances, there may not be sufficient apparatus to carry out a class practical and in
such cases, the experiment could be carried out as a demonstration. (Consider using some student assistance.)
In some cases, certain pieces of apparatus may not be available. If possible, use alternatives, as long as the
safety precautions are not overlooked. For example, a stopwatch could be used in place of an automatic
timer. If you substitute equipment, consider the accuracy of the alternative; it is usually much lower than the
equipment suggested.

Using and organising apparatus and materials

In an experiment, you will first have to decide on the measurements to be made and then collect the
apparatus required. The quantities you will need to measure most often in laboratory work are mass, length
and time.
l What apparatus should you use to measure each of these?
l Which measuring device is most suitable for the measurements you will take?
l How do you use the device correctly? For example, does the instrument need to be set to a particular
range to avoid damage?
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Experimental skills and abilities

Balances
A balance is used to measure the mass of an object. There are
several types available.
l In a beam balance, the unknown mass is placed in one pan
and balanced against known masses in the other pan.
l In a lever balance, a system of levers acts against the mass
when it is placed in the pan.
l A digital top-pan balance, which gives a direct reading of the
mass placed on the pan, is shown in Figure 1.
The unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). The gram (g) is
one-thousandth of a kilogram:
1 Figure 1 A digital top-pan balance
1 g = = 10−3 kg = 0.001 kg
1000 kg
How precisely do your scales measure?
l A beam balance is precise to the size of the smallest mass that tilts the balanced beam.
l A digital top-pan balance is precise to the size of the smallest mass which can be measured on the scale
setting you are using, probably 1 g or 0.1 g.

Rulers
Rulers are used to measure lengths. The unit of length is the metre (m). Multiples are:
l 1 decimetre (dm) = 10−1 m
l 1 centimetre (cm) = 10−2 m
l 1 millimetre (mm) = 10−3 m
l 1 micrometre (µm) = 10−6 m

A ruler is often used to measure lengths in the centimetre range. The correct way to measure with a ruler is
shown in Figure 2, with the ruler placed as close to the object as possible.

correct wrong

70 80
ruler

object

Figure 2 Using a ruler: the reading is 76 mm or 7.6 cm. Your eye must be directly above the mark on the
scale or the thickness of the ruler causes parallax errors.

When measuring extensions (of springs, for example), it is best to record the actual scale readings for the
stretched and the unstretched lengths, and then work out the extension afterwards.

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Experimental skills and abilities

How precise are your length measurements?

It may be possible on some rulers to estimate a measurement to the nearest half-division on the scale (0.5 mm).
For very small distances, multiples can be measured and then divided to find an average (mean) value. For example,
to obtain the average thickness of one page of a book, measure the thickness of 20 pages and divide your result by 20.

Clocks and timers

Clocks, watches and timers can be used to measure time intervals. In an experiment, it is important to
choose the correct timing device for the required measurement.
The unit of time is the second (s). A stopwatch will be sufficient if a time in minutes or seconds is to
be measured, but if times of less than a second are to be determined, reaction times will influence the
measurements.

How precise are your timings?

When using a stopwatch, reaction times will influence the reading; an accuracy of about 0.5 s is the best that is
likely to be achieved. For time intervals of the order of seconds, a more precise result will be obtained by measuring
longer time intervals and then dividing to find an average (mean) value. For example, to find an average value for
the period of oscillation of a pendulum, time ten oscillations rather than one and then divide by 10.
To measure very short time intervals, use an automatic timer that can be triggered to start and stop by an
electronic signal from a microphone, photogate or mechanical switch.

Changing measurements
If values are changing rapidly, take readings more frequently. It will often be helpful to work with a partner
who watches the timer and calls out when to take a reading.
Pressing the lap-timer facility on the stopwatch at the moment you take a reading freezes the time display for
a few seconds and will enable you to record a more precise time measurement.
For rapidly changing measurements of an object’s motion, it may be necessary to use a tickertape timer
(see Experiment 1.3) or a data logger and computer.

Some other measuring devices

Measuring cylinders

meniscus

Figure 3 When taking a reading, the measuring cylinder should be vertical and your eye should be level
with the bottom of the curved liquid surface – the meniscus. (For mercury, the meniscus is curved
upwards; you should read the level of the top of the meniscus in a mercury thermometer.)

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Experimental skills and abilities

The volume of a liquid can be obtained by pouring it into a measuring cylinder. The usual units for volume
are cubic metres (m3), cubic decimetres (dm3) or cubic centimetres (cm3). Measuring cylinders are often
marked in millilitres (ml) where 1 millilitre = 1 cm3; note that 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3 (= 1 litre).
The precision of the reading will depend on the size of the measuring cylinder and the spacing of the scale
marks. It may be possible to read to half a scale division if there is sufficient spacing in the marks of the scale.

Set squares
A set square is useful to determine a line at right angles to a base line. For example, in Experiment 1.4 it can
be used to check whether the ruler is at 90° to a horizontal bench. It can also be used to minimise parallax
errors by ensuring a reading is taken directly opposite a scale marking on a ruler.
The diameter of a cylinder can be found by setting it between two set squares aligned against a ruler
(see Figure 4). A set square can also be useful for drawing parallel lines.
10 20 30 40 50

05 04 03 02 01

4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4
0

29 27 28 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11

Figure 4 Using two set squares to measure the diameter of a cylinder

Protractors

100 90 80
110 70
20 90 60
1 80 100 1
0 70 10 50
13 12
60 0 C
13
50 0
0

40
14
°
57

14
40
0

30
15

15
30

0
160

32°
20
160
20
170

10
170 180
10
180

A D
0

Figure 5 Using a protractor

A protractor is used to measure angles in degrees (°).

When the angle between two intersecting lines OA and OB is required, set the horizontal (0–180°) line of
the protractor on one of the lines (OA) and the zero dot of the protractor on the intersection point of the
lines (O). The angle AOB = 57 ° can then be read off the inner scale of the protractor as shown in Figure 5.
Similarly, the angle between lines OD and OC, angle DOC = 32°, can be read from the outer scale.
The precision of the reading will depend on the size of the protractor; it is about 1° for a protractor from a
school geometry set.

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Experimental skills and abilities

Ammeters and voltmeters

An ammeter measures electric current. The unit of current is the ampere (A). An ammeter should be placed
in series with the device in which the current is to be measured and should have a low resistance so that it
does not change the current to be measured.
A voltmeter measures potential difference (p.d.). The unit of p.d. is the volt (V). A voltmeter should be
placed in parallel with the device across which the p.d. is to be measured and should have a high resistance
so that it does not change the current and hence the p.d. to be measured.

Reading an analogue meter

4
2 6
0 8

1 2 3
2 10
0 4

1 5

volts

Figure 6 The display of an analogue voltmeter

Figure 6 shows the display of an analogue meter with two scales.

The 0–5 scale has a full-scale deflection of 5.0 V; each small-scale
division on this scale represents 0.1 V. A measurement may be able to
be made to about half a small division (here, 0.05 V). For the
0–10 scale, each small division represents 0.2 V.
As with rulers, the eye should be immediately above the pointer when
taking a reading to avoid introducing parallax errors; if there is a
mirror behind the pointer, the needle and its image should coincide
when you take a reading.
Check that the meter reads zero when there is no current; adjust the screw
at the base of the pointer until it does.

Reading a digital meter

Digital meters, such as that shown in Figure 7, allow different ranges
to be selected and the display gives the measurement in whatever
units have been chosen. The reading will be precise to the last figure
on the display, so for small currents and voltages higher precision will Figure 7 A digital meter
be achieved by using the mA or mV setting.

Tips for using meters in electrical circuits

l Construct circuits with the power switched off or battery disconnected and attach the voltmeter last.
l Check that meters are connected with the correct polarity and are set to their largest range initially.
l Set the power supply output to zero before you switch it on.

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Experimental skills and abilities

Observing, measuring and recording

Having collected together and familiarised yourself with the equipment and materials needed for an
experiment, you are now ready to start making some observations and measurements.
l Decide on the range and interval of readings you will take.
l If the method does not include a diagram of the apparatus, it may be helpful at this stage to draw a clearly
labelled diagram of the experimental set-up.
l You should also record any difficulties encountered in carrying out the experiment and any precautions
taken to achieve accuracy in your measurements.
l Do not dismantle the equipment until you have completed the analysis of your results and are sure you
will not have to repeat any measurements!
l How precise will your measurements be?
l How many significant figures will your data have?
l How will you record your results?

Precision of measuring devices

Make a list of the apparatus you use in an experiment and record the smallest division of the scale of each
measuring device; since you will usually be able to take a measurement to half a small division, this will be
the precision of your measurements.
For example, the smallest division on a metre ruler is 1 mm, so the precision of any length measured with the
ruler will be about half a division (0.5 mm). The precision will be a smaller proportion of a measurement the
longer the length measured:
l For a measured length of 1 m = 1000 mm, the precision will be 1 part in 2000.
l For a measured length of 1 cm = 10 mm, the precision will be 1 part in 20.

Similarly if the divisions on a thermometer scale are at 1°C intervals, the precision of a temperature reading
will be about 0.5°C.

Significant figures
The number of digits given for a measurement or calculated value, called significant figures, indicates
how accurate we think it is. You should not give more digits in a calculated answer than are justified by the
apparatus and how it was used.
For example, a value of 6.7 has two significant figures; the value of 0.235 has three significant figures, the 2
being most significant and the 5 being the least significant.
When doing calculations your answer should have the same number of significant figures as the
measurements used in the calculation. For example, if your calculator gives an answer of 1.23578, this should
be given as 1.2 if the measurements on which you based this calculation have two significant figures and 1.24
if your measurements have three significant figures.
Note that in deciding the least significant figure you look at the following digit; if that is less than 5, you
round down (1.23 becomes 1.2) but if it is 5 or above, you round up (1.235 becomes 1.24).
If a number is expressed in standard notation, the number of significant figures is the number of digits
before the power of 10; for example, 6.24 × 102 has three significant figures.
If values with different numbers of significant figures are used to calculate a quantity, quote your answer to
the smallest number of significant figures.

Sources of error
Every measurement of a quantity is an attempt to find its true value and is subject to errors arising from the
limitations of the apparatus and the experimental procedure.

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Experimental skills and abilities

Random errors
Limitations on the precision of a measuring device may produce random errors. If readings fall between
scale markings and have to be rounded up or down, a scatter of results occurs. Experimental difficulties such
as variable reaction times or fluctuating environmental conditions may also produce random errors.
Repeating measurements and taking the mean (see page 12) will help to average out random errors and
reduce the uncertainty in a measurement.

Systematic errors
Figure 8 shows part of a ruler used to measure the height of a point, P, above the bench.
l The ruler has a space of length x before the zero of the scale.
l The height of the point P = scale reading + x = 5.9 + x.
l By itself the scale reading is not equal to the height of P; it is too small by the amount x.

An error of this type is called a systematic error because it is introduced by the system used to make the
measurement. A half-metre ruler does not generally have a systematic error because its zero is usually at the
end of the ruler. When using a ruler to measure a height, the ruler must be held so that it is vertical. If it is at
an angle to the vertical, a systematic error will be introduced.
Before making a measurement, check to ensure that the reading is zero, otherwise a zero error must be
allowed for when a reading is taken. This can often happen with a top-pan balance or a stopwatch, for
example. See also the section on ammeters and voltmeters (page 9).
8
7

P
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

x
bench

Figure 8 Introducing a systematic error into a measurement

Tables
If several measurements of a quantity are being made, draw a table in which to record your results.
l Use the column headings, or start of rows, to name the measurement and state its unit. For example, in
Experiment 1.1 (see page 18) you will use a table similar to Table 1 to record your results.
l Repeat the measurement of each observation if possible and record the values in your table; if repeat
measurements for the same quantity are significantly different, take a third reading. Calculate an average
value from your readings. If you decide not to include an apparently anomalous value when calculating
your mean, state that it has been omitted and suggest a reason for its occurrence.
l Numerical values should be given to the number of significant figures appropriate to the measuring device.

Table 1

First measurement of Second measurement of Average pendulum

Mass of pendulum bob/g pendulum length, L1/cm pendulum length, L2/cm length, L/cm

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Experimental skills and abilities

Handling experimental observations and data

Once you have your measurements, you will need to process them. You may need to make calculations or
plot a graph of your results. Then you can summarise what have you learnt from the experiment, discuss
sources of experimental error and draw some conclusions from the investigation.
l What is the best way to process your results?
l Are there some anomalous values to be dealt with?
l What experimental errors are there?
l What conclusions or generalisations can you make? What patterns can you see?

Calculations
You may have to produce an average value or manipulate an equation to process your results.

Averages (mean)
Sum the values for a quantity you have measured and divide the sum by the number of values to obtain the
average. For example, if you measure the length of a pendulum as 81.5 cm and 81.6 cm, then the mean value is:
(81.5 + 81.6) 163.1
cm = cm = 81.55 cm = 81.6 cm
2 2
The value has been given to three significant figures because that was the precision of the individual
measurements on which the calculation was based.

Equations
When tackling physics problems using mathematical equations, do not substitute numerical values until
you have obtained the expression that gives the answer in symbols. This reduces the chances of making
arithmetic and copying errors.
Equations frequently have to be rearranged to change the subject. For example, in the equation F = kx, the
subject is F. To change the subject to x, we must divide both sides by k so that:
F kx
= =x
k k
or
F
x =
k
If you have numerical values for F and k, you can now substitute them into the equation to calculate x.
For example, if F = 4.16 N and k = 2.0 N/cm:
F 4.16
x = = = 2.08 cm = 2.1 cm
k 2.0
The value for x is given to two significant figures because that was the lower of the number of significant
figures for the values of F and k on which the calculation was based.

Graphs
Graphs can be useful in finding the relationship between two quantities.
l You will need about six data points taken over as large a range as possible to plot a graph.
l Choose scales that make it easy to plot the points and use as much of the graph paper as possible.
l Plot the dependent variable along the y-axis and the independent variable along the x-axis, unless
directed otherwise.
l Make sure you label each axis of the graph with the name and unit of the quantity being plotted.
l Mark the data points clearly with a dot in a circle ( . ), a plus sign (+) or a cross (×) with a sharp pencil.
l Join your points with a smooth line or curve of best fit.

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Experimental skills and abilities

Straight-line graphs
rise
gradient =
run
8 = 6.0 m
3.0 s
= 2.0 m/s
x/s y/m
6
1.0 2.0
y/m rise = (8.0 – 2.0) m 2.0 4.0
4 = 6.0 m 3.0 6.0
4.0 8.0
2
run = (4.0 – 1.0) s
= 3.0 s
0
Figure 9 A graph showing that y
0 1 2 3 4
x/s is directly proportional to x

When the readings in the table above are used to plot a graph of y against x, the line of best fit joining
the points (Figure 9) is a straight line through the origin (0, 0). Such a graph shows that there is direct
proportionality between the quantities plotted: y ∝ x. Note, however, that the line must go through the origin
for the quantities to be proportional.
If a straight-line graph does not go through the origin, one can only say that there is a linear relationship
between y and x. In such a case, the value of y when it crosses the y-axis is termed the y-intercept; the value
of x at the y-intercept is always zero.
The equation of a straight-line graph can be written in the form
y = mx + c
where m is the gradient and c is the value of the y-intercept.
The x-intercept is the value of x where the line crosses the x-axis; y is always zero at that point.

Slope or gradient
The slope or gradient of a straight-line graph can be determined by the triangle method shown in Figure 9.
Use as long a length of line as possible to determine the gradient from the ratio of the vertical ‘rise’ to the
horizontal ‘run’ of the triangle chosen. The units of the gradient are determined by the units of the quantities
plotted on the graph axes.
If the graph is a curve, the gradient at a particular point on the curve is found by drawing a straight-line
tangent to the curve at that point and again calculating the gradient by the triangle method.

40 A

30
distance/m

20
T

C B
O
1 2 3 4 5
time/s Figure 10 Tangent to a curve

In Figure 10, the gradient of the tangent to the curve at point T is:
AB 40 m
= = 20 m/s
CB 2 s

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Experimental skills and abilities

Errors
In practice, points plotted on a graph from actual measurements may not lie exactly on a straight line due
to experimental errors. In these cases, the ‘best straight line’ is drawn through the points such that they are
equally distributed about it; this takes account of the uncertainties in the measurements. Do not force the
line through the origin.
Anomalous data are readings that fall outside the normal or expected range of measurements. If possible,
repeat any anomalous measurements to check that they have been recorded properly or try to identify the
reason for the anomaly.

Conclusions
Once you have analysed your experimental results, summarise your conclusions clearly and relate them to
the aim of the experiment. State whether a hypothesis has been verified; suggest reasons if your results do
not, or only partially, support a hypothesis.
If a numerical value has been obtained, state it to the correct number of significant figures. Compare your
results with known values if available and suggest reasons for any differences.
State any relationships discovered or confirmed between the variables you have investigated. Mention any
patterns or trends in the data.

Planning an investigation
When planning an experiment it is important to set a specific aim and produce a logical plan for the
investigation.
Identify the control variables in the investigation and decide which ones to investigate and which ones you
should try to keep constant (fixed) so that they do not affect the experimental results. The variable that is changed
is known as the independent variable. The variable that is measured is known as the dependent variable.
To discover the relationship between variables, you should change only one variable at a time. For example,
in Experiment 1.1 (see page 18), when investigating the variation of the period of oscillation of a pendulum,
you first keep the mass of the bob constant and record the period for different pendulum lengths; this will
reveal how the period depends on pendulum length. You then keep the length of the pendulum constant and
measure the period when different masses are used; this will show how the period depends on the mass of
the bob. Other variables, such as the amplitude of the oscillation, may affect your results, so identify these
before you start the experiment so that you can try to keep them constant.
Write the plan for your investigation as a series of step-by-step instructions which should include:
l the apparatus and materials you will need; make sure your measuring devices have enough precision for
the measurements you will make
l the variable you will change
l the variable you will measure
l the variables you will keep the same
l the number of readings or measurements you will take
l the range of values of the independent variable and the time allowed for any readings to take place.

Before you start the experiment, familiarise yourself with how to use the apparatus. It will be helpful to
decide how to record your results; draw tables in which to record your measurements if appropriate.

Evaluating investigations
As a final stage, you should evaluate the experiment and discuss how it could be improved.
Identify and comment on sources of error in the experiment. For example, it may be very difficult to
eliminate all energy losses to the environment in an experiment where the temperature rise of an object
is measured; if that is the case, say so. Mention any sources of systematic error in the experiment, for

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Experimental skills and abilities

example a zero error on a meter or measuring device. Reaction times may also have reduced the accuracy
of measurements. It may not have been possible to control some variables in the experiment, for example
keeping the temperature of a current-carrying wire constant. Try to identify these types of error and suggest
improvements that would eliminate or reduce the effect of these errors.
Could some things have been done better? For instance, do you have enough results to show a pattern?
Was the range of the independent variable wide enough? Could you have repeated or collected further
data in one part of the range where the results were uncertain or anomalous? If so, suggest changes or
modifications that could be made to the procedure or to the equipment used in the investigation.

Questions
1 What measuring device would you use to obtain values for each of the following?

a the volume of liquid in a coffee mug ...........................................................................................................................

b the mass of an apple .........................................................................................................................................................

c the length of an envelope ................................................................................................................................................

d the diameter of a tin of tomatoes ..................................................................................................................................

e the temperature of a cup of tea ......................................................................................................................................

f the time taken to run up 20 stairs ...............................................................................................................................

g the p.d. across a lamp ........................................................................................................................................................

h the time taken by an apple to fall through one metre ............................................................................................

i the angle that a ray of light is turned through by a plane mirror .......................................................................

j the current flowing in a resistor ...................................................................................................................................

k the dimensions of a textbook ........................................................................................................................................

2 How would you obtain a value for each of the following?

a the average thickness of a newspaper page

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

b the average time for one oscillation of a child’s swing

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

c the average mass of a pin

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

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Experimental skills and abilities

3 Complete the table below by stating the typical precision of each of the measuring devices listed.
Device metre ruler stopwatch digital timer top-pan balance liquid-in-glass 100 cm3 measuring
thermometer cylinder
Precision

4 Write the number 9.753864 to:

a three significant figures ................................................................................................................

b two significant figures ...................................................................................................................

c one significant figure .....................................................................................................................

5 The power of a device is calculated from the equation:
P = IV
a If I = 250 × 10−3 A and V = 8.0 V, calculate P, giving your answer to the correct number of significant
figures.

b If P = 60 J/s and V = 12 V, calculate I.

6 The reading on an ammeter when no current is flowing in it is 2 mA. What is the true value of the current
if the meter reads 26 mA when a current flows in it?

7 The measurements in the table below were obtained for the speed of a trolley rolling down a runway from rest.
Speed/m/s 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Time/s 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
a i State the variables being measured.

.................................................................................................................................................................................................

ii Name a variable that is being kept constant.

.................................................................................................................................................................................................

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Experimental skills and abilities

iii Complete the table below.

Independent variable Control variables Dependent variable

(variable you change) (constant) (variable you measure)

b Plot a graph of time on the horizontal axis and speed on the vertical axis.

c Calculate the gradient of the graph.

d What can you conclude about the relationship between speed and time in this experiment?

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

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1 Motion, forces and energy
1.1 Simple pendulum
Mass, length and time are the three basic quantities we measure in
KEY TERMS
physics. All three are measured in this experiment. You will often
measure these quantities in your practical work and for each application Period
you should choose the appropriate measuring device. To reduce the Dependent variable
effect of random errors on the accuracy of a measurement, measure Independent variable
multiples and find the average (mean) value (see page 7). The time for
Control variable
one oscillation of a simple pendulum (the period) is too short to be
Accuracy
measured accurately with a stopwatch, so the longer time for several
oscillations is measured and divided by the number of oscillations to
obtain a mean value for one oscillation.

Aim
To investigate the effect of length and mass on the period of a simple pendulum.

Apparatus
l Support stand
l Clamping plates (wood or metal)
l String
l Two metal pendulum bobs of different mass SAFETY GUIDANCE
l Stopwatch or clock
This practical presents
l Metre ruler
minimal risk.
l Balance

Method
You will investigate the effect of length and the effect of mass on the period of a simple pendulum.
Before you take any measurements, read the instructions below. For each experiment, complete Table 1 to
identify which variable you will change, which variables you will keep constant and which variable you
will measure.
Table 1 Determining variables

Independent variable Control variables Dependent variable

(variable you change) (constant/fixed) (variable you measure)
Experiment 1

Experiment 2

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1.1 Simple pendulum

Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 1.

metal plates

string

support stand

pendulum bob

B A
O

Figure 1

1 Measure the length of the pendulum from the point of support to the
TIP
centre of the bob; repeat your measurement and calculate the average
length. Record your results in Table 2. Keep the angle of release the
2 Pull the pendulum bob slightly to one side and let it swing. Measure same each time so that the
the time for the bob to make ten oscillations; the amplitude of the amplitude of the oscillations
oscillations should be small. remains constant.

One complete oscillation occurs when the bob moves from A → O → TIP
B → O → A. Repeat the measurement and calculate the average time
for ten oscillations. Record your results in Table 3. It may be helpful to place a
marker behind the pendulum
3 Calculate the period, T, of the pendulum; this is the time needed for
to ensure the ball is released
one oscillation.
from the same point each
4 Measure the mass of the pendulum bob. time and small amplitude
5 Repeat steps 1 to 4 using a longer pendulum length (first oscillations are used.
experiment).
6 Repeat steps 2 to 4 using a heavier pendulum bob and the same
pendulum length as was used in step 5 (second experiment).

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1.1 Simple pendulum

Observations
Record your results in Tables 2 and 3.
Table 2

First measurement of Second measurement of Average pendulum

Mass of pendulum bob/g pendulum length/cm pendulum length/cm length/cm

Table 3
First Second
Average measurement measurement
pendulum of time for ten of time for ten Average time for
Mass of bob/g length/cm oscillations/s oscillations/s ten oscillations/s Period, T/s

Conclusions
What do your results suggest about how the length and the mass of a simple pendulum affect the period of
the pendulum?
1 Length: ..................................................................................................................................................................................

2 Mass: ......................................................................................................................................................................................

Evaluation
1 Do you think you had enough results to justify your conclusions? Explain your answer.

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1.1 Simple pendulum

3 Suggest how your measurement of the length of the pendulum could be improved.

GOING FURTHER
1 The force of gravity causes the pendulum bob to fall towards the centre of the oscillation (O). A value
for the acceleration of free fall, g, can be calculated from the period of a simple pendulum using the
following equation:
4π2l
g=
T 2
where l is the length of the pendulum in metres, measured from the point of suspension to the centre
of mass of the bob, and T is the period, in seconds.
Calculate g using one set of your results.

g = ........................................ m/s2
2 Describe how you could verify the relationship between T 2 and l graphically.

..................................................................................................................................................................................................

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1.2 Density

1.2 Density
The density of a substance is defined as the mass per unit volume and is given the unit g/cm3.
Different materials have different densities; those with a lower density than water will float in water while
those with a higher density will sink.
To determine the density of a material, both its mass and volume must be known. For a regularly shaped
solid, the volume can be found by measuring its dimensions. For an irregularly shaped solid which sinks in
water, the volume is found by the displacement method. The solid displaces the same volume of water as its
own volume.
KEY TERMS
Aim Density
To measure the density of some liquids and solids.
Meniscus
Precision
Apparatus Significant figures
l Eye protection
l Measuring cylinder KEY EQUATIONS
l Ruler
l Balance (minimum resolution 1 g)
ρ= m
V
l Solid, regularly shaped blocks of different materials (A and B),
Cylinder (C), Ball (D) where ρ = density, m = mass
l Irregularly shaped solid (E), which will fit inside the measuring and V = volume.
cylinder
l Water
volume of a cylinder =
πd 2
length × 4
Method where d = diameter of
cylinder.
Regularly shaped solids
SAFETY GUIDANCE
1 Select blocks A and B, which are made of two different materials.
2 Measure the dimensions of each block and record the values in Eye protection must be
Table 1 in the Observations section. Include the units of each worn.
measurement you make.
TIP
3 Measure and record the mass of each block.
To measure the diameter
4 Select the cylinder C; measure and record its mass and dimensions
of a ball, work in pairs.
in Table 2.
One person places the
5 Select the ball D; measure and record its mass and diameter ball between two smooth
in Table 2. vertical surfaces and
the other measures the
Liquid distance between the
1 Measure the mass of an empty measuring cylinder and record the surfaces with a ruler.
value in Table 3.
2 Pour some water into the measuring cylinder and place it on the balance again.
3 Record the new mass of the measuring cylinder plus water.

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1.2 Density

4 Find the mass of the water. This is the difference between the first and second readings.
5 Measure and record the volume of water in the cylinder.

Irregularly shaped solid TIP

1 Measure and record the mass of object E in Table 4. Your eye must be level with
2 Pour some water into a measuring cylinder and record its volume. the bottom of the meniscus
when reading the volume
3 Place object E in the measuring cylinder so that it is covered with of water in a measuring
water. cylinder.
4 Record the volume of water + E.
5 Find the volume of E. This is the difference between the first and second readings.

Observations TIPS
Complete Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4 using the data from your experiment.
Values should be recorded
to at least two significant
Regularly shaped solids
figures. (see page 10).
Complete the following equations.
Remember to include the
1 Volume of a block = length × ...................................................................... units in the column headings.
2 Volume of a cylinder = length × ..................................................................
To find the volume of the ball D, you will need to use the equation:
4
volume of sphere = πr3
3
where r = radius of the sphere.
Table 1 Finding the density of regularly shaped blocks

Object Length/ Width/ Height/ Volume/ Mass/ Density/

Table 2 Finding the density of a cylinder and a ball

First measurement Second measurement Average

Object Length/ of diameter/ of diameter/ diameter/ Volume/ Mass/ Density/
C

D n/a

Liquid
Table 3 Finding the density of water

Mass of empty Mass of cylinder +

cylinder/ water/ Mass of water/ Volume of water/ Density of water/

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1.2 Density

Irregularly shaped solid

Table 4 Finding the density of an irregularly shaped solid

Mass of E/ Volume of water/ Volume of water + E/ Volume of E/ Density of E/

Conclusions
1 Complete Table 5. Include the units in the column heading for density. The density of the material should
be given to two significant figures.
Use the density data in your textbook to identify possible materials from which A, B, C, D and E are
made.
Table 5

Object Density/ Material

A
B
C
D
E
Water Water

2 Describe how you could determine whether a teaspoon is made of silver or steel.

Evaluation
1 Fill in the missing words in the following sentences.

The dimensions of the blocks A and B were measured with a ruler to a precision of ........................................

The diameters of the cylinder C and ball D were measured with a ruler to a precision of ...............................

The volume of object E was measured in a measuring cylinder to a precision of ...............................................

Mass was measured with a balance to a precision of ..............................................................................................

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1.2 Density

2 Discuss how the precision of your measurements could be improved.

GOING FURTHER
Hang a metal mass on a newton meter and measure its weight in air. Half fill a measuring cylinder with
water and record the volume of water. Lower the mass into the water with it still attached to the newton
meter and take the reading again; make sure that the mass does not touch the sides or bottom of the
measuring cylinder. Record the new water level in the measuring cylinder and calculate the volume and
weight of water displaced by the mass.

(Take the density of water to be 1.0 g/cm3.)

Newton meter reading when mass in air = ................................................................................ N

Newton meter reading when mass submerged in water =................................................. N

Change in reading = ................................................................................ N

Upward force on mass in water = ................................................................................ N

Initial measuring cylinder reading = .............................................................................. cm3

Final measuring cylinder reading = ................................................................................ cm3

Volume of water displaced = ....................................................................... cm3

Weight of displaced water = ........................................................................ N

Compare the value of the upward force on the mass when it is submerged in the water with the weight of
water it displaced and comment on your result.

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1.3 Motion

1.3 Motion
Average speed is defined as the ratio of the total distance travelled to the total time taken. If speed increases,
an object is accelerating.
In experiments to study speed and acceleration you need to measure time and distance over short intervals
of time. You can do this by using a tickertape timer.
The tickertape timer makes dots on a paper tape at specific time intervals. When the tape is attached to a
moving object, the tape provides a convenient method of recording both short time intervals and distance at
the same instant. Tape charts constructed by sticking consecutive tape sections vertically side-by-side show
how the speed changes.

Aims
To measure the speed of a trolley at different points on a slope and to identify when an object is accelerating.

To calculate the acceleration. KEY TERMS SAFETY GUIDANCE

Speed Ensure that the trolley does
Apparatus Velocity not fall from the end of the
l Tickertape timer with power runway, as it could cause
Acceleration
supply injury to legs or feet.
l Tickertape
l Trolley KEY EQUATIONS
l Runway
l Ruler total distance travelled
average speed =
l Glue or sticky tape total time taken

Method acceleration =
change of velocity
;a=
∆ v

Speed time taken for the change ∆ t

1 Familiarise yourself with the use of the

tickertape timer.
TIP
The distance between two ticks on the tape is the distance the trolley
has moved in 1 s and can be measured with a ruler. The tickertape timer
50
2 With the timer switched on, pull a 1 m length of tape through the produces a dot or ‘tick’
timer, first slowly at constant speed and then faster at increasing speed. every 1 s.
50
3 Cut the tape into ten-tick lengths and make a tape chart by arranging
successive strips of tape side by side, so that the bottom of each strip TIP
is on a horizontal line as shown in Figure 1.
Cut the tape on the dots
every 11th dot. This gives ten
ten-ticks tape lengths spaces between each cut.

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6
time /ten-ticks time/ ten-ticks
a b

Figure 1 Tape charts: a constant speed; b increasing speed

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1.3 Motion

Acceleration
1 Set up a sloping runway, tickertape timer and trolley as shown in Figure 2.
2 Attach a length of tape to the trolley and release it at the top of the runway.
3 Ignore the region at the start where the dots are very close together, but beyond them cut the tape into
ten-tick lengths and make a tape chart.

tickertape timer runway trolley

Figure 2

Observations
Speed
1 Mark the region where the tape was pulled quickly. Then mark the region where the tape was
pulled slowly.
2 How can you tell when the tape is being pulled quickly?

3 Find a region of the chart where the speed was constant. Measure the TIP
distance travelled by the trolley at constant speed in one ‘ten-tick’ with
a ruler. Use this to calculate the speed (in cm/s) of the trolley. The time a timer takes to
produce a ‘ten-tick’ equals:
1
10 × s = 1 s.
50 5

Speed of the trolley = ....................................... cm/s

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1.3 Motion

Acceleration
1 For two adjacent strips, measure the distance the trolley moved in ‘ten-ticks’ and calculate the average
speed of the trolley, v1 and v2, in each.

2 Use the two average speeds to calculate the acceleration of the trolley in cm/s2.
(Take the time for the acceleration to be the time for one ‘ten-tick’.)

Conclusions
1 Summarise your results.

2 State the value you calculated for the constant speed at which you pulled the tape.

3 State the values you calculated for the average speed of the trolley on consecutive tapes.

v1 = ................................................................................ v2 = ...................................................................................

4 State the value you obtained for the acceleration of the trolley between two consecutive tapes.

Acceleration = ..................................................................................................................................
5 Is the acceleration of the trolley constant? Justify your answer.

...................................................................................................................................................................................

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1.4 Stretching a spring

Evaluation
1 Describe any sources of error in the experiment.

2 Describe how the experiment could be improved to give more reliable results for measuring speed.

1.4 Stretching a spring

A spring will stretch when a mass is hung from it. Over 300 years ago Robert Hooke discovered that
provided a spring is not permanently stretched, the extension is proportional to the stretching force.
Straight metal wires or elastic bands which are stretched behave in the same way. Springs of different
materials and dimensions will extend by different amounts for a given stretching force.

The amount the spring extends depends on the value of its spring constant which is defined as the force
per unit extension.

Aim KEY TERMS

To plot a load–extension graph for a spring.
Extension
To determine the spring constant of a spring. Load
Weight
Gravitational field strength
Apparatus Gradient
l Eye protection Significant figures
l Retort stand, clamp and clamp rod
l Spring Spring constant
l Hanger with five 100 g masses (or 1 N weights)
l Ruler
l Pointer (a small piece of wire)
KEY EQUATION
l Adhesive/sticky tape
F
Method k=
x
You will investigate the extension produced on a spring by loading it where k is the spring
with different weights. Before you take any measurements, read the constant, F is the stretching
instructions below. Complete Table 1 to identify which variable you will force (load) and x is the
change, which variables you will keep fixed and which variable you extension of the spring.
will measure.

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1.4 Stretching a spring

Table 1
SAFETY GUIDANCE
Independent variable Control variables Dependent variable
(variable you change) (constant/fixed) (variable you measure) l Eye protection must be
worn.
l Take care with masses
and think about where
the hanging masses
would fall if the spring
Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 1. snapped.

rod
in clamp
TIP
Tape the ruler to the bench,
steel
spring or clamp it to the stand,
so that it doesn’t change
position while you are
taking measurements.
10
pointer
TIP
20
Take your reading with your
30
eye directly opposite the
hanger mark on the ruler to reduce
90 parallax errors (see page 6).
mm
scale

TIP
Figure 1
1 Hang the spring on a rod held in a clamp on a stand. Fix the ruler Record readings for the
vertically next to the spring so that it can be used as a scale. lower end of the spring and
then calculate the spring
2 Attach a pointer to the lower end of the spring to help you take extension afterwards.
accurate readings of the position of the lower end of the spring. This will help to avoid
3 Record the scale reading, l0, of the lower end of the unweighted subtraction errors.
spring and repeat your measurement. Record the average position in
the Observations section.
TIP
4 Hang an unweighted (100 g) hanger on the spring and record in
Table 2 the new scale position of the lower end of the spring, as Add each mass slowly
indicated by the pointer. so that the load does not
bounce up and down, and
5 Add a 100 g mass to the hanger and again record in Table 2 the scale do not add more than a
position of the lower end of the spring. total of 500 g.
6 Repeat step 5 with a total of 200 g, 300 g, 400 g and 500 g masses on
the hanger.

Observations
1 Complete the following.
Average scale reading of lower end of unweighted spring: l0 = ............................................................... mm

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1.4 Stretching a spring

2 Complete Table 2. Note that 100 g has a weight of 0.98 N if the gravitational field strength g is taken as 9.8 N/kg.
Use the relation:
extension of spring = scale reading of lower end of spring − l0
Table 2

Mass/g Stretching force/N Scale reading/mm Extension/mm

3 Plot a load–extension graph for this spring. The stretching force should be along the y-axis with the
extension in mm along the x-axis.

TIP
Choose an easy to
read/plot scale for
your graph, mark
points clearly, label
axes correctly
(including units)
and use as much of
the graph paper as
possible.

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1.4 Stretching a spring

4 Draw a line of best fit and calculate the gradient of the graph to an
TIP
appropriate number of significant figures.
Use the triangle method
(see page 13) to determine
the gradient of your graph
from as long a line as
Gradient = ................................................... possible and show your
working.
Conclusions
1 State whether or not the extension is directly proportional to the stretching force on the spring and justify
your statement.

2 a Explain how the spring constant k can be determined from your graph.

..............................................................................................................................................................................................

b State the value of the spring constant, including its units.

..............................................................................................................................................................................................

Evaluation
1 State the precautions you took to improve the accuracy of the experiment.

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1.5 Balancing a ruler

2 Explain how you minimised parallax errors when reading the length of the spring on the ruler.

GOING FURTHER
Predict, with a reason, what results and shape of graph you would expect if you repeated the experiment
using a spring of the same material but made of thinner wire.

If you have time, carry out the experiment to test your prediction.

1.5 Balancing a ruler

The moment of a force is a measure of its turning effect and is given by:
KEY TERMS
moment of a force = force × perpendicular distance from the pivot
Equilibrium
For an object in equilibrium, the principle of moments states that the
Moment
sum of the anticlockwise moments about any point equals the sum of the
clockwise moments about the same point. Principle of moments
Weight
An object is in equilibrium when the principle of moments applies and
there is no resultant force on the object.
KEY EQUATION

Aim moment of a force = F × d

To measure the moment of a force about a pivot and to show that there is where F is the turning
no resultant moment on a body in equilibrium. force acting on a body
and d is the perpendicular
distance of the line of
Apparatus action of the force from the
l Retort stand and clamp pivot.
l Half-metre ruler with a central drilled hole
l Long nail
l Three hangers with sets of 10 g and 20 g masses
l Balance
l Blu-tack or adhesive/mounting putty
l String or rubber band

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1.5 Balancing a ruler

Method SAFETY GUIDANCE

In this experiment you will balance a ruler by hanging masses at
Take care not to allow
different distances from the pivot and calculate the moment of the
masses to fall off the ruler
forces about the pivot when the ruler is in equilibrium. Set up the
and hit the bench or floor.
apparatus as shown in Figure 1, with the pivot (nail) supported
horizontally in a retort stand.

d1 d2

pivot (nail through TIP

m1 hole in ruler) m2
Make sure the ruler can
swing freely about the pivot.
Figure 1

1 Balance the half-metre ruler at its centre, adding blu-tack to one side
or the other until it is as near to being balanced as possible.
2 Hang a 30 g mass (m1) from the ruler at a distance (d1) of 20.0 cm
from the pivot. TIP
Use a loop of string (or a
rubber band) to hang the
mass hanger on the ruler.
The string loop shown in
Figure 2 allows the lower
part to be pulled tight to hold
the mass, and the upper part
to slip over the ruler.
Figure 2

3 Continue to support the ruler horizontally and hang a 40 g mass

(m2) on the opposite side of the pivot. Allow the ruler to swing TIP
slightly and adjust the position of the 40 g mass so that the ruler is as
Support the ruler in a
balanced as possible. Record the positions of m1 and m2 on the ruler
horizontal position when
in Table 1. Work out the distance d1 (distance of m1 from the pivot)
the mass is being attached.
and d2 (the distance of m2 from the pivot) later.
After recording the position
4 Move m1 5.0 cm nearer to the pivot and adjust the position of m2 until of a mass, use a small
the ruler is again balanced; record the new positions of the masses. amount of blu-tack or tape
to help hold the string or
5 Repeat step 4.
hanger in place.
6 Change the masses m1 and m2 to 50 g and 60 g and repeat steps 2 to 5.

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1.5 Balancing a ruler

7 Select masses of 30 g, 40 g and 50 g (M1, M2 and M3) and balance TIP
the ruler with two masses (at different positions) on one side of
Note that for a reading
the pivot and one mass on the opposite side; record the position
of 40 cm on the ruler, the
of each of the masses in Table 2.
distance d2 = (40 − 25) cm
= 15 cm since the ruler
is balanced at the 25 cm
Observations position.
Complete the following tables. Note that 10 g has a weight of 0.1 N if g is taken as 10 N/kg.
Table 1

Position Position Resultant

on ruler/ F1 × d1/ on ruler/ F2 × d 2 / moment/
m1/g F1/N cm d1/cm N cm m2/g F2/N cm d2/cm N cm N cm

Table 2

Position on F × d/ Anticlockwise Clockwise

Mass/g F/N ruler/cm d/cm N cm moment/N cm moment/N cm
M1

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1.5 Balancing a ruler

Conclusions
1 When the ruler is balanced, what do your results suggest about the values of the anticlockwise and
clockwise moments?

2 When the ruler is balanced, what do your results suggest about the resultant moment on the ruler?

Evaluation
1 Explain the reason for making sure the ruler was balanced when there were no masses hanging on it.

2 Describe any sources of error in the experiment.

GOING FURTHER
Describe how you could use the apparatus to obtain the mass of an unknown object, such as an apple.

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1.6 Centre of gravity

An object behaves as if its whole mass were concentrated at one point, called its centre of gravity; the weight
of the object can be considered to act at its centre of gravity. When an object is suspended from a point, its
centre of gravity will be vertically below the point of suspension. A plumb line (weight attached to a piece of
thread) is a useful way of showing the line of the vertical direction.
The position of the centre of gravity of an object affects its stability and how easy it will be to topple.

Aim
To find the centre of gravity of irregularly and regularly shaped plane lamina.
KEY TERM

Apparatus Centre of gravity

l Retort stand and clamp
l Nail SAFETY GUIDANCE
l Regularly and irregularly shaped cardboard sheets (plane lamina)
l Small weight attached to a piece of thread This practical presents
l Ruler minimal risk.
l Hole punch

Method
In this practical you will suspend a plane lamina (thin sheet) from different points and determine the
vertical line on which the centre of gravity lies.
Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 1.

A
hole nail clamped
in stand

C
lamina

centre of gravity

D
B

plumb line

Figure 1

1 Use a hole punch to make a hole (A) in the irregularly shaped piece
TIP
of cardboard and suspend it from a nail clamped in the retort stand.
Ensure that the cardboard
2 With the shape at rest, suspend a plumb line from the nail and mark
shape can swing freely.
its position on the cardboard at three or four points. Remove the
cardboard from the nail and draw the line AB by joining the points
with a ruler.
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1.6 Centre of gravity

3 Make a second hole (C) in the cardboard and repeat step 2 with the shape now suspended from C.
Draw the line CD.
4 Make a third hole (E) in the cardboard and check that when the shape is suspended from E, the plumb
line passes through the intersection of the lines AB and CD.
5 Repeat steps 1 to 4 with a regularly shaped piece of cardboard.

Observations
Mark and label the position of the centre of gravity on each of the cardboard shapes.
Try balancing each shape on the tip of your first finger.

Conclusions
1 State where you had to place each shape to make it balance on the tip of your finger.

2 The centre of gravity of a regularly shaped object that has the same density throughout is at its centre.
Locate and mark the centre of gravity in the following laminae.
a rectangle

b circle

c equilateral triangle

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1.6 Centre of gravity

Evaluation
1 You may have noticed that the three lines you drew on your laminae did not intersect exactly at a point.
State some possible sources of error in the experiment.

2 Suggest further precautions you could take to locate the centre of gravity more precisely.

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1.7 Pressure

1.7 Pressure
Pressure is defined as force per unit area. The greater the force and the smaller the area over which the force
acts, the greater the pressure exerted. This property is widely used in hydraulic machines where a small force
transfers pressure through a liquid to lift a heavy load. In this experiment you will discover how the pressure
exerted on a solid object changes when the force applied is spread over areas of larger and smaller size.

Aim KEY TERMS

To calculate the pressure you exert on the ground.
Pressure
Accuracy
Apparatus Gravitational field strength
l Bathroom scales
KEY EQUATION Significant figures
l Graph paper

Pressure is given by:

p = F/A SAFETY GUIDANCE
Method
where F is the force acting This practical presents
1 Stand on some bathroom scales on area A. minimal risk.
and record your mass in kg.
2 Stand on a piece of graph paper and draw around the outline of
one foot.
TIP

3 Count the number of squares on the graph paper inside the outline If you do not wish to measure
of your foot. Use this to estimate the contact area this foot has with your own body mass, use a
the ground. value such as 55 kg.

Observations TIPS
Mass of person = .......................... kg
Remember that the area
Assuming the gravitational field strength, g, is equal to 10 N/kg, of a 1 cm × 1 cm square is
calculate the force you exert on the ground: 1 cm2.

F = .................................. N The outline of your foot may

not always cover a square
Number of squares covered by one foot = .................................................... completely, so use the
following rule: if half or more
Area of one foot = .................................................... cm2
of a square is covered by
Convert the area from cm2 to m2: your foot, include the square
in your count; if less than half
of a square is covered, do not
Area of one foot in m2 = ...................................................... count the square.

Calculate the pressure on the ground, p1, when you stand on one foot:

p1 = ................................................. N/m2 p1 = .................................................. Pa

State the contact area your two feet have with the ground: .................................................... m2

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1.7 Pressure

Calculate the pressure on the ground, p2, when you stand on two feet:

p2 = ................................................. N/m2

p2 = .................................................. Pa

Conclusions
Summarise your results for standing on one foot and standing on two feet.

Evaluation
1 Outline how the precision of the experiment to measure the pressure exerted when you stand on both feet
could be improved.

2 Justify the number of significant figures given in your answers.

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1.7 Pressure

GOING FURTHER
A simple barometer that measures atmospheric pressure is shown in Figure 1. The pressure at X due to
the column of mercury XY equals the atmospheric pressure on the surface of the mercury in the bowl.
There is a vacuum at Y. At a depth Δh below the surface of a liquid, the change in pressure is given by
Δp = ρg Δh
where ρ is the density of the liquid and g is the strength of the Earth’s gravitational field.
The height XY measures the atmospheric pressure in mm of mercury (mm Hg).

Y
mercury

760 mm

atmospheric
pressure

Figure 1 Mercury barometer

Explain whether the reading on the barometer would change if the tube was narrower or tilted.

1 Narrower

...................................................................................................................................................................................................

2 Tilted

...................................................................................................................................................................................................

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2 Thermal physics
2.1 Specific heat capacity KEY TERMS
The specific heat capacity of a material is defined as the energy Energy transfer
required per unit mass per unit temperature increase. Different Temperature
materials have different values of specific heat capacity. Materials Significant figures
with a high value require transfer of more energy to raise their
temperature by the same amount than those with a low value if the KEY EQUATIONS
mass of each material is the same. For example, different cooking
pots will heat up (or cool down) more quickly, due to their different The specific heat capacity
specific heat capacities. of a material, c, is given by:
ΔE
c = m Δθ
Aim where ∆E is the energy
To measure the specific heat capacity of a liquid and a solid. required to raise the
temperature of a mass, m,
Apparatus of the material by an
l Eye protection amount ∆θ.
l Thermometer Power is given by energy
l Electric immersion heater (12 V, 50 W) transferred per unit time:
l 12 V power supply and connecting leads ΔE
l Metal calorimeter or large metal pan
P= t
l Solid metal (aluminium) cylinder (with one central hole and one where ∆E is the energy
other hole) transferred in time t by a
l Heat-proof mat device of power P.
l Oil
l Water SAFETY GUIDANCE
l Balance
l Eye protection must be
l Timer
worn.
l Warning! When using
Method electric hot liquids and solids,
immersion
heater ensure that you set them
electric 12 V supply
thermometer thermometer in a safe position where
immersion
heater they will not be knocked
12 V supply over accidentally. Handle
them with caution to
avoid burns.
l Do not completely
aluminium
block immerse the heater in
water
aluminium water; the connecting
pan cables must be above
the water at all times.
l Do not switch on the
heater when it is not in
Figure 1
the water.

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2.1 Specific heat capacity

Liquid
1 Place an empty calorimeter on the balance and add 1.0 kg water.
TIP
2 Set the calorimeter on the heat-proof mat.
After switching off the
3 Record the temperature of the water, θ1, in Table 1.
heater, make sure the
4 Insert the immersion heater into the water. temperature has stopped
5 Switch on the heater and start timing. rising before you record its
value.
6 Stir the water and after 5 minutes switch off the heater; record
the heating time.
7 Continue stirring the water and note the highest temperature TIP
reached, θ2. Check the power with your
8 Record the power of the immersion heater. teacher if it is not marked
on the immersion heater.
Solid
1 Find the mass of the metal cylinder, in kg. Record this in the TIP
Observations section.
A little oil poured into the
2 Set the cylinder on a heat-proof mat. Place the immersion heater
holes will improve thermal
in the central hole of the cylinder and the thermometer in the
contact of the heater and
other hole.
thermometer with the
3 Record the temperature, θ1, of the cylinder in Table 2. cylinder.
4 Switch on the immersion heater and start timing.
5 After 5 minutes turn off the heater; record the heating time. Do not touch the metal block until it has
cooled down.
6 When the temperature stops rising, record the highest temperature, θ2, reached by the thermometer.
7 Record the power of the immersion heater.

Observations
Liquid
1 Power of heater, P = ............................................................. W

Mass of water, m = ............................................................... kg

Table 1
Highest Change in
Initial temperature temperature temperature Heating time Energy supplied
θ1/°C θ2/°C ∆θ/°C t/s ∆E = Pt/J

2 Calculate the specific heat capacity of water (to two significant figures) using the equation:
ΔE
c =
m Δθ

Specific heat capacity of water = .......................................................... J/(kg °C)

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2.1 Specific heat capacity

Solid
1 Power of heater, P = ......................................................................... W

Mass of metal cylinder, M = .......................................................... kg

Table 2
Highest Change in
Initial temperature temperature temperature Heating time Energy supplied
θ1/°C θ2 /°C ∆θ/°C t/s ∆E = Pt/J

2 Calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal cylinder (to two significant figures).

Specific heat capacity of metal cylinder = ...................................................... J/(kg °C)

Conclusions
Summarise your results for the specific heat capacities of the liquid and solid.

Evaluation
1 Describe and give reasons for the precautions you took to ensure that the temperature rise of the
water or metal block were measured accurately.

..................................................................................................................................................................................................

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2.1 Specific heat capacity

2 Compare your results with the expected values for the specific heat capacity of water and aluminium.
These can be found from an internet or library search. Do your results agree with the published data?
If not, suggest reasons why your experiments produced different values.
....................................................................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................................................................

3 If you were to repeat the experiments, describe the improvements you would make to reduce sources of
error.
....................................................................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................................................................

GOING FURTHER
1 Aluminium has a higher specific heat capacity than copper. If two identical cylinders of copper
and aluminium are heated to the same temperature and then allowed to cool, which would you
expect to cool fastest, and why?
...........................................................................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................................................................

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2.2 Cooling curves

2 Suggest, in terms of its specific heat capacity, why water is used in the radiators of central heating
systems.
...........................................................................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................................................................

2.2 Cooling curves

When an object cools, energy is transferred to the environment. When the object has cooled to the same
temperature as its environment, equilibrium is reached and there is no net transfer of energy between the
object and its environment. The rate at which energy is transferred from the object depends on a number
of factors including its temperature, surface area, volume and the environmental conditions. You will
investigate the dependence of the rate of cooling on some of these factors in this experiment.

Aim KEY TERM

To investigate factors that affect the rate of cooling from the surface of a Equilibrium
liquid.

SAFETY GUIDANCE
Apparatus
l Eye protection must be
l Eye protection
l Two beakers of different diameters (250 cm3 and 500 cm3)
worn.
l Warning! Set hot liquids
l Insulating material (and rubber bands)
l Timer
and solids in a safe
l Electronic balance
position where they will
l Hot water (80°C to 90°C)
not be knocked over
l Measuring cylinder (100 cm3 or 250 cm3)
accidentally. Handle
l Thermometer (−10°C to 110°C)
them with caution to
avoid burns.

Method TIP
1 Wrap the insulating material around the sides of the beakers. Hold the insulation in place
2 Pour 200 cm of hot water into a measuring cylinder and then
3 with rubber bands.
transfer the water quickly to the 250 cm3 beaker. Start the timer
immediately. TIPS
3 Record the temperature of the water in the beaker every Warm the measuring
30 seconds for 10 minutes. cylinder and beaker with
4 Repeat steps 2 and 3 with 200 cm3 of hot water in the 500 cm3 beaker. hot water before starting
the experiment.
Keep the beaker away from
draughts during cooling.

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2.2 Cooling curves

Observations
Complete Table 1.
Table 1

Time/s θ1/°C (small beaker) θ1/°C (large beaker) Time/s θ1/°C (small beaker) θ1/°C (large beaker)

Plot graphs of temperature on the y-axis against time on the x-axis for both sets of cooling results.

TIPS
Choose an easy
to read/plot scale
for your graphs,
mark points clearly,
label axes correctly
(including units)
and use as much of
the graph paper as
possible.
Draw the best
smooth curve
through your data
points.

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2.2 Cooling curves

Conclusions
Use your graphs to answer the following questions.
1 Determine the beaker that allows the water to cool most quickly. Justify your answer by reference to your
results.

2 State whether the water cooled more quickly at higher or lower temperatures. Give reasons for your
answer.

....................................................................................................................................................................................................

Evaluation
1 Suggest a reason why the measuring cylinder and beakers were both warmed with hot water before
starting the experiment.

....................................................................................................................................................................................................

2 Explain why the beakers were kept away from draughts in the experiment.

....................................................................................................................................................................................................

3 What factors do your results suggest may influence the rate of cooling of the water in the beakers?

....................................................................................................................................................................................................

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2.2 Cooling curves

4 State the variables you tried to control in the experiment.

....................................................................................................................................................................................................

5 Can you suggest an improvement to the experimental method?

....................................................................................................................................................................................................

GOING FURTHER
1 Calculate the ratio of the surface area (A) to the volume (V) for a sphere of radius r.

2 It is suggested that the rate of cooling of an object increases as the ratio A/V increases.
If this is true, would you expect a sphere of large radius to cool faster or slower than a sphere of
the same material but of smaller radius? Give a reason for your answer.
Assume the spheres start cooling at the same temperature and exist in the same environment.

............................................................................................................................................................................................

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2.3 Conduction and radiation

Thermal energy can be transferred in different ways. For conduction, matter must be present (a solid, liquid
or gas). Some materials such as metals are good thermal conductors and the transfer of energy occurs
quickly. Insulators such as wood are poor thermal conductors and transfer of energy occurs only very slowly.
For radiation, there is no need for matter to be present. All objects emit infrared radiation. Some colours and
surfaces are better emitters of infrared radiation than others so they cool down more quickly.

Aim KEY TERMS

To demonstrate the properties of good thermal conductors and good
Conductor
emitters of infrared radiation.
Insulator
Infrared radiation
Apparatus Emitter
l Eye protection
l Selection of rods of different materials with the same dimensions SAFETY GUIDANCE
l Candle and matches
l Bunsen burner l Eye protection must be
l Tripod worn.
l Timer l Warning! Set hot liquids
l Two identical thermometers (one with bulb painted dull black) and solids in a safe
l Beaker of hot water position where they will
l Two retort stands with clamps not be knocked over
l Card accidentally. Handle
them with caution to
Method avoid burns.
l Take care when handling

Conduction the hot candle wax.

wax

iron rod copper rod

aluminium rod

brass rod

tripod
Bunsen burner

Figure 1

1 Melt a small blob of candle wax onto one end of each rod.
TIP
2 Rest the rods on a tripod and arrange them in a fan shape such that
the unwaxed ends of each rod are close together and the waxed ends Apply the same small
are separated. Place a card under the waxed ends to catch the drips amount of wax to each rod.
of wax!
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2.3 Conduction and radiation

3 Start the timer and heat the unwaxed end of the rods evenly and
TIP
gently with a Bunsen burner.
4 Record the time at which the wax starts to drip from each of the rods. Try to apply the same
amount of heating to the
Radiation end of each rod.

1 Select one thermometer with an unpainted bulb and one with a bulb
painted black. TIP
2 Record the room temperature. Work in pairs with each
student recording the
3 Place the thermometers in a beaker of hot water and wait until they
temperature of one of the
reach the same steady temperature; record this temperature.
thermometers.
4 Remove the thermometers from the water at the same moment and
start the timer.
TIP
5 Clamp each thermometer in a retort stand.
Place the thermometers
6 Record the temperature of each thermometer every 30 seconds for
at least 20 cm away from
10 minutes.
each other and from the hot
7 Plot a graph to show how the temperature reading on each water, and also away from
thermometer varied with time. any draughts.

Observations
Conduction
1 How is thermal energy transferred along the metal rods?

2 Complete Table 1, including any units in the column headings.

Table 1

Material Time taken by wax to melt/

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2.3 Conduction and radiation

Radiation
1 Measure the room temperature and note it below. Complete Table 2.

Room temperature = ......................................................°C

Table 2
Temperature of Temperature of Temperature of Temperature of
thermometer with thermometer with thermometer with thermometer with
Time/s black bulb/°C shiny bulb/°C Time/s black bulb/°C shiny bulb/°C

2 Plot a graph of temperature on the y-axis and time on the x-axis for each thermometer.

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2.3 Conduction and radiation

Conclusions
1 a How can you tell which material is the best thermal conductor?

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

b List the materials in order of conductivity from best to worst.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

2 a Which thermometer cools down the fastest?

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

b Complete the following sentence.

A dull black surface emits infrared radiation ............................................................................ a shiny surface.

Evaluation
Conduction
1 State the variables which were controlled.

2 Suggest sources of error in the conduction experiment.

Radiation
1 Explain why the two thermometers should have the same temperature when removed from the hot water.

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2.3 Conduction and radiation

2 Why should the thermometers be shielded from a draught?

3 State the variables which were controlled.

4 Suggest sources of error in the radiation experiment.

GOING FURTHER
Discuss whether radiators in a central heating system should be painted black or white.

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3 Waves
3.1 Ripple tank experiments
(Teacher demonstration)
A ripple tank can be used to study the reflection, refraction and diffraction of waves.
It consists of a transparent tray containing water to a depth of about 5 mm. A light source casts shadows of
the water waves onto a white screen.
Looking through a stroboscope – a disc with a number of equally spaced slits in it – makes it easier to study
the wave motion. When the disc rotates at a speed such that each time a view of the screen is obtained the
waves have advanced one wavelength, the waves appear to be ‘frozen’ or stationary.

Aim KEY TERMS

To study the general properties of waves using a ripple tank.
Reflection
Refraction
Apparatus Diffraction
l Ripple tank and accessories (including vibration generator (motor) Wavelength
and power supply) Wavefront
l Large sheet of white paper Crest
l Hand stroboscope
l Metre ruler
l Straight metal strips
l Rectangular glass plate SAFETY GUIDANCE
l People with epilepsy can
Method be affected adversely
Although your teacher may set up the demonstration, you should still by stroboscopic
read through the method to ensure you understand what is happening. lighting. Before using a
You will be asked to make sketches of the wavefronts on the white paper stroboscope, check that
viewed through a stroboscope and answer questions about them. no one in the class is
likely to be affected.
Ripples are produced by dipping an object into the water repeatedly.
l Mop up any spilled water
If a straight bar is attached to an electric motor, as shown in Figure 1,
immediately to prevent
continuous ripples are generated. Circular ripples are generated if the
slips and falls.
bar is replaced by a small ball.

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3.1 Ripple tank experiments (Teacher demonstration)

light source

ripple
generator
bar touching water
(motor)
for straight ripples

water
(5 mm hand stroboscope
deep) (below tank)

screen

Figure 1

Reflection
1 Generate some continuous straight waves in the ripple tank.
2 Place a straight metal strip in the tank at an angle of about 60° to the wavefronts and observe the
reflection of the waves.
3 Adjust the speed of rotation of the stroboscope until the water waves appear to be stationary (frozen).
4 Make a sketch of the shadows obtained on the screen; the wavefronts are represented by the straight lines
and can be regarded as the crests of waves.
5 On your sketch mark the change of direction of the wavefronts when they are reflected from the metal
strip.

Refraction
1 Place a rectangular glass plate in the ripple tank; align it so that a straight edge is about 45° to the
wavefronts. The plate should be of a thickness such that the depth of water above it is about 1 mm; the
water depth is around 5 mm elsewhere in the tank.
2 Generate some continuous straight waves.
3 Adjust the speed of rotation of the stroboscope until the water waves TIP
appear to be stationary (frozen). Mark the distance occupied
4 Make a sketch of the shadows obtained on the screen; the distance by multiple (N) wave crests
between the straight lines corresponds to the wavelength (the and calculate an average
distance between wave crests) of the wave. wavelength by dividing the
distance by (N − 1).
5 Estimate the wavelength of the waves in the deep and shallow regions.

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3.1 Ripple tank experiments (Teacher demonstration)

Diffraction
1 Place an obstacle in the ripple tank. The obstacle should have a gap in it of about the same width as the
wavelength of the water waves (Figure 2).
direction of travel

Figure 2

2 Make a sketch of the shadows obtained on the screen when continuous straight waves are incident
on the gap.
3 Replace the obstacle with one having a much wider gap. Make a sketch of the image obtained on the
screen when continuous straight waves are incident on the gap.

Observations
Reflection
In the space below, sketch the wavefronts incident on and reflected from the metal strip.

Refraction
In the space below, sketch the wavefronts passing over different depths of water.

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3.1 Ripple tank experiments (Teacher demonstration)

Approximate value of:

Wavelength of waves in deep water = .....................................................................................................................

Wavelength of waves in shallow water = ................................................................................................................

Diffraction
In the space below, sketch the wavefronts passing through the narrow gap.

Sketch the wavefronts passing through the wide gap.

Conclusions
1 State what happens to the water waves when they reach the metal strip.

2 State whether the wavelength is shorter or longer in the shallow water.

3 State whether the water waves travel faster or slower in shallow water.

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3.1 Ripple tank experiments (Teacher demonstration)

4 Describe what happens to the direction of travel of the waves as they enter shallow water.

5 Describe what happens to the waves when they pass through a narrow gap.

6 Describe any differences you notice in the image of the waves passing through a wide gap compared
to the image produced when the waves pass through a narrow gap.

....................................................................................................................................................................................................

Evaluation
1 Explain the advantage of using a stroboscope to estimate the wavelength of the waves.

2 Suggest one way in which the experiment could be improved.

GOING FURTHER
When an earthquake occurs under the sea floor, the energy released can be transmitted to the surrounding
water causing a tsunami. In water of constant depth, this spreads out as a circular wave. A tsunami wave
can travel for very long distances across the ocean. Scientists can predict the time of arrival of a tsunami in
different parts of the world if the distance from the epicentre of the earthquake and the speed of travel of the
wave are known. The speed of travel varies with the depth of water across which the wave travels.

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3.2 Reflection in a plane mirror

1 Estimate the average speed of the tsunami that took about two hours to travel from Indonesia to
Sri Lanka, a distance of 1460 km, after the 2004 Sumatra–Andaman earthquake.

2 The tsunami took about the same time (two hours) to travel from Indonesia to Thailand, a much
shorter distance than to Sri Lanka. What does this suggest about the depth of water between
Indonesia and Thailand compared to the depth of water between Indonesia and Sri Lanka?

...................................................................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................................................................

3.2 Reflection in a plane mirror

When a light ray reflects from a surface, the angle of incidence is the angle between the incident ray and the
normal to the surface. The angle of reflection is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal to the
reflecting surface. The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
The image formed by an object in a plane mirror is always virtual, meaning that it cannot be formed on a
screen. You will learn more about the location and characteristics of the image in this practical work.

Aim KEY TERMS

To verify the law of reflection and identify the properties of an image in a
plane mirror. Angle of incidence
Angle of reflection
Apparatus Image
Normal
l Lamp
l Single slit Ray
l Plane mirror
l Optics pins
l Protractor
l Blu-tack or adhesive/mounting putty
l 30 cm ruler
l Cork mat

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3.2 Reflection in a plane mirror

Method KEY EQUATION

Investigating the law of reflection Law of reflection:

1 On Figure 2, use a protractor to draw in lines from O at 15°, 30°, 45°, i=r
60° and 75° to the normal ON (as indicated in Figure 1). where i is the angle
2 Place a plane mirror vertically on the line AOB; blu-tack may be between the incident ray
helpful to hold it in position. and the normal to the
3 Align the lamp and single slit so that a beam of light is incident on reflecting surface (the angle
the mirror along the 15° line; use a ruler to mark the position of the of incidence) and r is the
reflected ray. angle between the reflected
ray and the normal to the
4 Repeat step 3 for the other angles of incidence.
reflecting surface (the angle
5 Remove the mirror and measure the angle of reflection for each ray. of reflection).
6 Record your results in Table 1.
SAFETY GUIDANCE
Take care when using the
shield lamp, it can get very hot.

TIP
The reflecting surface of
the mirror must lie exactly
on line AOB.

lamp
and stand

60° 75°
45° A
30°
single
slit 15°

sheet
of paper

plane
mirror

Figure 1 Experimental apparatus used to investigate the law of reflection, i = r

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3.2 Reflection in a plane mirror

Locating the position of the image in a mirror

1 Replace the mirror on line AOB. TIP

2 Mark a point about 3 cm from the mirror on the 30° incidence line; A cork mat placed under
set a pin vertically on this point, PO. the paper will help to hold
the pin in place.
3 Locate the image of the pin in the mirror by looking along the 30°
reflection line; mark the apparent position, PI, of the image behind
the mirror with a second pin. When you move your head up and TIP
down, the image of the first pin and the top of the second pin behind
Have your eyes at table level
the mirror should coincide; when you move your head parallel to the
when you are locating PI.
mirror they will remain coincident if you have located the position of
the image PI correctly.
4 Measure and record the perpendicular distances of PO and PI from the
line AOB.

Observations
Investigating the law of reflection

A O B

Figure 2

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3.2 Reflection in a plane mirror

Record your measurements in Table 1.

Table 1
Angle of incidence, i/° Angle of reflection, r/°

Locating the position of the image in a mirror

Along a line joining PO and PI:
The perpendicular distance of PO from mirror = ................................................................................................

The perpendicular distance of PI from mirror = .................................................................................................

Conclusions
1 State the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection. Use data from your
experiment to justify your answer.

2 Describe where the image in a plane mirror is formed. Use data from your experiment to support
your answer.

3 State the characteristics of the image formed in a plane mirror.

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3.2 Reflection in a plane mirror

Evaluation
1 Explain why it is important to align the reflecting surface of the mirror exactly along line AOB.

2 State the precision of measurements taken with a protractor.

3 Suggest some sources of error when measuring the angles of incidence and reflection.

4 Suggest some sources of error when locating the position of the image in the mirror.

GOING FURTHER
1 Suggest what is meant by lateral inversion.

...................................................................................................................................................................................................

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3.3 Refraction of light

2 How could you test whether the image in a plane mirror is laterally inverted?

..........................................................................................................................................................................................

3.3 Refraction of light

When light passes from air into a different medium (such as glass or water) at an angle of incidence greater
than zero, it is bent or refracted at the boundary between the two media. If the speed of light is less in the
second medium than in air, light is refracted towards the normal to the surface. On emerging from the
second medium and returning to air, refracted light is bent away from the normal.

The refractive index of a transparent material gives a measure of the amount of refraction that occurs, in
terms of the sines of the angle of incidence and angle of refraction at the boundary.

Aim
To observe the path of light rays passing through a glass block and
measure the angle of refraction for different angles of incidence. KEY TERMS

To use these measurements to determine the refractive index of glass. Angle of incidence
Angle of refraction
Normal
KEY EQUATION
Refractive index
The refractive index, n, of a medium is given by:
sin i
n=
sin r
where i is the angle between the incident ray in
air and the normal, and r is the angle between the
refracted ray and the normal in the medium.

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3.3 Refraction of light

Apparatus
l Lamp
l Single slit
l Glass block with lower surface painted white
l Protractor
l 30 cm ruler
l Calculator

Method
You will investigate the refraction of light in a rectangular glass block. Before you take any measurements,
read the instructions below. Complete Table 1 to identify which variable you will change, which variables you
will keep fixed and which variable you will measure.
Table 1

Independent variable Control variables Dependent variable

(variable you change) (constant/fixed) (variable you measure)

1 Place the glass block with the white painted surface on Figure 1 overleaf, with its long side along line
AOB. Draw the outline of your block onto Figure 1 as it will not be exactly the same size as the rectangle
in Figure 1.
2 Align the lamp and single slit so that a beam of light is incident on
SAFETY GUIDANCE
the block at O at an angle of incidence of about 30°. The ray of light
will be refracted at the edge of the block, travel through the block Take care when using the
and be refracted again when it leaves the block. lamp, it can get very hot.
Draw two crosses along the path of the ray entering the block and
two crosses on the ray emerging from the block. Mark the crosses
as far apart as possible.
3 Take the block off the paper and use a ruler to join the two crosses
TIP
for the incident ray, and the two crosses for the emergent ray; extend
these lines back to the block. Connect the two lines to draw the path Use a sharp pencil to draw
of the light refracted through the block. ray paths.
Mark the normal to the block at point O.
Mark the normal to the block for the emergent ray.
Measure the exact angle of each ray to the normal with a protractor.
TIP
Record your results in Table 2.
4 Place the block back on the outline and repeat steps 2 and 3 with an Ensure the glass block
angle of incidence of about 60° and 0°. remains exactly aligned on
line AOB.
5 Move the lamp, slit and glass block to Figure 2. Place the glass block
with its short side along the line AOC and draw the outline of your
block on the paper.
6 Repeat steps 2 to 4, recording your results in Table 3.

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3.3 Refraction of light

Observations

glass block

A O B

light beam

Figure 1

State the angle in degrees between the normal and the surface (AOB) of the glass block.

Table 2 Light beam incident on AB

Angle of incidence, i/° Angle of refraction, r/° Angle of emergent ray, θ/°

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3.3 Refraction of light

glass block

A O C

light beam

Figure 2

Table 3 Light beam incident on AC

Angle of incidence, i/° Angle of refraction, r/° Angle of emergent ray, θ/°

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3.3 Refraction of light

Using your results for angles of incidence of 30° and 60°, complete Table 4 and calculate values for the
refractive index of the glass block using the equation:
sin i
n=
sin r
Table 4

Angle of incidence, Angle of refraction, sin i

n=
i/° r/° sin i sin r sin r

Calculate an average value for the refractive index of glass.

Conclusions

1 The average value for the refractive index of the glass block is .......................................................

2 State the angles of incidence for which the light was refracted.

3 What do you notice about the directions of the light rays entering and emerging from the block? Use data
from Table 2 or Table 3 to support your answer.

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3.4 Images formed by a converging lens

4 Complete the following sentences about the path of light rays travelling through the glass block using the
words below.
angle of incidence away from equals parallel straight through towards
a A light ray is refracted ................................................ the normal when it enters the glass block. A light ray

is refracted ........................................... the normal when it leaves the block.

b A ray incident normally on a glass block is not refracted but passes ..................................................... the block.

c When a light ray undergoes refraction in a glass block it emerges .................................................... to the

incident ray. The angle of emergence .......................................... the ....................................................................

Evaluation
Explain why it is difficult to obtain an accurate measurement of the angles of the rays and suggest
improvements you could make to remove these difficulties.

GOING FURTHER
The speed of light in air changes when the density of the air changes.
Explain why the Sun is visible at sunset for about two minutes after it has sunk below the horizon.
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................

3.4 Images formed by a converging lens

Lenses are used in many optical instruments from cameras and telescopes to magnifying glasses and
spectacles. It is necessary to know the focal length of a lens for any particular application. In this practical
you will use the fact that rays from a distant object are nearly parallel to find the focal length of a converging
lens. The image formed by a converging lens can be real or virtual depending on the position of the object
relative to the principal focus of the lens. The size of the image (unchanged, enlarged or diminished) and
whether it is upright or inverted also depend on the position of the object relative to the lens.

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3.4 Images formed by a converging lens

Aim KEY TERMS

To determine the focal length of a converging lens and investigate the
Focal length
images formed by a converging lens.
Converging lens
Principal focus (focal point)
Apparatus Real image
l Small torch and stand Virtual image
l Converging lens
l White card
l Paper SAFETY GUIDANCE
l Metre ruler
Warning! To avoid eye
l Blu-tack or adhesive/mounting putty
damage never look directly
l Thin (translucent) paper
at the Sun or any intense
light source.
Method
You will find the position and characteristics of the image formed by a converging lens when the position of
the object relative to the lens is varied. First you need to find the focal length of the lens.

Focal length of a lens

1 Hold the lens up in the direction of a window and form a sharp (focused) image of a distant object on the
wall or a piece of card.
2 Measure and record in the Observations section the distance between the lens and the card.
3 Repeat steps 1 and 2 and obtain an average value for the distance between the lens and the focused image.
Since the light rays from a very distant object are nearly parallel, the distance of the image from the lens is
equal to the focal length, f, of the lens.

Characteristics of the image for different positions of the object

card

converging lens
torch

2F F F 2F

blu-tack

Figure 1 (not to scale)

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3.4 Images formed by a converging lens

1 Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 1. Use some blu-tack to

TIP
hold the lens vertically upright at the 50 cm mark of a metre ruler
resting horizontally on the bench. Draw an arrow on a small piece of Set the torch so that the
thin paper and attach this paper to the front of the torch to act as an light from it strikes the
object. centre of the lens.
2 Use a little blu-tack to mark the position on the ruler of the principal
focus, F, on each side of the lens. (The point F is a distance f from TIPS
the centre of the lens; use the focal length you found in the first part
Rotate the torch so that the
of the investigation.) Also mark the 2F position each side of the lens
arrow is upwards to allow
(which is 2 × f from the centre of the lens).
you to identify the top of the
3 Set the torch beyond the 2F position facing the centre of the lens. image easily.
4 Measure and record in Table 1 the distance of the object from Mark the top and bottom of
the lens. the image on the card to aid
5 Place the card on the opposite side of the lens to the object and the height measurement.
move the card until you locate a sharp (focused) image of the object
on the card.
6 Measure and record the distance of the image from the lens.
7 Measure and record the height of the image and whether it is inverted or not.
8 Move the torch nearer to the lens, first to 2F, then to between 2F and F, and repeat steps 4 to 7 for each
position.
9 Move the torch to a position between F and the lens; it will not be possible to form an image on the card.
Reduce the brightness of the torch (by placing a thin piece of paper in front of it) and look back through
the lens towards the torch. Estimate and record the distance of the image from the lens and its height;
record whether the image is upright or inverted.
10 Record the height of the object.
11 Using the equation
height of image
magnification of an image =
height of object
find and record the magnification of the image.

Observations
Focal length of a lens
Image distance 1 = .......................................................

Image distance 2 = ......................................................

Average image distance = ......................................................

Focal length, f, of lens = .........................................................

Characteristics of the image for different positions of the object

Height of object = ...................................................... cm

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3.4 Images formed by a converging lens

Table 1

Object distance/ Image distance/ Height of image/ Upright or

Torch position cm cm cm Magnification inverted
beyond 2F

at 2F

between 2F and F

between F and
lens

1 We found the height of the image by:

2 We determined whether the image was inverted or not by:

Conclusions
1 Summarise how the image distance, magnification and uprightness of the image varies as the object is
moved towards the lens.

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3.4 Images formed by a converging lens

2 In which image positions is the image:

a real

b virtual?

3 Draw a ray diagram to show where the image is formed when the object lies between F and the lens.

Evaluation
Describe any problems that you had with the experiment. Suggest how these could be reduced or avoided to
produce more accurate measurements.

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3.5 Speed of sound in air

GOING FURTHER
A simple telescope can be constructed with two converging lenses. The objective lens, used to form an
image of a distant object, should have a long focal length; the eyepiece lens, used to magnify the image
formed by the objective lens, should have a short focal length.
1 a i State where an image of a distant object is formed by the objective lens of the telescope.

.............................................................................................................................................................................................

ii Is the image real or virtual?

.............................................................................................................................................................................................

b i State where an image of a distant object is formed by the eyepiece lens of the telescope.

.............................................................................................................................................................................................

ii Is the image real or virtual?

.............................................................................................................................................................................................
2 You are supplied with two converging lenses of focal lengths 50 cm and 5 cm, a ruler, some blu-tack,
a piece of greaseproof paper and a filament lamp. Describe how you could construct and test a model
telescope using this apparatus.

...................................................................................................................................................................................................

3.5 Speed of sound in air

To measure the speed of sound you need to measure the time it takes for sound to travel a certain distance.
The speed of sound is about ten times faster than the speed of a car travelling at 120 km/h, so for sound
travelling a distance of a few metres, the time interval is only a few milliseconds. This is too small to be
measured accurately by a person operating a stopwatch, so a timer is needed that is triggered to start and
stop automatically. An automatic timer is more accurate because it eliminates reaction-time errors. It can
record times to the nearest millisecond (0.001 s).

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3.5 Speed of sound in air

Aim KEY TERMS

To measure the speed of sound in air.
Speed
Microphone
Apparatus Accuracy
l Electronic timer with millisecond precision Precision
l Two microphones Gradient
l Small hammer Significant figures
l Metal plate
l Metre ruler KEY EQUATION
The speed of sound in air, v,
Method is given by:
Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 1, with the microphones about d
1 metre apart. If other groups are also doing the experiment, set up your v=
t
apparatus as far as possible from each other. where d is the distance the
sound travels in air in time, t.

electronic timer

‘start’ ‘stop’
microphone microphone

d
sharp
sound direction of sound

Figure 1

1 Measure and record the distance, d, between the centres of the ‘start’ and ‘stop’ microphones.
2 Switch on the timer so that it is ready to record.
3 Tap the hammer sharply on a metal plate placed close to the ‘start’
SAFETY GUIDANCE
microphone; the timer should start.
4 The timer should stop when the sound reaches the ‘stop’ Take care when using the
microphone. hammer.

5 Record the time, t1, displayed on the timer.

TIP
6 Reset the timer and repeat steps 3 to 5; record the time, t2.
Check the units in which
7 Move the microphones 10 cm closer to each other and repeat steps 1 to 6. your timer displays
8 Repeat step 7 three more times. time (remember that
1 ms = 0.001 s).

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3.5 Speed of sound in air

Observations
1 Complete Table 1.
Table 1

First time measurement, Second time

Distance, d/cm t1/ms measurement, t2/ms Average time, t/ms

2 Plot a graph of the average time, t, along the x-axis against the distance, d, along the y-axis.
Draw a line of best fit.

TIP
Choose an easy to
read/plot scale for
your graph, mark
points clearly and use
as much of the graph
paper as possible;
axes should be
labelled correctly with
d/cm plotted vertically
and t/ms horizontally.
The best straight
line should be drawn
through the points
with a sharp pencil.

TIP
Use the triangle
method (see page
13) to determine the
gradient of your graph
from as long a line
as possible and show
your working.
3 Calculate the gradient of the graph.

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3.5 Speed of sound in air

Summary of results:
TIP
a Gradient of graph = .......................................................... cm/ms
To convert cm/ms to m/s
b Speed of sound in air = .......................................................... cm/ms multiply by the factor
1000/100.
= .......................................................... m/s

Conclusions
State the value you obtained for the speed of sound in air to two significant figures. Compare your value
with the expected value; suggest reasons for any difference.

Evaluation
1 a State the precision of measurements made with a ruler: ......................................................................................
b Suggest why the accuracy of your measurement of distance d may be less than this.

c Estimate the accuracy of your measurements for d: ..............................................................................................

2 Explain why it was important to position your apparatus as far as possible from neighbouring groups.

3 Discuss any sources of error which could have affected your results and how the accuracy of the
experiment could be improved.

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3.6 Investigating pitch and loudness of sound waves (Teacher demonstration)

GOING FURTHER
When a police car sounding its siren races past, you hear the note of the siren drop in pitch. When the
police car moves away at high speed, state how the note of the siren appears to change in:
a frequency

....................................................................................................................................................................................................

b wavelength.

....................................................................................................................................................................................................

c Suggest why the changes occur.

....................................................................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................................................................

3.6 Investigating pitch and loudness of sound waves

(Teacher demonstration)
Sound waves can be turned into electrical signals with a microphone. These electrical signals can be
displayed on a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO). Unlike a voice or a musical instrument, a tuning fork emits a
‘pure’ note, i.e. a note of one frequency.

Aim KEY TERMS

To use a cathode ray oscilloscope to display waveforms for sound waves of
different pitch and loudness. Microphone
Pitch
Frequency
Apparatus Amplitude
l Cathode ray oscilloscope
l Two tuning forks of different frequency
l Signal generator connected to a loudspeaker
l Microphone

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3.6 Investigating pitch and loudness of sound waves (Teacher demonstration)

Method SAFETY GUIDANCE

Although your teacher may demonstrate the practical work with the
Keep signal generator
cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO), you should still read through the
frequencies below 20 kHz.
method to ensure you understand what is happening. You will be asked
to record and explain your observations.
TIP
1 Switch on the CRO and adjust the focus and brightness of the trace
to be sharp and of low intensity. A sound wave is converted
by the microphone into an
2 Adjust the time base control so that a horizontal line is obtained on
alternating voltage; the
the screen of the CRO.
display on the CRO shows
3 Adjust the Y-shift control so that the horizontal line is in the centre how this voltage varies with
of the screen. time. (A CRO is basically a
voltmeter.)
4 Attach a microphone to the Y-input and switch it on.
5 Sound a tuning fork close to the microphone and adjust the time
TIP
base setting until two or three complete waves are seen on the screen;
you may need to change the Y-amp gain so that both the peaks and The time base setting
troughs of the wave are displayed on the screen. controls how many waves
6 Sketch the appearance of the wave. fit across the screen;
the Y-amp gain changes
7 Repeat steps 5 and 6 using a tuning fork of different pitch. Do not the scale for the p.d.
alter the time base setting or the Y-amp gain. measurement.
8 Sketch the appearance of the wave from the second tuning fork.
9 Investigate the effect of loudness on the amplitude of the waves generated by the tuning forks.
10 Use a signal generator instead of the tuning forks to produce a continuous signal.
11 On the same grid, sketch the appearance of waves with different pitch but the same loudness; label the
one that has the highest pitch.
12 On the same grid, sketch the appearance of waves with the same pitch but different loudness; mark the
wave corresponding to the loudest sound.

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3.6 Investigating pitch and loudness of sound waves (Teacher demonstration)

Observations
First tuning fork
Sketch the waveform to scale.

Second tuning fork

Sketch the waveform to scale.

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3.6 Investigating pitch and loudness of sound waves (Teacher demonstration)

Signal generator: different pitch

Sketch the waveforms to scale.

Signal generator: different loudness

Sketch the waveforms to scale.

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3.6 Investigating pitch and loudness of sound waves (Teacher demonstration)

Conclusions
1 On the same grid, sketch and label the waveforms you would expect to see on the CRO for a soft, low
frequency note and a loud, high frequency note.

2 Summarise the effects of loudness and pitch on the amplitude and frequency of a sound.

Evaluation
Explain why the settings on the oscilloscope were kept the same for each tuning fork.

GOING FURTHER
Repeat the experiment for one of the tuning forks and estimate
TIP
its frequency.
You will need to know the time base setting on the CRO. If the time base is set to
2 ms/cm, this means that
each cm in the horizontal
direction of the display
represents a time of 2 ms.

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4 Electricity and magnetism
4.1 Magnetism
Magnets have two types of magnetic pole: north (N) and south (S). Unlike magnetic poles (N, S) attract, but
like magnetic poles (N, N or S, S) repel. A bar magnet has a north pole at one end and a south pole at the
other, and this produces a magnetic field around the magnet. A magnetic field can be represented by lines of
force. The direction in which the north pole of a compass points gives the direction of the line of force at that
point. Iron filings can be used to make magnetic field lines visible.

Aim
KEY TERM
To investigate the magnetic field lines around a bar magnet and between
two magnetic poles. Magnetic field

Apparatus
l Eye protection
l Two bar magnets
l Plotting compass
l Iron filings in a shaker
l Paper

Method
Field lines around a bar magnet
1 Lay a bar magnet in the centre of a piece of paper and draw its outline.
2 Place a plotting compass near the north pole of the bar magnet (see point A in Figure 1).
3 Mark the positions of the south and north poles of the compass TIP
needle (A, B) on the paper.
Use a sharp pencil to
4 Move the compass so that the south pole of the compass needle is at
mark the positions of the
the point (B) where the north pole was previously and mark the new
compass needle.
position of the north pole of the compass needle (C).

A
plotting
compass
S N

Figure 1

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4.1 Magnetism

5 Continue step 4 until the compass is near the south pole of the bar magnet.
6 Join up the points to give a field line; mark the direction of the magnetic field with an arrow on the line.
7 Plot other field lines by repeating the steps 2 to 6 with the compass at different starting points.

Field lines between magnetic poles SAFETY GUIDANCE

1 Align two magnets with two like poles opposite each other, about Eye protection must be
5 cm apart. worn when handling and
2 Place a piece of paper over the magnets. using iron filings.
3 Sprinkle some iron filings over the paper evenly and thinly; tap the
paper gently so that the iron filings line up along magnetic field lines. TIP
4 Sketch the appearance of the field lines below. Do not allow iron filings to
stick to the magnet.
5 Repeat steps 1 to 4 with two unlike poles facing each other.

Observations
Field lines around a bar magnet
Draw a sketch in the space below of the field lines you plotted around the bar magnet.

Field lines between magnetic poles

1 Sketch the field lines between two like poles. 2 Sketch the field lines between two unlike poles.

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4.1 Magnetism

Conclusions
Complete the following sentences.

1 The magnetic field around a bar magnet is ............................................. near the ends/poles, as is shown

by the ....................................................... of magnetic field lines in this region.

2 Magnetic field lines are directed from the ....................................................... pole of a magnet to the

....................................................... pole.

3 Explain why the iron filings line up along magnetic field lines.

Evaluation
Describe any problems that you had with the experiment. Suggest how these problems could be avoided to
produce more reliable results.

GOING FURTHER
The magnetic tape on the back of a swipe card contains tiny particles made of magnetic material which
can be magnetised easily to act as bar magnets with a N pole and a S pole.
1 Suggest how information can be stored on the magnetic tape.

...................................................................................................................................................................................................

2 Explain why a swipe card can fail to work after it is placed next to a mobile phone or camera.

...................................................................................................................................................................................................

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4.2 Electric charges (Teacher demonstration)

There are two types of electric charge, positive and negative. When a material is rubbed with a cloth, electrons
(which carry a negative charge) may be transferred by friction to or from the material. If the material gains
electrons in the process, it becomes negatively charged; a different material may lose electrons when it is rubbed
and become positively charged. Two negative charges (or two positive charges) repel each other.
A negative and positive charge attract each other. A gold-leaf electroscope can be used to detect charge.

Aim
To investigate the production of electrostatic charges and the forces
KEY TERMS
between electric charges, and to use a gold-leaf electroscope to detect
charge and distinguish between good and bad electrical conductors. Charge
Electron
Apparatus Electrical conductor
l Gold-leaf electroscope
l Polythene strips or rods
l Cellulose acetate strips or rods
l Cloth
SAFETY GUIDANCE
l Thread This practical presents
l Paper stirrup minimal risk.
l Retort stand and clamp
l Some electrically conducting and insulating materials such as plastic,
metal and wood

Method
Positive and negative charges
1 Rub a polythene strip with a cloth.
TIP
2 Support the strip horizontally in a paper stirrup suspended from a
retort stand; the strip should be able to swing freely. Make sure the suspended
3 Rub a second polythene strip and bring it close to the suspended strip is stationary before
strip; record whether the strips are attracted or repelled in Table 1. bringing up the charged
strip.
4 Rub a strip of cellulose acetate with the cloth and bring it close to the
suspended strip; record whether the strips are attracted or repelled.

thread

paper stirrup

rubbed
polythene
strips like
charges
repel

Figure 1

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4.2 Electric charges (Teacher demonstration)

Gold-leaf electroscope
Although your teacher may demonstrate the practical work using the gold-leaf electroscope, you should still
read through the method to ensure you understand what is happening. You will be asked to record
and explain your observations.
metal cap
TIP
metal rod

insulating plug Discharge the electroscope

before each experiment
by touching the cap with
metal plate
your finger; the leaf will fall
gold leaf when the electroscope is
discharged through you to
glass window
earth.
wooden or metal case
earthed by resting on bench
Figure 2
In the Observations section, record what happens to the gold leaf of the electroscope when:
a a charged polythene strip is brought close to (but does not touch) the cap of the electroscope
b the charged polythene strip is moved away from the electroscope
c a charged cellulose acetate strip is brought close to the cap of the electroscope
d the charged cellulose acetate strip is moved away from the electroscope
e a charged polythene strip is drawn firmly across the edge of the cap of the electroscope
f you touch the cap of the charged electroscope with your finger.
To distinguish between good and bad electrical conductors, charge the electroscope as in step e. Touch the
cap of the charged electroscope with different materials such as plastic, metal and wood; if the gold leaf falls
quickly, the material is a good conductor. Record your observations in Table 2.

Observations
Positive and negative charges
Complete Table 1.
Table 1
Material of charged strip Material of charged strip Attracted or repelled

Gold-leaf electroscope
Complete the following sentences and then complete Table 2 with your observations.
a When a charged polythene strip is brought near the electroscope cap, the gold leaf ...........................................
b When the charged polythene strip is then moved away from the electroscope cap, the gold leaf .....................
c When a charged cellulose acetate strip is brought near the electroscope cap, the gold leaf ................................
d When the charged acetate strip is then moved away from the electroscope cap, the gold leaf ...........................
e When a charged polythene strip is drawn across the edge of the electroscope cap, the gold leaf
........................................................ and the electroscope becomes charged.
f When you touch the charged electroscope cap with a finger, the gold leaf .............................................................
and the electroscope is discharged through you to earth.
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4.2 Electric charges (Teacher demonstration)

Table 2

Material Gold leaf falls quickly/slowly Good/bad conductor

Conclusions
1 Complete the following sentences.

Like charges .................................................................... Unlike charges ....................................................................

2 Explain what happens when you touch the cap of a charged gold-leaf electroscope with your hand.

3 Explain, in terms of the movement of electrons, what happens when a charged strip is brought close to
and then moved away from a discharged gold-leaf electroscope.

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4.2 Electric charges (Teacher demonstration)

4 Explain why charging the cap of the electroscope positively or negatively causes the gold leaf to rise.

5 Explain how a gold-leaf electroscope can be used

a to detect charge

b to distinguish between electrical conductors and insulators.

6 List the materials which you found to be

a good conductors: ...........................................................................................................................................................

b bad conductors: ..............................................................................................................................................................

Evaluation
Describe any problems that occurred in the experiments and suggest any improvements that could be made.

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4.3 Measuring current

GOING FURTHER
When a negatively charged polythene rod is brought close to (but not touching) small pieces of
aluminium foil, they are attracted to the rod. Can you suggest why?

4.3 Measuring current

An electric current is caused by the flow of electric charges. The unit of current is the ampere (A) and the
size of a current is measured by an ammeter. A current transfers energy to devices in a circuit. A current
will only flow if there is a complete circuit. In this practical work you will learn how to measure current and
connect circuits with devices arranged in series and parallel. Look back at page 9 to remind yourself of how
to take an accurate reading from an analogue scale.

Aim KEY TERMS

To measure currents in series and parallel circuits.
Ammeter
Electric current
Apparatus Range
l Two 1.5 V cells l Switch
Series circuit
l Two 1.25 V lamps l Circuit board
Parallel circuit
l 0–1 A ammeter l Connecting wire

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4.3 Measuring current

Method SAFETY GUIDANCE

Series circuits Switch off power before
1 a Set up the circuit shown in Figure 1, making sure that the making changes to a
+ terminal of the cell goes to the + terminal (red) of the ammeter. circuit. Large currents can
b Close the switch and record the reading of the current through result in burns and electric
the ammeter in Table 1. shocks and can damage
sensitive meters.
(1.5 V cell)
+
TIPS
If you are using a meter
+ with a range of settings,
A (0–1 A)
Y select the largest current
range setting initially.
Check the components in
X
the circuit are connected
correctly before the power
(1.25 V) is switched on.

Figure 1

TIPS
Make sure the lamp is on when the current reading is being taken.
If the pointer on an analogue meter goes backwards (or the reading is negative on a digital
meter), interchange the connections to the ammeter.
If you are using an ammeter with several ranges and the current reading is low, decrease the
current range setting to obtain a more precise measurement.

c Disconnect the ammeter and reinsert it in the circuit at position Y. When the circuit is complete,
record the current through the ammeter in Table 1.
2 a
Connect two cells and two lamps in series with the ammeter as shown in Figure 2. The + terminal of
one cell should be connected to the − terminal of the other. When the switch is closed and both lamps
are on, record the current reading through the ammeter at A in Table 1.
D

A C

Figure 2

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4.3 Measuring current

b Disconnect the ammeter and reinsert it in the circuit at position B. When the circuit is complete,
record the value of the current through the ammeter in Table 1.
c Repeat step 2b with the ammeter inserted into positions C and then D in the circuit.

Parallel circuits
3 a Connect the two lamps in parallel with one cell as shown in Figure 3. When the switch is closed and
both lamps are on, record the current passing through the ammeter at S in Table 1.
b Disconnect the ammeter and reinsert it in the circuit next to the lamp at position P. When the circuit
is complete and both lamps are on, record the value of the current through the ammeter at P in Table 1.
c Repeat step 3b with the ammeter inserted into positions Q and then R in the circuit.

A R

P
Figure 3

Observations
Complete Table 1.
Table 1
Ammeter X Y A B C D S P Q R
position

Current/A

Conclusions
Complete the following sentences. TIP
In a series circuit, the current is .......................................................................... To estimate experimental
error, consider the
at all points within experimental error.
precision of the ammeter
In a parallel circuit, the current from the cell is .................................... than used and any variation in
the current that occurred
the current in each branch. while you were taking a
The sum of the currents in the branches of a parallel circuit equals the measurement.

current ................................................................ or leaving the junction of the

parallel section within experimental error.

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4.4 Measuring resistance

Evaluation
1 Describe any difficulties you encountered and improvements that could be made in performing the
experiments.

2 You are provided with a 1.5 V cell, a 1.25 V lamp, a switch, some crocodile clips and connecting wires.
Describe the circuit you could set up to test whether a sample of material is a good or a bad electrical
conductor and explain how it works.

4.4 Measuring resistance

Resistance is the opposition of a conductor to the flow of an electric current and is measured in ohms (Ω).
The resistance of a conductor can be determined by measuring the potential difference (p.d.) across the
conductor with a voltmeter, and the current (I) flowing through it with an ammeter. A good electrical
conductor has a low resistance and a poor electrical conductor has a high resistance. The resistance of a wire
depends on the material it is made of and its physical dimensions.

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4.4 Measuring resistance

Aim KEY TERMS

To measure the resistance of a wire and investigate how the resistance
Resistance
depends on the length and diameter of the wire.
Potential difference (p.d.)
Voltmeter
Apparatus Variable resistor
l 4.5 V battery (three 1.5 V cells connected in series can be used) Ohm
l Ammeter (0–1 A)
l Voltmeter (0–5 V)
l 0–25 Ω rheostat (variable resistor) KEY EQUATION
l Constantan wire (two different diameters are required)
l Metre ruler The resistance, R, of a
l Wires and connectors component is given in ohms
l Crocodile clips by:
V
l Insulated circuit board with mounting clamps R=
I
where V is the p.d. across
Method the component in volts and
I is the current flowing
Measurement of resistance through it in amperes.
Before you take any measurements, read the instructions below.
Complete Table 1 to identify which variable you will change, which
variables you will keep fixed and which variable you will measure. SAFETY GUIDANCE
Table 1 Turn off the current between
Independent variable Control variables Dependent variable readings for safety and to try
(variable you change) (constant/fixed) (variable you measure) to keep the temperature of
the wire constant.
The constantan wire may
become hot with larger
currents.
1 Set up the circuit shown in Figure 1 where the unknown resistance,
R, is a 1 m length of constantan wire held above the circuit board in
two vertical clamps. TIP
2 Set the rheostat at its maximum resistance. The variable resistor allows
3 Record the current, I, in the circuit and the p.d., V, across the the current to be changed
unknown resistance, R, in Table 2. in the wire. Carefully check
that you have connected the
4 Reduce the resistance of the rheostat and record the new values of I and V. components correctly before
5 Repeat step 4 until you have six different readings of I and V. completing the circuit.
Calculate R for each pair of readings.
6 Plot a graph of V along the x-axis and I along the y-axis.

TIPS
Choose an easy-to-read/plot scale and use as much of the
graph paper as possible.
Remember to give units when you are labelling the axes and
plot the data points clearly with a sharp pencil.

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4.4 Measuring resistance

+
−
to three 1.5 V (4.5 V) cells in series
and switch

R
crocodile
+
clip

ammeter
(0−1 A)

rheostat circuit
(0−25 Ω) board
(insulated)

voltmeter
(0−5 V)

Figure 1

Effect on resistance of the length and diameter of the wire

1 Record in Table 3 a pair of mid-range values for I and V read from
TIP
your I–V graph.
The diameter of SWG 34
Replace the 100 cm long wire used above by a constantan wire of the
wire is 0.23 mm and the
same thickness but of length 50 cm.
diameter of SWG 28 wire is
2 Record the value of the diameter of the wire in Table 3. 0.37 mm. Check with your
3 Set the rheostat at mid-range, switch on and record the current in the teacher if these are the
circuit and the p.d. across the wire in Table 3. Switch off the power. wires you are using.

4 Replace the wire used in step 3 with a constantan wire of a different

diameter, again 1 m long. Record the value of the diameter of the wire in Table 3. Without changing the
setting of the rheostat, switch on the power and record the current in the circuit and the p.d. across the
wire. Switch off the power.
5 Repeat step 4 with a 50 cm length of the same diameter constantan wire that was used in step 4.

Observations
Draw a circuit diagram of the experimental arrangement.

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4.4 Measuring resistance

Measurement of resistance
1 Complete Table 2.
Table 2 Calculation of resistance

Current, I/A p.d., V/V Resistance, R/Ω

2 Plot a current–voltage graph from your results. (See point 6 and the Tips box on page 96.)

TIP
3 Find the gradient of your graph.
Choose the best straight
line through your points,
use the triangle method
Gradient of graph = ..................................................... A/V over as long a length of line
1 as possible and show your
of graph = ...................................................... Ω
gradient working.

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4.4 Measuring resistance

Effect on resistance of the length and diameter of wire

Complete Table 3.
Table 3 Variation of resistance with length and diameter of a wire TIP

Length of Diameter of Current, p.d., Resistance, Use a pair of readings from

constantan wire/cm wire/mm I/A V/V R/Ω your I–V curve for the first
100 row of Table 3.

100

Conclusions
1 a
State how the resistance of the wire changes when the current through it increases. Use data from
Table 2 to support your answer.

b With reference to your I–V graph, state how the current through the constantan wire is related to the
p.d. applied across it.

2 State how the resistance of the wire varies with the length and diameter of the wire. Use data from Table 3
to support your answer.

Evaluation
1 Suggest how you would expect your I–V plot to change if the resistance of the constantan wire changed
with temperature.

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4.5 Potential divider

2 Discuss how the experiment could be improved to increase the accuracy of the calculated resistance or to
increase the validity of the conclusions.

GOING FURTHER
A student suggests that the resistance of a wire is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area.
Describe how you could investigate the relationship between the resistance, length and diameter of a
wire, and use the data to test the student’s hypothesis.
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................

4.5 Potential divider

A potential divider consists of two resistors connected in series with KEY TERMS
a fixed supply voltage.
Resistance
If one of the resistors is a variable resistor and its value is changed,
Potential difference
the p.d. increases across one resistor and decreases across the other.
Thermistor
In this practical you will use a voltmeter to measure the p.d. across
each resistor when the resistance of the variable resistor is changed. Potential divider

Thermistors and light-dependent resistors are often used as the KEY EQUATION
variable resistor in a potential divider circuit designed to monitor
temperature or light intensity. In a potential divider, the
ratio of the voltages V1 and
V2 across resistances R1
Aim and R2 is given by:
To investigate the action of a potential divider. V1 R1
=
V2 R2

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4.5 Potential divider

Apparatus
l 6 V battery or d.c. power supply l Thermistor (TH7)
l Ammeters (0–50 mA and 0–1 mA) l Matches
l Two voltmeters (0–10 V) l Switch
l 150 Ω and 10 kΩ fixed resistors l Wires and connectors
l 150 Ω variable resistor

Method SAFETY GUIDANCE

I
l To reduce risk of electric
shock, do not set up
electric circuits near
water (sink or tap).
R1 V1 l Switch off supply
voltage before changing
components.
V l Take care not to burn
your fingers when using
the matches.
R2 V2

I
Figure 1

Variable resistor
TIP
1 Set up the circuit shown in Figure 1 with R1 as the 150 Ω fixed
Set the variable resistor to
resistor and R2 as a variable 150 Ω resistor.
its maximum value.
2 Insert a switch and ammeter (0–50 mA) into the circuit to
measure the current, I.
TIP
3 Connect a voltmeter across each of R1 and R2 to measure V1
and V2. The ammeter should be
connected in series with
4 Switch on the power supply (6.0 V) and record the values of I, V1 the resistors (see page 93).
and V2 in Table 1.
5 Change the value of the variable resistor until V1 = 3.5 V; record
the new values of I, V1 and V2 in Table 1.
6 Repeat step 5 for successive values of V1 of 4.0 V, 4.5 V and 5 V.

Thermistor
1 Repeat steps 1 to 3 of Experiment 1 but with R1 as the 10 kΩ fixed resistor and R2 as a thermistor.
2 Switch on the power supply and record the values of I, V1 and V2 in Table 2.
3 Warm the thermistor with a match and record the new values of I, V1 and V2.
4 As the thermistor cools, record a third set of values for I, V1 and V2.

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4.5 Potential divider

Observations
Variable resistor
Complete Table 1.
Table 1

V1 R1
I/mA V1/V V2/V V2 R2/Ω R2

Thermistor
Complete Table 2.
Table 2

V1 R1
I/mA V1/V V2/V V2 R2/Ω R2

Conclusions
1 With reference to your results from the two experiments, state how the p.d.s across the resistors R1
and R2 change when the value of the variable resistor R2 is
a decreased

..................................................................................................................................................................................................

b increased.

..................................................................................................................................................................................................

2 Explain how you could use the potential divider circuit to obtain voltages in the ratio of 3 : 1 from
the fixed 6 V supply.

..................................................................................................................................................................................................

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4.5 Potential divider

3 State whether your results are in agreement with the potential divider equation.

..................................................................................................................................................................................................

4 When the temperature of the thermistor rises, state whether an increase or decrease occurs in:

a I ..........................................................................................................................

b V1 ..........................................................................................................................

c V2 ................................................................................................................

d R2 ................................................................................................................
5 Explain how the potential divider circuit with a thermistor could be used to monitor temperature.

..................................................................................................................................................................................................

Evaluation
1 The potential divider circuit you built has a battery with a fixed e.m.f., one fixed resistor and one
variable resistor.
Give a reason why being able to change the value of the variable resistance makes this circuit useful.

..................................................................................................................................................................................................

2 Describe any difficulties you encountered in the experiment and how you overcame them.

..................................................................................................................................................................................................

3 Suggest any improvements that could be made to the experiment.

..................................................................................................................................................................................................

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4.6 Measuring electrical power

GOING FURTHER
Explain how a thermistor in a potential divider circuit with a relay coil as the second resistor could
be used as a high-temperature alarm.

.................................................................................................................................................................................................

Draw a circuit diagram that could be used for this circuit; include a thermistor, resistor, relay and bell.

4.6 Measuring electrical power

An electric motor transfers electrical energy into motion. Energy is wasted in the transfer due to
electrical heating, and due to friction in moving parts. The ratio of the output power to the input power
gives a measure of the efficiency of the motor.

Aims KEY TERMS

To measure the input and output power of an electric motor.
Gravitational potential
To measure the efficiency of an electric motor. energy
Work
Efficiency
Power
Gravitational field strength

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4.6 Measuring electrical power

KEY EQUATIONS
energy transferred or work done
Power, P =
time taken
ΔE W
P= or P =
t t
The rate at which electrical energy is transferred to a device,
P, is given by:
P = IV
where I is the current through the device and V is the p.d.
across it.
The change in gravitational potential energy when a mass, m,
is lifted through a height, Δh, through a gravitational field of
strength g is given by:
ΔEP = mg Δh
The efficiency of a device is defined by:
(useful power output)
(%) efficiency = × 100%
(total power input)

Apparatus SAFETY GUIDANCE

l 9 V battery l 100 g masses
l Clamp the motor firmly
l Ammeter (0–2 A) l Timer
to the bench.
l Voltmeter (0–10 V) l Metre ruler
l Protect feet from falling
l Small electric motor l Clamp
masses.
l Switch l Wires and connectors
l Stop the motor before
l String
the mass reaches the
Method motor axle.

1 Connect the battery, ammeter and electric motor in series as

shown in Figure 1 overleaf.
TIP

2 Connect the voltmeter across the terminals of the electric motor. It is better to work in
groups of three for this
3 Attach a 100 g mass to the axle of the motor with a piece of experiment as there
string and allow the mass to hang freely over the edge of the are several sets of
bench (Figure 2). Clamp the motor to the bench. measurements to take at
4 Support the metre ruler vertically behind the hanging mass. the same time.
5 Start the motor and record in Table 1 the time, t, it takes for the
mass, m, to rise smoothly through a height, Δh, of 0.50 m. TIPS
In Table 2, record the ammeter and voltmeter readings (I and V)
If the mass sways initially,
while the mass is rising.
wait until it is rising smoothly
6 Increase the load by 100 g and repeat step 5. before timing the rise.
7 Repeat step 6 two more times. Plan where you will start
and stop timing to give a
rise of 0.50 m.

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4.6 Measuring electrical power

Figure 1
motor
axle
bench

metre ruler

string

mass

Figure 2

Observations
Record your measurements in Tables 1 and 2.
TIP
Calculate and record the input power of the electric motor using P = IV.
Calculate and record the work done by the motor in lifting the Calculate values to two
mass, using ΔEP = mg Δh. Take g = 9.8 N/kg. significant figures.

Calculate and record the output power of the motor using:

mg Δh
P=
t
Calculate the efficiency of the motor for different sizes of load.

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4.6 Measuring electrical power

Table 1
Mass raised, Time taken to Height mass Gain in potential energy Rate at which work done in
m/kg raise mass, t/s raised, Δh/m of mass, mg Δh/J raising mass, mg Δh/t/W

Table 2
Mass raised, Current in p.d. across Power input to Useful power output, Efficiency of
m/kg motor, I/A motor, V/V motor, P = IV/W mg Δh/t/W motor %

Conclusions
1 Summarise your results.

..................................................................................................................................................................................................

2 Is the efficiency of the motor affected by the size of the load? ........................................................................

3 Is the speed of the motor affected by the size of the load? ...............................................................................

4 Explain why the efficiency of the motor is always less than 100%.

..................................................................................................................................................................................................

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4.7 Electromagnetism

Evaluation
1 Describe at least two precautions you took to ensure accurate measurements of the time taken to
raise the mass.

..................................................................................................................................................................................................

2 Suggest how the experiment could be improved and what effect the improvement would have.

..................................................................................................................................................................................................

4.7 Electromagnetism
A magnetic field is produced around a current-carrying wire. You can make an electromagnet by passing
a current through a coil of wire. The strength of the electromagnet is increased if it has an iron core that
becomes magnetised when the current is switched on. The magnetic field around a solenoid is the same as
that around a bar magnet.
An e.m.f. is induced in a conductor when there is relative motion
between the conductor and a magnetic field. If the conductor is in
KEY TERMS
a complete circuit, the induced e.m.f. produces a current in the
circuit; the larger the induced e.m.f., the larger the current that flows. Electromagnet
Solenoid
Aim Magnetic field
To construct and test an electromagnet, and to investigate the factors Electromotive force (e.m.f.)
affecting the size of the induced e.m.f. when a magnetic field is moved
Electromagnetic induction
near a conductor.

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4.7 Electromagnetism

Apparatus
l 3 m of PVC-covered copper wire (SWG 26) with bare ends l 3 V battery
l 5 cm long iron nail l Plotting compass
l Retort stand and clamp l Bar magnet
l Switch l 600-turn coil
l Paper clips l Sensitive centre-zero meter (microammeter or
l Ammeter (0–2 A) voltmeter)
l Rheostat (0–15 Ω) l Wires and connectors

Method
Electromagnet
1 Leave about 25 cm at each end of the wire (for connecting to the circuit) and then wind about 50 cm of wire
in a single layer onto the nail. Keep the turns close together; always wind in the same direction.
2 Set up the circuit shown in Figure 1 with the rheostat (variable resistor) set at maximum resistance.

wooden
stand
electromagnet

SAFETY GUIDANCE
The wire becomes hot
paper clips
when current flows through
it so take care not to
touch it. Only switch on for
a few seconds.

TIP
A Keep approximate count of
the number of turns as you
(0–2 A)
wind the wire around the nail.
(2–3 V)

Figure 1
TIPS
3 In Table 1, record the number of paper clips the electromagnet can
support for a range of currents between 0.2 A and 2 A, including Close the switch only
1 A. For the 1 A current, also record the number of paper clips in when you are ready to
Table 2. take a reading and switch
the current off between
4 Wind a second layer of wire back along the nail, winding in the same
readings.
direction as the first layer.

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4.7 Electromagnetism

5 In Table 2, record the number of paper clips now supported when the current in the coil is 1 A.
6 Use a plotting compass to determine the N pole of the coil.
7 Reverse the direction of current flow through the coil (by interchanging the connections to the battery)
and again determine the position of the N pole.

Electromagnetic induction
1 Connect the 600-turn coil directly to a sensitive centre-zero meter as shown in Figure 2.
2 Identify the N pole of the bar magnet with the plotting compass.
3 In Table 3, record the direction and value of the maximum deflection of the meter when the N pole of the
bar magnet is moved quickly towards the coil along the line of its axis.
4 Record the direction and value of the maximum deflection of the meter when the N pole of the bar
magnet is moved slowly towards the coil.
5 Repeat steps 3 and 4 with the N pole of the magnet moving away from the coil.
6 In Table 4, record the direction and value of the maximum deflection of the meter when the coil is moved
quickly towards the N pole of the magnet.
7 Record the direction and value of the maximum deflection of the meter when the coil is moved quickly
away from the N pole of the magnet.

sensitive
centre-zero
meter
coil (600 turns)

bar magnet

Figure 2

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4.7 Electromagnetism

Observations
Electromagnet
1 Complete Tables 1 and 2.
Table 1
Current, I/A Number of paper clips supported

TIP
Check your answer using
the right-hand-grip
rule which states that if
the fingers of the right
Table 2 Current in coils = 1 A
hand grip the coil of an
Number of turns on coil (approx.) Number of paper clips supported electromagnet in the
direction of the current
flow, the thumb points to
the N pole of the coil.

2 The top of the coil is a ....................................................... pole when current flows down the coil.

3 State the effect of reversing the current in the coil.

Electromagnetic induction
Answer the following question and complete Tables 3 and 4.
What does a change in the direction of the deflection of the needle in the meter indicate?

Table 3 Movement of magnet

Direction of movement of Speed of movement of Maximum meter Direction of deflection

N pole magnet reading of needle on meter

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4.7 Electromagnetism

Table 4 Movement of coil

Direction of movement Speed of movement Maximum meter Direction of deflection
of coil of coil reading of needle on meter

Conclusions
1 State how the strength of the electromagnet depends on the current and the number of turns on the coil.

2 What happens to the needle on the meter when the magnet stops moving?

3 State how an e.m.f. can be induced in a coil.

4 How can the size of an induced e.m.f. be increased?

Evaluation
Suggest how the experiments could be improved to give more reliable results.

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4.8 Investigating beams of electrons (Teacher demonstration)

GOING FURTHER
If a magnet is moved into or out of a coil, the current induced in the coil makes it into an electromagnet
with a N pole and a S pole.
If the N pole of a bar magnet moves towards a coil, will the end of the coil closest to the magnet become
a N pole or a S pole? Justify your answer in terms of magnetic forces, work done and the principle of
conservation of energy.

4.8 Investigating beams of electrons

(Teacher demonstration)
Beams of electrons moving at a high speed are called cathode rays. They can be produced by heating a
metal filament in a vacuum and are accelerated by applying a potential difference between an anode and
a cathode. When a beam of electrons strikes a fluorescent screen, it causes the screen to fluoresce with a
green or blue light enabling the position of the electron beam to be detected.
Charged particles such as electrons are deflected in magnetic and electric fields. This property is
exploited in the cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO).
KEY TERMS
Aim Electron
To study the effect of a magnetic field on a beam of electrons with a
Cathode rays
Maltese cross tube.
Magnetic field
Fleming’s left-hand rule
Apparatus
l Eye protection l 6 V power supply
l Maltese cross tube for the heater filament
l 3 kV power supply l Bar magnet

SAFETY GUIDANCE
l A high-voltage power supply is used which can be dangerous.
l There is a risk of the evacuated tube imploding. The demonstrator must wear eye protection
and not stand close to the evacuated tube. The demonstrator should either use a safety
screen between the apparatus and students, or all students must wear eye protection.

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4.8 Investigating beams of electrons (Teacher demonstration)

Method
Although your teacher may demonstrate the practical work with the Maltese cross tube, you should still
read through the method to ensure you understand what is happening. You will be asked to record and
explain your observations.
Maltese cross

+ 3 kV

evacuated
bulb
6V

– 0 kV

cathode

anode

fluorescent
screen
TIP
Figure 1
It will help to see the
1 Connect the power supplies to the Maltese cross tube according to shadow if the lights in the
the manufacturer’s instructions and adjust the settings to obtain a laboratory are dimmed.
shadow of the cross on the fluorescent screen.
2 To observe the deflection of cathode rays in a magnetic field, bring TIP
the north pole of a bar magnet close to the neck of the tube. Record
Note that the optical
the direction in which the rays and the fluorescent shadow move.
shadow of the cross, due to
3 Now bring the south pole of the magnet close to the neck of the light emitted by the heated
tube and record the result. cathode, does not move
and is unaffected by the
Observations magnetic field.

1 State how you know that the cathode rays travel in straight lines.

....................................................................................................................................................................................................

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4.8 Investigating beams of electrons (Teacher demonstration)

2 When the north pole of a magnet is brought close to the neck of the tube the image of the Maltese

cross moves ..................................................................................

3 When the south pole of a magnet is brought close to the neck of the tube the image of the Maltese

cross moves .................................................................................

Conclusions
1 State the direction of the force on the electron beam when the north pole of the magnet was brought
close to the tube.

...................................................................................................................................................................................................

2 State the source of the force on the electron beam.

...................................................................................................................................................................................................

3 Use Fleming’s left-hand rule to determine the direction of the current in the Maltese cross and hence
the charge on the cathode rays.

...................................................................................................................................................................................................

Evaluation
Summarise what you learnt about a beam of electrons in this demonstration.

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5 Space physics
5.1 Phases of the Moon
Some experiments take hours, days, weeks and even years for results to be obtained. To study the phases of
the Moon you will need to collect data over several weeks.
For thousands of years, different cultures have used observations of the Sun and Moon to produce a calendar
for the year. The modern calendar is based on a year of 365 days, the approximate time it takes for the Earth
to orbit the Sun. The Lunar calendar year is shorter, with 12 repeats of the 29.5 days it takes for the Moon to
orbit the Earth. This is why the dates of festivals which are traditionally determined from the Lunar calendar
occur on different dates each year, for example, Ramadan, Chinese New Year and Easter.

Aim
To record the phases of the Moon over the period of a month. KEY TERM
Phase
Apparatus
l Clock or watch
l Compass SAFETY GUIDANCE
This practical presents
Method minimal risk.

1 Find out at what time the Moon rises and sets. TIP
2 Look at the Moon and identify its phase (new Moon, crescent Moon,
Your local newspaper may
half Moon, full Moon).
give some information on
3 Record your results in Table 1 and include a sketch of the appearance the times of Moon rise and
of the Moon. Moon set. Alternatively look
4 Repeat your readings about every three days over a period of a it up on the internet using
month. the search term ‘moon rise’.

5 Record the direction in which the Moon rises and sets.

TIP
Observations A full Moon is visible only
Direction of Moon rise and set: between sunset and sunrise
but other phases can be
The Moon rises in the ....................................... seen during daylight hours.

The Moon sets in the ........................................

Complete Table 1.

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5.1 Phases of the Moon

Table 1

Date Moon observed Phase of Moon Sketch Time of Moon rise Time of Moon set

Conclusions
Complete the following sentences.

1 The Moon rises at a ................................................................... time each day.

2 It takes ............................ days for the phases of the Moon to complete one cycle.

Evaluation
1 Describe any difficulties you encountered in collecting the data.

2 Where does the light which makes the Moon visible come from?

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5.1 Phases of the Moon

3 Why is the full disk of the Moon not always visible?

4 State the phases of the Moon when it is visible in the sky during the day. Use data from Table 1.

5 Make a sketch to illustrate how the phases of the Moon arise. Include rays from the Sun, the Earth and
different positions of the Moon around the Earth. Follow the steps given here:
l Draw a circle approximately 6 cm diameter in the middle of the space below to represent the orbit of the
Moon. At the centre of the circle draw another circle with a diameter of about 1 cm and label this ‘Earth’.
l Draw part of another circle (not to scale) at the far right side, or below the Earth, to represent the Sun.
l Draw the Moon at eight different positions around the Earth.
l Show parallel rays of light from the Sun towards the Earth.
l Shade in the portion of the Moon that would appear dark, as viewed from Earth.
l Label the part of each Moon circle that represents the visible phase of the Moon.

6 Look at your diagram. Does full Moon occur when the Moon is nearer to or further from the Sun than

the Earth? ........................................................................................................................................................................................

GOING FURTHER
Suggest a reason why the Moon rises at a different time each day.

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Practical Test past paper questions

Past paper questions

Practical Test past paper questions
1 In this experiment, you will determine the weight of a metre rule using a balancing method.
Carry out the following instructions, referring to Figure 1.
50.0 cm mark

P metre rule
a b
bench
100 0
90.0 cm mark
pivot

Figure 1
a Place the metre rule on the pivot. Place the load P with its centre on the metre rule at the 90.0 cm
mark. Keeping the load P at the 90.0 cm mark, adjust the position of the metre rule on the pivot so that
the metre rule is as near as possible to being balanced.
Measure, and record in the first row of Table 1, the distance a from the 90.0 cm mark to the pivot.
Measure, and record in the first row of Table 1, the distance b from the pivot to the 50.0 cm mark.
Repeat the steps above, placing the centre of the load P at the 85.0 cm, 80.0 cm, 75.0 cm and 70.0 cm
marks. Record all values of a and b in Table 1. [3]
Table 1
a/cm b/cm

b Plot a graph of a/cm (y-axis) against b/cm (x-axis). You do not need to begin your axes at the origin (0, 0). [4]

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Practical Test past paper questions

c Determine the gradient G of the graph. Show clearly on the graph how you obtained the necessary
information.

G = ........................................................ [1]
d Calculate the weight W of the metre rule using the equation
W = G × P
where P = 1.0 N.

W = ........................................................ [1]
e Suggest one practical reason why it is difficult to obtain accurate readings for a and b in
this type of experiment.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................. [1]

f Use the balance provided to measure the mass of the metre rule.
mass = ........................................................ [1]
[Total: 11]
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625 Paper 51 Q1 May/June 2019

2 In this experiment, you will determine the resistance of a resistance wire.

Carry out the following instructions, referring to Figure 2.
power supply

l metre rule

B 100
sliding resistance
contact C wire
V

Figure 2
a i Switch on.
Measure the current I in the circuit.
I = ........................................................ [1]
ii Place the sliding contact C at a distance l = 20.0 cm from B.
Measure, and record in Table 2, the potential difference V across the length l of the resistance wire.
V
Calculate, and record in Table 2, .
l

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Practical Test past paper questions

Repeat the procedure using l values of 40.0 cm, 60.0 cm, 80.0 cm and 100.0 cm.
Switch off. [4]
Table 2

V V
/
l/cm V/V l cm
20.0
40.0
60.0
80.0
100.0

V
b Look carefully at the values of in Table 2.
l
i Tick the box to show your conclusion from the results.
V
is approximately constant.
l
V
is decreasing as V increases.
l
V
is increasing as V increases.
l
V
There is no simple pattern for in the results. [1]
l
ii Justify your conclusion by reference to your results.

.................................................................................................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................................................................................... [1]

c Calculate the resistance of 100 cm of the resistance wire using the equation
V
R = ,
I
where V is the potential difference across 100 cm of the resistance wire. Use the value of current I from
part a i. Give your answer to a suitable number of significant figures for this experiment and include
the unit.

R = ........................................................ [3]
d In this type of experiment, it is sensible to keep the temperature of the resistance wire as close to room
temperature as possible. Suggest one way to minimise the rise in temperature of the resistance wire.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

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Practical Test past paper questions

3 In this experiment, you will determine the refractive index n of the material of a transparent block.

hole E

A F B

D G C

eye

Figure 3
a Carry out the following instructions on a sheet of plain A4 paper. Refer to Figure 3 for guidance.
– Place the transparent block, largest face down, on the sheet of plain paper. The block should be
approximately in the middle of the paper.
– Draw and label the outline of the block ABCD.
– Remove the block and draw the normal NL at the centre of side AB.
– Continue the normal so that it passes through side CD of the block.
– Label the point F where NL crosses AB.
– Label the point G where NL crosses CD.[2]
b Draw the line EF at an angle i = 30° to the normal as shown in Figure 3.
– Place the paper on the pin board.
– Place two pins P1 and P2 on line EF at a suitable distance apart for this experiment.
– Replace the block and look from the position of the eye shown in Figure 3, to observe the images
of P1 and P2 through side CD of the block. Adjust your line of sight until the images of P1 and P2
appear one behind the other.
– Place two pins P3 and P4 between your eye and the block so that P3, P4, and the images of P1 and P2,
seen through the block, appear one behind the other.
– Label the positions of P1, P2, P3 and P4.
– Remove the block and the pins.
– Draw a line joining the positions of P3 and P4. Continue the line until it meets the normal NL.
– Label the point J where the line meets the normal NL.
– Label the point H where the line meets side CD. Draw the line FH.[1]
c i Measure and record the length a of the line FH.
a = ........................................................... [1]
ii Measure and record the length b of the line HJ.
b = ........................................................... [1]

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Practical Test past paper questions

iii Calculate the refractive index n using the equation

a
n=
b

n = ........................................................... [2]
d Repeat the procedure in b using the angle of incidence i = 40°.
i Repeat the measurements in c for i = 40°.
a = .........................................................

b = ......................................................... [1]
ii Calculate the refractive index n using the equation
a
n=
b

n = ........................................................... [1]
e A student carries out this experiment with care and expects the two values of refractive index n
obtained in this experiment to be equal.
State two difficulties with this type of experiment that could account for any difference in the two
values of n.

1 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

2 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................................................................................. [2]

[Total: 11]
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625 Paper 52 Q3 October/November 2018

4 In this experiment, you will investigate how the use of a lid or insulation affects the rate of cooling of hot
water in a beaker.
Carry out the following instructions, referring to Figure 4.

thermometer
lid
beaker A insulation

beaker B bench

Figure 4
a The thermometer must remain in the clamp throughout the experiment.
– Use the measuring cylinder to pour 100 cm3 of hot water into beaker A.
– Place the thermometer in the water in beaker A.
– In the first row of Table 3, record the temperature θ of the water at time t = 0 and immediately start
the stopclock.
– Record, in Table 3, the temperature θ of the water at times t = 30 s, 60 s, 90 s, 120 s, 150 s and 180 s.
– Remove the thermometer from the beaker. [1]

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Practical Test past paper questions

b i Repeat a for beaker B. Ensure that the lid is removed before pouring the hot water into the beaker.
Replace the lid immediately after pouring. [2]
ii Complete the headings and the time column in the table. [2]
Table 3
beaker A with insulation only beaker B with a lid only

t/ θ/ θ/

c Write a conclusion stating whether the insulation or the lid is more effective in reducing the cooling
rate of the water in the beakers in this experiment.
Justify your answer by reference to your results.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................................................................................. [2]

d A student thinks that the experiment does not show how effective insulation is on its own or how
effective a lid is on its own.
Suggest an additional experiment which could be used to show how effective a lid or insulation is on
its own.
Explain how the additional results could be used.
You are not required to carry out this experiment.

additional experiment ..................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

explanation ......................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................. [2]

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Practical Test past paper questions

e Students in another school are carrying out this experiment using equipment which is identical to
yours.
State whether it is important for the students to make the initial temperature of the water the same
as yours if they are to obtain average cooling rates that are the same as yours. Assume that the room
temperature is the same in each case.
Use values from your results for beaker A in Table 3 to justify if this factor should be controlled.

statement .........................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

explanation ......................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................. [2]

[Total: 11]
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625 Paper 52 Q2 February/March 2019

5 A student investigates the time taken for metal balls to stop moving after being released on a curved
track. Figure 5 shows the shape of the track. The track is flexible, so the shape of the curve can be
changed.

metal ball

Figure 5

The following apparatus is available:

a selection of metal balls of different masses
the flexible track
clamps to hold the track
a stopwatch
a tape measure
a metre rule
The student can also use other apparatus and materials that are usually available in a school laboratory.
Plan an experiment to investigate a factor that affects the time taken for metal balls to stop moving after
being released on a curved track. You are not required to carry out this investigation.
In your plan, you should:
– describe how you would expect the balls to move
– explain how you would carry out the investigation
– state which variables you would keep constant and which variable you would change
– draw a table, or tables, with column headings, to show how you would display your readings (you are
not required to enter any readings in the table)
– explain how you would use your readings to reach a conclusion.

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Practical Test past paper questions

You may add to the diagram in Figure 5 if it helps your explanation.

[Total: 7]
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625 Paper 51 Q4 October/November 2019

6 A student is investigating whether the type of container affects the time taken for water to be heated from
room temperature to boiling point.
The following apparatus is available:
250 cm3 copper can measuring cylinder
250 cm3 aluminium can thermometer
250 cm3 glass beaker tripod and gauze
Bunsen burner stopwatch

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Practical Test past paper questions

Other apparatus normally available in the school laboratory is also available.

Plan an experiment to investigate whether the type of container affects the time taken for water to be
heated from room temperature to boiling point. You are not required to carry out this investigation.
You should:
– explain briefly how you would carry out the investigation
– state the key variables that you would control
– draw a table, or tables, with column headings to show how you would display your readings (you are
not required to enter any readings in the table)
– explain briefly how you would use your readings to reach a conclusion.

[Total: 7]
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625 Paper 52 Q4 October/November 2018
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Alternative to Practical past paper questions

1 A student is determining the spring constant k of a spring.

metre rule

‘blu-tack’ between ruler

and clamp rod

spring
l0

clamp stand

bench

Figure 6

Figure 6 shows the apparatus used.

a On Figure 6, measure the unstretched length l0 of the coiled part of the spring, in mm.
Record this value of length l in Table 4 for L = 0.00 N. [1]
b On Figure 6, show how a set-square could be used to take readings in order to determine the
length l0 of the coiled part of the spring. [1]
c The student places a 0.20 N load on the spring. He records the new length l of the spring in Table 4.
He repeats the procedure using loads of 0.40 N, 0.60 N, 0.80 N and 1.00 N. All the readings are
recorded in Table 4.
i Calculate the extension e of the spring for each value of load L, using the equation
e = (l − l0).
Record the values of e in Table 4. [1]
ii Complete the column headings in Table 4. [1]
Table 4

L/ l/ e/

0.00 0

0.20 31

0.40 40

0.60 46

0.80 55

1.00 63

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Alternative to Practical past paper questions

d Plot a graph of L/N (y-axis) against e/mm (x-axis). [4]

e Determine the gradient G of the graph. Show clearly on the graph how you obtained the necessary
information.

G = ................................................... [2]
f The gradient G is numerically equal to the spring constant k.
Write down a value for k to a suitable number of significant figures for this experiment.

k = .............................................. N/mm [1]

[Total: 11]
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625 Paper 62 Q1 October/November 2018

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Alternative to Practical past paper questions

2 A student is determining the focal length f of a lens.

Figure 7 shows the apparatus used.
illuminated
object u v
screen
lens

Figure 7
a – The student places the screen about 100 cm from the illuminated object.
– She places the lens between the object and the screen so that the centre of the lens is at a distance
u = 20.0 cm from the object.
– She adjusts the position of the screen until a clearly focused image is formed on the screen.
– She measures the distance v between the centre of the lens and the screen.
– She repeats the procedure using values for u of 22.0 cm, 25.0 cm, 30.0 cm and 35.0 cm.
– The readings are shown in Table 5.
Table 5
u/cm v/cm
20.0 60.0
22.0 47.1
25.0 37.5
30.0 29.8
35.0 26.3
Plot a graph of v/cm (y-axis) against u/cm (x-axis). You do not need to start your axes at the origin
(0, 0). Draw the best-fit curve. [4]

b i – Mark, with a cross, the point on the graph grid where u = 25.0 cm and v = 25.0 cm.
– Mark, with a cross, the point on the graph grid where u = 35.0 cm and v = 35.0 cm.
– Join these two points with a straight line. [1]

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Alternative to Practical past paper questions

ii – Record u1, the value of u at the point where the straight line crosses your graph line.

u1 = ........................................................cm
– Record v1, the value of v at the point where the straight line crosses your graph line.

v1 = ........................................................cm [1]
iii Calculate the focal length f of the lens using the equation
(u1 + v1)
f= .
4

f = .......................................................... cm [2]
c Suggest two differences that you would expect to see between the appearance of the illuminated object
and the image on the screen.

1 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................

2 .............................................................................................................................................................................................. [2]
d Suggest two precautions that you would take in order to obtain reliable readings in this experiment.

1 ..................................................................................................................................................................................

2 .............................................................................................................................................................................[2]

[Total: 12]
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625 Paper 62 Q3 October/November 2017

3 Some students are investigating how the volume of water affects the rate at which water in a beaker cools.
They are using the apparatus shown in Figure 8.
100

100

clamp
90

90
80

thermometer A thermometer B
bench
beaker A beaker B

Figure 8
200 cm3 of hot water is poured into beaker A and the initial temperature rises to the value shown
a i
on thermometer A in Figure 8.
In the first row of Table 6, record this temperature θA for time t = 0.
100 cm3 of hot water is poured into beaker B. The temperature rises to the value shown on
thermometer B in Figure 8.
In the first row of the table, record this temperature θB for time t = 0. [1]

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Alternative to Practical past paper questions

ii The temperatures θA and θB of the water in each experiment at times t = 30 s, 60 s, 90 s, 120 s, 150 s
and 180 s are shown in the table.
Complete the headings and the time column in the table. [2]
Table 6

beaker A beaker B
with 200 cm3 of water with 100 cm3 of water
t/ θA/ θB/
0
85.0 86.0
83.0 83.0
81.5 80.5
80.0 78.0
78.5 76.0
77.5 74.5

b Describe one precaution which should be taken to ensure that the temperature readings in the
experiment are as accurate as possible.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................. [1]

c Write a conclusion stating how the volume of water in the beaker affects the rate of cooling of the
water. Justify your answer by reference to the results.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................................................................................. [2]

Using the results for 100 cm3 of water, calculate the average rate of cooling x1 for the first 90 s of the
d i
experiment. Use the readings from the table and the equation
θ0 − θ90
x1 = ,
t
where t = 90 s and θ0 and θ90 are the temperatures at time 0 and at time 90 s.
Include the unit for the rate of cooling.
x1 = ........................................................... [1]
ii Using the results for 100 cm3 of water, calculate the average rate of cooling x2 in the last 90 s
of the experiment. Use the readings from the table and the equation
θ90 − θ180
x2 = ,
t
where t = 90 s and θ90 and θ180 are the temperatures at time 90 s and at time 180 s.
Include the unit for the rate of cooling.
x2 = ............................................................ [1]

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Alternative to Practical past paper questions

e A student suggests that it is important that the experiments with the two volumes of water should have
the same starting temperatures.
State whether your values for x1 and x2 support this suggestion. Justify your statement with reference
to your results.

statement .........................................................................................................................................................................

justification .....................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................................................................................. [1]

f Another student plans to investigate whether more thermal energy is lost from the water surface than
from the sides of the beakers.
Describe an experiment that could be done to investigate this.
You may draw a diagram to help your description.

.......................................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................. [2]

[Total: 11]
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625 Paper 62 Q2 February/March 2018

4 A student is investigating electrical resistance.

She uses the circuit shown in Figure 9.
power supply

P L

Figure 9

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Alternative to Practical past paper questions

a Write down the readings shown on the meters in Figures 10 and 11.
V1 = ...........................................................

I1 = ............................................................
[2]

4 5 6 7 0.4 0.6
2 3 8 0.2 0.8
1 9
0 10 0 1.0
V A

Figure 10 Figure 11
b Calculate the resistance R1 of the resistor P using the equation
V
R1 = 1 .
I1
R1 = ........................................................ [1]
c The student connects the voltmeter across the lamp L.
She records the potential difference V2 across the lamp L.
2.4 V
V = ..........................................................
2

Calculate the resistance R2 of the lamp L using the equation

V
R2 = 2 .
I1
R 2
= ........................................................ [1]
d The student replaces the resistor P with the resistor Q.
She records the potential difference V3 across the resistor Q and the current I2 in the circuit.
3.5 V
V3 = ..................................................................
0.31 A
I = ...................................................................
2

i Calculate the resistance R3 of the resistor Q using the equation

V3
R3 = .
I2
R3 = ........................................................ [1]
ii State whether the results R1 and R3 suggest that resistor P and resistor Q have the same value of
resistance, within the limits of experimental accuracy. Justify your statement by reference to your
results.

statement ...................................................................................................................................................................

justification ...............................................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................. [2]

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Alternative to Practical past paper questions

e The student connects the voltmeter across the lamp L.

She records the potential difference V4 across the lamp L.
2.5 V
V4 = ....................................................................

She calculates the resistance R4 of the lamp L.

8.1 Ω
R4 = ....................................................................
She suggests that the change in resistance of the lamp from part c is due to a change in temperature of
the lamp filament. Suggest an observation that she could make to confirm that the temperature of the
lamp filament changes.

�� [1]

f Complete the circuit diagram in Figure 12 to show that:

– the two resistors and the lamp are all connected in parallel
– the voltmeter is connected to measure the potential difference across the resistors and the lamp. [2]

Figure 12
g State the name of the circuit component that you would add to the circuit you have drawn to control
the current in the circuit.

�� [1]

[Total: 11]

Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625 Paper 62 Q3 May/June 2019

5 A student investigates the time taken for ice cubes in a container to melt using different insulating
materials on the container.
The following apparatus is available:
a copper container
a variety of insulating materials that can be wrapped round the copper container
a thermometer
a stopwatch
a supply of ice cubes
The student can also use other apparatus and materials that are usually available in a school laboratory.
Plan an experiment to investigate the time taken for ice cubes to melt using different insulating materials.

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Alternative to Practical past paper questions

In your plan, you should:

– draw a diagram of the apparatus used
– explain briefly how you would carry out the investigation
– state the key variables that you would control
– draw a table, or tables, with column headings, to show how you would display your readings (you are
not required to enter any readings in the table)
– explain how you would use your readings to reach a conclusion.

[Total: 7]
Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625 Paper 62 Q4 October/November 2019

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Cambridge IGCSE™ Physics Practical Skills Workbook (Heather Kennett)

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Cambridge IGCSE™ Physics Practical Skills Workbook (Heather Kennett)

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™

310551_FM_CAM_IGCSE Phys_PS_WB_001-017.indd 1 3/23/21 9:32 PM

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1 Motion, forces and energy 18

4 Electricity and magnetism 85

5 Space physics 116

Past paper questions 119

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Completing the investigations

Questions and answers

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Special note to teachers

Using and organising apparatus and materials

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How precise are your length measurements?

Clocks and timers

How precise are your timings?

Some other measuring devices

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Figure 4 Using two set squares to measure the diameter of a cylinder

Figure 5 Using a protractor

A protractor is used to measure angles in degrees (°).

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Ammeters and voltmeters

Reading an analogue meter

Figure 6 The display of an analogue voltmeter

Figure 6 shows the display of an analogue meter with two scales.

Reading a digital meter

Tips for using meters in electrical circuits

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Observing, measuring and recording

Precision of measuring devices

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Figure 8 Introducing a systematic error into a measurement

First measurement of Second measurement of Average pendulum

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Handling experimental observations and data

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a the volume of liquid in a coffee mug ...........................................................................................................................

b the mass of an apple .........................................................................................................................................................

c the length of an envelope ................................................................................................................................................

d the diameter of a tin of tomatoes ..................................................................................................................................

e the temperature of a cup of tea ......................................................................................................................................

f the time taken to run up 20 stairs ...............................................................................................................................

g the p.d. across a lamp ........................................................................................................................................................

h the time taken by an apple to fall through one metre ............................................................................................

j the current flowing in a resistor ...................................................................................................................................

k the dimensions of a textbook ........................................................................................................................................

a the average thickness of a newspaper page

b the average time for one oscillation of a child’s swing

c the average mass of a pin

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4 Write the number 9.753864 to:

a three significant figures ................................................................................................................

b two significant figures ...................................................................................................................

c one significant figure .....................................................................................................................

b If P = 60 J/s and V = 12 V, calculate I.

ii Name a variable that is being kept constant.

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iii Complete the table below.

Independent variable Control variables Dependent variable

1 Motion, forces and energy 18

4 Electricity and magnetism 85

5 Space physics 116

Past paper questions 119

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