SHEARING 

RESISTANCE 
AND STRENGTH OF 
SOILS
• The property that enables a material to remain in equilibrium 
when its surface is not level is called shearing strength. All 
solids have this property to some extent. 

• Soils exhibit shearing strength when not in the liquid state, 
l hb h h h h l d
although the magnitude is small compared to that of other 
structural materials such as steel or concrete. 

• Shearing strength is the major structural property of soils. It is 
this property, which provides supporting ability or bearing 
capacity, and permits slopes to be stable. 
 SHEARING RESISTANCE AND 
STRENGTH OF SOILS

f il
failure surface
f

The soil grains slide

over eachh other
h along
l
the failure surface.
No crushing
N hi off
individual grains.

At ffailure,
il shear
h stress
t along
l the
th failure
f il surface
f (τ)
( )
reaches the shear strength (τf ).
Shear Failure in Soils
Shear Failure in Soils
• SHEARING STRENGTH OF GRANULAR SOIL
S = σ tan φ
• The shearing strength of a granular soil, such as clean sand, a 
sand‐gavel mixture etc is closely similar to frictional
sand‐gavel mixture etc. is closely similar to frictional 
resistance of solids in contact.

• In
In sands and in other cohesionless granular materials, 
sands and in other cohesionless granular materials
however, the resistance to sliding on any plane through the 
material is made up of: ‐

• a) Sliding friction , b) Rolling friction  c) Interlocking 

• The angle of internal friction,φ, for granular soil depends very 
much upon density
 Shearing
g strength
h, S

φ
φ
Normal stress, σ
.The angle of internal friction for dry granular soil is sometimes 
The angle of internal friction for dry granular soil is sometimes
taken as identical with the angle of repose of soil. The angle of 
repose is defined as the angle between the horizontal and the 
maximum slope at which a soil may remain stable.
i l hi h il i bl

Angle of repose,
α
• Shearing Strength of Saturated Granular Soils

• Since the normal stress is affected by pore water 
pressure, the shearing strength of sand in a 
saturated condition is always less than that of dry 
d di i i l l h h fd
condition.

S  = (σ‐u) tan φ = ⎯σ tan φ

• THE COULOMB EQUATION
• Soils, which are not purely granular, exhibit an additional 
Soils which are not purely granular exhibit an additional
strength, which is due to the cohesion between the particles.

• It is, therefore, still customary to separate the shearing strength, 
S, of such soils into two components, one due to the cohesion 
between the soil particles, and the other due to the friction 
p ,
between them. 

• The
The fundamental shear strength equation proposed by the 
fundamental shear strength equation proposed by the
French Engineer Coulomb is 
• C σ ta
SS = C+ σ φ
tan φ
• This equation expresses the assumption that the cohesion C is 
independent of the normal stress σ acting on the plane of failure. 
At zero normal stress the shear strength of the soil is expressed
At zero normal stress the shear strength of the soil is expressed 
as  S = C
 gth, S
ng streng

Mohr – Coulomb
Shearin

strength envelop
φ

Normal stress, σ

Shear strength consists of two components: cohesive and

frictional.

S  is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without 
failure, under normal stress of σ.
 SHEAR TESTS
SHEAR TESTS

• The shear strength parameters C and φ of soils either in the 
undisturbed or remolded states may be determined by any 
of the following methods
of the following methods

» Direct shear test    
Direct shear test
» Triaxial shear test  
» Unconfined compression
Unconfined compression test
 •Direct Shear Test

• This is the oldest and simplest shear test arrangement.

arrangement

• The test equipment essentially consists of a square or

circular brass box split horizontally at the level of the
center of the soil sample.

• Normal load is applied to the sample and is held

constant during a test.

• A gradually increasing horizontal load is applied to the

upper part of the box until the sample fails in shear.
 Normal Load Compression strain dial gauge

Porous stone
Loading plate Movable
frame

Soil Sample Shearing force (reading from

Dial gauge to proving ring)
measure shear
displacement Shear plane

Porous stone Fixed lower

frame
 Peak shear
strength

Shearing stress
ultimate shear strength

Shearing displacement
 Shearring strength, S
Shear stress, τ

τf3 σ3 τf3
τf2
τf2
σ2

τf1 τf1
σ1

φ σ3
Shearing displacement σ1 σ2
Normal stress,σ
 •Triaxial Shear Test
• The triaxial shear test is the most reliable method now
available for determination of shear strength parameters
and is widely used for research and conventional testing.

• In this test, the sample to be tested is cylindrical in shape

and is covered with rubber membrane.

• The sample is placed between two porous stones. Fluid

pressure is applied within the chamber containing the
sample
p gives
g uniform stress all over the surface of the
sample.
• To cause shear failure in the sample, axial (or deviator) load
is applied through a vertical loading ram.

• From the values of the deviator load (P), the corresponding

deviator stress values ((σd) can be found out byy dividing
g the
load with cross-sectional area of the sample.
 failure
plane

soil
il
sample at
failure
 Proving ring

C
Compression
i dial
di l gauge
Air release 
valve Loading ram

Water under 
Soil specimen
pressure

Rubber
Pressure membrane
gauge
Porous stone

Drainage connected to
Constant  glass burette to
pressure supply
pressure supply measure volume
change

Triaxial apparatus
• Deviator Stress  Δσd =P/A
Deviator Stress = Δσ P/A

• In
In the triaxial shear test, the applied confining 
the triaxial shear test the applied confining
pressure is equal to the minor principal stress (σ3) 

• and the deviator stress plus the confining pressure is 
equal to the major principal stress (σ
q j p p ( 1)).

• i.e σ1 =Δσ+σ
Δσ+σ3 =P/A + σ3
P/A + σ
 Corrected area
⎡ ΔV ⎤
⎢ 1 −
For drained test Vo ⎥
A = Ao ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 − ΔL ⎥
⎢⎣ Lo ⎥⎦

Ao
A=
For Undrained test ΔL
1−
Lo
Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope

Identical specimens
initially subjected to
different isotropic
stresses (σ3) and then
loaded axially to failure
Δσf

σc σc

σc σc

uf
Initially… Failure
 τ

φ
C
σ31 σ
σ11
σ32
σ12
σ33
σ13

Typical  Triaxial test results
 •Unconfined Compression Test
™ This is a special case of a triaxial compression test in
which the all round pressure σ3 = 0.

™ In this simple test, a cylindrical cohesive specimen

without any lateral support is subjected to axial loading,
till the sample fails either due to shear along a diagonal
plane or by the lateral bulging.

™ The test is an undrained (quick) test and is based on the

assumption that there is no moisture loss during the test.

™ The value of σ1 at failure is known as unconfined

compressive strength and is designated by qu.
 Pf qu
σ1 = = qu = 2C ⇒ C=
Af 2
where Pf = axial load at failure
AO
A f =
Δ L
1 −
LO
Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
The soil element does not fail if the
Mohr circle is contained within the
en elope
envelope

GL

Δσ
σc
Y σ3
σ3 σ3+Δσ
Initially, Mohr circle is a point
Δσ
Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
As loading progresses, Mohr
circle becomes larger…

GL

Δσ
σc
Y σc
σc

.. and finally failure occurs

when Mohr circle touches
the envelope
• Th
The Mohr envelope would be thought as being dependent on 
M h l ld b th ht b i d d t
the property of the material and as independent of the stress 
imposed on the material.

• The Mohr circle depends on the stress caused by the loading 
and it is independent of the nature of medium.
di i i d d f h f di
• Mohr Diagram for different type soils
• Triaxial
T i i l Compression
C i Test
T t

τf
φ θf
σ3 σ
σf
σ1 + σ 3
2
σ1

• Mohr diagram for triaxial compression test for

cohesionless soil.
 τ

φ
C
σ31 σ
σ11
σ32
σ12
σ33
σ13

• Mohr diagram for triaxial compression test for C-φ soil.

 Failure
planes
τ

C
450 900 450
σ31 σ
σ32
σ11
σ12

• Mohr diagram for triaxial compression test for purely

cohesive soil.
 Effect of Pore Water on Shear Strength
g

• Pore water pressure

• Total Stress,σ versus Effective Stress,σ′

σ′ =σ −u
• S
Shear
ea St
Strength
e gt in te
termss o
of e
effective
ect e st
stress
ess

s = c′ + σ ′ tan φ ′
• Choice of total stress versus effective stress analysis in
practice
p
 Drained and Undrained Shear Strength
• In sands excess pore water pressures generated due to
applied
li d loads
l d dissipate
di i rapidly
idl

• Therefore, in sands drained conditions exist

• In clays, dissipation of excess pore water pressure occurs

very slowly
l l

• Therefore, the short

short-term
term shear strength may assume
undrained conditions

• E
Even in
i clays,
l long-term
l gt shear
h strength
t gth iis estimated
ti t d
assuming drained conditions
• DRAINAGE DURING SHEAR

• Th
The shear strength of saturated soils is influenced by drainage 
h t th f t t d il i i fl db d i
conditions before and during shear. Hence, shear tests have 
been devised to measure shear strength of soils under three 
difference drainage conditions.

¾Unconsolidated‐
¾U lid t d Undrained
U d i d Test
T t or Quick
Q i k Test
T t
¾Consolidated – Undrained or Consolidated Quick Test
¾Consolidated‐Drained (CD) or Slow Test
 Types of shear Tests

deviatoric stress
(Δσ)

Under all-around cell Sh

Shearing
i (loading)
(l di )
pressure σc
Is the drainage valve open?
Is the drainage valve open?
yes no yes no

Consolidated Unconsolidated Drained

i d Undrained
sample sample loading loading
 Unconsolidated Undrained ((UU)) Test

™ pore pressure develops

d l during
d i shear
h
Not measured = 0; i.e., failure envelope
∴σ’ unknown
∴σ is horizontal
™ analyse in terms of σ Î gives cu and φu
™ very quick test

Use cu and φu for analysing undrained

situations (e.g., short term stability,
quick loading)
 Failure
F il envelope
l i terms
in t off
τ total and effective stress

Cu

σ`C σ`c +Δσ3

σ`C -Δσd σ`C +Δσ3+Δσd σ
Δσ d Δσ d
Consolidated Undrained (CU) Test

™ pore pressure develops

d l d
during
i shear
h

Measure Î σ’
™ gives c’ and φ’

™ faster than CD (∴preferred way to find c’

and φ’)
 ear stress
She

φ
φ(CU)

B
C D
A
σ`3 σ3 σ`1 σ1 Normal stress

(Δud)f (Δud)f
 Consolidated Drained (CD) Test

™ no excess pore pressure throughout the test

™ very slow shearing to avoid build-up of pore pressure

Can be days!
∴ not desirable

c’ and φ
™ gives c φ’

Use c’ and φφ’ for analysing

y g fullyy drained
situations (e.g., long term stability,
very slow loading)
Shearr stress

φ
B
A

σ3= σ``3 σ 1= σ
σ`1 Normal stress
(Δσd)f
σ1- σ3 Relation at Failure
σ1
X σ3

soil element at failure

soil element at failure

σ3 σ1

σ1 = σ 3 tan (45 + φ / 2) + 2c tan(45 + φ / 2)

2

σ 3 = σ1 tan (45 − φ / 2) − 2c tan(45 − φ / 2)

2
 For
unconsolidated
undrained test, in
terms of total
stresses φu = 0
stresses,
Granular soils For normally consolidated
have no cohesion. clays, c’ = 0 & c = 0.
c = 0 & c’= 0
 CD87%
3000
b)
2500 700 kPa
2000
kPa)

425 kPa
1500
q (k

1000 225 kPa

500 125 kPa
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
ε a (% )
2
c) 0
-2
700 kPa
ε p (%)

-4
-6
6 425 kPa
-8 225 kPa
-10 125 kPa
-12
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
ε a (%)
 CD30%
b ) 2400
2000 700kPa

1600 425kPa

q (kPa)
1200
225kPa
800
125kPa
400
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
εa (% )
c) 4
700kPa
3
ε p (%)

2 425kPa
225kPa
1
125kPa
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
εa (% )
 CU87%
b) 6000
5000 700kP
700kPa
4000

q (kPa)
425kPa
3000
2000
225kPa
1000 125kPa
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
εa (% )
700
c)
500 700kPa
u (kPa)

300
100 125kPa
-100
-300
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
εa (%)
 CU30%
b) 500
400 425kPa

q (kPa)
300 225kPa
200
125kPa
100
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
ε a (% )
c) 700
600 425kPa
u (kPa)

500
225kPa
400
125kPa
300
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
ε a (%)
 CUC87%,qcyc=125kPa, σ’3=125kPa
b) 8
6
4
(%) 2
0
εa
-2
-4
-6
-8
0 20 40 60 80 100
NUMBER OF CYCLES

c) 150
125
100
Pa)
u (kP

75
50
25
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
NUMBER OF CYCLES
 CUC30%,qcyc=100kPa, σ’3=125kPa
30
b) 20
10
a (%)
0
-10
-20
-30
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
NUMBER OF CYCLES

150
C)
125
kPa)

100
75
u (k

50
25
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
NUMBER OF CYCLES
 9. Vane Shear Test
™It is used to determine the undrained shear
strength of soft clays soils.

™The apparatus
™Th t consists
i t off a vertical
ti l steel
t l rod
d
having four thin stainless steel blades (vanes) fixed
at its bottom ends.

™Vane head (torsion head), complete with pointer,

stop pin, circumferential graduated scale,
calibrated torsion spring
 Procedure
P d
¾ Check that the soil type to be tested is cohesive and
suitable for Vane Shear Strength determination by the
shear vane (very sandy or brittle soils are unsuitable).

¾ Check that the vane head and vane blade are both
clean and dry, and that the pointer is free to move and
does not stick at any position on the head.

¾ Check that the vane blade is the correct size and is not
bent, worn or damaged. Check that the vane blade
shaft is not bent or damaged.
¾ Gently lower the shear vanes into the specimen to their full
length without disturbing the soil specimen

¾A
Avoid
id any excessive
i sideways
id movementt whenh pushinghi g the
th
vane into the soil. Where the vane is unable to be pushed
into the soil to the required depth, the test shall be
regarded as finished.

¾ Ch
Checkk th
thatt th
the vane pointer
i t iis att th
the correctt starting
t ti g
position on the vane head

¾ Rotate the vane head at a uniform rate of one revolution

per minute ,i.e.,. slowly until the specimen fails .
¾D
Do nott lload
d th
the spring
i beyond
b d the
th maximum
i value
l on the
th
dial or the calibration chart, otherwise the spring could be
damaged.

¾ When the soil shears, the force on the torsion device is

released
l d and
d the
h pointer
i registers
i the
h maximum
i deflection
d fl i
to which the spring was subjected. Record the maximum
deflection readingg to the nearest whole unit, from the scale
on the vane head appropriate to the blade size. Using the
calibration chart or factor, convert this reading to the Vane
Shear Strength.
Strength
™Calculation
T
τ= = Cu
⎡ 2 H D3 ⎤
π ⎢D + ⎥
⎣ 2 12 ⎦

where T = Torque
D = Diameter of Vane
H = Height
COMPACTION OF SOILS
™ Compaction of a soil may be defined as the process of closely
packing the soil particles together by reducing the air voids in
the soils, by mechanical means.

™ If the soil is not compacted well, and is piled up in a loose

state it is likely to settle down in future,
state, future or wash away easily.
easily It
is, therefore, important to compact the soils in the field to a
desired extent.

™ Compaction of a soil can be achieved by repetitive application

of loads
loads. Loads can be applied statically,
statically dynamically
dynamically, or
through vibration
™ Compaction is an entirely different process than consolidation. It 
is important to note the following basic difference between the 
p g
two processes, even though both the processes cause a reduction 
in volume.
1 Consolidation is a gradual process of reduction of volume under 
1. Consolidation is a gradual process of reduction of volume under
sustained, static loading; whereas compaction is a rapid process of 
reduction of volume by mechanical means.
2. Consolidation causes a reduction in volume of a saturated soil due 
to squeezing out of water from the soil; whereas in compaction, 
the volume of a partially saturated soil decreases because of 
p y
expulsion of air from the voids at the unaltered water content.  
3. Consolidation is a process which occur in nature when the 
saturated soil deposits are subjected to static loads caused by the
saturated soil deposits are subjected to static loads caused by the 
weight of the buildings and other structures. In contrast, 
compaction is an artificial process which is done to increase the 
density of the soil to improve its properties before it is put to any 
use .
™ Compaction of soil required for the construction of earth
dams canal embankments,
dams, embankments highways,
highways runways and in
many other engineering applications

™ The Primary objective of compaction is to improve the

engineering properties of the material in any or all of the
f ll i ways:
following

¾ b
by increasing the shear strength and thereb
thereby improving
impro ing the
stability of embankments and the bearing capacity of
foundation and pavement.
¾ by decreasing the compressibility and thereby reducing
settlement.
¾ byy decreasingg the void ratio and therebyy reducing
g permeability
p y
• Soil for a given project can be compacted up to a desired extent 
using different techniques But what is this desired extent and
using different techniques. But, what is this desired extent, and 
how much compaction effort should be applied and under what 
conditions, to achieve that desired compaction, are the major 
questions that have to get answers. 

• FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL COMPACTION
FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL COMPACTION
• Compaction of a soil is measured in terms of dry density, i.e., 
the weight of soil solids per unit volume of the soil in bulk.
the weight of soil solids per unit volume of the soil in bulk.

• If the bulk unit weight of the soil is γt and the water content ω, 
then the dry density γd may be expressed as 
γt
γd =
1+ ω
• Increase in the dry density of a soil due to compaction is
affected by
• The moisture content of the soil
• The mode and amount of compaction.
Moisture content
• The addition of water to a dry soil sample helps in bringing the 
solid particles together. Actually, the water coats the solid soil 
particles.  
• At low moisture contents the soil is stiff and it is difficult to pack 
At low moisture contents the soil is stiff and it is difficult to pack
it together.
• As the water content increases, the water starts acting as a 
lubricant, the particles start coming closer due to increased 
workability and under a given amount of compaction, the soil‐
water‐air
water air mixture starts occupying lesser volume, thus resulting 
mixture starts occupying lesser volume, thus resulting
gradual increase in dry density.
• As more and more water is added and the given amount of 
compaction carried out, a stage is reached when the                  
ti i d t t i h d h th
air‐content of the soil attains a minimum volume under this given 
amount of compaction.

• The dry density, at this stage, for the given amount of 
compaction is maximum. The moisture content corresponding to 
i i i Th i di
this maximum dry density is called the OPTIMUM MOISTURE 
CONTENT.  

• Addition of water beyond the optimum moisture content 
reduces the dry density because the extra water content starts 
occupying the space, which the soil could have occupied.
• Mode and amount of compaction

• Compaction of soil can be done by applying loads statically, 
dynamically or through vibrations.  
y y g

• Each mode of compaction transmits certain amount of energy to 
the material. 

• Th
The maximum dry density and the optimum moisture content 
i d d it d th ti it t t
depend upon the energy transmitted. 

• For all soils and with all modes of compaction, the more is the 
energy transmitted, the more will be the dry density and the less 
will be the optimum moisture content.
ill b th ti it t t
• Type of soil
• The type of the soil is the third variable on which the maximum 
The type of the soil is the third variable on which the maximum
dry density and optimum moisture content depend. 

• In general, the coarser is the soil, the more is its maximum dry 
density and less is its optimum moisture content and vice versa.  
This trend is true irrespective of the mode of compaction
This trend is true irrespective of the mode of compaction. 

• Gradation
Gradation of  soil
of soil
• The maximum dry density and optimum moisture content also 
depend on the gradation of the soil. 

• In general, the dry density of well‐graded soil will be higher than 
poorly graded soil with an opposite trend for the moisture
poorly graded soil, with an opposite trend for the moisture 
contents
 LABORATORY COMPACTION TESTS

•The optimum moisture content and the maximum dry density for a 
soil can be measured in the laboratory.  Then it is specified that the 
il b di h l b h i i ifi d h h
field density obtained by a field compaction procedure must 
correspond to a certain percentage of the laboratory value.
p p g y

• Two types of compaction procedures are usually employed in 
yp p p y p y
the laboratory

¾Standard proctor compaction test after the name of its

originator R.R. Proctor (1933)

¾Modified proctor (or modified AASHO) compaction test.

 i. The Standard Proctor Compaction Test

™ The apparatus used for the test consists of a cylindrical mould, 
with an internal diameter of 10.2 cm and an effective height of 
11.7cm, giving a volume of 944cc. 

™ The mould is placed on a detachable square metallic plate and it 
carries a detachable collar of 6.35cm height on its top.  

™ The compaction of the soil in this mould is done with a hammer 
that weighs 2.5kg (5.5lbs) and falls through a distance of 
h i h 2 5k (5 5lb ) d f ll h h di f
30.48cm (12”) inches.
 Test procedure
¾ Air‐dried soil sample passing sieve № 4 is mixed thoroughly with 
Air dried soil sample passing sieve № 4 is mixed thoroughly with
a measured quantity of water and is compacted in the mould in 
three equal layers. 

¾ Each layer is compacted by 25 blows of the rammer falling 
through 12 inches during each blow
through 12 inches during each blow.

¾ Each
Each compacted layer is raked with a spatula before placing the 
compacted layer is raked with a spatula before placing the
next layer.  This ensures a good bond between the three layers.

¾ After compaction of the three layers, the detachable collar is 
removed and the extra soil projecting above the top of the 
mould is trimmed off carefully, so as to level the soil surface
mould is trimmed off carefully, so as to level the soil surface 
with the top of the mould.
¾ The
The net weight of wet soil is determined by subtracting from 
net weight of wet soil is determined by subtracting from
the total weight of wet soil, mould and the base plate, the 
weight of empty mould and the base plate.

¾ A representative soil samples from top middle and bottom are 
taken from this wet soil to determine its average moisture
taken from this wet soil to determine its average moisture 
content.
Let,
ƒ W1  = Weight of the wet Soil + mould + base plate
ƒ W2  = Weight of empty mould + base plate
ƒ V   = Volume of the mould ,    
ƒ ω = Moisture content of the soil
• Then              
W1‐W W2 = Weight of the soil,
W i ht f th il
W1 − W2
• Wet unit weight of the soil,
Wet unit weight of the soil γt=
V
, γ
γ
• Dry unit weight of the soil ,
y g d = t
1+ω
¾ A number of such tests are conducted with soil samples having 
different moisture contents and γd worked out for all tests.

¾ From
From all these tests data, the moisture content‐dry density 
all these tests data the moisture content dry density
curve is drawn and the peak of this curve given the optimum 
moisture content and the corresponding maximum dry density.
 γd (max) Curve ΙΙ
2.0
density in ggm/cc

19
1.9
Zero air void curve 
s=100%
1.8
Curve Ι
Dry d

Curve Ι
1.7

O ti
Optimum m.c
1.6

1.5
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
7    8      9      10    11    12     13    14    15     16     17    18    19     20
Water content, ω %
 ii. Modified Proctor [AASHO] Test

¾ The standard proctor compaction test is performed where 
ordinary compaction equipment is to be used in the field.
d b d h f ld

¾ However
However, in some types of constructions it is required to use 
in some types of constructions it is required to use
heavy compacting equipments; then in order to get better 
comparable results; this test is performed with some 
modifications. 

¾ In
In this modified test, the testing equipment is similar to the one 
this modified test the testing equipment is similar to the one
used in the standard proctor’s test except that the weight of 
rammer is 10lbs and its fall is 18 inches.
¾ The testing procedure is also similar except that the soil is 
compacted in 5 equal layers, using 25 blows of the rammer for 
t di 5 ll i 25 bl f th f
each layer, the rammer falling through 18 inches during each 
blow. 

¾ The calculations of dry density and moisture content are 
id i l i h h
identical with the ones described in the proceeding test.  
d ib d i h di

¾ The
The compactive energy transmitted by the modified AASHO 
compactive energy transmitted by the modified AASHO
test is about 4.5 times the energy transmitted by the standard 
proctor test 
⎡ 5 layers 10lb 18" 25 blows ⎤
⎢ Χ Χ Χ = 4.5⎥
⎣ 3 layers 5.5lb 12" 25 blows ⎦
• Zero Air‐Void Curve [or 100% Saturation Curve]
• FFor a particular value of degree of saturation, one can compute 
ti l l fd f t ti t
different values of ω and γd, by using the relation:

Gs γω ω Gs
γd = where e=
1+ e s
Gs γ ω
γd =
ω Gs
1+
s
• If these values of ω and γd are plotted, then the curve obtained 
is known as air‐void
is known as air void curve. (For example 80% of saturation 
curve (For example 80% of saturation
curve would indicate 20% air‐void curve). The curve for 100% 
degree of saturation indicates zero air‐ void, and hence known 
as zero air‐
i void curve.
id
• Theoretically, the maximum dry density (γd) would be 
obtained when S is maximum, i.e. 100%, and all the air from 
, %,
the voids are removed. 

• The soil would then be fully saturated with that moisture 
content This however does not actually happen as certain
content.  This, however, does not actually happen, as certain 
air always remains entrapped within the water and will not be 
driven out by any amount of compaction.  This is why the 
maximum dry density lie below the 100% saturation curve.
d d l b l h
 Compaction Control in the Field.
™ The laboratory compaction test gives the maximum dry 
density and the optimum moisture content, which would give 
this maximum dry density.
y y

™ In the field when the compaction is being carried out, it is 
essential to check the dry density and the moisture contents 
so as to control the progress of the work.

™ The following two methods are more commonly used to 
determine the in‐situ density of soil.

¾ Core cutter method
¾ Sand‐replacement method
 Core cutter method
¾ The core‐cutter apparatus consists of a mild steel cutting ring and 
a dolly fits on its top.  A typical cutting ring would be 12.5cms 
high 10cms internal diameter
high 10cms internal diameter.  

¾ The lower one cm. of the ring is sharpened and made in to a 
cutting edge.  The cutter is rammed into the soil with the dolly 
placed on its top, the ramming being done with a 14cms 
diameter metal rammer when the top of the dolly is just about to
diameter metal rammer when the top of the dolly is just about to 
touch the soil, the ramming is stopped and the cutter containing 
the soil is dug out of the ground.

¾ The soil is trimmed level with the top and bottom of the cutter, 
so that the volume of the soil contained within it is equal to the
so that the volume of the soil contained within it is equal to the 
internal volume of the cutter. 
• The weight of the soil contained in the core‐cotter and its 
moisture content are than determined.
moisture content are than determined. 

• If W represents the weight of the soil, V the volume of the 
cutter and ω the moisture content of the soil, than the dry 
density γd is given by
W
γ =
d
V (1 + ω)

• This apparatus is more suitable for soft cohesive soils but  
cannot be applied to stiff clays; sand soils, and soils containing 
too many stones that can damage the cutting edge.
 Sand replacement method.
¾ In
In this method standard sand is used to fill up the excavated 
this method standard sand is used to fill up the excavated
hole by using a standard pouring cylinder.

¾ A small round hole (about 100mm diameter and 150mm deep) 
is dug and the mass of the excavated material is carefully 
d t
determined.
i d

¾ The
The volume of the hole thus formed is obtained by pouring into 
volume of the hole thus formed is obtained by pouring into
it sand of known density from a special graduated container; 
knowing the weight of sand in the container before and after 
th t t th
the test, the weight of sand in the hole and hence the volume 
i ht f d i th h l dh th l
of the hole can be determined.
¾ This method can be used for any type of soil.
This method can be used for any type of soil.
 COMPACTION OF SOIL IN THE FIELD.
A number of different types of equipment are available for 
compacting soils.  

Roller
Sheep foot roller

rammer

Vibratory plate
 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO

• The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) was developed by

California division of highways.
highways

• The test is used for evaluating the suitability of sub

sub-grade
grade
and the materials used in sub-base and base course.

• The laboratory CBR test is generally carried out on

remolded samples.

• The sample should be compacted to the expected field dry

densityy at the appropriate
pp p water content.
•The CBR is obtained as the ratio of the unit stress required to
effect a certain depth of penetration of the piston into a
compacted specimen of soil at some water content and
density to the standard unit stress required to obtain the same
depth of penetration on a standard sample of cr crushed
shed stone.
stone
Thus

Testt unit
T it stress
t
CBR =
S tan dard unit stress

• The CBR value is determine corresponding to both 2.5 mm

and 5.0mm penetration and the greater value is used for
the design. If the CBR value at a penetration of 5.0 mm is
larger, the test should be repeated. If a second test yields a
larger value of CBR at 55.0
0 mm penetration then this larger
value should be adopted
• CBR is used to rate the performances of soils used as
bases and sub
sub-grade.
grade. The following table gives typical
ratings

CBR General Rating Uses

03
0-3 V
Very poor S b
Sub-grade
d

3-7 Poor to fair Sub-grade

7-20 Fair Sub-base

20-50
20 50 Good Base or sub-base
sub base

>50 Excellent Base

• CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST
• APPARATUS
• The laboratory CBR apparatus consists of a mould , a
separate b
base plate,
l an extension
i collar
ll and d a spacer disk.
di k

• Mechanical compaction rammer

• Surcharge
Su c a ge weight
e g t to ssimulate
u ate tthe
eeeffect
ect o
of o
overlying
e y g
pavement weight.

• CBR machine: A compression machine, which can operate

at a constant rate of 1.25 mm/min. A metal piston of
1935 mm2 is attached to it.
• PREPARATION OF TEST SPECIMEN
• Undisturbed specimen
• Take undisturbed sample and determine its density and
moisture content.
• Remoulded specimen
• Prepare the remoulded specimen at Proctor’s maximum dry
densityy or anyy other densityy at which CBR is required.
q
• Calculate the weight of the wet soil at the required water
content to give the desired density when occupying the
standard specimen volume in the mould from the expression.
expression
• W =desired dry density (1+ ω) V
Where W = Weight of the wet soil , ω = desired water content
V = volume of the specimen in the mould
• Take the weight W (calculated as above) of the mix soil and
place it in the mould
• Procedure for Penetration Test

• Place the mould assembly with the surcharge weights on the

penetration test machine.
• Seat the penetration piston at the center of the specimen with the
smallest possible load, but in no case in excess of 4 kg so that full
contact of the piston on the sample is established.
• Set the stress and strain dial gauge to read zero. Apply the load on
the piston so that the penetration rate is about 1.25 mm/min.
• Record the load readings g at p
penetrations of 0.5,, 1.0,, 1.5,, 2.0,, 2.5,,
3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10 and 12.5 mm. Note the maximum load and
corresponding penetration if it occurs for a penetration less than
12.5 mm.
• Detach the mould from the loading equipment. Take about 20 to
50 g of soil from the top 3 cm layer and determine the moisture
content.
content
• CALCULATIONS

• Plot the load deformation curve for each specimen.

• In some cases the initial penetration takes place without a

proportional increase in the resistance to penetration and
th curve may be
the b concave upward. d

• To obtain the true stress

stress-strain
strain relationships, correct the
curve having concave upward shape near the origin by
adjusting the location of the origin by extending the straight
portion of the stress
stress- strain curve down ward until it
intersects with x-axis.
•The points corresponding to 2.5mm and 5.0mm penetrations
should
h ld be
b measured d from
f the
th corrected
t d zero

•Determine the corrected load values at 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm

and determine the CBR by the following relationship.

Test Load
CBR =
S tan dard Load

•Standard load at 2.5 mm is taken as 13.2 kN and at 5.0 mm

it is 20 kN.
• The CBR shall normally be measured after four days of
soaking, except in arid areas (annual rainfall less than 500
mm). This is to take into account possible worst field moisture 
This is to take into account possible worst field moisture
conditions and effects of shallow ground water table. 

• In arid areas, the CBR may be measured at OMC (optimum

moisture content) or after a reduced soaking period,
depending on the equilibrium moisture content predicted
under the pavement in the area.

• For pavement design, the road sections must be defined in

accordance with subgrade strength classes, as follows:
 Subgrade Strength Class vs. CBRs*

Sub grade Strength  Range CBR(%)
class
S1 2
S2 3-4
S3 5-7
S4 8-14
S5 15-29
15 29
S6 30+

*ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY

SITE INVESTIGATION MANUAL
• Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP)

• The DCP, also known as the Scala penetrometer, was developed 
i 1956 i S th Af i
in 1956 in South Africa

• It is an instrument designed to provide a measure of the in‐situ 
g p
strength of fine‐grained and granular sub grades, granular base 
and sub base materials, and weakly cemented materials.
Th DCP ff h f ll i b fi :
• The DCP offers the following benefits

– portable, 
t bl
– simple, 
– cost effective, ,
– it provides rapid measurement of in situ strength of 
pavement layers and sub grades. 
• Some applications of the DCP include
• correlations to CBR, unconfined compressive strength, 
• and its use in performance evaluation of pavement layers and 
quality control of compaction of fill.

•Operation and recording of data

• The DCP needs three operators, one to hold the instrument, one to 
raise and drop the weight and a technician to record the readings

• The instrument is held vertical and the hammer lifted to the 
handle. Care should be taken to ensure that when the hammer is 
raised, it does not ‘lift’ the instrument and just before the hammer is 
i d it d t ‘lift’ th i t t dj tb f th h i
allowed to drop it is just touching the handle. 

•The operator must let it fall freely and not partially lower it with his 
hands.
• Readings are taken with each blow of the weight. If the 
g g
penetration rate is below 20mm/blow, the frequency of 
readings may be decreased to:

– one for every two blows with readings from 10‐20 mm
– one for every five blows with readings from 5‐9 mm
– one for every ten blows with readings from 2‐4 mm.
y g
– Penetration depth less than 1 mm and exceeding 20 
blows is considered as refusal.
• After
After completing the test the DCP is removed by tapping the 
completing the test the DCP is removed by tapping the
hammer upwards against the handle. Care should be taken when 
doing this; if it is done too vigorously the life of the instrument will 
be reduced
be reduced.

• The
The DCP can be driven through thin bituminous seals but thick hot 
DCP can be driven through thin bituminous seals but thick hot
mixed asphalt surfacings should be cored prior to testing the lower 
layers. 

• Little difficulty is normally experienced with the penetration of 
most types of granular or lightly stabilised materials; however it is
most types of granular or lightly stabilised materials; however it is 
more difficult to penetrate strongly stabilized layers, granular 
materials with large particles, and very dense, high quality crushed 
stone.
t
• Calculations
• The field data is reduced in terms of penetration versus 
corresponding number of blows. The number of blows is 
then plotted horizontally along the x axis and the
then plotted horizontally along the x‐axis and the 
penetration reading plotted vertically along the y‐axis

• Depending on the pavement structure and 
environmental conditions the plot is divided into "best
environmental conditions the plot is divided into  best 
fit" straight lines. The slope values are then calculated by 
the change in penetration versus the change in the 
g p g
number of blows observed over the range for that 
particular straight line section ‐ expressed as mm/blow
• Determine the relationship between DCP slope and CBR.

• Based on the results of past studies, many of the relationships 
between DCP and CBR have the following form: 

log(CBR) = a + b log(DCPI)
Where
• DCPI = DCP penetration resistance (mm/blow); 
• a = constant that ranges from 2.44 to 2.60
• b = constant that ranges from ‐1.07 to ‐1.16.  
Example
• Penetration rates as low as 0.5mm/blow are acceptable 
but if there is no measurable penetration after 20
but if there is no measurable penetration after 20 
consecutive blows it can be assumed that the DCP will 
not penetrate the material. 

• Under these circumstances a hole can be drilled through 
th l
the layer using an electric or pneumatic drill. The lower 
i l ti ti d ill Th l
pavement layers can then be tested in the normal way. 

• If only occasional difficulties are experienced in 
penetrating granular materials, it is worthwhile 
repeating any failed tests a short distance away from the 
original test point.
• Test spacing
• Sampling frequency will depend on the objective of the 
testing. The following Table gives  recommended 
minimum distances between DCP tests.
Objective Minimum test
spacing

Routine testing for the rehabilitation of paved 500m or less

roads

Areas of distress in paved roads 100m or less

Upgrading of gravel roads to sealed roads 500m or less

Upgrading of gravel roads to sealed roads 50m or less