First printed in 2006 by University Printing Press, Cape Coast

Second printing in 2008 by University Printing press, Cape Coast

Third printing in 2009 by Campaign Communications Ltd, Accra
This fourth publication in 2010 by Catholic Mission Press, Cape Coast.
Fifth publication in 2011 by Yaci Computers and Press, Cape coast
Sixth publication in 2012 by Mantdik Printing Press, Accra
Seventh publication in 2014 by University Printing Press of Cape Coast
Eighth publication in 2016 by Hampton Printing Press, Cape Coast
Ninth publication in 2017 by Ajumakoman Press, Takoradi
Tenth publication in 2018 by Akoyab Multimedia
Eleventh publication in 2019 by Brenya Distribution Ltd., Accra

© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST (CoDEUCC)

2006, 2008, 2009,2010, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019

ISBN 978-9988-8468-0-0

First published 2006

All rights reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system or transmitted by any form or means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying or otherwise without the prior permission of the copyright holder.

Cover page illustrated by R. Y. Essiam

Printed and bound in Ghana by Ajumakoman Press, Takoradi

CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Basic Education

 ABOUT THIS BOOK

This Course Book ‘Computers in Education’ has been exclusively written by

experts in the discipline to up-date your general knowledge of Science issues in
order to equip you with the basic tool you will require for your professional training
as a teacher and an administrator.

This course book of thirty-six (36) sessions has been structured to reflect the weekly
three-hour lecture for this course in the University. Thus, each session is equivalent
to a one-hour lecture on campus. As a distance learner, however, you are expected
to spend a minimum of three hours and a maximum of five hours on each session.

To help you do this effectively, a Study Guide has been particularly designed to
show you how this book can be used. In this study guide, your weekly schedules
are clearly spelt out as well as dates for quizzes, assignments and examinations.

Also included in this book is a list of all symbols and their meanings. They are
meant to draw your attention to vital issues of concern and activities you are
expected to perform.

Blank sheets have been also inserted for your comments on topics that you may find
difficult. Remember to bring these to the attention of your course tutor during your
face-to-face meetings.

We wish you a happy and successful study.

Mr. Daniel Obuobi

Mr. John K.E. Edumadzi

CoDEUCC/ Post-Diploma in Basic Education i

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It has become a tradition in academic circles to acknowledge the assistance one received from
colleagues in the writing of an academic document. Those who contributed in diverse ways
toward the production of this particular course book merit more than mere acknowledgement
for two main reasons. First, they worked beyond their normal limits in writing, editing and
providing constant support and encouragement without which the likelihood of giving up the
task was very high. Second, the time span for the writing and editing of this particular course
book was so short that their exceptional commitment and dedication were the major factors
that contributed to its accomplishment.

It is in the foregoing context that the names of Mr. Daniel Obuobi and Mr. John K.E.
Edumadzi of University of Cape Coast, who wrote and edited the content of this course book
for CoDEUCC, will ever remain in the annals of the College.

I wish to thank the Vice-Chancellor, Prof. Joseph Ghartey-Ampiah and the Pro-Vice-
Chancellor, Prof. Dora Edu-Buandoh and all the staff of the University’s Administration
without whose diverse support this course book would not have been completed.

Finally, I am greatly indebted to the entire staff of CoDEUCC, especially Mrs. Cecilia
Nkrumah for formatting the scripts.

Any limitations in this course book, however, are exclusively mine. But the good comments
must be shared among those named above.

Prof. Isaac Galyuon

(Provost)

CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Basic Education viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE
About This Book … … … ... … i
Table of Content … … … … … ii
Symbols and Their Meanings … … … vi
Acknowledgement … … … … … vii

UNIT 1: COMPUTERS FUNDAMENTALS … … … 1

Session 1: What is a Computer? … … … … … 3
1.1 Brief History of the Word Computer … … … 3
1.2 What is a Computer? … … … … … 3
1.3 What Computers are not? … … … … 4
1.4 How are Computers Classified? … … … 4
1.5 By Type … … … … … … 10
Session 2: What does a Computer do? … … … … 13
2.1 The Five Basic Operations of a Computer … … 13
2.2 Computers can Perform Input Operations … … 14
2.3 Computers can Perform Processing … … … 15
2.4 Computers can Perform Output Operations … … 17
2.5 Computers can Perform Storage Operations … 17
2.6 Computers can Perform Communication Operations … 18
Session 3: Data And Information … … … … … 21
3.1 Data and Information Explained … … … 21
3.2 Classification of Data and Information … … 24
Session 4: The Information Processing Cycle … … … … 27
4.1 Information Processing Steps … … … 27
4.2 Data Collection … … … … … 27
4.3 Data Coding … … … … … … 28
4.4 Data Input … … … … … … 28
4.5 Data Editing … … … … … … 28
4.6 Data Manipulation … … … … … 30
Session 5: Computer Literacy … … … … … … 33
5.1 The Prediction of Dr. John Kemeny … … … 33
5.2 Definition of Computer Literacy … … … 33
5.3 The Necessity of Computer Literacy … … 35
5.4 Computer Literacy Curriculum … … … 37
5.5 Common Skill set a Computer Literate should Exhibit 38
Session 6: Why are computers so powerful? … … … … 41
6.1 Comparing Computers and other Machines … … 41
6.2 Speed … … … … … … … 41
6.3 Reliability … … … … … … … 42
6.4 Accuracy … … … … … … 42
6.5 Consistency … … … … … … 43
6.6 Storage … … … … … … 43

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT 2: COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM … … 45

Session 1: Computer System … … … … … … 47

1.1 Components of Computer System … … … 47
1.2 What Happens when you Boot the Computer? … 49
Session 2: Input Devices … … … … … … … 53
2.1 What is Input? … … … … … 53
2.2 The keyboard … … … … … 54
2.3 Pointing Devices … … … … … 59
2.4 Other Pointing Devices … … … … 63
2.5 Automation of Source Data … … … … 64
Session 3: Output Devices … … … … … … 71
3.1 The Purpose of Input Devices … … … 71
3.2 Printers … … … … … … 72
3.3 Plotters … … … … … … 77
3.4 Monitor … … … … … … 78
Session 4: System Unit … … … … … … … 87
4.1 Components of System Unit … … … … 87
4.2 The Motherboard … … … … … 88
4.3 Power Supply … … … … … … 90
4.4 The Central Processing Unit … … … … 91
4.5 Memory … … … … … … 93
4.6 Read Only Memory … … … … … 96
4.7 Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor … 97
4.8 Bus and Port … … … … … … 98
Session 5: Storage Devices … … … … … … 105
5.1 Basic Concepts of Secondary Storage … … … 105
5.2 Magnetic Tape … … … … … … 106
5.3 Floppy Disk … … … … … … 107
5.4 Hard Disk … … … … … … 109
5.5 Optical Disks … … … … … 112
5.6 Pen Drive … … … … … … 118
5.7 Zip Drive … … … … … … 119
5.8 Flash memory … … … … … 120
5.9 Life-Span of Storage Media … … … … 120
Session 6: The System Software … … … … … 123
6.1 Operating System … … … … … 123
6.2 Utility Programs and Device Drivers … … 129

UNIT 3: PRODUCTIVITY SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS … … 139

Session 1: Introduction to Windows … … … … … 141
1.1 Powering/Switching On The Computer … … 142
1.2 General Terms … … … … … 143
1.3 The Desktop … … … … … … 144
1.4 Using the Mouse … … … … … 146
1.5 The Start Menu … … … … … 147

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.6 Log off / Switch User; Standby / Turn off / Restart … 148
1.7 The Window … … … … … … 150
1.8 Creating/Renaming Folders … … … … 152
1.9 Copy/Cut and Paste and Delete … … … 154
Session 2: Word Processing Software … … … … … 159
2.1 The Basics of Word Processor … … … 159
2.2 Common Features of Word Processing Software … 260
2.3 Starting and Exiting Microsoft Word … … 261
2.4 Screen Elements and their Descriptions … … 162
2.5 The meaning of the icons in Formatting and Standard
toolbars … … … … … … 164
2.6 Inserting Page Numbers … … … … 166
2.7 Working with an opened but new document … … 166
2.8 Inserting a Table … … … … … 175
2.9 Inserting Picture into document … … … 176
2.10 Spell Checking Your Document … … … 177
2.11 Printing … … … … … … 149
Session 3: Spreadsheet Software … … … … … 181
3.1 What is Spreadsheet Software? … … … 181
3.2 Common Features of Spreadsheet … … … 182
3.3 Launching and Exiting Microsoft Excel … … 183
3.4 Some Elements of Microsoft Excel … … … 184
3.5 Entering data in the worksheet … … … 187
3.6 Modifying a Worksheet … … … … 189
3.7 Formulas and Functions … … … … 191
3.8 Formatting Cells … … … … … 199
3.9 Page Properties and Printing … … … … 204
3.10 Printing a Worksheet … … … … … 207
3.11 Linking Worksheets … … … … … 208
3.12 Charts … … … … … … 208
Session 4: Database Software … … … … … … 217
4.1 Database software? … … … … … 218
4.2 Using Microsoft Access … … … … 218
4.3 Basic Elements in Access … … … … 220
4.4 Creation of Tables … … … … … 225
4.5 Populating your Table with Data … … … 230
4.6 Queries … … … … … … 232
4.7 Using the Query Wizard … … … … 229
4.8 Eliminating Duplicates in Query … … … 241
4.9 Working with Forms … … … … 244
4.10 Reports … … … … … … 245
4.11 Table Relationship … … … … … 252
Session 5: Presentation Software … … … … … … 261
5.1 What is Presentation software? … … … 261
5.2 Using Microsoft PowerPoint Application … … 262
5.3 The Elements of The PowerPoint Window … … 263

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

5.4 Opening an Existing PowerPoint Presentation 265

5.5 Creating the Presentation with the Auto Content
Wizard … … … … … 267
5.6 Editing Slides … … … … … 268
5.7 Moving Slides in the Slides Sorter View … 269
5.8 Creating Speaker Notes … … … 270
5.9 Previewing and Printing the Presentation … 271
5.10 Keyboard Shortcuts for Powerpoint Application 272

UNIT 4: MULTIMEDIA IN THE CLASSROOM … … 275

Session 1 What Is Multimedia? … … … … 277
1.1 What is Multimedia? … … … … 277
Session 2: Multimedia Application … … … … 279
2.1 What is Multimedia Application? … … 279
Session 3: Media Elements … … … … … 287
3.1 Media Elements … … … … 287
3.2 Graphics … … … … … 287
3.3 Audio … … … … … … 288
3.4 Video … … … … … … 288
Session 4: Educational Software for Basic Schools and JSS … 289
4.1 Educational Software for Basic School
and JSS? … … … … … 289
Session 5: Creating Multimedia Applications … … … 293
5.1 Creating Multimedia Applications … … 293
Session 6: The Importance of Multimedia … … … 297
6.1 The Importance of Multimedia Applications … 297

UNIT 5: COMMUNICATION AND THE INTERNET … 299

Session 1: What is Communication? … … … … 301
1.1 What is a Communication? … … … 301
Session 2: Networking in School … … … … 303
2.1 Networking in School … … … … 303
2.2 Network Devices … … … … 304
2.3 Advantages of Installing a School Network … 306
Session 3: What is Internet? How the Internet Works … 315
3.1 What is Internet? How the Internet Works … 315
3.2 The TCP/IP Protocol … … … … 317
Session 4 Connecting to the Internet … … … … 319
4.1 Connecting to the Internet … … … 319
Session 5: Services on the Internet … … … … 321
5.1 Services on the Internet … … … 321
Session 6: Searching Information … … … … 327
6.1 Searching Information … … … … 327

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT 6 COMPUTER SECURITY … … … … 331

Session 1: Common Computer Security, Risk and Safeguards 333
1.1 Common Computer Security, Risks and Safeguards?333
Session 2: Viruses, Detection and Removal … … … 337
2.1 Viruses, Detection and Removal … … 337
Session 3: Unauthorized Access and use … … … 341
3.1 Unauthorized Access and use… … … 341
3.2 Good and bad Password … … … 341
3.3 Firewall … … … … … 342
Session 4: Hardware Theft, Vandalism, Software Theft,
Information Theft … … … … … 345
4.1 Hardware Theft, Vandalism, Software Theft,
Information Theft … … … … 345
Session 5: System Failure and Backup Procedures … … 349
5.1 System Failures and Backup Procedures … 349
Session 6: Information Privacy … … … … … 351
6.1 Information Privacy … … … … 351
6.2 The new Information and Communication
Technology … … … … … 352

CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Basic Education vi

SYMBOLS AND THEIR MEANINGS

INTRODUCTION

OVERVIEW

UNIT OBJECTIVES

SESSION OBJECTIVES

DO AN ACTIVITY

NOTE AN IMPORTANT POINT

TIME TO THINK AND ANSWER QUESTION(S)

REFER TO

READ OR LOOK AT

SUMMARY

SELF- ASSESSMENT TEST

ASSIGNMENT

CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Basic Education

COMPUTERS FUNDAMENTALS UNIT 1

UNIT 1: COMPUTERS FUNDAMENTALS

Unit Outline
Session 1: What is a Computer?
Session 2: What does a Computer do?
Session 3: Data and Information
Session 4: The Information Processing Cycle
Session 5: Computer Literacy
Session 6: Why are Computers so powerful?

Welcome to unit one of the module for Introduction to Computer

Education. This unit takes you through the various definitions of a
computer and its uses. How the computer performs its operations is also
discussed in this unit. We shall end the unit by looking at the reasons
why computers have become very important and powerful in the world today.

The unit has been divided into sessions and each session is further divided into sub-
sessions. This will make the use of this book very easy.

Unit Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. define the term “computer”
2. explain the function of computers.
3. list the differences between data and information.
4. dentify the major steps involved in converting data into information.
5. Give reasons why computer literacy is important.
6. List the attributes that make computers powerful.

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 UNIT 1 COMPUTERS FUNDAMENTALS

This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 Issues that are not clear, and
 Difficult topics, if any.

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COMPUTERS FUNDAMENTALS SESSION 1

SESSION 1: WHAT IS A COMPUTER?

In this session, we shall look at the meaning of computer and what

computers can do and cannot do.

Objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) explain what is computer
(b) list devices of a computer that can be found at home
(c) list the five (5) basic activities that computers can perform
(d) explain the parameters used to classify computers
(e) list the various computers that fall within each of the major categories

Now read on …

1.1 Brief History of the Word Computer

In today’s world, Computers are behind every device that has something to do with the
word “technology”, “user-friendliness”, “Hi-Tech”, “Digital”, “Automatic” and so on. It
may interest you to note that it was in 1646, the word “computer” became part of the
English language. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word "computer"
was first used to describe a mechanical calculating device in 1897. One of the reasons
for developing calculating machines was to prepare tables of numbers, first for
navigation and then for artillery. Before electronic computers were invented around
1940, the people who prepared these tables were called “computers” since they
performed computations and the machines designed to perform these calculations were
referred to as calculators and tabulators not computers. The current definition of the
term “computer”, which emphasized the device as an electronic one came into being in
the 1940s when the first electronic computing devices were developed.

1.2 What is a Computer?

By themselves computers are not intelligent devices and are referred to as hardware
since they are physical equipment made up of metals and plastics, but it handles well-
written and well-defined instructions flawlessly and fast. Because computers come in
various forms, shapes and sizes and do many different things it is quite difficult to come
out with an all-inclusive definition that is made up of all its different and common
characteristics. In this regard, the definition we shall concentrate on is for the computer
that we find in offices or school computer laboratories. Hence, we can say a computer is
a device made up of a combination of electronic and electromechanical (partial
electronic and partial mechanical) that operates under the control of instructions it is
currently storing and has the capability to perform the following activities:
a) Accepts data

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 UNIT 1
SESSION 1 WHAT IS A COMPUTER?

b) Processes the accepted data

c) Produces an output of the accepted data
d) Can store the accepted data for future use
e) Can send the output to another device

Therefore a computer is a machine that can be programmed to accept data (input),

process it into useful information (output), store it (into secondary storage device) for
safekeeping or later reuse and when necessary send the output to another device
(communication). The processing is directed by software and performed by the
hardware. The above definition is for a type of computers that is classified as general-
purpose computers. And as we said earlier on are the ones we see in the offices ,
schools, computer laboratories etc. Most intelligent devices or hi-tech devices used at
home contain something called micro-chip or micro-controller, which is the main
component of the computer. Therefore any device that has LED (light emitting Diodes)
– hence a Remote Controller can be used to control its operations or LCD (Liquid
Crystal Display) screen and a keypad- so that you can input /change settings- contains a
micro-chip making it a computer. Hence devices like Digital TV, Microwave Oven,
Sound Systems, Disk Washer, Washing Machine, Digital camera, VCR/VCD/DVD
MPS Players high-end Stereo system; Mobile Phone, etc. are all computers. These
classified as special-purpose computers

1.3 What Computers are not?

Computers do not have brains, feelings, or the ability to solve their own problem, they
can only solve problems they have been programmed to solve. Hence computers with
their own accord do not have the intellectual ability to decide how they will be used,
when they will be used, who will use them, where they will be used and the like. This
shows that computers are simply tools in hands or at the disposal of humans. Therefore
the decision of the usage of computers is the sole responsibility of humans who are to
take both the credit for the benefits we are enjoying from its correct usage and blame for
its wrong usage respectively. This should be understood. Computers can do things that
can be broken into programmable step, similar to the way recipes are prepared.

1.4 How are Computers Classified?

Computers come in various forms and are used for various purposes. Hence all
computers are not the same. Computers can be classified by purpose, by size/capacity
and by type.

1.4.1 By Purpose
Depending on the flexibility of operations or ease of adaptability, computers are divided

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COMPUTERS FUNDAMENTALS SESSION 1

into special or general purpose.

1.4.2 Special purpose computers or dedicated computers

These are most of the time designed to perform a task or restricted number of tasks.
That is to say that computer may have been designed to solve a job or a number of jobs
only. In this case a set of instructions that the computer follows to solve a problem may
be built into the hardware. They are also employed in manufacturing and designing in
the form of Robotics. All automobiles have one or more computers to control such
activities as fuel consumption, speed measurement and so on. Many home appliances
such as refrigerators, TVs, heaters and microwave ovens contain small computers to
control the appliance. Most cameras have device that controls the shutter amount of
light reaching the film. Other examples of functions perform by special purpose
computers include:
 Monitoring and controlling the operation of a nuclear power plant, oil refinery or
steel plant.
 Controlling a military weapon system.
 Regulating city traffic control operations.
 Directing operations of spacecraft, airplanes, tankers, ship submarines.
 Managing manufacturing machinery.
 Operating hospital procedures such as CT scanners
 Navigational system of an atomic submarine

Fig 1.1: Some examples of Special-purpose computers

1.4.3 General-Purpose Computers
These are designed to solve a wide range of problems. They can perform any task
required simply by changing the application program stored in their main memory.
This makes it possible to use such a computer for task such as banking, accounting,
scientific analysis etc. for instance, a desktop computer and be used to play games,
write letters, draw pictures, or solve mathematical problems, listen to music/Radio(FM),
watch movies ,TV.

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 UNIT 1
SESSION 1 WHAT IS A COMPUTER?

Fig 1.2: An example of a general-purpose computer

1.4.4 By Capacity
In the earliest stages of electronic computer development, capacity was sometimes
measured in terms of physical size. Today physical size is not a good measure of
capacity because late models of computers have achieved compactness as a result of
development of integrated circuits (ICs). Because of the ability of computer scientists
and engineers to fit more computer power into less and less space, modern desktop
computers have as much power as or more than the room-size computers built several
decades ago. Capacity is now therefore expressed in terms of the volume of work that
the computer can handle, the speed of processing it and functional units of the CPU.
Computers under capacity are classified as microcontrollers, microcomputers,
minicomputers, mainframe and supercomputers.

1.4.5 Microcontrollers Unit (or MCU)

A Microcontrollers unit (or MCU) is a computer-on-a-chip used to control electronic
devices. Hence they are also called embedded system or hidden computers, because
they are inside a device and people buy these devices instead of the mictrocontrollers.
Sometimes MCUs are also considered to be a type of microcomputers since they have
microprocessor.

A microcontroller is a single IC with the following key features:

 microprocessor - usually small and simple
 input/output interfaces such as serial ports, pad, LED
 peripherals such as timers and watchdog circuits
 RAM for data storage
 ROM for program storage

Most homes in Ghana in almost all countries in Africa may not have a general-purpose
microprocessors but somewhere one and two dozen microcontrollers. They can be
found in almost any Hi-Tech or Intelligent electronic devices such Digital or
programmeable TVs, Sound Systems, Washing machines, Dish washers, microwave
ovens, telephones etc.

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COMPUTERS FUNDAMENTALS SESSION 1

Fig 1.3: An example of Microcontrller

1.4.6 Microcomputers
Microcomputers are the smallest and cheapest systems. The part of a microcomputer
that does the actual computing is the tiny silicon chip, the symbol of 'Hi-Tech'. The
economy and small size of the microcomputer have made possible the spread of
individual owned and operated personal computers. They have a memory access times
are about 100 nanoseconds and handle 8-bit, 16-bit or 32-bit words. The original ones
handle 4-bit words. Types of microcomputer include desktop, notebook, and personal
digital assistants. Desktops sit on top or alongside a desk yet are too big and heavy to
carry around. Notebook computers are portable, weigh between 4 and 10 pounds, and fit
into most briefcases. Personal digital assistants (PDAs), which are also known as known
as palmtop computers or handheld computers, combine pen input, writing recognition,
personal organizational tools, and communications capabilities in a very small package.

 Examples are Apple Macintosh micros such as eMac computers, PowerBook

computers, iBooks computers, Power Mac G5 computers, iMac G5 iBook portable
computers, Apple MacBook Pro computers and so on.
 Examples are IBM micros are PowerPC-based computers, the IBM Series 365,
Aptiva C3D computers, NetPC computers. WorkPad handheld computer, Aptiva S6S
computer, ThinkPad 770 portable computer, ThinkPad 600 portable computer,Aptiva
personal computer, NetVista personal computer, TransNote portable computer,
ThinkPad X31 and ThinkPad T40 portable computers and so on. IBM was the first
company to name its micros as Personal Computers (PCs) since only one user can have
access to it at a time.
 IBM compatible (i.e. IBM imitations which are computers that are not
manufactured by IBM but can work with IBM oriented programs) such as Compaq,
Dell, Gateway, Packard Bell etc.

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1.4.7 Minicomputers

Fig 1.4: A block diagram of a Minicomputer with its terminals

Minicomputers make up the middle class of computer size and power. They are
physically bigger than micros.

Minicomputer, also known as mini is a largely obsolete term for a class of multi-user
computers which make up the middle range of the computing spectrum, in between the
largest multi-user systems (traditionally, super and mainframe computers) and the
smallest single-user systems (microcomputers or personal computers). More modern
terms for such machines include midrange systems (common in IBM terminilogy),
workstations (common in Sun Microsystems and general UNIX/Linux terminilogy),
and server.
They also require a high-speed line printer and can support more terminals such as 20
or more at a time.
Examples are:
 IBM System 36(S/36), Advance system 400 (AS/400).
 DEC PDP - 8 and PDP – 11
 Vax-11/780, Vax-11/750, Vax-11/782, Vax-11/730.
Minicomputer systems are usually larger and more powerful than microcomputer
systems and smaller and less powerful than mainframes. However, this is not always the
case. There are micros more powerful than the smallest minis and large minis that are
more powerful than smaller mainframes.

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1.4.8 Mainframes

Fig 1.5: A Picture of a Mainframe

The mainframe computer is used principally by large organizations such as

Universities, large business, airlines, hospitals, government agencies and manufacturing
companies and by computer service organizations such as service bureaus. These are
large, powerful and expensive general-purpose computers with a range of powerful
input/output processing and storage facilities. They support 100 or more terminals
and need a very high-speed printer. Examples are IBM 360 and, 370 (earliest), IBM
3084 and IBM 4381 (latest) , Burroughs B7900, Amdahl 5860, Cyber 170 model and
855 and NCR 8400.

1.4.9 Supercomputers
The largest and most powerful of the mainframes, used primarily by government and by
scientists are called supercomputers. They are used when organizations require
extraordinary amounts of computing power like the weather service, airline
reservations. In these organizations, vast amount of information must be processed in a
short time to provide fast response to users. It can process great quantities of data
extremely quickly and can do in several hours, the work that normally takes weeks on
conventional large mainframes.

Examples are Cyber 205, Cray X-MP Cray 2 and Cray 1 (this was for several years the
fastest computer in the world). Cray X-MP is five to eight times faster than Cray 1.

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 UNIT 1
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Fig 1.6: A picture of a Supercomputer

1.5 By Type
Basically there are three types of computers under this classification, and these are
Analog, Digital and Hybrid. This classification is done using the manner in which the
data are computed.

1.5.1 Analog Computers

Analog computers are so named because they perform computations by setting up
physical situations that are analogous to mathematical situations. Analog computers
calculate by measuring the continuous vary in some physical quantity such as pressure,
temperature and speed. Thus analog computers are essentially measuring devices like
speedometer, thermometer, voltmeters etc. The thermometer for instance compares or
draws an analog between the expansion of mercury in it and the surrounding
temperature. The speedometer in a car for instance computes speed in miles per hour by
measuring how fast the car’s wheels are rotating. As the car goes faster, the movement
of speedometer needle shows the computed speed. The oil-pressure gauge in the car is
another example. Analog computers are used mainly for scientific and engineering
purposes.

1.5.2 Digital Computers

As the name suggests, digital computers are basically counting devices. The digital
computer solves problems by counting precisely, adding, subtracting, multiplying,
dividing and comparing. It is the most common computer used in data processing
environments. Since most business data are in discrete form, the digital computer is
readily adaptable to business data processing applications. There is a limit to the
accuracy obtainable from an analog computer; however the accuracy obtainable from a
digital computer is theoretically unlimited. The speedometers of some car models are
digital.

1.5.3 Hybrid Computers

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COMPUTERS FUNDAMENTALS SESSION 1

Although computers are basically of analog and digital, there is a third type being
marketed. This is known as hybrid computer. Hybrid computers combine analog and
digital capabilities in the same computer system. This type of computer usually finds
application in the industries.

Self-Assessment Questions

Exercise 1.1
1. List any device at home that you think is a computer.
2. Give other definition(s) of computer you know apart from the one given above?
3. What are the similarities and differences between the definitions you
gave and the one stated in this book
4. Give examples of situations that computers can not be applied.
5. What activity can a computer undertake concerning data?
6. The Computers are used to type letters, memos, reports etc in most
offices is Digital, Micro and General-purpose computer. True/False?____
7. A hybrid Computer has ………………computers features or capabilities.
(a) Special- and General-purpose (b) Micro- and mini-
(c) Digital- and Analogue (d) desktop- and floor-
8) The main classifications of computers according to how data is computed are
(a) Analog, digital and hybrid (b) Special and Dedicated computers.
(c) Desktop and Windows (d) None of the above.
9) What is Microcontrollers unit?
(a) Is the largest and most powerful of the mainframes?
(b) It is a computer-on-a-chip used to control electronic devices.
(c) It is a computer designed to solve a wide range of problems.
(d) It is a computer which uses remote controllers.
10. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word "computer" was
first used to describe a mechanical calculating device in …..
(a) 1897 (b) 1840 (c) 1982 (d) 2000

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 Issues that are not clear to; and
 Difficult topics if any

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COMPUTERS FUNDAMENTALS SESSION 2

SESSION 2: WHAT DOES A COMPUTER DO?

In this session you will learn about the basic operations of the
computer namely input operation, processing operation, output
operation, storage operation and communication operation.

Objectives
At the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) explain input, processing, output, storage, and communication
operations of a computer with an illustration.
(b) distinguish between the arithmetic and logic operations.
(c) draw the Truth table for AND, OR, and NOT operators

Now read on …

2.1 The Five Basic Operations of a Computer

In today’s world, computers are found is almost all over the place; at home, offices,
Hospitals, shops, Laboratories, churches, recreational ground and so on. The teacher
can use the computer to teach subjects with graphics, sound and video effect in the
classroom. The Police Officer on highways patrol can use the computer to check a
suspected car whether or not it is stolen. The Medical Practitioner can use the computer
to diagnosis illness or to support a patient in intensive care. The Soldier can use the
computer to hit an enemy target with precision. The salesperson can use the computer to
record the items bought by a customer. These are some of the applications of
computers. The list is endless. In fact it is becoming increasingly difficult to find a
professional field or career or area of work that computers are not applicable or
computers are not used to enhance the work.

Even though we can apply computers to do anything imaginable provided that thing can
be written in a way the computer can execute, computers can do a restricted number of
basic operations.

These operations are:

1. Computers can perform Input operations
2. Computers can perform Processing
3. Computers can perform Output operations
4. Computers can perform Storage operations
5. Computers can perform Communication operations

At this point in our discussion, let me illustrate how the computer performs the
preceding five tasks. Assuming I want to know the composition of this class: how many

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ladies are in this class, whether or not all regions in Ghana are represented or not. In
order to achieve the above-mentioned objectives, the following activities would be
performed:
1. Install and open a Statistical package such as SPSS (Statistical Package for
Social Scientist), which is a program.
2. With the SPSS opened, I then prepare a template with all the appropriate data
items (also called field) such as gender, region to mention just a few.
3. I will enter each student’s biographical data in the template and save the entered
data on completion.
4. I will choose a simple statistics tool that counts the data entered by gender and
region.
5. The result can be displayed in chart on the computer’s screen or printed using a
printer.
6. I can send the result to the appropriate quarters for the relevant decision to be
made through either email or fax.

Comparing the above mentioned six activities performed above with the five operations
listed:
1. In activity 1, the computer performed both input operation (installing SPSS) and
storage operation (the installed SPSS is stored on the hard disk of the computer).
2. For activity 3, the computer again performed both input operation (entering the
data items for each student) and storage operation (saving the entered data).
3. For activity 4, the computer performed processing operation (counting the data
entered by gender and region).
4. For activity 5, the computer performed both processing operation (chart
produced out of the entered data) and output operation (displaying the result on the
computer’s screen and printing the result on the printer).
5. For activity 6, the computer performed communication operation (sending email
and fax).
6. What about activity 2?
.
2.2 Computers can Perform Input Operations
Through this operation, the computer accepts data from the outside world. This is done
with the help of the input devices such as the keyboard, mouse, microphone, scanners
and the like. The computers understand two things: on and off hence data are
represented in binary form (0s and 1s) corresponding to the two states of on and off.

Therefore any data that is inputted it text (a combination of alphabets, numbers, and
other special characters), pictures, audio or video must be converted to a unique series
of 0s and 1s using certain agreed coding schemes or standard. We shall have an in-depth
discussion of input devices in section 2 of Unit 2.

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2.3 Computers can Perform Processing

It is through this operation that data is converted to information. The processing
operation manipulates the data that is inputted.

A B C D E F
Homework Quiz Exams
Name (20%) (20%) (60%) Total Position

Gaga 14 16 51
Caca 12 13 50
Haha 15 15 45
Baba 12 18 45
Kaka 12 19 53
Mama 17 20 57
Jaja 10 17 30
Fafa 10 19 49
Lala 16 19 48
Dada 20 20 55
Fig 1.1: Unprocessed Score sheet

A B C D E F
Homework Quiz Exams
Name (20%) (20%) (60%) Total Position

Baba 12 18 45 75 9th
Caca 12 13 50 75 7th
Dada 20 20 55 95 1st
Fafa 10 19 49 78 6th
Gaga 14 16 51 81 5th
Haha 15 15 45 75 8th
Jaja 10 17 30 57 10th
Kaka 12 19 53 84 3rd
Lala 16 19 48 83 4th
Mama 17 20 57 94 2nd
Fig 1.2: Processed Score sheet

For example, the computer can add the numbers in columns B, C, and D together and
the result is stored in column E. Again, the computer can arrange the names in column
A in alphabetical order. These are some of the processing operations that computer can
perform. The information we can obtain from the processed score sheet in figure 1.2 is
that the student called Dada scored the highest mark with Jaja scoring the least mark.

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The processing operation can be divided in two groups: Arithmetic and logical
operations.

The Arithmetic operation involves the usage of basic arithmetic operators such as
addition (+), subtraction (-), multiplication (*) and division (/) in performing
calculations on data. An expression or operation with any of the arithmetic operators is
known as arithmetic expression (operation) thus Sales-Cost is an arithmetic expression
whilst Profit = Sales-Cost is an arithmetic equation. Sales and Cost are known as
operands.

With the logical operation, the computer is able to compare two or more data and
determines whether or not they are equal to (=) or not equal to (! = or <>). The = or
<> operators are known as relational operators. If the two data items to be compared are
different, then the computer can use these other relational operators: greater than (<),
greater or equal to (=<), less than (>), less than or equal to (>=), to perform the
comparison operation. Examples of logical expressions are Age >= 18, A-357 <> B/60.
The result of a logical expression can take one of two possible values at any time. The
two values are “True” and “False”, which are known as Boolean values. Hence logical
expressions are also known as Boolean expressions, named after a French logician
called George Boole, who is the father of logic algebra.

The computer uses these two logical operators (and (Λ) operator / or (ν) operator) to
concatenate or join two or more logical expressions together so that they form one
logical expression. The result of the relational operators is a Boolean value. The other
relation operator is “is not (!)” for negation. The Truth tables for these operators are
shown in figure 1.2.
Assuming that P and Q are two logical expressions with the outcomes of P and Q being
True and False respectively, the following Truth Tables is possible.

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Explanation of the Truth tables

For the Λ Truth Table: True (P) from column 1 and False (Q) from row 1 results in
False. That is P Λ Q is false. We can conclude that to get the result to be true for the Λ
operator is that both expressions must be true.

For the ν Truth Table: True (P) from column 1 or False (Q) from row 1 results in true.
That is P ν Q is true. We can conclude that to get the result of a ν operator to be true is
that at least one of the expressions should be true.

For the ! Truth Table: ! P becomes false while ! Q becomes true.

The computer uses logical expression for decision-making. For example, the computer
will assign grade of A to students whose total marks is between 100-80 inclusive else it
assigns either B+, B, C+, C, D+, D or F depending the total marks.

2.4 Computers can Perform Output Operations

This enables the result generated by the processing operation, which is information is
made available to the user. What is the benefit of processing if users are not able to see
its outcome? Usually the user obtains this result either by reading it on the monitor or
print out via the printer. The computer always output information in the form that is
humans understand or like. These forms could be text, pictures, audio or video. Hence
before the output is done the computer must convert the information from binary format
to that above-mentioned format.

2.5 Computers can Perform Storage Operations

Most of the time, the information produced by the computer is not the fly but must be
kept inside it for future use. Whenever there is the need to store information in the
computer, a storage operation is performed. As you are aware, the computer will store
the information in digital format, which is using zeros (0s) and ones (1s). The format in
which the stored information is kept depends mainly on the type of the storage media
used. It could be stored with magnetized spots and un-magnetized spots for magnetic
media (i.e. floppy disk, hard disk, and magnetic tape) or with pits and lands for optical
media (i.e. CD and DVD).

2.6 Computers can Perform Communication Operations

We shall limit communication in this discussion to sending data or information:
1. From one section of the computer to another section of the same computer. For
example the text you enter via the keyboard is send to the primary memory, which in
turn displays it on the monitor. When you save a document in the primary memory, a

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copy of it is send to the secondary memory. When you print a document, it is send to
the print queue for the printer to print.
2. From one computer to another computer. This usually occurs when you
download or upload files from one computer to another. For example, Microsoft
Automatic Updates when activated on your computer will check an appropriate server
from Microsoft Corporation for whether or not a recommended security updates, critical
updates, and services packs exist. If any dres exist, it will automatically be downloaded
unto your computer and installed. During the checking and downloading, there is a
communication between your computer and another computer at Microsoft Corporation
in Redmond, Washington, USA. Similar communication occurs for most Antivirus
updates such as Norton Live Update. Again anytime, you open a browser (e.g.
Netscape, Internet Explorer, Opera, etc) to view a webpage, it fetches the requested web
page from a particular Web server.
3. From one user to another user. You can use communication programs for
emailing, chatting and telephoning or video conferencing with people. This can be
either online or offline. When you want to chat with a friend on the Internet using
Yahoo Messenger for example, both of you should be connected to the Internet at the
same time using computers that has already configured for such activity. This is online
communication since both parties must be on the net at the same time for this
communication to be effected. When you send an email, the recipient reads it at his or
her own convenient time. This is an offline communication since immediate response is
not need for the communication to be effected.

Before we end this section, we must say that there are certain things that computers
cannot do. These are:
 Things that cannot be described by an algorithm
 Things that are not part of the program installed in the computer.

Self-Assessment Questions

Exercise 2.1
1. State the basic operations the computer performs and explain how it carries out
these operations.
2. Considering the following activities, indicate the type of computer operations
(stated in Q1) that are involved.
 Installing and opening an office package such as Microsoft Word.
 Opening a statistical Package such as SPSS and preparing a template with all
the appropriate data items such as age, gender and region.
 Printing and sending results of students via fax.

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3. Give examples of the things computers cannot do.

4. Using the Truth tables explain the logical operators “OR” and the “AND”
operators.
5. Group the following operators under the heading Arithmetic, Logical and
Relational operators.

(+, *,!, / , > , - , =,< , Λ , ν )

6. Fill in the blank spaces to make the following sentences complete.

(a) The results of ……………expression can take one of two values. These
values are……..and ……….They are known as………. Values.
7. Explain and give an example of an offline communication program.
Consider the following situations:
The recipient is currently browsing a webpage on the net in one window when you sent the
email.
The recipient has already opened another window that contains the Inbox of the account to
which you have just sent the email to.
Is the email situation mentioned above still offline communication or online communication?
Explain.
8.

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 UNIT 1
COMPUTERS FUNDAMENTALS SESSION 3

SESSION 3: DATA AND INFORMATION

Welcome to session 3, in our last section we talked about the basic

operations of computers, (input, output, processing and
communication). We shall see in our discussions what really goes
into the input operations and what comes out of the output
operations. (Data and information)

Objectives
At the end of the session you should be able to:
(a) explain the difference between data and information.
(b) state and explain the criteria that are used to classify data and information.
(c) state and explain the criteria used to assess the goodness of information.

Now read on …

3.1 Data and Information Explained

Since the time of Pluto-the Great Greek Philosopher- philosophers have tried to define
data and information with different people saying different things. We said in our
definition of computers that the computer’s main function is to process data into
information. Hence this data and information dichotomy in computing is very
important. This is not because we are living in an era known as Information age but
rather information enhances decision making, which leads to action.

Data is the plural form of datum. The singular form is rarely used hence you can’t hear
anyone saying, “Please give me one datum to test the computer program”. The word
data has become common that it is now treated as either singular or plural. Datum
comes from Latin, which is originally meant “something given”. Therefore anytime you
give anything to a computer for processing that something is data.

When we mention data in Information processing, the following is considered:

1. Data, which is the raw material for producing information, can be considered as
groups of non-random symbols that represent quantities, actions, objects etc. The
non-randomness mentioned is because we used specific symbols to depict the
quantity of the data collected. For example, in order to say that the age of the
youngest person in this class is twenty-five, I don’t use any random symbol but
rather the one that has been agreed upon so that it is recognised. Therefore, we can
use the Arabic number 25 or the Roman number XXV and so on to represent the
age. Data is numbers, words, or pictures without context. For example "42",
"rabbits", "4.00", "76", "mangoes", "04230859", "40000", "Cape Coast", and

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“Accra”. Without the situation or circumstance under which the above data were
derived, it becomes meaningless or difficult to comprehend. For example, what is
“42” or does it represent? Is it 42 hours, or 42 meters or 42 something? Even with
these qualifiers, it is still difficult to understand what that data actually is.
Another example of the meaningless nature of data is how you interpret 110110. It
may be interpreted as date, a house number, a telephone extension number, a
postcode or a binary number. However once you are made aware that it is the
default password for UCC students’ email account it becomes meaningful and
hence information.

2. Data relevant to information process and decision-making may also be in the

form text, images and voice. For purposes of computer processing, data are
organized into structures such as Fields, Records, Files, and Database so that
they can be accessed. It is important to note that data to be processed may be
inputted from an input device, or stored in a storage medium.

3 In fact all the events or things that had happened in the past or are happening
now or would happen in the future and are of interest to us can be considered as
data. This is because we can process it to extract pattern from it, which may
enhance decision-making and therefore an action could be taken from it.

On the other hand, information is derived from data that has been processed and is
useful or meaningful to the intended recipient. The usefulness or meaningfulness of
information versa vice that of data is that information has a context. That is information
is derived within a context. We shall use the tables in figure 1.3 to explain how
meaningless data within its context is transform into meaningful information.

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In figure 1.3(a), the two zeros in columns C and D for Dada’s details have the same
value but are meaningless since we don’t know what they represent. Again, the fact that
they are in different columns make them different even though both are zero. Likewise
the two fours, the two eights, the two ones and the two zeros for the details of Fafa,
Jaja, Kaka and Mama respectively are all difficult to explain without the context.

Table headings make values to be meaningful since they serves as the context within
which the values are evaluated. From figure 1.3(b) we know that the two fours in
columns C and D for Fafa indicates that Fafa was absence from classes on four
difference occasions and each occasion Fafa didn’t asked for permission.. The headings
make the values to be meaningful, which is information. This is because; we can make
decision out of the tabulation in figure 1.3 (b). One decision we can make on the fly
(which is not conclusive) is that Baba is a truant student since he never ask permission
for his absence in class.

One thing we should not forget is that data and information can be used interchangeably
since information to one person may be data to another person especially when that
information needs to be processed further. The diagram in figure 1.4 is use to illustrate
this fact.

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SESSION 3 DATA AND INFORMATION

In figure 1.4, the output from computer 1, which is information, became the input of
computer 2, which is data. The diagram above shows how data and information can be
used interchangeable since information from computer 1 becomes data for computer 2.

3.2 Classification of Data and Information

As we have been made aware, data and information can be used interchangeably. Hence
this classification is for both data and information. The criteria that are used to classify
data and information are:
1. By source: e.g. internal, external, primary, and secondary
2. By nature: e.g. quantitative, qualitative, formal, and informal
3. By level: e.g. strategic, tactical, and operational
4. By time: e.g. historical, recent, and future
5. By frequency: e.g. continuous, hourly, daily, monthly, quarterly and annually
6. By use: e.g. planning, control, and decision making
7. By form: e.g. written, oral, and visual.
8. By occurrence: e.g. at planned intervals, occasional, and on demand etc
9. By type: e.g. detailed, summarized, aggregated, and abstracted

1. By source: This can refer to where it was produced or obtained. When

considering where it was produced, we can have internal (i.e. where the data is
being used is the same as where it was produced) or external (i.e. where the data
is being used is difference from where it was produced). With regards to where
it was obtained, we can have primary (i.e. data obtained inside where it was
produced) or secondary (i.e. data obtained outside where it was produced). Data
that enables for instance the University of Cape Coast to determine your
academic performance is obtain inside the university from the results of all the
courses you registered. Whilst the data used by the university of Cape Coast to
admit you was mainly from outside the University that is West African
Examination Council.
2. By level: We mean the level within the organisation or the school system where
the information is used. The operational level personals use information for day-
to-day management of the organisation or education system. For example line
managers, supervisors or foremen for organisation and classroom teacher or
subject teacher for the education system. Students’ attendance and teachers’

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COMPUTERS FUNDAMENTALS SESSION 3

lesson note preparation may be considered as operational level information.

Tactical level information used to control operational level activities. Strategic
level information is used for policy making or planning.
3. By time: It refers to the currency of the information. Is the information old or
up-to-date? For some situation such a student’s financial status, up-to-date
(present) information is needed while for others such as selecting a student for
scholarship historical information is preferred. Recent information is neither
very current nor very old information.
4. By frequency: Consideration is given to how often the information is produced
or used. Teachers’ payslip is monthly information. For annual information, we
can consider the Vice Chancellor’s or the Head Master’s annual report for
Congregation and Speech and Prize giving day respectively.
5. By use: We are referring to how the information is used within the organisation,
which could be for controlling planning and decision making.
6. By format: We mean how the information is presented to the recipient.
Classroom lectures are presented using the multi-sensory approach, which
should aural, visual and written. Some information is communicated verbally,
whiles others are written.

Self-Assessment Questions

Exercise 3.1
1. Write short notes on the differences between Data and Information.
2. State and explain the criteria used to classify Data and Information.
3. Match the following criteria used to classify information with their
examples.

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SESSION 3 DATA AND INFORMATION

Classification Example

1. By source Decision-making
2. By level: Historical
3. By frequency Written
4. By form Present
5. By nature On demand
6. By time Continuous
7. By use Quarterly
8. By type Summarized,
9. By source Operational
Occasional
Aggregated
Formal
External

4. Using the Classroom, School or the Education Industry as your example,

describe the classification of information as stated in Section 3.2.
5. VIII is data because it is Roman numeral. True/False?
6. Information and Data can be used interchangeably. True/False?

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THE INFORMATION PROCESSING CYCLE SESSION 4

SESSION 4: THE INFORMATION PROCESSING CYCLE

In this session we shall discuss how the processing of data to produce

information is done. We shall look into details the Information
processing cycle (data collection, data coding, data input, data editing,
and data manipulation)

Objectives
At the end of the section you should be able to:
(a) explain the steps involved in the process of collecting data
(b) develop an ability to analyse the accuracy and validity of data
(c) develop an understanding of how data is changed into information
(d) state and explain all the stages of the Information Processing cycle

Now read on …

4.1 Information Processing Steps

Anytime you want to convert data into information, you do so through stages in a
logical order. Therefore you need to know what each of step means, how it differs from
other steps, and what sorts of processes are relevant to each step. It is important to note
the following:
 It is not necessary to go through the stages in the same order as given
 Not all data to information conversion utilizes all steps
 In some data into information conversion, some steps may be repeated
Information processing is the steps of operations and procedures required to process
data and produce meaningful information. It is sometime also known as Electronic Data
Processing since nowadays computers are used to change data into information. These
steps are
1. Data collection
2. Data coding
3. Data input
4. Data editing
5. Data manipulation

4.2 Data Collection

This is the collection of raw data from the world outside the computer system so that the
computer can manipulate it. This can be done through interviewing, observation and so
on. Examples are:

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 Payroll staff collecting the allowances, overtime claims and others so that staff
salaries may be computed.
 Conducting a survey of customer's opinions on which products or services to be
introduced or rating of staff performances
 Using a form on a website to collect visitors' opinions
 A lecturer’s gathering of students’ marks for assignment, quizzes, and exams for
the computation of grades.

4.3 Data Coding

Before raw data is entered into a computer it may need to be coded. Coding involves
labelling the responses in a unique and abbreviated way (often by simple numerical
codes). The reason raw data are coded is that it makes data entry and data manipulation
easier. Coding can be done by interviewers in the field or by people in the office (Data
Entry specialist).

For a questionnaire, to code the gender of respondents, it could be agreed to used 1 for
male and 2 for female or vice versa. Likewise to record the region of one’s birth we can
use the numbers 1-10 to represent the ten regions in Ghana. A closed-ended question
implies that only a fixed number of predetermined responses are allowed, and these
responses can have codes affixed on the form. An open-ended question implies that any
response is allowed and making subsequent coding may sometime is more difficult.
You can go around this difficulty by selecting a sample of responses, and design a code
structure which captures and categorises most of these.

4.4 Data Input

This is the entering of the data coded or collected into the computer system. The
keyboard of a computer is one of the most commonly known input, or data entry
devices currently in use. Other input devices in current use include light pens,
trackballs, scanners, mice, optical mark readers and bar code readers. Bar code readers
used in shops, supermarkets or libraries to enter data directly into the computer system.

4.5 Data Editing

Before being processed as information, data should be put through a process
called editing. This process checks for accuracy and eliminates problems that can
produce disorganised or incorrect information. Data editing may be performed by
clerical staff, computer software, or a combination of both. Remember GIGO: garbage
in, garbage out. Processing rubbish data gives rubbish information. Hence, as much as
possible, the data entered must be thoroughly checked and be free of errors. If this is
done, then there is ample guarantee the result from the data processed would also be
free of errors.

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Some editing processes that could be employed are Validation or Validity check,
verification check and consistence check.

4.5.1 Validation or Validity Check

This is checking the quality of the data before it is processed. Validation is ensuring that
the input data is of the right type (e.g. numeric or string) and within reasonable limits.
For example, alphabetic characters do not appear in a field that should have only
numerical characters, or the month of year is not greater than 12 likewise day of the
month not greater than 31.
Validation can include:
 Existence: is some essential data simply missing, such as a name?
 Reasonableness: does it seem logical? Checking hours are within reasonable
limits. For example, anything over say 50 hours a week may be questioned if
overtime has not been approved
 The age of an undergraduate fresher is between 18 and 40.
 Type check: e.g. have letters been entered instead of digits?
 Format check: e.g. Date must be entered as dd/mm/yy?
 Range check: is a date in August between 1 and 31?
 Sending data back to its source for confirmation before it is entered into a
system
 Using a check digit to validate a credit card number
It is important to note that validation does not check that data is 100% accurate (e.g.
when Fred says he's 23, is he really 23?) but it can highlight suspicious entries. It is
possible that data can be valid, but inaccurate.

4.5.2 Verification Check

This is the checking of the accuracy of entered data by entering it again and comparing
the two results. In some situation, the same person enters the data twice whiles in others
two different people enter the data twice. A common example of this is when you are
asked to enter a new password twice to ensure it has been entered accurately.

4.5.3 Consistency Check

This checks the logical consistency of related answers. In survey, respondents
sometimes consciously or unconsciously give contradictory answers to seemingly
related question items. Hence this should be checked. Some surveys ask similar
questions in different parts of the survey to check whether people are lying when they
answer questions. For example, an answer stating never married should not be followed

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by one stating divorced. Likewise a male who attended a female only school may be
impossible.

Data editing should detect and minimise errors such as:

 Questions not asked by interviewers,

 Answers not recorded, and
 Inaccurate responses.

4.6 Data Manipulation

This is also known as processing. After editing, data may be manipulated by computer
to produce the desired output i.e. at this stage, data is converted into information. For
example the millions of responses from respondents entered from a national census is
converted into charts that clearing shows trends and actually indicated sometime that is
sensible or understandable to the recipient. The software used to manipulate data will
depend on the form of output required.

Examples:
1. Finding the average ages of male and females in this class. Which group is
older?
2. Counting the number of male and female responding to the survey
3. Finding the different religious groups being represented in this class.

Some ways that software can manipulate data are:

1. Formulas can be created that automatically add columns or rows of figures
calculate means and perform statistical analyses.
2. What-if analysis of data could be performed so that the effect of changes could
be observed immediately.
3. Financial worksheets such as budgets or expenditure forecasts, balance accounts
and analyse costs could be prepared easily.
4. Data could be sorted so that trends easily spotted
5. Aggregation function such Counting, Average, Minimum, Maximum etc enables
the summarization of data.
6. Charts can be created from a table of numbers and displayed in a number of
ways, to show the significance of a selection of data. Bar, line, pie and other
types of charts can be generated and manipulated to advantage.

Processing data provides useful information called output. Computer output may be
used in a variety of ways. It may be saved in storage for later retrieval and use. It may
be printed on paper as tables or charts, put on a transparent slide for overhead projector
use, saved on flash disk for portable use in other computers, or sent as an electronic file
via the Internet to others.=

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Types of output are limited only by the available output devices, but their form is
usually governed by the need to communicate information to someone. For whom is
output being produced? How will they best understand it? The answers to these
questions help determine one’s output type.

Self-Assessment Questions

Exercise 4.1
1. State the steps involved in converting data into information spelling out the
differences between each step.
2. Explain why raw data has to be coded before entered into a computer.
3. At what state of the information processing cycle is data converted to information.
Complete the following sentence
4. Data Manipulation is also known as …………………
5. Provide the Information processing step and that is related to the following activities
a. Using a form on a website to collect visitors' opinions
b. For a questionnaire, the gender of respondents used are1 for male and 2 for female or
vice versa.
c. Bar code readers used in shops, supermarkets or libraries
d. Validation or Validity check, verification check and consistence check.
e. Checking of the accuracy of entered data by entering it again and comparing the two
results
f. Checking the logical consistency of related answers
h. Counting the number of male and female responding to the survey

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 Issues that are not clear to; and
 Difficult topics if any

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COMPUTER LITERACY SESSION 5

SESSION 5: COMPUTER LITERACY

In this section, we shall look at the various definitions of the term

“computer literacy” and the skills to be acquired in a computer literacy
programme. We shall also explore what should be the content of a
computer literacy curriculum.

Objective
At the end of this session, students should be able:
(a) explain what computer literacy is
(b) list the various views on computer literacy
(c) specify the need for computer literacy
(d) identify the computer skill set a computer literate should exhibit

Now read on …

5.1 The Prediction of Dr. John Kemeny

Somewhere in 1964, a professor of mathematics in Dartmouth College, USA, by name
Dr. John Kemeny said, “knowing how to use a computer will be as important as reading
and writing”. We are now in the position to verify that validity of Dr. Kemey’s
prediction since computers especially microcomputer can be seen all over the place and
being used by all sorts of people-Academician and non-academicians. The current
situation of computers being found in almost everywhere, and being used by everybody
is quite different from the days the prediction was made, where only few people such as
mathematicians, scientists, engineers had access to the computer.

5.2 Definition of Computer Literacy

The precise definition of "computer literacy" can vary from group to group. The two
people who are credited for the original term computer literacy are John Nevison and
Andrew Molnar. It is reported that the term computer literacy originated from both.

The term has been attributed to Andrew Molnar in the early 1970s. He was director of
the Office of Computing Activities at the National Science Foundation.

In 1976 John Nevison coined the term computer literacy, when he wrote: “Because of
the widespread use of elementary computing skill, there should be an appropriate term
of this skill. It should suggest an acquaintance with the rudiments of computer
programming, much as the term literacy connotes a familiarity with the fundamentals of
reading and writing, and it should have a precise definition that all can agree on. It is
reasonable to suggest that a person who has written a computer program should be
called literate in computing.”

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One aspect of the above definition that we don’t support is the emphasis on computer
programming, which is one of the ways people interact with the computer.

Before we proceed on the definition of computer literacy, it is worth noting what the
word literacy means. Literacy is the ability to read and write at some minimum level.
The minimum level mentioned here is for the literate person to interact and participate
meaningfully in the society. Hence being illiterate is considered as a handicap
warranting other members of the society to offer a helping hand.

Computer literacy is being aware of the value of the computer and having the minimum
knowledge, know-how, familiarity, capabilities, and abilities about computers that is
necessary for an individual to interact with the computer so as to function well in this
Information Age or Technological-oriented society.

The three things that should be part the definition computer literacy are awareness,
knowledge and interaction.

1. Awareness: This is being conscious of the importance, versatility and

pervasiveness (commonness or popularity) of computers in modern society.
Computers are essential tools nowadays that can be found in almost everywhere
in our society. Anytime we use cash registers, Automatic Teller Machines,
phone systems, cars etc, we must be aware that these have microcontrollers or
microchips inside them. Sometime computer literacy is also known as computer
awareness.

2. Knowledge: This is requisite know-how as what computers are and what they
are not, what they can do and what they cannot do. Some people think
computers can do all things while others are of the opinion that computers are
bad. Therefore in other for a person to become computer literate that person
should learn what they are and how they work.

3. Interaction: This is the ability to use the computer with all confidence to
perform tasks that the computer is the best tool for it. Whether or not these tasks
are simple or complex is not the issue but rather one’s ability to recognize that
computers can be used to solve the problem or perform the task at hand is
important. In view of this, computer literacy course should emphasis the usage
of computers to perform real-life tasks. This will enable student to know to a
large extent when to apply computers and when not to apply computers.
5.3 The Necessity of Computer Literacy
With computers pervading our lives in a significant way, it is becoming imperative that
each and every person be computer literate. One IT education organization NIIT-a
global leader in IT Profession Education from India has dedicated December 2 as World

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Computer Literacy Day (WCLD). Since 2001, when WCLD, was launched, NITT has
trained Hundreds of Thousands of hitherto computer illiterates in ICT.

The reasons that necessitate computer literacy are as follows:

Commonness of computers: Computers have become increasingly predominant in
today's society. They exist in our schools, in our workplaces, in our libraries, in our
homes, and in many other places. They are the subject of countless magazines,
advertisements, and commercials. They control manufacturing plants, satellites,
surgical instruments, and countless other objects. If their being common does not
edge you to become computer literate consider that their being common implies that
they also will affect your daily thereby making it imperative for us to know how to
use them. In most countries electronic booking on the net is the easily manners of
booking for bus, train and domestic flight. Anyone who is computer illiterate can
not participate in this e-booking. The same applies to ATM transaction, sending text
messages or fax and so on. To live an everyday life in today’s world often means
coming into contact with computer-based systems.

Narrowing the “Digital Divide”: There are billions people, who are living in smaller
towns and villages and in the lower socio-economic sections of our Hi-Tech world who
have been left behind in the IT revolution engulfing us like an uncontrolled fire. The
“Digital Divide” has created a world with a small proportion of “Haves” who know
computers and a huge section of “Have-nots” who are not equipped with even basic
computer literacy skills. Therefore computer literacy is one of the means for reducing
this “Digital Gap” since those computer literate may acquire computers, which is
becoming increasingly cheaper and cheaper. The two factors that has contributed to the
Digital Divide are:
 Low penetration of PCs and Internet in major parts of our world.
 Computer literacy is confined to a smaller part of the world-majority of the First
or Developed countries and some educated elite in the Third world-Developing
and Under-developed countries.

1. To better the lives of future generation: Almost all students today will
use computers during their lifetime or will be affected by them.
Therefore they need to know about the computer as an effective tool for their future
activities.

Potential for Development: Information and Communications Technology (ICT)

education is a significant contributing factor to the ability of a country to develop as a
knowledge economy and participate in the global knowledge economy. For developing
countries it is also essential to tap into resources for development, in areas such as
agriculture, village based industries and community projects, which are enormous on
the Internet, CDs, DVDs and so on.

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1. Enhancing learning: The use of ICT in education enhances learning in other

subject areas and can adapt the learning process to the individual student level.
This flexibility enables educational development to be accelerated.
2. Enhancing the lives of people with disability: There have been many research
findings indicating that computer literacy enhances the lives of our brothers and
sisters with disability so that they can effectively contribute their quota to this
world. Therefore many computer literacy programmes have been established to
this affect. One of such programmes aimed at training people with vision
impairments is Equal Access to Technology Training (EATT)-a project partly
funded by European Union and Leonardo da Vinci Programme. EATT
observed that people with vision impairments are limited in their participation
in social, cultural and economic life due to lack of access to IT training and
lack of computer literacy. When they conducted a research on the issues stated
above, it concluded that acquiring IT skills is likely to lead to increased social
inclusion, more access to training, better employment opportunities and better
prospects for advancement in the workplace.
3. Necessity to participate in other alternative means of communication:
Information and Computer Technology comes with excited, quicker, and cheaper means
of communication. Such as Emails and Instant Messages (IMs) programs. and cheaper
means of communication. With the emergence of Internet telephony programs such as
Skype, people all over the world can talk for virtually any amount of time free of charge
via headsets attached to their computers. People need to know how to communicate
with the aid of computer technology for their work purposes as well as keeping in touch
with family and friends, and meeting new people who share their interests.
Provision of Employment Opportunities: Computers have become an indispensable
part of our daily life, regardless of the user’s age or location. The computer technology
field is one of the most thriving, lucrative modern career options. There is a great
demand for programmers, webmasters, and many other similarly trained people in the
Information Technology fields in today’s workplace. Even in the fields that are not
strictly computer-related or do not seem to have any affiliation with computers at all, a
bare minimum of computer literacy is required. The most basic computer skills are
necessary for, or at least greatly increase the possibility of, attaining and securely
holding almost any kind of job imaginable. Everyone entering the workplace should be
able to, at the bare minimum, type a document in a word processor, access the Internet
and check email, and run programs.
Employers now prefer people with computer literacy skills to those without it. This
appears to be the case in many developed as well as developing countries. It is,
therefore, important that any education training should make room for computer literacy
skills. In the realisation of this, however, our education planners and policy makers
should reflect and redesign our education to make computer literacy the central focus of
our curriculum.

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5.4 Computer Literacy Curriculum

Many courses are springing up in elementary, junior secondary and senior secondary
schools, Polytechnics and universities that use the name computer literacy. But an
examination of these courses and the recommended books for those courses shows that
however the term may be but there is little or no agreement as what computer literacy
should be.

From our point of view, this seemly disagreement in what constitute computer literacy
is so because of the reasons stated below:
 Computer literacy is subject-dependent
 People in the same profession may use the computer differently
 Computer literacy is future-oriented
 Different people may desire different level of computing knowledge

One way that computer literacy differs to other literacy such as mathematics literacy,
Science literacy; English literacy and so on is that it is much more subject-dependent.
That is different fields of study may require different skill set that a computer literate in
that field should display. Hence the computer literacy content for a person studying
mathematics should be different from that for social sciences, Arts, Agriculture and so.
This is in line with the different mathematics knowledge requirement for various fields
of studies. Therefore we have books with titles such as:” Essential mathematics for
Physics”,”Mathematics for Biology”, “Mathematics for Social Sciences” and so on.

Another reason that makes computer literacy to differ from other literacy is that
computer literacy is to prepare students for their future job. Hence by the time these
students of computer literacy programmes complete schooling, what they were taught in
the computer literacy programme might be obsolete. Some ways to minimize this
problem are:
 The very latest software packages should be taught. At the time of writing in
2006, one institution in Ghana is still teaching Microsoft Office 95 on a Pentium
1 machine. While their student will use Microsoft Office 2000, XP or 2003 on
Pentium III, IV or Celeron M after school.
 More computer laboratory exercises should be given so they become use to the
computer.

 They should be taught how to use the Help features of software packages so that
they can search for information by themselves.

The computer is an essential tool that when employed effectively enhances the work of
the individual. The software aspect of the computer system enables the computer to be
adapted to every situation. While others want to rely on computer professional to solve
their computing problems, others also want to be in full control when it comes to the

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use of their computers. The later users want to be computer proficient while the former
are computer literate. In view of this, we should be mindful of these two categories of
students in the class so that computer literacy courses are designed in such a manner
that both are satisfied. That is it should not be too much for those who desire to be
computer literate and at the same time not too little for those who aim at becoming
computer proficient. It difficult to have a single computer literacy course that is satisfies
these two desires. One way around this is letting those who want to become computer
proficient register for other elective computing courses being offered by the computer
Science Department if it exists in their school or design an appropriate computer
literacy course for them.

5.5 Common Skill set a Computer Literate should Exhibit

As it was discussed earlier in this unit, almost everyone has different view of what
computer literacy is and the kind of skill set that must be attained. But we think the
people who consider themselves to be computer literate should at least exhibit certain
skill set. When this is done, it may go a long for them to participate with all confidence
in this Hi-tech world. The common skill set needed are listed below:
1. Hardware skills
 Connecting a Keyboard and Mouse to their port
 Keyboarding and mouse manipulation
 Booting (cool and warm)
 Insertion and removal of discs (e.g. floppy, pen drive, CD ROM and DVD
ROM)
 Peripherals connection and disconnection.
2. Operating system skills
 Opening, deleting, renaming and saving files
 Selecting of files for copying or moving purposes
 Creating folders or directories
 Installing and run new software from CD ROMs and Hard disks
 Uninstalling unwanted software packages
 Using utilities such Anti-virus, scan disk, etc
3. Application package Software skills
 Know which program is appropriate for the tasks at hand
 Cutting and pasting text
 Making document more attractive through formatting
 Use word processor to write simple reports, letters and memos etc
 Creating tables and graphs etc
 Listing and sorting records according certain criteria
 Using Graphics Presentations to making presentations better
 Attaching diagrams, figures and graphs to documents
4. Printer skills

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 Connecting a printer to the computer

 Installing the printer’s device driver and configuring it (when necessary)
 Knowing how to add paper to the printer
 Knowing how to check and clear the print queue (when necessary)
 Changing the ribbon cartridge and toner when the need arise

5. Internet skills
 Reading, replying, and sending Email messages
 Using search engines to find useful information on the net starting your email
client program
 Receiving, reading and replying to emails
 Attaching files and opening attachments
 Dealing with spam
 Using address books
 Starting web browsers and entering Uniform Resource Locators (URLs)
 Navigating hyperlinks
 Using bookmarks
 Participating in chat rooms and discussion forums

Self-Assessment Questions

Exercise 5.1
1. Which two people are credited with the coining of the original term
“computer literacy”?
2. “Knowing how to use a computer will be relevant as reading and writing” who
said this
3. What are the three ingredients of the definition of computer literacy?
4. List some of the reasons that necessitate computer literacy.
5. What is your opinion on the notion that a computer literate people should
understand how to write a computer program?
6. After going through a computer literacy programme what skills do you hope to
acquire?

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 Issues that are not clear to; and
 Difficult topics if any

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COMPUTERS FUNDAMENTALS SESSION 6

SESSION 6: WHY ARE COMPUTERS SO POWERFUL?

In this session we will discuss some factors that make the

computer a powerful machine. We will also look at some units of
measurement in computing and their meaning.

Objectives
At the end of this session, students should be able to:
(a) list the characteristics that make computer a super machine.
(b) explain the meaning of some units of measure in computing
such as
Hertz (Hz), byte and its higher units like Kilobyte (KB), Gigabyte (GB)
etc.

Now read on …

6.1 Comparing Computers and other Machines

A computer has some characteristics that are similar to any other machines, which are:
 It runs on electricity
 It contains a number of parts that work together
 It’s designed to perform certain tasks

When we look at the things that computers are capable of doing, we can consider
computers as “powerful devices” or super machines. From our point of view, the things
that make the computer to be powerful may be defined in these terms:
 Storage
 Reliability
 Consistency
 Speed
 Accuracy
 Communication

In other words, the power of computers is derived from their capability of processing
and communicating information with high speed, unquestionable reliability, higher
percentage of accuracy and having huge storage capacity.

6.2 Speed
Computers are the fastest devices we have. The time required to execute an instruction
can be measured in a fraction of a second.
For example, it may take you about three minutes to find the location of a book in the
library by searching the index cards. However, if you use a computerized library system

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SESSION 6 WHY ARE COMPUTERS SO POWERFUL?

to search for a book’s location, it may only take you about a few seconds, depending on
how fast you can type. Normally, the computer only takes less than a second to process
your request.
The units of time the computer can used are tabulated below:

Units of time Abbreviation Fraction of a second

Millisecond ms Thousandth, i.e. 10-3 =0.001
Microsecond µs Millionth, i.e.10-6 =0.000,001
Nanosecond ns Billionth, i.e. 10-9 =0.000,000,001
Picosecond ps Trillionth, i.e. 10-12 =0.000,000,000,001
Femtosecond fs Quadrillionth,i.e.10-15= 0.000,000,000,000,001

Fig 1.6: Smaller units of second

6.3 Reliability
You want to access your emails at www.yahoo.com or www.hotmail.com at anytime.
Hence these email servers have to work at all times to serve not only people living in
the place these servers are located but all people from all time zones. In actual fact,
computers such as Servers, ATM, and the like are expected to be operational 24 hours
in a day, 7 days in a week and 52 weeks in a year. They do so with a very low failure
rate. They have in-built self-check that enables them to detect impending failures way
before they actual occur so that Computer Technician attend to them before they come
to pass.

6.4 Accuracy
Computers can generate accurate results, provided that the input data is correct and the
instructions that constitute the program are free from errors. If the inputted data is not
error-free the result of instructions will definitely inaccurate. Remember the popular
acronym GIGO implying Garbage In, Garbage Out. The implication is that all things
being equal, the accuracy of the output depends solely on that of the input.

Research has found that source-data or automates devices produce more accurate results
that when entered manually by human beings. For example, the item prices determined
and recorded by scanning the bar-codes at the point-of-sale terminals in supermarkets
are far more accurate than those typed in by cashiers. There have being instance where a
cashier was apprehended for under-pricing items bought in a supermarket for customers
who are relatives or friends. Similar we have heard instances of fictitious data entry
made by staff that entered wrong times for reporting for work and leave the work. For
the computer once the time is set by System Administrator who has the right
authorization, the time cannot be reset by another person.

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6.5 Consistency
The Consistency of the computer tells us that the computer will produce the same
output for the same input at all time and if possible in all conditions, provided all things
are working as expected or planned. We stand by this assertion because the computers
are not affected by emotion and do what they are programmed to do. We know that the
same issues may be viewed by different people differently and hence may be interpreted
differently. This is not so with computers. Most of the "computer errors" can be
attributed to human errors such as incorrect input data and unreliable programs.

6.6 Storage
In the University of Cape Coast just like any other Educational institutions, the
Student’s Record Section has a room full of Students record stores. If the Students
information has been computerized, they will be contained on computer storage media
such as DVDs, CDs, tapes, zips and so on, which conserved space since these media
could be store in a container less may be of the size of cabinet at most. At time due to
the stuffy nature of the Record room, staff, who have been asked to check on a
particular student’s record feel reluctant to go into this room because they are afraid of
getting Catarrh. The wastage of room space and the associated health hazard could be
avoided if the Student’s Record system is computerized. Computers have the capability
to store huge volumes of data on a tiny or miniature storage medium, whose size is
much smaller that a book. For instance, take the 32 full-volumes of Encyclopedia
Britannica, which usually occupies a whole row of Bookshelf in a library, has a digital
version, which is fully multimedia and for that matter is made up of text, pictures, audio
and video on a single DVD.

The computer stores data as binary such as 0111 1001 0011 1111. In actual fact, the
basic unit of storing data in the computer is Zeros and Ones each of which is referred to
as Binary unIT or Binary digIT. Therefore the acronym bit, which comes from the
binary unit or digit. One is therefore a bit likewise zero.

Bit is therefore the basic storage unit for computers. Eight bits called a Byte is usually
used to store a character. Characters are formed from the following:
 Alphabetic such as A-Z or a-z
 Numbers such as 0-9
 Special symbols such as ^,!, @, &, %,

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Previously, some computers used four bits to store characters. This is called nibble.
Higher units of computer storage are tabulated below.

Units of Abbreviation Number of bytes Approximation

storage
Kilobyte KB 1,024 or (210) One Thousand
Megabyte MB 1,048,576 or (220) One Million
Gigabyte GB 1,073,741,824 or (230) One Billion
Terabyte TB 1,099,511,627,776 or (240) One Trillion
Petabyte PB 1,125,899,906,842,624 or (250) One Quadrillion
Exabyte EB 1,152,921,504,606,850,000 or One Quintillion
(260)
Brontobyte BB 1,180,591,620,717,410,000,000 or One Sextillion
(270)
Fig 1.7: Other units for measuring storage capacity

It is important to note that, the numbers of different or unique characters a computer can
represent depends on the numbers of bits used to store a character. If we use n-bits to
form characters then the total number of different character that can be derived is given
by 2n. When n= 8, we have 28=256, likewise for n=16, we have 216=65,536.

Self-Assessment Questions

Exercise 6.1
(1) What makes the computer different from other electronic
machines?
(2) What does it mean to say that the speed of a computer is
(i) Microsecond (µs)
(ii) Nanosecond (ns)
(3) List and explain the factors that make the computer powerful.
(4) The ability of using the computer 24×7×365 is an indication of it Reliability.
True / False? ______
(5) How many different characters could be form from a system that uses 10 bits to
form a character?
(a) 10 (b) 1000 (c) 1024 (d) None of these
(6) Which of these is a unit for measuring the capacity of computer’s storage?
(a) Petabyte (b) Exabyte (c) Brontobyte (d) All of these
(7) A byte is twice the size of nibble. True / False? ______

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 UNIT 2
COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

UNIT 2: COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

Session 1: Computer System

Session 2: Input Devices
Session 3: Output Devices
Session 4: System Unit
Session 5: Storage Devices
Session 6: The System Software

Welcome to this unit where we shall discuss the Computer System.

Here we shall have a microscopic view of the computer i.e. the Inside
and Outside of the computer. The goal of this unit is for you to talk the
computer language with all confidence. That is to know how to use the correct
computer terminology. For example most people refer to the system unit as the CPU
which is technically incorrect since the system unit contains CPU among other
components. It is our hope that you will not make such a mistake after going through
this unit. Prepare yourself to learn so many useful terminologies in this unit.

Unit Objectives
At the end of the session you should be able to:
1. list the various Input devices attached to the Computer
2. list the various devices that are used to output information to end user
3. explain the characteristics of the different types of storage devices
4. list the three wares of the computer system
5. mention at least four devices inside the system unit
6. identify some key component of the computer such as RAM, CPU,
BUS, Port, CMOS battery etc.

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COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM SESSION 1

SESSION 1: COMPUTER SYSTEM

In this lesson we shall discuss the general view of computers system and
describe the various criteria used to classify computer. Here we shall
mention things that are computers that you might not be aware of.

Objectives
At the end of this session, students should be able to:
1. describe the three (3) main wares of the computer system
2. Differentiate between warm booting and cold booting
3. Outline the function of the BIOS
4. Outline the various means of classifying computers
5. List the two (2) major divisions of computer software

Now read on …

1.1 Components of Computer System

The computer system is all the things that enable you to use the computer for whatever
reasons you bought it for. In view of the preceding explanation, a computer system is
made of the following:
 Hardware: This is the part of the system that is tangible i.e. it can be seen and
touch. It provides basic computing resources (CPU, memory, I/O devices). The
keyboard, monitor, mouse and many others are hard wares because they are made of
metal, plastic, glass which are tangible.
 Software: Software are the intangible part of the computer system i.e. you
cannot see it or touch it but you will know that they exist since you will experience their
effect. Software is also known as computer program, is sequence of computer
instruction that directs the hardware what to do and how to do it. It is the software that
makes the hardware intelligent. Software is usually made up of System software and
Application software. The system software such the operating system controls and
coordinates the use of the hardware among the various application programs for the
various users. The Application programs on the other hand define the ways in which the
system resources are used to solve the computing problems of the users (compilers,
database systems, video games, business programs).
 Users: (people, machines, other computers). Users are that of the computer
system that either sends request for processing or receives the result of request. Some
people refers to the human component of the computer system as Liveware since they
living or have life in themselves. Component of the computer system are critical for the
over all performance of the system. Nevertheless we think that the liveware is most
important because of these reasons:
1. The design both the hardware and software
2. They send data for the system to process and receive the output of the
process data

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3. They make judgement on whether or not the processed data is useful of

useless
4. They refine any error coming from

Fig 1.1: A typical Computer system

With regard to hardware and software, we can say that they are of equal import once.
You cannot make full use of the software without the hardware likewise the software
enables users to use the capabilities of the hardware. From the above deliberation we
can say that most of the credit and discredit of the computer system should fall at the
door step of the liveware.

We buy computers so that we can do certain things such:

 Typing project work, assignment and letters
 Manipulating tables and drawing graphs or charts
 Browsing the Internet for information or sending emails or chatting with
friends online
 Playing CDs/DVDs
 Organizing your data in a particular manner

Before you can do these and many more, you need a computer software application or
application software such as an Office suit, a Web-browser, media player and the like.
These application software need to be installed on the hardware before you can used
them. When you want to use these software applications, you need the hardware system
such as the keyboard, the display screen and the like.

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1.2 What Happens when you Boot the Computer?

The processor of the computer works with the programs in memory. In this section, we
will briefly discuss what happens when you press the Power On button of the computer.

When all the components of the computer are connected to each other correcting
including connecting it to the main electric supply, then we are ready to start the
computer to use it. The process of starting the computer is called Booting. This is done
through the process listed below:

Step 1: Power on both the System Unit and the Monitor. Look for the location of
on/off button on both the System Unit and the Monitor. The power supply takes some
time until it can generate reliable power for the rest of the computer.

Step 2: The Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) is located. The computer has a set of
built-in programs called ROM-BIOS (Read Only Memory - Basic Input/Output
System), which is executed once you switch it on. Because of its importance to the
operation of the computer, the BIOS is usually located in a memory that is read only
hence it is known as Read Only Memory (ROM). The BIOS will activate the bootstrap
program, which initializes the booting process. The boot strap includes the following:
 Power On Self Test (POST)
 Hardware Initialisation
 Disk boot

Step 3: The POST process. The POST is a built-in diagnostic program that checks
your hardware to ensure that everything is present and functioning properly, before the
actual boot begins. It later continues with additional tests (such as the memory test that
you see printed on the screen) as the boot process is proceeding. The POST runs very
quickly, and you will normally not observe what is going on unless it finds a problem.
Anytime an error occurs, a beeping sound is heard and then stopped without booting up.
The POST routine, which determines:

 The amount of real memory.

 Whether the needed hardware components (such as the keyboard, mouse,
monitor and others) are present. The software that will enable the various components
to communicate to each other known as the device drivers is loaded.

Step 4: Initial Start-up Process. After the POST, the system BIOS attempts to locate
the start-up disk. The first sector (also known as sector 0 or boot sector) on the start-up
disk is critical to the start-up process. This sector contains the following:

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 The Master Boot Record,

 The Partition Table.
 The Partition Boot Sector.

Most BIOS versions enable the user to reconfigure the order in which it checks the
secondary disks for the start-up disk.

The early PCs boots firstly from the floppies, which were two then hence we have
drive A and B. If these floppies are empty, then the system checks the hard disk (also
known as drive C) for the start-up disk. Now we can boot from even CD/DVD.

When the start-up disk is located, the following sequence of events takes place:

(a) The system BIOS reads the Master Boot Record, and loads it into memory.
(b) After which execution is transferred to the Master Boot Record. The code in the
Master Boot Record scans the Partition Table for the system partition.
(c) The system therefore loads the code in the system 0 of the partition into memory,
and executes it. This code is a utility or diagnostic program, or a Partition Boot Sector
that contains start-up code for the operating system.
(d) The Partition Boot Sector code starts the operating system in a manner defined by
the operating system. When everything is successfully done, the desktop such as the one
below is displayed indicating that the system is ready for instruction from you.

Fig 1.2: Window’s Desktop

The above proceeding process is called a "cold boot" (since the machine was off, or
cold, when it started). A "warm boot" is the same thing except it occurs when the
machine is rebooted pressing and holding down the following keys Ctrl +Alt+ Delete
or after pressing the Reset button for a computer is already on. In this case the POST is

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skipped and the boot process continues. You normally warm boot a computer when it
freezes, which is shown by non-responsiveness of any key press. This makes the
computer system not to response as it should.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 1.1

1. Even though all the components of the computer system are important, which of
these two-hardware or software- has contributed to people using more computers these
days?
2. Why is warm booting of a computer necessary?
3. The POST is responsible for different devices of the Computer System to
communicate. True / False
4. Which of the following is not considered as a floor computer?
(a) Microcomputer (b) Minicomputer (c) Mainframe
(d) Supercomputer
5. The program that initializes the Booting process is known as………..
(a) POST (b) BIOS (c) bootstrap (d) the partition
boot sector
6. The operating system must be located into memory before one can
use the computer. True / False

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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SESSION 2: INPUT DEVICES

In this session, we shall look at what an input is and what devices are
available for inputting. We shall also look at how they are use to make the
utilization of the computer very easy and comfortable for users.

Objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) explain what constitute an input to the Computer system?
(b) explain the main purpose of the input devices;
(c) define what is an input device;
(d) list some of the common input devices;
(e) explain the functionalities of some of the input devices;

2.1 What is input?

Input is the entering of data or instruction into the memory of the computer for processing or
storage to take place. Whatever you want the computer to manipulate must be inputted first and
foremost into the computer’s memory.
Input devices accept data from the user in the form that human being can read and understand
and convert it to the form that can be manipulated by the computer. Data in human-likeable form
could be in numeric, text, picture, sound, and video. These are converted into electrical pulses
(usually represented in bits) before the computer either manipulate it or store it.
Some of the common means of getting data into the computer are:
 Typing on a keyboard
 Pointing with a mouse
 Scanning with scanning devices
 Speaking to the computer using Microphone
 using Digital camera to take pictures and video

It important to emphasis that the computer is not a magic box to give you what is not having.
Therefore whatever result you want the computer to produce must be either be entered or stored
in the computer. Again we should not give that correctness of the result that the computer
produces depends on the correctness of what was entered. Hence the popular saying Gi Go –
Garbage In, Garbage Out. Meaning that of whatever we enter is wrong then the result will also
be wrong.

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2.2 The keyboard
Fig 2.1:
The

Arrangement of a typical Keyboard

The keyboard is one of the peripherals that is connected to computer system and is the most
common input device. The keyboard converts the alphabets, numbers and special characters
entered, which is commonly known as alphanumeric characters into electronic signals of zeros
and ones (bits). A computer keyboard is an array of switches, each of which sends to the
computer a unique signal when pressed. The present keyboard that comes with computer
emerged several generations (types) of keyboards. These are:
1. 83-key PC and XT keyboard
2. 84- key AT keyboard
3. 101-key enhanced keyboard
4. 103-key Windows keyboard

The difference among the four types of keyboards mentioned above is the positioning and the
number of the function keys, the Control key, the Return, key Alt key, the Shift keys and
additional keys.

2.2.1 Two Keyboard Layouts

There are two main types of keyboards based on the arrangements of characters. These are the
QWERTY and Dvorak Keyboards. The standard layout of letters, numbers, and punctuation is
known as a QWERTY keyboard because the first six keys on the top row of letters spell
QWERTY. The QWERTY keyboard which is the common of the two was designed in the 1800s
for mechanical typewriters and was actually designed to slow typists down to avoid jamming the
keys. The Dvorak keyboard, which was designed in 1930 by August Dvorak has letters
positioned for speed typing but it is still not common.

We can say that it is only the keyboard part of the computer where the better and the latest option
are not being used.

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Fig 2.2: QWERTY and Dvorak Keyboards

2.2.2 The Basic operations of the Keyboard

CAPS lock key: When you press this key, it tells the system whether or not the user wants to
type in lowercase or UPPERCASE. When it is pressed, means whatever types must be in all
capital letters (uppercases) until it is pressed the again that enables you to type in small letters
(lowercases), which is the default case. Anytime you press this key, the Cap lock light will
illuminate somewhere in the upper right corner of the keyboard and this indicates that you are in
the uppercase mode. Any key that when pressed activates certain functionality and second press
will deactivate the functionality is called Toggle key. The CAPS Lock is one of such keys.

ENTER key ( ): This is sometimes called the Return key, and is used to tell the computer to
execute typed commands for Command-line (Text-based) operating systems. It is also used to
send the cursor to the beginning of a new line in a word processing system.

Cursor-movement keys (←↑→↓): The cursor, also called the insertion point, is the symbol on
the display screen (monitor) that shows where next character you enter will be placed. The
cursor-movement keys or arrow keys are used to move the cursor around the text on the screen.
These keys move the cursor to the direction indicated on the key. Whiles the left (←)and right
(→) keys respectively move the cursor one space or character to the left and right, the up (↑), and
down (↓) keys move the cursor one line above and below the current line.

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Page UP/Page Down keys: Sometimes you will see a key labelled PgUp, which stands for Page
up, and another PgDn, which stands for page down. These keys move the cursor the equivalent
of one page or one screen at a time up (toward the beginning of the document) or down (toward
the end of the document) respectively.

Numeric keys: On a standard 101-key keyboard, a separate set of keys, 0 through 9, known as
the numeric keypad, is laid out like the keys on a calculator. The numeric keypad has two
purposes:
1. Whenever the Num Lock key is off, the numeric keys may be used as arrow keys for
cursor movement and for other purposes such as Pg Up, Pg Dn.
2. When the Num Lock key is on, the keys may be used for entering numbers, as on a
calculator.
A light is illuminated on the keyboard when the Num Lock key is pressed once and goes off
when the Num Lock key is pressed again. For space reasons, portable computers often lack a
separate numeric keypad or the numeric keys may be superimposed on the typewriter letter keys
and activated by the Num Lock key.

Function Keys: These are labeled F1 to F12. They send signals to the computer that have no
constant or same meaning. Each software designer might assignment a specific meaning to them.
For example, in Word Perfect 9, pressing Ctrl+F7 will check the spelling in your document
whereas the same feature will be activated in Microsoft Word 2000 by pressing F7. The
documentation manual that comes with the software tells you the functionality of the function
keys. Some software manufacturers are trying to standardized the function of these function
keys. For example, for software coming from Microsoft Corporation, when you want the online
documentation that accompanies the software or the HELP feature, press F1.

Shift key: The shift key is used in these instances:

1. For capitalization; when you hold down this key whiles typing, characters will be in
capital letters or uppercase. For example, when you hold down the shift key whiles
you press the G key, the result is G. Whiles without holding down the shift key it
will be g.
2. For displaying the upper symbol; some keys have two symbols on them. If you press
the key alone, the lower symbol will be displayed. In other to display, the upper
symbol, you hold down the shift key whiles you press the key. Hence to enter the @,
you must hold down the shift key follow by pressing 2.
3. For example, when you hold down the shift key whiles pressing the key with the
symbol 7 and & will display &. In the same manner, to display %, hold down the
shift key whiles pressing the key with 5 and % symbols.

The Ctrl and Alt are modifier keys in that they modify the behavior of other keys when they are
use together. When use alone, the modifier keys cause nothing to happen. When you hold down
a modifier key while pressing another key, the combination makes that other key behave
differently.

The Alt key: This is normally used to activate the menu bar. For example pressing the Alt key,
will cause the menus area to receive focus or be active. When you press the Alt key whilst using

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Microsoft Word, it will cause the file menu to receive focus hence you will see the File menu
being highlighted. In order to display the content of the File menu, press the either down or up
arrow key while pressing the either the left or right arrow key will move the focus to the other
menu i.e. at the left or right of the current menu respectively. A typical menu bar for Microsoft
Word is made up of the following:

Fig 2.3: A Microsoft Word menu

To activate any of the menus, you hold down the Alt key while pressing the underlined character.
For instance to activate the Table menu, hold down the Alt key whilst pressing the A-key, which
is the underline character in table. This function of the Alt key is handy when your mouse is not
working properly.

The Alt key when used with a combination of numbers on the Numeric keys will produce certain
symbols. For example, holding down the Alt key whilst pressing 155 on the numeric key will
display the cedis sign(¢). We should note that the ¢ sign resulting from Alt +155 is sign
originally the cent sign but accidentally similar to our cedis sign.

When you holding down the Ctrl key while press the G key will cause the ‘find and replace’
dialog box shown below to be displayed.

Fig 2.3: You activate the Find and Replace menu from Ctrl+ g shortcut

The capability of using the either the Alt or Ctrl key with other keys to activate menu or other
functionality quickly without using the mouse is known as the hot key or shortcut key.

2.2.3 Ergonomic Keyboards

As computers have become more widespread, so has the incidence of various hand and wrist
injuries. One injury associated with prolonged usage the keyboard (that is not ergonomically
friendly) is repetitive strain injury (RSI), also known as cumulative trauma disorder (CTD). RSI

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is occupational illness caused by prolonged repetitive hand movements that can damage, or kill
nerves in the hands, arms, shoulders or neck. Therefore whenever you experiences pain,
stiffness, swelling, numbness or tingling in the hands, wrists, elbows, shoulders, back or neck, it
may be an indication that you have RSI. Researches have shown that RSI is increasingly being
found among office workers and poses a genuine threat to people who work long hours at the
keyboard.

In this regard, keyboard manufacturers are now producing keyboards that prevent or minimize
these injuries. These keyboards are known as ergonomics keyboard. The term “ergonomics” is
derived from two Greek words: “ergon”, meaning work and “nomoi”, meaning natural laws.
Ergonomics is the science of designing machines, tools, computers, and physical work areas so
that people find them easy and healthful to use. These Keyboards can also be used physically
challenged individuals.

Microsoft Natural and Kinesis keyboards are examples of ergonomic keyboard where some keys
are angled away from the centre, while others are put in pits into which a naturally curved hand
can fit.

Notwithstanding the availability and benefit of ergonomic keyboards, it is proper that people
who work with the computer or uses computers for most of the daily work engaged themselves
in the following activities:
 Exercise such as Walking, swimming, jogging
 Desk Stretching: this should be done after every 15 to 20 minutes working with the
computer
 Relaxation such as massaging

Fig. 2.5: Some Ergonomic Keyboards

2.3 Pointing Devices

These are also used to input into the computer. These devices control the position of the cursor or
pointer on the screen. Examples of pointing devices include: Mice, trackballs, joysticks and
touchpad, Light pens, Digitizing tablets, Pen-based systems.

2.3.1 Mouse
A mouse is a device which allows the user to control the position of:
 the cursor to manipulate data
 the pointer to select menus, icons and toolbars

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The mouse was invented by Douglas Englebart in 1963-64, as part of an experiment to find
better ways to point and click on a display screen. Englebart was at that time was working at the
Stanford Research Institute, which was sponsored by Stanford University. The casing was
carved out of wood. The mouse had only one button. The Mouse was originally referred to as an
X-Y Position Indicator for a Display System. Xerox later applied the mouse to its revolutionary
Alto computer system in 1973. In 1984, Apple Computers introduced the mouse with their
Macintosh computers. Today the mouse is now found on every computer and it is the means
through which users interact with the computer graphically.

Fig 2.6: The first mouse by Doug Englebart at SRI, 1963/64

The mouse is move on a mouse pad or on the surface of the space or table on which the computer
rest. A typical mouse has a ball beneath, which when roll move the pointer on the screen in the
direction of the movement. That is when you move the mouse on the mouse pad, the pointer on
the screen will also move in the same direction. Depending on the software you are using and
what you are doing the pointer will take different shapes such as a slanted arrow, an “I” (I), or a
vertical line (|)

A mouse contains a least one button and sometimes as many as many as three, which have
different functions depending on what program is running.

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Fig 2.7: A typical mouse with two buttons

2.3.2 Mouse Technologies

By mouse technologies we are referring to the mechanism that enables the physical movement of
the mouse on the surface of the desk to produce corresponding movement on the screen.

Mechanical mouse: This requires that the mouse be set on a flat surface. The mechanical
sensors within the mouse detect the direction the ball is rolling and move the screen pointer
according.

Optical mouse: Originally this requires a special mouse pad which has a grid pattern so that the
optical mechanism has a frame of reference. A sensor inside the mouse determines the
movement by reading the grid as the mouse passes over it while emitting a light from an LED or
sometimes a laser. The latest optical mouse is capable of being on any surface.

Optical-Mechanical: The optical-mechanical hybrid consists of a ball which rolls a wheel inside
the mouse but uses an optical sensors to detect the motion and hence the position of the ball.

2.3.3 Interfaces
The interface deals with the means by which the mouse connects to the system unit of the
computer. In this regard, the mouse is connected to the computer through the following:
Bluetooth, Infrared, PS/2 Port, Serial Port, and USB

2.3.4 Types of Mice

Mice come in various forms and styles. Below is a list of some mice.

Cordless: This uses infrared or radio waves, rather than a cord, to connect to computer. There
should not be any obstacle between this mouse and the computer since movement may not be
detected.

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Fig 2.8: Types of mice – (a) Cordless mouse, (b) Footmouse, and (c) IntelliMouse

Footmouse: The foot mouse is a fully functional toe-controlled input device. It gives the users
the ability to move the cursor and click the buttons with their feet. It is primarily used by users
with disabilities or with high-back or neck problems. It could also be used as a way to prevent
the problems listed above in the future and as a means to increase productivity by not having to
move one's hand between the keyboard and mouse.

IntelliMouse: This is an optical mouse with enhanced ergonomic design that helps you work
longer without discomfort. Helps you to navigate with better speed, accuracy and reliability.

2.3.5 Some Basic Mouse Manipulations

Most mice have two buttons. For mouse with two buttons (which are left and right buttons) their
functions are:
a) The left button is use for clicking double clicking, and selecting (highlight).

b) The right button is use to pop-up context-sensitive menu. This is because the menu that
will be displayed depends on what is being done or where the pointer is located.

c) The centre or scrolling wheel is use to scroll through the current screen if the content is
made up of more than one page or screen-full of information.

The common operations that a mouse can be used for are:

a) For positioning: This is moving the pointer to or on an object. This is the prelude to any
of the operations listed below.

b) For clicking: This is pressing and releasing the left button. Clicking is used to select
menu, toolbar, icons and buttons in dialog box

c) For double clicking: this is quickly pressing and releasing the left button twice in rapid
succession. There should not be any time elapse between the two clicks. For novice
double clicking may be very difficult hence they can click the object after which they
press the enter key. Double clicking is normally used to launch or activate a program or

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 to view the content of a folder. For example to activate Microsoft Word or view the files
and folders in My Document, you double click them.

d) To drag and drop objects: As the name implies, this operation is in twofold; dragging
and dropping. Collectively, they are used to relocate the position of an object. To drag
and drop, you press and hold down the left button whiles moving the mouse and hence
the pointer to where you want to place the object and then release the button.

2.4 Other Pointing Devices

Below is a tabulation of some pointing devices. Certain computers such as Laptops comes with
some of these whiles others are bought as additional peripherals that are connected to computer.

Device’s name Description Picture

Joystick A joystick is generally configured
so that moving the stick left or
right signals movement along the
X axis,
and moving it forward (up) or
back (down) signals movement
along the
Y axis. With joysticks that are
configured for three-dimensional
movement, twisting the stick left
(counter-clockwise) or right
(clockwise) signals movement
along the Z axis.
Pointing stick It is the small pressure-sensitive
(also called greenish post or object (which
trackpoint) resembles the eraser at the edge
of the pencil) mounted in center
of keyboard, pushing the post in
any direction moves the pointer.
You click by pressing the post.

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This is a Rectangular pressure-

sensitive pad. As you slide your
finger across pad, it moves the
pointer. When the pointer is
Touch pad over the object, you can click
by either tapping with your
finger or the left button. The
right button is used for
context-sensitive menus.

Trackball A trackball is a pointing device

consisting of a ball housed in a
socket containing sensors to
detect rotation of the ball about
two axes—like an upside-down
mouse with an exposed protruding
ball. The user rolls the ball with
the thumb, fingers, or the palm of
the hand to move a cursor.

Fig 2.9: A list of other Pointing devices

2.5 Automation of Source Data

There are times when the data entered is correct due to human error in typing or entering data for
processing. In such a situation, the result will certainly be wrong. This is the principle of
‘Garbage In Garbage Out’ (GIGO). Hence nowadays some means of collecting data for
computer processing have being automated at where the data originate. This is known as source
data automation. Therefore source data automation is the use of special input devices to collect
data at the data source into the computer for either processing or storage. Some of the input
devices used for source data automation are Magnetic reader, Optical reader, Optical scanner,
Digital camera, Audio and Video input. These systems are also used as alternatives to typing
large quantities of data.

2.5.1 Magnetic Readers

These are devices that read magnetized characters and convert them into digital form which are
bits so that the computer can process them. They are technically known as Magnetic-ink
character recognition (MICR).The characters that are recognized by these devices are printed
with a kind of ink or toner that when magnetized will emit a signal that identifies each character.
The most common example of magnetic characters is the series of numbers printed across the
bottom of bank cheques. These magnetic numbers on your bank cheques are informative.

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Fig: 2.10: MICR readers

2.5.2 Optical Mark Recognition

Optical mark recognition abbreviated as OMR is sometimes known as mark sensing devices that
recognize marks on a piece of paper and convert them to digital format for the computer to
process. These marks are hand-drawn marks usually made of pencils such as small circles used
to shade answers for multiple choice question on an answer sheet. The answer sheet is then
graded by optical device that recognizes the patterns and converts them to computer-
recognizable signals.
Some accompany software for OMR device can be used for the following:
 Records the grade score by each student
 Produce a statistics for that examination paper such the number student who answered
correctly and wrongly for each question item. Thereby the teacher will know which
question is very easy or difficult so that it may or may not be repeated.

Because of the speed at which it works OMR can be used to score the grade of very large
numbers of students within the short possible time. Apart from grading students’ grade from
multiple choice tests, OMR is also for processing result from questionnaire and survey.

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Fig 2.11: An OMR device in use

2.5.3 Optical Character Recognition

Fig 2.12: OCR device types in use

Optical character recognition abbreviated as OCR is like reversing the process of printing. This
is because instead of retyping back into the computer information that has already been printed
by the computer, you can use OCR to scan the information. The information can be edited and
saved in the format you like. As the name implies, OCR uses light source to read these
characters. Usually OCR readers can read OCR-font such as OCR-A, which is a type of standard
typeface established by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). The handheld wand
reader is used for reading OCR-A tags on items in supermarkets, libraries, and factories.

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The software that comes with the OCR reader is used to identify each character scanned from it
database. The software enables you to manually enter characters that could not be recognized.
Instead of recognizing only OCR fonts, some OCR reader that comes with intelligent software
can also recognize hand-written that are boldly printed in uppercase. It is known that using OCR
can be five times faster than retying a document.

2.5.4 Bar-Code Readers

A bar-code is an identification code that is made up of a set of vertical lines and spaces of
different thickness. These vertically zebra-like strips on products depict information about that
product such its manufacturer and name.

There are several different types of bar code systems in place such as:
 The European Article Number (EAN), which is used by European countries and
Universal Product Code (UPC) used in USA and Canada. These use eleven digits for bar
coding general products.
 POSNET bar code developed by the United States Postal Services is used to automate the
sorting of mails.

Fig. 2.13: Barcode readers

Bar-code readers translate the bar code symbols into digital code (ASCII or EBCDIC). The basic
information of items such as price, name, type, amount- in- stock is stored in the store’s database
with the barcode as a unique identifier. In modernize supermarket such as A-Life etc. Whenever
a customer comes to the salesperson to pay for item bought, the barcode reader is used to read
the barcode on each item. Immediately the prices are displayed on the salesclerk’s point-of-sale
(POS) terminal, which is printed as receipt to the customer. The benefits of POS terminals in a
departmental store are as follows:
1. Daily sales are recorded and used to determine the total sales made of the various items
2. Taking stock of items is done automatically without closing the store, which used to be
the case in the 1980s when most Departmental Stores in Ghana such as GNTC, UTC,
Kingsway close on every Wednesday after lunch.
3. Weeding out products that don’t sell well.
4. Elimination of price tagging each item in the store.

The bar coding technology is being used to record the each runner that finished a race. For this
to be effected, each runner must wear a bar coded T-shirt, and at the finished line, Officials
holding handheld bar-code readers record their time.

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Self-Assessment Question
Exercise 2.1

Exercise 2.2

1. What is an input?
2. What is an input device?
3. Name two types of PC keyboard.
4. Explain the basic function of the alt key on a key board.
5. Holding of the shift key whiles pressing h, n, g would capitalize them to H, N, G. True /
False?
6. What does RSI stands for with respect to Ergonomic Keyboards?
7. How would you explain Ergonomic Keyboard in your own words?
8. Give one function of the mouse.
9. What is MICR?
10. Microphone is an input device. True / False?
11. The default letter – case for the CAPS Lock is lower case. True / False
12. A part from the CAPS Lock, what other key is a Toggle key?

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SESSION 3: OUTPUT DEVICES

In this Session, we shall look at the definition and types of Output

devices. We shall also look at the two commonly used Output devices
and how they interact with the computer as well as some heath
concern issues.

Objectives
At the end of this Session, you should be able to:
(a) define what an Output Device is?
(b) distinguish between Softcopy and Hardcopy?
(c) briefly explain the factors that will affect the speed of printing?
(d) mention some advantages disadvantages of of a Cathode Ray Tube and Flat –
Screen Monitor
(e) define various acronyms such as VRAM, VGA, VDU, TFT, LCD as used with
regards to monitors
(f) list at least (two) 2 differences between impact and Non – impact Printers

3.1 The Purpose of Input Devices

Data inputted and then processed by the computer remains in machine-readable form
until output devices make them human-likeable form such as words, numbers, picture
and sound. In view of this, the main purpose of output devices is to convert machine-
readable information into human-likeable form. The two commonly used output devices
are the monitor and the printer. Softcopy refers to temporary images, such as those
displayed on a monitor.

In certain situations or applications, the time interval between input and output is
instantaneous whiles in others there is a lengthy time delay in between.
Examples of instant output from input are:
 Items scanned at supermarket
 Produce item name and price at counter
 Sales rep enters an order on a pad
 Characters displayed as “typed” text and stored in pad
 Produce weekly paychecks and management reports

Examples of delayed output from input are:

 Computer processes Employee’s once or twice a month to produce employee’s
entries payslip
 Charge-card transactions provide input
 Customer’s utility bills

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 Demographical data collected and input into computer

 Used to produce reports that show patterns of water quality
 Students transcript of academic performance

3.2 Printers
Printers are peripherals since they are attached to the system unit of the computer. The
printed output is generally referred to as hardcopy because it is in relatively permanent
form. The physical print media on which the printer dumps its contents are paper or
transparencies.

A Printer could be attached to the Computer system in any of the following manners:
1. The printer is directly attached to a system unit. To print using this printer; user
should come to the local printer and login into computer before issuing the print
command. The queuing of the print job is done with the help of the operating system on
the local computer. The printer is a attached to the computer via USB cable, parallel
cable or infrared.
2. The printer is attached to a server called the print server, which is part of a
Workgroup or Domain. All print requests from this qualified user are routed to the print
server, which intend send them to the printer for printing to be effected. After the
printing is done users have to physically collect the print out.
3. A printer with an IP address known as Network printer is attached to the
network. (All users who request to print with this printer must firstly be granted access
to it before printing is effected.) Same as above except that Network printer is not
attached directly to any printer.

This printer is a shared one implying that it can be accessed by multiple computers.
Before one is able to print the user must satisfy the following conditions:
a. Must have login account in the Workgroup or Domain
b. Must be authenticated user in the Workgroup or Domain
c. Must be granted the permission to print using the said print server.

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Fig. 3.1: Printer-Computer attachment styles

3.2.1 Quality of Printing

This is judged by comparing its output to that of a good typewriter on which
characters are printed in a clear, solid form. At one time the quality of a printer
could be specified in any of these forms:
 Nonletter-quality Print: This is a print that is of a poorer quality than typewriter
print. A nonletter-quality computer printer prints a character as a series of dots. The
greater the number of dots used to form the character, the better the print quality. Used

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for draft copies of letters or documents produced in the office or at home or for printing
internal reports.
 Letter -quality Print: This is a print that is about equal to clear, solid typed copy. It
can be produced on daisy - wheel printer. It is required for business correspondence,
report, payroll checks, customer invoices, and tax-returns.
 Typeset quality print: This is a print that is better than letter-quality. This can be
produced by special electronic typesetting devices or laser printers. It is usually required
for the printing of magazines, books, newsletters, advertisements, and special business
reports.

3.2.2 Speed of Printing

The speed of the printer determines how fast the printing work would be accomplished.
There are a variety of ways by which the speed of a printer is classified such as:
 Low-speed, high-speed and very high-speed
 Character -, line- and page- at a time
The actual values for the speed of printers are not static but changes from time to time.
We should not forget that a page is made up of lines and a line is composite of many
characters. The fastest printers have the highest value. Hence, a printer that prints 300
characters per second(cps) is faster that one that prints at 200 cps. In similar manner, a
100 page per minute (ppm) printer is slower than one that print at 300 ppm. Some of the
things that influence the speed at which the printer finishes it print task are:
1. The quality of the print out. Draft printout are faster to be printed than normal,
which is also faster to print than High qualify
2. The type of data to be printed. Graphical printout is much slower than a text
only printout.

3.2.3 Classification of Printers

Printers are categorized according to whether the printer has contact or not with the
medium on which the document is to be printed. Therefore, printers can be classified as:
impact printers and non-impact printers.

3.2.4 Impact Printers

These printers use mechanisms resembling those of a typewriter: It forms characters or
images by a striking a mechanism such as a print hammer or wheel against an inked
ribbon, leaving an image on paper. The following are impart printers:
Dot-matrix printer: This was the dominant print technology in the home computing
market in the days before the inkjet. This contains a print head of small pins that strike
an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper forming characters or images, much like a
typewriter. Because the printing involves mechanical pressure, these printers can create
carbon copies when needed. Thus these are useful when printing on duplicate or
triplicated forms are required. Print quality is determined by the number of pins. Print
heads are available with 9, 18, or 24 pins; the 24-pin head offers the best print quality

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(near letter-quality type). Dot-matrix printers print about 50 to over 500 characters per
second (cps) and can print graphics, although the reproduction quality is poor. Colour
ribbons are available for limited use of colour. Dot-matrix printers are noisy,
inexpensive, and they can print through multipart forms, creating several copies of a
page at the same time, which non-impact printers cannot do. They can also print to
continuous forms, something laser and inkjet printers cannot do. Examples are
Panasonic KXP1131 and Epson FX890.

Daisy-wheel printer: It has a pinwheel like print unit called daisy wheel and the
characters are located at the end of it. It is usually slower than a dot -matrix printer, but
the quality is better since it produces a letter-quality print. Daisy wheel printers were
fairly common in the 1980s, but were always less popular than dot matrix printers due
to the latter's ability to print graphics and different fonts. With the introduction of high
quality laser printers and inkjet printers in the later 1980s daisy wheel systems quickly
disappeared.

Band and Chain Printers: They is a high-speed printer usually used in the
minicomputers and mainframes environment. They are called high-speed printer
because they print a whole line of characters at once rather than a single character at a
time. Their print quality is good. Speeds of up to 3000 lines a minute may be possible
with these machines. The band printer has a flexible rotating steel band that contains the
characters used for the printing. The chain printer also has a rotating chain that contains
the characters to be printed.

Fig. 3.2: Examples of Impact printers

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3.2.5 Non-impact Printers

These are used almost everywhere now. They are faster and quieter than impact printers
because they have fewer moving parts. Non-impact printers form characters and
images without a direct physical contact between the printing mechanism and the paper.
Two types of non-impact printers often used with microcomputers are laser printers and
ink-jet printers.

Laser printer: Like a dot-matrix printer, a laser printer creates images with dots.
However, as in a photocopying machine, these images are created on a drum, treated
with a magnetically charged ink-like toner (powder), and then transferred from drum to
paper. There are good reasons why laser printers are popular. They produce sharp,
crisp images of both text and graphics, providing resolutions from 300 dpi up to 1200
dpi, which is near-typeset quality (NTQ). They are quiet and fast. They can print 4-32
pages of text per minute for individual microcomputers, and more than 120 pages of
text per minutes for mainframes (pages with graphics print more slowly). They can print
in many fonts (type styles and sizes). The laser printers that print colours are more
expensive than ones that can print only Black-and-white. Laser printers have built-in
RAM chips to store documents output from the computer. If you are working in
desktop publishing and printing complicated documents with colour and many graphics,
you will need a printer with a lot of RAM. Laser printers also have their own ROM
chips to store fonts and their own small dedicated processor.

Ink-jet printer: Like laser and dot-matrix printers, ink-jet printers also form images
with little dots. Ink-jet printers spray small, electrically charged droplets of ink from
nozzles through holes in a matrix at high speed onto paper. Ink-jet printers can print in
colour and are quieter and much less expensive than a colour laser printer. However,
they are slower (about 1-4pages of text- per minute) and print in a somewhat lower
resolution (300-720 dpi) than laser printers. Some new, expensive ink-jet printers print
up to 1200 or 1400 dpi. And if you are printing colour graphics at high resolution on an
ink-jet printer, it may take more time for a single page to finish printing. Inkjet
printers are the most common type of computer printer for the general consumer due to
their low cost, high quality of output, capability of printing in vivid color, and ease of
use. The three main technologies used for Ink jet printers are thermal, piezoelectric, and
continuous.

Bubble-jet printers: These are a variation on ink-jet technology and uses miniature
heating elements to force specially formulated inks through print heads with 128 tiny
nozzles print fine images at high speeds. This technology is commonly used in portable
printers.

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Fig. 3.3 Examples of Non-impact Printers

Exercise 3.1
a. List three differences between Impact and Non-Impact printers
b. If you have the option to chose between Impact and Non-Impact printers for your
office, which one will you opt for and why
c. Do you think there is the need for impact printers in the world today?

3.3 Plotters
A plotter is a vector graphics printing device which operates by moving a pen over the
surface of paper to produce high-quality graphic in a variety of colours. They are used
for creating large hard copy items, such as maps, and architectural drawings. Such
items are usually too large to be printed on regular printers. Ink-jet and Electrostatic
plotters are the two main types of plotters.
1. Ink-jet plotter: These are less expensive and slower than the electrostatic
plotters. It uses ink-jets technology (just like that of an ink-jet printer) and the paper is
output over a drum, enabling continuous output.
2. Electrostatic plotter: These plotters are designed so that the paper lies partially
flat on a table-like surface. These plotters use toner in a manner similar to a
photocopier.

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Fig. 3.4: Examples of plotters

3.4 Monitor
This equipment is also generic known variously as Visual Display Unit (VDU), Visual
Display Terminal (VDT), and Display Screen Equipment (DSE). Some people use
Video to represent the V part of the above name. There isn’t one. All these terms mean
the same thing - a display screen that forms part of a computer and shows text, numbers
or graphics. It is the default output – device.
The monitor is the part of the computer system that enables you to view either
immediately whatever you are typing or to see the response of your input request. The
monitor enables use to view photographic images, animation and video. Externally,
some monitors include:
 The screen for viewing
 The plastic case that houses the electrical and electronic part
 The stand that can be tilted or swiveled

Monitors run under the control of a graphics display adapter card plugged into an
expansion slot on the system board. The adapter allows information to leave the
computer and appear on the monitor. This card will also have a graphics coprocessor,
accelerator circuitry and video support. The display adapter has its own memory
(RAM), called VRAM, or video RAM, which is used to hold video images. VRAM
controls the resolution of images displayed on the monitor, as well as the number of

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colours and the speed at which the images are displayed. More video memory results in
the following:
 The more picture detail is displayed
 The higher the resolution, which enhances the clarity of the image
 The more colours that can be displayed, making it possible to see more shades
for each colour
 The faster 3D graphics can be processed
A video display adapter with 1MB of VRAM can support 16.7 million colours. The size
of a screen is measured diagonally from corner to corner in inches just like television
screens.

Fig. 3.5: The measurement of the size of the Computer’s screen

Microcomputers can have a screen size between 14 to 21 inches but 15inches screens
are common.

3.4.1 Technologies for Monitors

The two most common technologies for monitors are Cathode Ray Tube and Flat-Panel
Display technologies.

3.4.2 Cathode-Ray Tubes (CRTs)

The cathode-ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube used as a display screen in a computer or
video display terminal. They use technology similar to that of Television Vision (TV).
CRT’s screen display is made up of small picture elements (dots) called pixels for short.
A pixel is the smaller unit on the screen that can be turned on or off to make different
shades. A stream of bits defining the image is sent from the computer to the CRT’s
electron gun, where electrons are activated according to the bit patterns. The front of the
CRT screen is coated inside with phosphor. When a beam of electrons from the
electron gun (deflected through a yoke) hits the phosphor, it lights up selected pixels to
generate an image on the screen. CRTs provide bright, clear images, but they consume

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power, use a lot of space and are relatively heavy. The average weight of a CRT’s
screen is around 25-pound (12- kilogram).
3.4.3 Flat Panel Displays
These display screens are used by lightweight note books and pocket PCs. Compared to
CRTs, flat panel displays are much thinner, light-weight, and consume less power. They
have been used for years in portable computers, and now they are available for desktop
computers. Flat panel displays for a desktop microcomputer are expensive than their
equivalent monitor based on CRT technology although the price is dropping. Flat panel
monitors are wider than traditional monitors are; in fact a 15-inch. flat panel monitor
has almost the same viewing area as a 17-inch traditional monitor. Also, flat panel
displayed images are not always as good as CRT images, and flat panel images cannot
be clearly viewed from an angle. Flat panel displays consist of two plates of glass
separated by a substance. The two things that can be used to differential Flat panel
displays are:
1. The substance that is used to fill the space between the plates of glass. The
substances between the plates are either liquid-crystal display (LCD) or
electroluminescent (EL).
a) LCD: This consists of a substance called liquid crystal, the molecules of
LCD line up in a particular way. Under an applied voltage, the molecular alignment is
disturbed, which changes the optical properties of the liquid crystal in the affected area
to create an image.
b) EL: This display contains a substance that glows when it is charged by an
electric current. A pixel is formed on the screen when current is sent to the intersection
of the appropriate row and column. The combined voltages from the row and column
cause the screen to glow at that point.
2. The arrangement of the transistors in the screens. The way transistors are
arranged in the screen of flat panel display gives rise to either active-matrix or dual-scan
displays.
a) Active-matrix display: Also called thin-film transistor (TFT) display, or TFT
LCD. The LCD is made from a large array of liquid crystal cell with one cell per pixel.
Each pixel on the screen has TFT. Voltage applied selectively to these cells produces
the viewable image. They are much brighter and sharper than dual-scan screens. They
are viewable from wider angles than images produced by most dual-scan screens, which
is difficult to view from any angle other than straight on. They are more complicated
and thus more expensive.
b) Dual-scan display: Also called passive-matrix display. Where one transistor
controls a whole row or column of pixels. They have good contrast for monochrome
(one-colour) screens but the resolution is weaker for colour screen. The advantage is
that dual-scan displays are less expensive and use less power than active-matrix
displays.
c)

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Fig 3.6: Some

Visual Display
Unit types

3.4.4 The Measurement of the Clarity of Screens

Images on the Computer screen consists of Pixels (or picture elements), which is tiny
dots that compose a picture. In order for a display screen to produce clear images, three
qualities are of paramount importance. These are resolution, dot pitch and refresh rate.

1. Resolution: This is the fineness of detail attained by a monitor in producing an

image. In other words, it is a measure of the clarity or sharpness of a display screen. The
more pixels there are per square inch, the better the resolution. Conversely the more
dots, the higher the resolution. A higher resolution produces clearer and sharp images
on the screen. Resolution is expressed in terms of the formula “columns of pixels ×
rows of pixels”. Thus, a screen with 640×480 pixels has a total of 307,200 pixels @
which is made up of 640 columns of dots and 480 of dots. Standard screen resolutions
are 640 ×480, 800 × 600, 1024 × 768, 1280 × 1024 and 1600 × 1200. Depending on the
VRAM, some display adapters may not be able to handle all these resolutions whiles
others can.

2. Dot pitch: This refers to the distance between each pixel or dot on the screen,
and is measured in millimeters (mm). The smaller the dot pitch, the closer the dots, and
the sharper or crisper the image is. If you’re in the market for a monitor try to find one
with a 0.28 mm or less. A 0.28mm dot pitch means dots are 28/100ths of a millimetre
apart. Generally, a dot pitch of less than 0.31 will provide clear images. A display’s dot
pitch is an integral part the monitor’s design and so cannot be altered. Multimedia and
desktop publishing users typically use .25 mm dot pitch monitors.

3. Refresh rate: Refresh rate is the number of times per second that the pixels are
recharged so their glow remains bright. Refresh is necessary because the phosphors
hold their glow for just a fraction of a second. The higher the refresh rate, the more
solid the image looks on the screen that is, it doesn’t flicker. The refresh rate should be
at least 72 Hertz (Hz).

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4. Colour depth: This is also known as bit depth. Colour depth means:
 The number of distinct colours that can be displayed on the monitor at one
time.
 The number of bits used to store information about each pixel
Assigning 8 bits of VRAM to represent each pixel results in 28=256 different colours
hence a 8-bit colour has a colour depth of 256.

3.4.5 Displaying with Colour or No Colour

Display screens can be either monochrome or colour.
Monochrome: This display screen actually uses only two colours for displaying
purposes. One colour is used on a background usually black and the other colour for the
foreground usually white. Others are amber (foreground) on black (background), or
green (foreground) on black (background). The number of shades of the one colour that
the monitor can display is referred to as grey-scale. Monochrome screens are dying out.

 Colour: This display screens, also called RGB monitors (for red, green, blue),
can display between 16 colours and 16.7 million colours, depending on their type.

3.4.6 Video Standards

A video card, which is also known as graphic adapter is used to converts digital output
from the computer into an analogue video signal and send this signal through the video
cable to the monitor.
There are different standards for monitors, and they support different colour depths.
 Video graphics array (VGA): This supports 16 to 256 colours, depending on
resolution. At a resolution of 320 ×200 pixels it will support 256 colours, which is 8-bit
colour. Again at the sharper resolution of 640 × 480 pixels it will support 16 colours,
which is called 4-bit colour.

 Super video graphics array (SVGA): This supports 256 colours at higher
resolution than VGA. SVGA has two graphics modes: 800 × 600, pixels and 1024 ×
768. SVGA is called 8-bit colour. Most new computer systems offer SVGA.

 Extended graphics array (XGA): Supports up to 256 or 65, 536 colours at a

resolution of 1024 × 768 pixels or 640 × 480 respectively. At its highest quality, XGA
is called 24-bit colour, or true colour.

 Super XGA (SXGA): This widely used de facto 32-bit, True color standard.
The resolution is 1280×1024. Some manufacturers, who think that the de facto industry
standard was Video Graphics Array (VGA), termed SXGA as the Extended Video
Graphics Array (XVGA).

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 Ultra XGA (UXGA): is also a 32-bit True color standard with a resolution of
1600×1200.

 Widescreen Ultra Extended Graphics Array (WUXGA): This is a version of

the UXGA format, which is becoming popular in high end 15" and 17" widescreen
notebook computers. It is a 32-bit colour with a resolution of 1920×1200.

 Widescreen Quad Extended Graphics Array (WQXGA): This is a 32-bit

colour version of the XGA format. It is becoming popular in some recent desktop
monitors and has a resolution of 2560×1600.

 Widescreen Extended Graphics Array (WXGA): This is a version of the

XGA format. It is becoming popular in some notebook computers. It supports 32-bit
colour with a resolution of 1280×720 or 1280×800.

 Widescreen Extended Graphics Array PLUS (WSXGA, or WXGA+): This is a

version of the WXGA format. Also becoming popular in some recent notebook
computers. It supports 32-bit colour with a resolution of 1440×900.

The more colours and the higher the refresh rate and the resolution, the harder the
display adapter has to work, and the more expensive it is. And the higher the setting,
the slower the adapter may operate. Also for a display to work, video display adapters
and monitors must be compatible. The software of your computer and the video display
adapter must also be compatible. Thus, if you are changing your monitor or your video
display adapter, be sure the new one will still work with the old. Most monitors today
can accommodate resolutions greater than SVGA, depending on the video card
connected to them.

3.4.7 Monitors and Health concerns

The monitor has been blamed - often wrongly - for wide range of health problems. In
fact, only a small proportion of monitor users actually suffer ill health as a result of their
work. Where problems do occur, they are generally caused by the way in which
monitors are being used, rather than the monitors themselves.
Extensive research has found no evidence that monitors can cause disease or permanent
damage to eyes. But long spells of monitor work can lead to tired eyes and discomfort.

The heat generated by computers and other equipment can make the air seem drier, and
some contact lens wearers find this uncomfortable. If you have this problem but don’t
want to change to spectacles, you can try blinking more often or using tear substitute
drops. Where the air is dry try to increase the humidity.

Headaches may result from several things that occur with VDU work, such as: screen
glare, poor image quality, a need for different spectacles, stress from the pace of

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work, anxiety about new technology, reading the screen for long periods without a
break, poor posture, or a combination of these.

Monitors emit both visible light, which enables us to see the screen, and other forms of
electromagnetic radiation which can be harmful above certain levels. However, the
levels of radiation emitted from monitors are well below the safe levels set out in
international recommendations.

Self-Assessment Question

Exercise 3.1
1) An Output Device converts………………into……………………
2) Explain the term Refresh Rate?
3) State two (2) factors that affect the speed of printing?
4) Mention 3 advantages of a Flat panel display over a Cathode Ray Tube?
5) What distinguishes impact printers from non-impact printers?
6) Mrs. Broni has just bought a new printer for her company, state the various ways
through which she can connect this printer to computer system?
7) Define the following acronyms: TFT, VDU, VGA, and LCD?

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SESSION 4: SYSTEM UNIT

This section will introduce you to a very important component of a

computer; the system or base unit. It is often regarded in many
circles as “the computer itself” hence signifying its significance. We
will further discuss the main components of a modern day system
unit and the roles played by each towards the total functionality of the computer.

Objectives
At the end of the section, you should be able to:
(a) differentiate between the System Unit and the Central Processing
Unit (CPU);
(b) describe a system unit and the mode of connection of external
devices;
(c) identify and describe the various components housed by the system unit;
(d) list the differences between RAM and ROM.
(e) list the component of the CPU
(f) list the three principal power protection devices that can be
connected to the PC
(g) explain the process the CPU goes through before processing data
that via register, cache, RAM etc.
(h) list the various kinds of memory Register, cache, RAM, ROM
and CMOS

Now read on ..

4.1 Components of System Unit

The system unit is the box or case that contains a computer’s main circuitry and storage
devices. People often refer to it as the CPU which is wrong usage because the CPU is a
component in the system unit and not the other way round. There are two design styles
of the system unit; system unit placed horizontally on the table with the monitor sitting
it (called desktop) and the other is the tower model, which is place vertically beside the
monitor or beneath the table.

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4.1.1 Different kinds of System Units

The system unit houses many components of the computer among which are:
 Mother board
 Power supply
 Microprocessor
 Memory
 Secondary storage
 Ports
 Expansion slots and Expansion board
 PC slots and cards
 Bus lines
 CD ROM or DVD-ROM drive
 Diskette drive

4.2 The Motherboard

The motherboard also called the main board or system board is the main circuit board in
the system unit. The mother board consist of a flat board that fills one side of the case. It
contains soldered, non-removable components and sockets or slots for components that
can be removed.

Fig. 4.2: A typical Motherboard

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Every component in the system unit connects directly to the system board. It is wealth
noting that, this board contains the processor, main memory, support circuitry, bus
controller, connectors, etc. The motherboard defines the computer's limits of speed,
memory, and expandability.

Components on the Motherboard

The motherboard has several components built-in, including the following:
 SIMM/DIMM/RIMM sockets
 Processor socket/slot
 ROM BIOS (Flash ROM)
 ISA/PCI/AGP bus slots
 Battery

4.3 Power Supply

The electricity available from the wall outlet is alternating current (AC), but a
microcomputer runs on direct current (DC).

The power supply is the device that converts power from AC (220-240volts) to lower
DC voltages (typically 5-12 volts) to run the computer. The power supplies to PC are
rated by wattage. The more devices attached to the computer, the greater the amount of
watts the power supply should provide. The typical PC has a power supply rated at 150
or 220 watts. More powerful systems may require a power supply of 220 or 250 watts.
Because electricity can generate a lot of heat, there is a fan inside the power supply,
which keeps it and other component from becoming too hot. This fan is responsible for
the noise you hear when the computer is running. The power supply is design to blows
when too much power is supply into it. This is to ensure that the rest of the system is
not damage. Because the AC outlet can be quite uneven, the computer system should
be connected to a power protection device, which is in turn plugged into the wall outlet.
The three principal types are surge protectors and UPS (uninterruptible power supply)
units and voltage Regulator

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Fig 4.3: Power supply units

Surge Protector: A surge protector or surge suppressor is a device that protects a

computer from been damaged by surges (spikes) of high voltage. The computer is
plugged into the surge protector, which is in turn plugged into an AC outlet.

Voltage Regulator: A voltage regulator or line conditioner is a device that protects a

computer from insufficient power or “brownouts.” Brownouts can occur when a large
machine such as a power tool starts up and causes the light in your house to dim.

Uninterruptible Power Supply: An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) is a battery-

operated device that provides a computer with electricity if there is a power failure. The
UPS keeps the computer on for about 10-30 minutes or more after the power outage. It
goes into operation as soon as the power to your computer fails. UPS gives the user
opportunity to save all unsaved work and before the computer is shut down.

4.4 The Central Processing Unit

Fig. 4.4: Microprocessors

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In microcomputers, the central processing unit (CPU), also called processor is contained
on a single chip called the microprocessor. Because of its importance it has been
described as the “heart”, or the “brain” or the “engine” of the computer.
Microprocessors contain transistors which are electric switches that either allow or
prevent the passage of electric current.

The CPU is the part of a computer in which arithmetic and logical operations are
performed and instructions are decoded and executed.

The CPU controls and directs the operations of the computer using both external and
internal buses. The processor contains the electronic circuits that actually cause
processing to occur by interpreting (decoding) and executing the instructions to the
computer, and controlling the input, output and storage operation of the computer. The
processor is contained within a cartridge that plugs in to the system board. The CPU
consists of the Arithmetic and logic Unit (ALU) and the control unit.

Most personal computers today use microprocessors of two kinds i.e. those based on the
model made by Intel and those made by Motorola. Motorola-type chips are made for
Apple Macintosh computers whilst Intel-type chips are used by manufactures such as
Compaq, Dell, Gateway, Hewlett-Packard and IBM.

Intel created the first microprocessor in 1971 with the introduction of a chip called
4004. Intel-Compatible processors come from manufacturers such as Advanced Micro
Devices (AMD) and Cyrix.

4.4.1 Arithmetic and Logic Unit

This is usually called ALU. It is the portion of the CPU where arithmetical operations
and logical operations are performed. Arithmetic operations are Additions, Subtractions,
Multiplications and Divisions. The logical operations compare two or more items to
enable the computer to make decisions on whether they are equal or not equal. The
ALU performs its operations using binary numbers.

The logical operations can test for three things

1. Equal-to (=) condition- compares two values to determine if they are equal.
2. Less-than (<) condition- The computer compares values to determine if one
is less than another.
3. Greater-than (>) condition-The computer determines if one value is greater
than another.

Other variations of the above operations are Not Equal to (<> or !=), Less than or
Equal to ( <=), and Greater than or Equal to (>=).

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4.4.2 Control Unit

The control unit (CU) is the sub-component of the CPU that controls and coordinates
the work and the efforts of the CPU itself and the other peripherals. The main tasks of
the CU are as follows:
 Controlling the input/output units
 Controlling the operations of the ALU in the CPU
 Transferring data to and from the main computer memory
 Any other functions associated with getting the job into the memory for the
CPU to process.

In actual fact CU directs the step-by-step operation of the entire computer system.

4.4.3 Coprocessors
Modern computers may have a number of processors in addition to the main processor
called coprocessors. Each of these coprocessors is dedicated to a special job thus speed
up the operation of the computer. Two common examples are math and graphics
coprocessor chips.

 A math coprocessor chip also known as floating-point or numeric

coprocessor is designed to perform numeric calculation faster and better than the
general-purpose microprocessor used in personal computers.

 A graphics coprocessor chip enhances the performance of programs with lots

of graphics and helps create complex screen displays.

These specialize chips significantly increase the speed of a computer system by

offloading work from the main processor. These chips may be plugged directly into the
motherboard; however, they are often included on cards such sound cards and graphics
cards, used to expand a computer‘s capabilities.

4.5 Memory
The system memory is the internal storage areas in the computer. We use term memory
for data storage that comes in the form of chips, whiles the word storage usually refers
to memory that exists on tapes and disks. The memory accepts data from an input
device during processing, supplies instructions to the CPU, and sends the computed data
to an output device. Because of the important role the system memory plays in the
processing of information in the computer, more memory is needed.

The Main memory is attached to the processor via its address and data buses. Each bus
consists of a number of electrical circuits. Each transaction between the CPU and

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memory is called a bus cycle.

There are three well-known types of memory chips; they are the Random Access
memory (RAM), Read-Only Memory (ROM) and the complementary metal oxide
(CMOS).

4.5.1 Random Access Memory

Random Access Memory (RAM) is also known as the primary memory, primary
storage, or internal memory. The RAM holds data that the CPU is presently processing.
The term "random" is applied because the CPU can access or place data to and from any
addressable RAM on the system in approximately equal amounts of time, no matter
what the specific data locations are. RAM is a temporary or volatile storage because as
soon as the microcomputer is turned off, everything in the RAM is lost. This is the
reason why you should constantly save your document while the work is in process.

Fig: 4.5: Different types of RAM

Any software, program and data should be loaded into RAM before it can be used. The
RAM is used for the following:
 To hold data for processing
 To hold instructions (program) for processing the data
 To hold data that has been processed and waiting to be sent to a peripheral
device.

Different computer programs have different RAM requirement, which means different
RAM capacity or size. Therefore it is important to know the capacity of your RAM
before you install and use the software for optimal performance. To increase the
memory capacity to your computer, you simply add more RAM modules to the

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motherboard. The common RAM technologies used in the modern PC are Static
Random Access Memory (SRAM) and Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM).

SRAM: SRAM is made of transistors. It is used primarily for cache. SRAM is more
expensive and requires about four times the amount of space for a given amount of data
than DRAM, but, unlike DRAM, does not need its power to be refreshed and is
therefore faster to access the data it is holding. A typical access time for SRAM could
be 25 nanoseconds while that for DRAM could be about 60 nanoseconds for dynamic
RAM.
SRAM is used mainly for the level-1 and level-2 caches that the microprocessor looks
in first before looking in DRAM. The original PC and XT, as well as some notebook
computers, use SRAM chips for their memory.

DRAM: DRAM stores information as charges in very small capacitors. DRAM is less
complex and cheaper to manufacture than SRAM. Because DRAM uses capacitors
instead of transistors, it needs to use a constant refresh of electrical signal to keep the
information in memory and hence the dynamic. A DRAM must be refreshed about
every 15 microseconds. Because of the need to refresh DRAM, it makes them to be less
reliable SRAM. DRAM requires more power than SRAM for refresh signals, and
therefore is mostly found in desktop computers. The DRAM technology allows several
memory units, called cells to be packed with very high density. Therefore, these chips
can hold very large amounts of information.
Other variations of DRAM are:
1. Synchronized DRAM (SDRAM) is an enhanced memory that is replacing
traditional DRAM. The memory access cycle is synchronized with the main
processor clock, thereby eliminating wait time between memory operations.

2. Rambus DRAM (RDRAM) is about 10 times faster than standard DRAM.

3. Enhanced DRAM (EDRAM) is a combination of SRAM and DRAM in a

single package that is usually used for a level –2 cache. Typically, 256 KB of
static RAM is included along with dynamic RAM. Data is read first from the
faster (typical 15 nanoseconds) SRAM and if it is not found there, it read the
DRAM, typically at 35 nanoseconds.

4.5.2 Cache Memory

This is also known as RAM cache memory. Cache memory is very fast memory that
the processor can access much more quickly than main memory. Currently processors
can operate at speeds much greater than RAM can supply the necessary data. Cache
memory attempts to bridge the gap between. But small amount of Registers (inside the
microprocessor) and the large amounts of RAM needed for modern applications. By

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giving the processor a small amount of register to used, and then having it read in and
write to main memory in "spare" time, the processor can operate at full speed most of
the time. If anytime the processor wants to process data it has to locate that data in
RAM then the processor will be idle. Therefore, the cache was implemented to act as a
temporary high-speed holding area between the RAM and the CPU. The computer has
been designed is such a way that anytime the processor wants to work on data in
memory location say A it will read the block of data that include A. This block of data
read would be dumped in the cache from which the processor will pick A for
processing. Assuming the next data to be processed is B, which happens to be in the
same block as A, then this data would already be in the cache. This is because the block
that include A also has B and was read into the cache when the processor processing A.
Hence the cache is referred to as the memory that is used to store the most frequently
accessed information. If the processor finds the data it wants in the cache it is known as
“cache hit” else it is known as “cache miss”. Whenever, there is cache miss, the
processor looks for the data in this order: RAM, disk cache, hard disk and removable
disks if any.

When data is loaded from main memory to the cache, it will have to replace something
that is already in the cache. But before this happens, the cache determines if the
memory that is going to be replaced has changed. If it has, it first saves the changes to
main memory, and then loads the new data.

There are two levels of cache memory:

1. Level 1 cache: This is also called L1, internal, or primary cache. L1 cache is
built physically into the processor. Its Capacity is measured in Kilobytes such as
8 -256 KB.
2. Level 2 cache: This is also called L2, external or secondary cache. The L2
cache, which is built on the motherboard is slower than L1 but has a larger
capacity than L1. The capacity of L2 cache is measured in megabyte such as
1MB to 4 MB.

4.6 Read only Memory

Read Only Memory (ROM) is also known as the firmware because they have their
programs built into them permanently at the factory therefore, the data and programs it
contains can only be read and used but cannot be altered. Hence ROM contains
permanent data or non-volatile information, which ensures that there on lost of
information when the computer’s power is turned off.

Virtually all general-purpose computers use a larger amount of RAM and a smaller
amount of ROM. On most PCs, the ROM normally contains the BIOS (Basic
Input/Output System). The BIOS is codes required to control the keyboard, display
screen, disk drives and other peripherals. Therefore some people refer to the ROM as

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ROMBIOS.

There are many types of ROM such as:

1. PROM: This stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. This is a blank
chip on which the buyer, using special equipment, writes the program. Once the
program is written, it cannot be erased.
2. EPROM: This means Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. The
EPROM chip is like PROM chip except that the content can be erased by
exposing it to ultraviolet light and reprogrammed. Using special equipment and
new codes can be written into the EPROM. Some older computer such as the
IBM PC or XT used this chip for their BIOS information.

3. EEPROM: This stands for Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only

Memory. It can be reprogrammed using special electrical impulses. The
advantage of EEPROM chips is that they need not be removed from the
computer to be changed.

It is very inconvenient to remove a ROM every time it needs to have the software that it
contains to be the upgraded. It is difficult and can be dangerous. Therefore, these
various types of ROM are very useful.

4.7 Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor

Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) is a chip that contains essential
information required every time the computer system is turned on. It supplies basic
configuration information such as the amount of RAM, type of keyboard, mouse,
monitor, hard disk capacities and boot sequence. It is powered by a battery and so does
not loose its content when the power is turned off.

The content of CMOS which is changeable configuration information cannot be stored

in neither RAM nor ROM. This is because:
 If the basic configuration information is stored in RAM, it will be lost
when the computer power is turned off. Therefore any time the computer is
powered on you have to re-specify this basic configuration information. This is
undesirable in that it will increase the time that is required to boot the computer
and also the computer may not boot properly if any of the parameters is entered
wrongly.
 If the basic configuration information is stored in ROM, then any new
changes would not be recognized and therefore cannot be utilized by the system.
In other words if you change your RAM from 512 MB to 1.0 GB or your hard
disk from 40 GB to 100 GB, the new values would not be accepted since the
content of ROM is not changeable.

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Hence CMOS can store information that is permanent but changeable. This makes
CMOS to have a property that lies in between RAM (which is temporal but changeable)
and ROM (which is permanent but unchangeable). In other words the content CMOS is
more permanent than RAM but less permanent that ROM.

The CMOS chips can store about 64 KB of data. However, to store the data needed to
boot a computer requires only a very small amount of memory about 128 bytes. If the
data stored on the CMOS is different from the hardware it is keeping track of, the
computer, or part of it will probably not work. For example, if the hard disk drive
information is incorrect, the computer can be booted from a floppy disk, but the hard
disk drive might not be accessible. The technician or owner will have to reset the
CMOS value of any device to the correct value before that device of the computer can
be used if it is not properly defined in the CMOS registry. If anytime you switch on the
computer, you have to manually enter the CMOS values for each of its components;
then the CMOS battery needs to be changed. The information contained in a CMOS
chip will depend on the manufacturer. Typically, CMOS contains at least the following
information:
 Floppy disk and hard disk drive types,
 CPU
 RAM size
 Date and time, which is updated by a Real Time
 Serial and parallel port information
 Plug and Play information
 Power Saving settings

To access the CMOS setup program, you have to consult the User manual that came
with your computer or look carefully for it when the computer is being booted. For
some computer you press the Del key immediately you boot it whilst other you press
certain key or keys.

Fig 4.6: CMOS setup screen

4.8 Bus and Port

The bus are mainly inside the System unit and the used to send data from one
component on the mother board to the other. On the other hand, the port are outside the
System unit and used to connect different peripherals to the computer.

4.8.1 Bus
The bus, also known as bus line in a computer is like a highway for bits transfer within
the computer. It is the pathway that connects the various system components within the
computer. It can also be defined as the collection of wires through which data is

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transmitted from one part of the computer to another. The CPU and other components
on the motherboard are linked by the bus lines. When you look at the motherboard you
will be able to recognize the bus by all the golden lines of wires running all over it. A
64-bit bus is described as 64 wires or lines in the motherboard.
Bus lines consist of three parts:
 Data bus, which is used to transfer the actual data.
 Address bus, which is used to transfer information concerning the
location of the data in memory (which is the address).
 Control bus, which is used by the CPU to control which operations the
devices attached should perform, that is either read or write.

Bus lines have different capacities and the capacity of a bus is measured using two
parameters such as speed and size. The speed of a bus is how much data it can carry in
a second. This is usually measured in Megahertz (MHz). The greater the speed the more
powerful and faster it moves data along the path, which will result in applications
running faster.

The size or width of a bus is how many bits it carries in parallel or simultaneously.
Common bus sizes are: 4-, 8-, 12-, 16-, 24-, 32-, 64-, 80-, 96-, and 128-bits. The size of
a bus will determine the number of separate steps that a data can be transmitted from
one part of the computer to another. For example, an 8 bytes (64 bits) number (such as
98765432 or and of 8 numbers) in memory can be transmitted in using different number
of separate steps such as eight steps, four steps, two steps and one step when using an 8-
, 16-, 32-, and 64-bits bus respectively. Hence the wider the bus, the fewer number of
transfer steps required and the faster the transfer of data. Most PCs today use a 64-bits
bus.

From the above definition, we can say that if a bus has a speed of 100 MHz and a width
of 32 bits then the bus can transfer 3,200,000,000( i.e. 32 ×100, 000,000) bits of data
per second.

4.8.2 Basic Bus types

A computer has two basic types of buses which are:
 System bus, which connects the processor to the main memory.
 I/O bus, which allows the processor to communicate with peripherals
that are either inserted into the expansion slots of the motherboard or connected
to a port attached to the motherboard.

The system buses can be classified as internal and external.

1. An internal bus is a bus inside the processor, moving data, addresses,

instructions, and other information between registers and other internal

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components or units of the processor such as ALU and CU. The size of the
Internal bus is the same as CPU’s word size or word.
2. An external bus is a bus outside of the processor (but inside the
computer), moving data, addresses, and other information between the processor
and main memory.

A computer comes with several types of I/O bus, also known as Expansion bus or Bus
Standards. Peripherals are connected to the I/O buses in either of two ways:
1. Through a port on an adapter card that is inserted into an expansion slot
such as Network Card, Internal Modem, TB Card etc.
2. Through a port that does not need an expansion slot such as Mouse,
Keyboard, Video adaptor, parallel serial, USB and firewire etc.

4.8.3 External Bus Standards

Various standards have been used. Because the speed of the bus is an important factor
that determines how fast data are processed, new bus standards that are fast are being
experimented to replace the existing slow ones. The following are list of some of the
standards. This list is not exhaustive.

Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus: The ISA bus originated in the early 1980s
at an IBM development lab in Boca Raton, Florida but is currently used for IBM PCs
and PC clones. The original IBM Personal Computer introduced in 1981 included the 8-
bit ISA bus that ran at 4.77 MHz. In 1984, with the introduction of the IBM AT
computer (which used the 80286 processor, introduced by Intel in 1982), ISA bus was
expanded to a 16 bit bus that ran at 8.3 MHz. Examples of devices that are connect to
ISA bus are mouse, internal MODEM, sound card, and low-speed network card.

Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) bus: The MCA bus is a 32-bit bus introduced in
1987 by IBM with the PS/2 computer that used the Intel 80386 processor. IBM
attempted to license MCA bus to other manufacturers, but they rejected it. IBM
continues to use a modern variation of MCA in some of its upper end of its PS/2 line,
the RS/6000 workstations, the AS/400 series and in the 370 architecture machines. This
bus architecture covers an entire line of computing products, from PCs to mainframes.

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Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus: The PCI bus is a bus created by Intel
in 1993. PCI is available in both a 32-bit version running at 33 MHz and a 64 bit
version running at 66 MHz. PCI supports automatic configuration (for “plug and play”).
It was developed to meet the video demand of graphical user interfaces. PCI is a high
speed bus that is over 29 times faster than the ISA buses. The PCI bus has all the signals
of the ISA bus. This allows a PCI adapter card to emulate older equipment. It is
gradually replacing the ISA architecture and is widely used to connect the CPU,
memory and the expansion boards.

Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) bus: This bus was designed by Intel and is about 2
to 4 times as fast as the PCI bus. The AGP is dedicated to the acceleration of graphic
performance and widely used for graphics and 3-D animations. It is gradually replacing
the PCI architecture.

Universal Serial Bus (USB): This is a serial bus standard that does not need devices to
be connected to the system unit through the Expansion slot. It was designed in Jan 1996
to replace all older serial and parallel ports on personal computers since these were not
properly standardized. Since it is a serial bus, it width is 1-bit with speed up to 480
Mbit/s.

IEEE 1394: Originally created by Apple and standardized in 1995 as the specification
IEEE 1394 High Performance Serial Bus, IEEE 1394 is very similar to Universal Serial
Bus (USB). Other popular proprietary names for IEEE 1394 are Sony iLink and Apple’s
Firewire. Even though this bus is commonly known as Firewire, IEEE 1394 is the
official name for the standard.

PCI Express: This bus expands on and doubles the data transfer rates of original PCI.
Initial bit rates for PCI Express about 200MB/s (Megabytes). PCI Express was
developed so that high-speed interconnects such as IEEE 1394b, USB 2.0, InfiniBand
and Gigabit Ethernet would have an I/O architecture suitable for their transfer high
speeds. PCI Express, also known as 3GIO (for third-generation Input/Output) is
compatible with existing PCI systems.

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1.8.2 Ports and Cables

A port is a connecting socket on the outside of the system unit. Cables connect input
and output devices to ports. In computer hardware, a port serves as an interface between
the computer and other computers or devices. Physically, a port is a specialized outlet
on a piece of equipment to which a plug or cable connects. Hardware ports may be
physically male (contains protruding pins easily break if matching cable ends does not
fit correctly) or female (contains holes to which the pins from the end of the cable
enter).

Some ports, like the mouse and keyboard ports are for specific devices. Others, like
those listed below, can be used for a variety of different devices.
 Serial ports are used for a wide variety of purposes. They are used to
connect a mouse, keyboard, modem, and many other devices to the system unit.
Serial ports send data one bit at a time and are very good for sending information
over a long distance
 Parallel ports are used to connect external devices that need to send or receive a
lot of data over a short distance. These ports typically send eight bits of data
simultaneously across eight parallel wires. Parallel ports are mostly used to connect
printers to the system unit.

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 Accelerated graphics ports (AGPs) are used to connect monitors. They are able
to support high-speed graphics and other video input.
 Universal serial bus (USB) ports are expected to gradually replace serial and
parallel ports. They are faster, and one USB port can be used to connect about 127
devices such as mice, modem, keyboard, etc to the system unit.
 Fire Wire ports are the newest type. They are even faster than USB ports and
are used to connect high-speed printers and video cameras to the system unit.
Currently 63 devices can connect to the system unit through this port.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. The System Unit is also known as Base Unit or Central
Processing Unit (CPU). True / False.
2. List the main components housed in the System Unit.
3. The motherboard defines the __________, __________ and __________
limits of the computer.
4. What is the purpose of the fan inside the power supply?
5. Briefly describe the Microprocessor.
6. Classify the following under temporal/volatile OR permanent memory:
i. RAM
ii. CMOS
iii. SRAM
iv. DRAM
v. Cache
vi. ROM
7. Explain the term “cache miss”. What happens when a “cache miss”
occurs?
8. The Arithmetic and Logic Unit and the Control Unit are main
components of the motherboard. True / False.
9. Differentiate between the following:
i. Serial port
ii. Parallel port
iii. AGP
iv. USB
v. Fire wire
10. Which bus can be found in computers ranging from microcomputers to
mainframes?
11. Why did MCA not used in non – IBM computers (or IBM compatibles)?

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SESSION 5: STORAGE DEVICES

In this section we shall look at why secondary storage are included in

the computer system and discuss the various types of secondary media
that are available.

Objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to:
1. explain the purpose of secondary storage medium;
2. identify the two primary types of magnetic disk systems and
describe how they work.
3. list the various types of secondary storage media available;
4. discuss the various types of optical disc systems available and how they differ
from each other and from magnetic systems.
5. explain why some modern microcomputers do not include a floppy drive.
6. list the various types of Removable disks.

5.1 Basic Concepts of Secondary Storage

In computer parlance, secondary storage, or external memory, is computer memory
that is not directly accessible to the CPU, requiring the use of computer's input/output
channels. Secondary storage is used to store data that is not in active use. Secondary
storage is usually slower than primary storage, or internal memory, but has higher
storage capacity and is non-volatile, which makes it perfect for the preservation of
stored information in an event of power loss. Auxiliary or backing store are alternative
names for secondary storage because they support or back the main memory. Apart
from keeping a copy of any important file, data and the like on the hard disk, it is
always advisable to keep a reserve copy as backup storage on another secondary storage
device. This will enable you to have another copy in case the one you are using is
deleted accidentally.

The process of retrieving information from a storage device is referred to as reading.

When we say information is read from a secondary storage, it means a copy of it was
made from the storage device to primary storage (RAM). The action of “loading an
application or opening a file” is used to describe reading or retrieving information
from a storage device. The process of copying information to a storage device is
referred to as writing. The action of saving a file or installing a program involves
writing something from the RAM to a storage device. In the context of computer
storage, the mechanism that makes reading and writing possible is generally referred to
as a drive whilst the medium on which information is kept or stored is the disk. Hence,
some or all of the following drives may exist in some computers: Magnetic tape drive,
Floppy drive, Hard drives and CD/DVD-ROM drives likewise their corresponding disk
are Magnetic tape, Floppy disk, Hard disk and CD/DVD-ROM disk.

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5.2 Magnetic Tape

Magnetic tape is a non-volatile storage medium consisting of a magnetic coating on a
thin plastic strip. Nearly all recording tapes are of this type, whether used for video,
audio storage or general purpose digital data storage using a computer. Tapes provide
sequential access, which is writing or reading data one after the other. To find particular
information on tape, you may have to pass over all the information stored before the one
you want and therefore it is time consuming. Although tape may be slow to access
specific information, it is an effective way of making a backup or duplicate of your
programs and data. Nowadays, magnetic tapes are used exclusively for back up and
archiving of data. The forms of magnetic tape storage used are magnetic tape streamers
or Cartridge tape units, which are used with microcomputers and magnetic tape reels,
for used with minicomputers and mainframes. Magnetic tapes should not be stored near
magnetic materials such as loud speakers and magnets since they can loose their data
when they come into contact with these materials.

The following are the characteristics of some magnetic tapes used in computers:
1. Magnetic Tape Reels: Magnetic tape reels are used with minicomputer and
mainframe systems. They are ½-inch wide and ½-mile long and stores 1,600 to
64,000 characters to the inch. Such tapes are run on magnetic tape drives or
magnetic tape units.
2. Magnetic Tape streamers: This is also called backup tape cartridge unit. A
cartridge tape unit using ¼-inch cassettes (QIC or Quarter-Inch Cartridge
Standard) can store up to 20 GB. Another form called digital audio tape (DAT),
which uses 2-inch by 3-inch cassette and can store 2 to 24 GB of information.
DATs are used for very high-quality audio recording and data backup. More
expensive digital linear tape (DLT) provides capacities from 10 to 70 GB.

Fig 5.1: Magnetic tape and magnetic tape reels

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5.3 Floppy Disk

The floppy disk, often called diskette is a portable, removable round, flat piece of Mylar
plastic, which stores data and program as magnetized spots. Data is stored on a disk as
electromagnetic charges on a metal oxide film that coats the Mylar plastics. Data and
programs are represented by the presence or absence of these magnetic charges, using
the ASCII1 or EBCDIC2 data representation codes. Diskettes are called “floppy”
because the Mylar plastic inside the diskette covers is flexible, not rigid.

Fig 5.2: Floppy disks types

The early floppy disks were 8 inch or 5 1 4 inch, and stored a relatively low volume of
data. Nowadays, the most common size of diskette is the 1.44 MB 3 ½-inch disk. These
disks are typically labeled 2HD, which means “two-sided, high density”. On a floppy
disk, data is recorded on a disk in rings called tracks, which are closed concentric
circles. Each track is divided into sections known as sectors. Tracks and sectors are used
to locate data stored on a floppy disk. The data on magnetic disks can be destroyed by
external magnetic fields at room temperature. Some disks are manufactured without
tracks and sectors in place. They must be adapted to the type of microcomputer and disk
drive by a process called formatting or initializing. (Both tracks and sectors of the disk
are invisible.)

1
American Standard Code for Information Interchange
2
Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code.

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Fig 5.3: Illustration of Tracks and Sectors on a floppy disk

Modern floppy disk drives are double-sided drive since they have two read/write heads.
If one head of the disk drive uses the disk's top surface, while the other head uses the
disk's button, so that the drive can use both sided of the disk simultaneously. This kind
of drive is called a double-sided disk drive. The drive puts information onto the disk by
first using track 0 of the main side (bottom), then track 0 of the flip side after which
track 1 of the main side is used then track 1 of the flip side and so on. If the disk drive
has just one read-write head only one side of the disk is usable. This kind of drive is
called a single-sided disk drive.

To read and write to a disk properly, the heads must be in direct contact with this media.
Therefore very small particle such as dust, smoke, fingerprints, or hair can cause
problems with reading and writing the disk.

The normal speed of rotation of the spindle meter of a floppy disk drive is between 300
to 360 rpm. The longest retrieval time is governed by a single rotation of the disk such
that the desired data is underneath the head. If a rotational speed of 360 revolutions per
minute (rpm), which is typical, (6rev/sec) then 1/6 the second would be the worst time
needed to find the data and the average time (called rotational latency) is half of 1/6th
sec. The actual time for performing the read and write known as the access time is
made of a combination of the seek time (moving the head to the data), the rotational

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latency3 (the head getting its act together) and the read/write time (the time taken for
the data transfer to take place).

Floppy drives are of two types, which are Internal and External floppies.

Fig 5.4: External and Internal Floppy drives

Internal Floppy drive comes with the Computer and is located inside the System unit.
Most old computers have this drive. Due to the low capacity of the floppy disk, most
modern computers do not come with internal floppy drive but you can buy an External
floppy drive and attach it to a port behind the System unit.

5.4 Hard Disk

While floppy disks use thin flexible plastic disks, hard disks use thicker, ridged metallic
platters to store data. A hard disk (also known as a hard disk drive) or hard drive and
formerly known as a fixed disk) consists of oxide-coated metal platters in which data
can be recorded magnetically, together with their read/write heads the positioning
mechanism, and the spindle motor that are sealed inside a housing to ensure
contaminants free operation.
Most hard drives have at least two or three platters, and some have up to 11 or more
platters. Data can be stored on each side of the platter therefore; a hard drive has one
head per platter side. The platters are usually constructed of aluminum or glass and can't
be bent or flex hence the term fixed disk drives. Another reason they are called fixed
disk is because they are fixed inside the computer although they can be removed. The
read-write heads of multi-platter disk move in and out at the same time hence the read-
write heads will be of the same track number in each surface of the multi-platter of the
hard disk. This positioning of the read-write heads forms a cylinder. The inner tracks of
a multi-platter disk form the inner cylinder likewise the outer tracks form the outer
cylinder. Therefore if disk pack has five platters, each cylinder will consists of 10

3
also known as rotational delay. The time taken for a disc to rotate from the current position (on the
required track) to the position containing the first required data block.

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tracks, because there are ten heads. Therefore, another method which is used to locate
data stored on the computer is cylinder.
(A picture of Cylinder)

Fig 5.5: Parts of a Hard disk

The read/writ head of the hard disk is permitted to fly about 10 to 25 millionths of an
inch above the surface of a platter rotating at 3600 to 7200 rpm. [Hard disks are
expensive, faster and more reliable and have greater storage capacity than the floppy
disk.]

Since the read-write head rides on a cushion of air about 0.000001 inch thick and when
they come into contact with obstacles such as smoke particle; fingerprint, dust, or
human hair., they could cause what is known as a head crash. Head crash is a hard disk
failure in which a read/write head comes into contact with the surface of the platters,
damaging the magnetic coating in which data is recorded. More damage occurs when
the head picks up materials on the surface. A head crash can also be caused by
mechanical failure or heavy shaking of the disk drive. If the crash occurs on a directory
track, the whole disk may become unreadable instantly. Head crash means some or all
of the data on the disk is destroyed.

The track length on the outside of the disk is considerably longer than those on the
inside, but there are the same numbers of sectors in a track. Therefore the packing
density of data varied making the inner tracks to be packed much more densely than the

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outer tracks. This is wasteful of space on the outer edges, but it makes the system
considerably simpler to operate because each sector regardless of its position on the
disk is always under the head for the same length of time. This makes the data transfer
rate to be constant regardless of the sector’s position. As the disk rotates with constant
speed, the data transfer rates at the outer edges would be much greater if this variable-
packing density system were not to be used. On CD – ROMs, the data packing density
is the same and the rotational speed of the CD is varied.

5.4.1 Forms of Hard disks

The hard disk that comes to us in three different forms or styles internal hard disk, hard
disk cartridge, and hard disk pack. These are:
 Internal Hard disk: This is also known as a fixed disk because it is located
inside the system unit. It consists of one or more metallic platters sealed inside a
container. The container includes the motor for rotating the disks. It also
contains an access arm and read-write heads for writing data to and reading data
from the disks. Internal hard disks have some advantages over floppy disks such
data longevity, capacity and speed.

 Hard disk packs: They are removable storage devices used to store massive
amounts of information. Their capacity far exceeds the other types of hard
disks. Hard disk packs consist of several platters aligned one above the other.
There is space between the disks to allow the access arms to move in and out.
Each access arm has two read-write heads with one head reading the disk
surface above it while the other reads the disk surface below it. A disk pack
with 11 disks provides 20 recording disk surfaces. This is because the top and
bottom outside surfaces of the disk pack are not used. Hard disk packs are
primarily used with minicomputers and mainframes. All the access arms move
in and out together. However, only one of the read-write heads is activated at a
given moment.

 Hard disk cartridge: They are easy to remove just like cassette from a VCR.
The amount of storage available to a computer system is limited only by the
number of cartridges. They are particularly useful to protect or secure sensitive
information. Other uses include backing up the contents of the internal hard
disk and providing additional hard disk capacity. Some well-known hard disk
cartridges are Jazz from Iomega and SparQ from SyQuest.

5.4.2 Hard Disk Performance Enhancements

The performance of the hard disk is crucial to the overall performance of the computer
system. Here we are interested in how fast our files are manipulated such as Copying,
Moving, Opening, Deleting, and so on. Some of the ways to improve the performance
of hard disks are discussed below.

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 Disk caching: This improves hard disk performance by anticipating data needs.
It requires a combination of hardware and software. This is a portion of a
computer’s RAM set aside for temporarily holding information read from disk.
A disk cache is used to hold information that either has recently been requested
from disk or has previously been written to disk. If the required information
remains in a disk cache, access time is considerably faster than if the program
must wait for the disk drive mechanism to fetch the information from disk. The
overall system performance is often increased by as much as 30 percent.

 File compression and file decompression see detailed discussion later in

Section 6. File compression is used to reduce the size.
 Disk Defragmentation: see detailed discussion later in Section 6.

5.5 Optical Disks

Today’s optical disks can hold over 4.7 GB of data, which is the equivalent of over 1
million typewritten pages. Therefore, Optical disks have a great impact on storage
today. In optical disk technology, a LASER (Light Amplification by the stimulated
Emission of Radiation) beam alters the surface of a plastic disk to represent data. Data
representation on optical disk is done by the use of reflected light. The 1s and 0s are
represented by flat areas called lands and bumpy areas called pits on the disk surface.
Optical disks come in many different sizes including 3½, 4¾, 5¼, 8, 12 and 14 inches.
The most common size is 4¾-inches. Data is stored on these disks in different ways or
different formats: such as CD and DVD.

To increase the life span of an Optical disc, the guideline must be followed:

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 Handle it only at the hub or outer edge and don't touch the shiny surface with
your fingers.
 Store in a protective case when not in use.
 Don't bend the disc when taking it out of the case, and be careful not to scratch
the disc when placing it in the case or in the player tray.
 Make certain the disc is properly seated in the player tray before you close it.
 Keep discs away from radiators, heaters, hot equipment surfaces, direct sunlight
(near a window or in a car during hot weather), and other destructive forces.
 The DVD specification recommends that discs be stored at a temperature
between -20 to 50 °C (-4 to 122 °F) with less than 15 °C (27 °F) variation per
hour, at relative humidity of 5 to 90 percent.
 Write on the top surface with special markers only.

Artificial light and indirect sunlight have no effect on replicated DVDs since they are
made of polycarbonate, polymer adhesives, and metal (usually aluminum or gold), none
of which are significantly affected by exposure to light. Exposure to bright sunlight may
affect recordable DVDs, specifically write-once DVDs (DVD-R and DVD+R) that use
light-sensitive dyes. Magnetic fields have no effect on DVDs, hence it is alright to leave
them sitting on your speakers.

Fig 5.7: Illustration of the spiral track on an optical disc

5.5.1 The CD Format

The full name for CD is Compact Disk. CD was introduced in 1982 and was originally
developed for storing digital audio. Standard CDs are available in two sizes. By far the
most common is 120 mm in diameter, with a 74-minute audio capacity and a 650 MB
data or an 80-minute audio capacity and a 700 MB data. A CD has a single spiral track
of data, circling from the inside of the disc to the outside. With the distance between
tracks very small about 1.6 millionth of a meter (1.6 microns). A CD has about 600
tracks per linear inch of disk surface. A laser beam is needed to defect the presence or
absence of pits which have been burned into this surface at the writing stage. There are
three basic types of CDs: CD-ROM, CD-R, and CD-RW. CD drives can transfer
(read/write) data at different speed.

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The figure below is a list of common data transfer speeds for CDs.

Transfer Speed Megabytes/s

1x 0.15
2x 0.3
4x 0.6
8x 1.2
10x 1.5
12x 1.8
20x 3.0
32x 4.8
36x 5.4
40x 6.0
48x 7.2
50x 7.5
52x 7.8
Fig 5.8: Common transfer speeds for CDs

The x is the original speed of transferring data on CD, which is 150 kilobytes per
second (kb/s).

CD-ROM: This stands for Compact Disc-Read Only Memory. Read-Only means it
cannot be written on or erased by the user. Therefore the user has access only to the
data copied into it by the creator of the content. CD-ROMs are used to distribute large
databases, references and large software application packages. Microsoft Windows 95
for example was supplied on a single CD-ROM or on 38 floppies. Installing software
on a hard disk from a CD-ROM is much faster and easier than doing that from floppies.
The user simply starts it up, enters any required information, and comes back later; it's
no longer necessary to feed disk after disk into the computer. A CD-ROM drive can
only read CD-ROMs, CD-Rs and CD-RWs.

CD-R: This stands for CD-Recordable and is also known as WORM meaning Write
Once, Read Many times. It is the type of CD that allows users with CD recorders (CD-
R drives) to write data, only once, onto this specially manufactured disk that can then be
read by a standard CD-ROM drive. Once the data is recorded; it can not be written over
(changed) again the CD-R disc to become a CD-ROM. A CD-R drive can read/write on
CD-Rs but can only read CD-ROMs

CD-RW: This stands for Compact Disk Re-Write and also known as erasable optical
disks. This format allows users to erase data so that the disk can be used over and over

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again. Therefore, unlike the disk surface of CD-R that of CD-RW is not permanently
altered when data is recorded. Because they can be changed, CD-RWs are often used to
create and edit multimedia presentations. CD-RW drives can also accept CD-R disks
and CD-ROMs. CD-RW comes with three different speed ratings:
1. One speed for write-once operations
2. Another speed for re-write operations
3. Still another speed for read-only operations.

The speeds are typically listed in the order mentioned above such as Write Speed/Re-
write Speed/Read Speed. Hence when you see CD-RW disk or drive with the
inscription such as 12x/10x/32x CD drive it means the system can write to CD-R disks
at 12x speed, re-write to CD-RW discs at 10x speed, and read from CD discs at 32x
speed.

5.5.2 The DVD format

The Consortium that designed DVD originally said it means “Digital Video Disc”
because it was used for video applications. But later other members of the Consortium
thought it should stand for “Digital Versatile Disc” to depict it widespread usage for
non-video application. Since there was no agreement on what DVD should mean, DVD
could mean any of the two mentioned description or nothing. DVD drives are very
similar to CDs except that more data can be packed into the same amount of space. The
DVD drives can store 4.7-17 G B, allowing great data storage, studio – quality video
images, and the theatre-like surround sound. DVD’s quality also far surpasses that of
CD because images are stored at higher resolution. The data on a DVD are compressed
over 30 fold, and the pits that represent the data are smaller than that on a CD. Again
while CD can record data only one side in one layer but DVD disks can put data on both
sides with each side having one or two layers. Most DVD hardware will play audio,
video or data CDs, CD-Rs and CD-RWs.

DVDs comes in 2 formats:

1. -R/RW and -RAM (the dash format): This is supported by a Consortium of
companies known as DVD Forum, which includes Panasonic, Toshiba, Apple
Computer, Hitachi, NEC, Pioneer, Samsung, Sharp and other.
2. +R/RW (the plus format): This is supported by Consortium of companies
known DVD+RW Alliance, which includes Philips, Sony, Hewlett-Packard,
Dell, Ricoh, Yamaha and others.

The DVD format uses one of three storage techniques to store huge amount of data.
These techniques are:
1. The packing of the pits of DVD disc is closer together making it denser.

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2. Using two layers of pits. For this technique to work, the lower layer of pits is
semitransparent so the laser can read through it to the upper layer. This
technique doubles the capacity of the disc.
3. Using both sides of the disc for some DVDs hence they are known as double-
sided. This means you must remove the DVD-ROM and turn it over to read the
other side.

The figure below shows how the DVD storage capacity of 4.7 to 17 GB comes about.

SIDES LAYERS TYPE OF DISC STORAGE

CAPACITY
1 1 DVD-5 4.7 GB
2 DVD-9 8.5 GB
2 1 DVD-10 9.4 GB
2 DVD-18 17 GB

Fig 5.9: Various DVD storage capacities

DVD-ROM: This was the first DVD standard to hit the market and is a read-only
format. The video or game content is burned onto the DVD once and the DVD will run
on any DVD-ROM-equipped device.

DVD-R: Is a DVD recordable format. A DVD-R has a larger storage capacity than a
CD-R, typically 4.7 GB instead of 700 MB, although the capacity of the original
standard developed by DVD Forum (among which Pioneer Corporation, played a leading
role) was 3.95 GB. Pioneer has also developed an 8.54 GB dual layer version, which
appeared on the market in 2005. A DVD-R can be written to only once but read infinite
number of times.

DVD+R: is a writable optical disc with 4.7 GB of storage capacity. The format was
developed by a coalition of corporations, known as the DVD+RW Alliance(which
includes Philips), in mid 2002. There is no much difference between DVD-R and
DVD+R. hence some DVDs from Philip can have DVD+R or DVD-R inscription on it
such as the below.

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DVD-RW/ DVD+RW: These are the rewritable optical disc with equal storage
capacity to a DVD-R/DVD+R respectively. Both DVD-RW and DVD+RW discs can be
rewritten about 1,000 times hence commonly used for non-permanent data, such as
backups. DVD+RW support random write access, which means that data can be added
and removed without erasing the whole disc and starting over. This means that
DVD+RWs can almost be treated like removable hard disks. On the other hand, DVD-
RW is more like CD-RW since any time there is the need to change data, one must
erase the whole disc and start over again. Due to the way rewrite is done it is best to
used DVD+RW drive to rewrite on DVD+RW disc likewise DVD-RW drive to rewrite
DVD-RW disc. A hybrid drive known as DVD±RW can handle both DVD+RW and
DVD-RW disc at the same time.

Fig 5.10: An example of DVD-RAM

DVD-RAM: DVD–Random Access Memory is a disc specification presented in 1996

by the DVD Forum. A DVD-RAM disc can be recorded and erased repeatedly but are
compatible only with devices manufactured by the companies that support the DVD-
RAM format. DVD-RAM discs are typically housed in cartridges. DVD-RAM media
have been used in computers as well as camcorders and personal video recorders since
1998. DVD-RAM was created for storage of computer data like backing up your hard
drive. If you want to get a DVD writer to back up computer data, DVD-RAM is the
right choice. However, if you plan to make your own DVD movies, one of the other
formats may be better suited for that activity. Most DVD players can’t play DVD-RAM
disks.

5.6 Pen Drive

Pen drives are flash memory data storage devices integrated with a USB interface. They
are typically small, lightweight, removable and rewritable. A memory capacity for pen
drives ranges from 32 megabytes up to 64 gigabytes. Pen drives offer potential

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advantages over other portable storage devices, particularly the floppy disk. They are
more compact, generally faster, hold more data, and may be more reliable (due to their
lack of moving parts) than floppy disks. These types of drives use the USB mass storage
standard, supported natively by modern operating systems such as Linux, Mac OS X,
and Windows.

Fig: 5.11: Different types of pen drives; (b) A pen drive in use

5.7 Zip Drive

The Zip drive is a medium-capacity removable disk storage system, introduced by
Iomega in late 1994. Originally it had a capacity of 100 MB, but later versions increased
to first 250 MB and then 750 MB. The format became the most popular of the super-
floppy type products but never reached the status of a quasi-standard to replace the 3.5-
inch floppy disk. It has been superseded by flash drive systems as well as rewritable CDs
and DVDs, and is fading in popularity.

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Fig 5.12: A zip disk and a zip drive

5.8 Flash memory

Disk drives, whether for diskettes, hard disks or CD-ROMs all involve moving parts.
Flash – memory cards have no moving parts. It consist of circuitry on cards (like credit
card – size) that can be slotted to the motherboard. They can hold gigabytes of data.
They are commonly used with digital cameras, digital music players, handheld PCs,
notebook computers, smart phones, and so on.

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Fig 5.13: Illustration of the application of Flash memory stick

5.9 Life-Span of Storage Media

Some storage media last longer than others. Tape will deteriorate within 5-15 years,
depending on how it’s stored. Hard disk cartridges such as Zip and Jazz can last for
about 10 years. The life span of CD-ROM disk is almost unlimited.

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Self-Assessment Questions

Exercise 2.5
1. Distinguish between magnetic and optical storage devices
2. List five means of prolonging the life span of an Optical disc.
3. If you have an option to choose between DVD-RW and DVD+RW, which
one will use pick and why?
4. Compare and contrast floppy and hard disk.
5. Compare and contrast CD and DVD.
6. Which of the following is needed in order to locate a data on a hard disk?
I. Sector Number II. Track Number III. Surface Number
IV. Cylinder Number
(a) All the above (b) I, II, III (c) I, II, IV
(d) II, III, IV
7. You can enhance the performance of your hard disk through ……………......
(a) Disk Caching (b) File compressing (c) Defragmention
(d) All the above
8. Which of the following uses flash memory?
(a) Digital Camera (b) Smart phones (c) All the above
(d) None of the above
9. The Life span of all storage media are the same. True / False? ______________
10. Zip drives are the newest storage medium that would eventually replace pen drive
in the near future. True / False? ______________

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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SESSION 6: THE SYSTEM SOFTWARE

In this session, we shall look at system software and the programs that
constitute the system software. We shall also look at how they are used
to make the use of the computer, very easy and comfortable for the
user.

Objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) define what a system software is
(b) list the constituents of the system software
(c) explain the tasks of the operating system
(d) list and explain the classification of Operating systems
(e) explain what utility programs are and list examples
(f) explain how an antivirus works.

As we mentioned earlier, we buy computers mainly because of what we can run on it.
But before we can utilize any application on the computer or use the computer
efficiently, the system software must be in place. The system software consists of the
following:
 Operating System
 Utilities
 Device drivers

Now read on …

6.1 Operating System

All general purpose computers depend on an operating system to keep the computer
system especially hardware run efficiently and to make the user feel comfortable using
the computer system without worrying about how the various hardwares of the
Computer System can communicate effectively. An operating system (OS) is a program
that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer and the computer hardware.
According to American National Standards of Information Technology [ANSI]
dictionary), an operating system is software that controls the execution of programs and
that provides services such as resource allocation, scheduling, I/O control, and data
management.

The goals the Operating System

The operating system is designed to achieve certain goals among which are the
following:
 To execute user’s programs and make solving user’s problems easier.
 To make the computer system convenient to use.

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 To use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.

6.1.1 Classification of Operating Systems
Operating systems are generally categorized based on the types of computers they
control and the sort of applications they support. Modern operating systems can be
categorized as follows:
Single-user
This operating system enables only one user to use the computer system at a time. There
are two types, namely single user with single tasking and single user with multitasking.

Single user with single tasking: This operating system is designed to manage the
computer so that one user can effectively do one thing at a time. The Palm OS for Palm
handheld computers is a good example of a modern single-user, single-task operating
system.

Single user with multi-tasking: As the name implies, the single user can perform
multiple tasking or activities at the same time. All desktop operating system such as
windows, Unix/Linux, Mac OX etc can do this.

Multi-users
This is also known as time sharing. With this operating system, a single computer
processes the tasks of several users at different stations in round-robin fashion. The
computer will first work on one user’s task for a fraction of a second, then go on to the
next user’s task, and so on. Each user is allotted a slice of the computer’s time hence at
each time slice the processing capability of the computer is dedicated to each user. The
computer may rapidly switch back and forth among different tasks. The users are
generally unaware of the switching process. All minicomputers, mainframes, and
supercomputers are multi-user but most personal computers are not. A multi-user
system must clearly be multi-tasking.

Multitasking
This is the execution of two or more programs by one user concurrently on the same
computer with one central processor. You may be writing a report with a word-
processor, printing spreadsheet charts and playing music on the CD using CD player or
Windows Media player. The OS directs the processor to spend a predetermined amount
of time executing the instructions for each program one at a time. In essence, a small
amount of each program is processed, and then the processor moves to the remaining
programs, one at a time, processing small parts of each. This cycle is repeated until
processing is complete. The processor speed is usually so fast that it may seem as if all
the programs are being executed at the same time. Because processors work so much
faster than peripheral devices, it can accomplish several processing tasks while waiting
for, say, a printer to finish outputting a document. Microcomputer users working on a
system with multitasking capabilities will become familiar with the terms foreground

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and background. If, for example, your computer is printing out your Advance Calculus
assignment while you are creating some graphs for your Data Analysis report, the
printing will occur in the background; that is, the processor will allocate less time to it
than what is in the foreground-the current application you are working in. Background
processing is non-interactive, low-priority processing; foreground processing is
interactive, high-priority processing. This is the type of operating system most people
use on their desktop and laptop computers today.

Multiprocessing
This is the processing done by two or more computers or processors linked together to
perform work simultaneously-that is, at precisely the same time. This can entail
processing instructions from different programs or different instructions within the same
program at the same time. Multiprocessing can be done in several ways. One is by co-
processing, whereby the controlling processor works together with coprocessors, each
of which handles a particular task, such as creating display screen graphics or
performing high-speed mathematical calculations. Many microcomputer systems have
co-processing capabilities. Another way to perform multiprocessing is by parallel
processing, whereby several full-fledged processors work together on the same tasks,
sharing the same memory. Parallel processing is often used in large computer systems
which are designed to keep running even if one of the processors fails. These systems
are called fault-tolerant system; they have many processors and redundant components
such as memory and input, output, and storage devices. Fault-tolerant systems are used,
for example, in airline reservation systems.

Server
This system is used to provide services, usually over a network, to potentially many
clients. Example, services are Web servers, file, mail, Domain Name System (DNS),
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) and print servers.

Exercise
List the operating systems for these categories of computers Palm tops,
Desktops/Laptops, Minicomputers, Mainframes and Supercomputers.

6.1.2 Some of the tasks the Operating System Perform

1. Controlling and Allocating Memory
The operating system determines which part of an application is need in memory.
Sometime, the user wants to load a program but the memory is already full hence the
operating system must decide what to do. Some of the things the operating system can
in this situation are:
 To pull out of memory an application that is in memory but is not been currently
used and replace it with the one that you desire to use.

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 Increase the size of virtual memory so that the operating system uses part of the
hard disk as primary memory. The effect is that more applications can be
accommodated in memory including those already in memory and the new one.

2. Scheduling System Request

All modern operating systems have been design to be multitasking or
multiprogramming. This implies that more programs can be in the memory at any given
time. Through this multitasking capability, one can do the following at the same time:
 Use a Media player such a Microsoft Media player to play music from the
CD/DVD drive.
 Use a Web Browser such as Microsoft Internet Explorer to download a
PowerPoint presentation of a course’s lecture notes.
 Use Windows Explorer to move a folder from one drive to another.
 Use Microsoft Word to write a report for an assignment.

In the above-mentioned example four tasks are being performed at seemingly the same
time. But the processor, can execute one task at a time hence the operating system must
be able to schedule which task to perform at any given time using any of the scheduling
algorithms so as to simulate a situation that all the tasks are being executed
concurrently.

3. Facilitating Networking
Networking here is simply connecting computers together to share resources such as
computers, files (data and programs), printers etc. Each computer should have a unique
identifier such as Internet Protocol (IP) address so that information would be sent or
routed to the right machine. In the same vein, each user must be identified using a
unique identifier such as user id and a form of access controlling mechanism be
implemented so that each user know which resources he can access and which he
cannot.

4. Managing Files
The programs we want to run or the data we want to store are all in the form of files.
Through file management, we can copy files, delete files, sort files , move files, create
shortcuts to files , group files in folders, determine who has access to which file and
what kind of operation that can be performed on the file.

5. Providing user Interface for Interaction.

There are many ways in which users can interact with the computer systems such a
typing on a command line, working with menus and icons and so on.

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6.1.3 User Interfaces

In general a computer user interface (UI) enables the user to interact with the computer,
which may include both hardware and software easily. The UI is the look-and-feel of
the operating system. The user interface provides means of inputting (allowing the
users to manipulate the system) and outputting (allowing the system to produce the
effects of the users' manipulation). The main means by which both computer and user
communicate is through a series of commands which includes to the graphical, textual
and auditory.
The two major user interfaces for operating systems are Command Line Interface (CLI)
and Graphical User Interface (GUI). It is important to note that almost all modern
operating systems such as Microsoft Windows, Apple Mac OX, UNIX, and Linux just
to mention a few have both CLI and GUI. Whereas most advanced users of Windows
and Mac OX use GUI to do all their work, the reverse prevail for most advance user of
UNIX and Linux.

Command line Interface

Command line interface (CLI) is also known as Command-driven interface is a tool for
interacting with computers using a keyboard only. Commands are entered as lines of
characters from a keyboard, and output is also received mainly as text but some times
you may have graphics. When we say commands are entered, we mean they should be
typed followed by pressing the Enter key before the command would be executed.
Without pressing the Enter key, the typed command would not be executed.

A CLI can generally be considered as processing the syntax of commands, which is the
grammar that all commands must follow. User enters the command in the prompt
displayed by the CLI. In most CLI, there is a history feature that enables you to view
and re-issue previous commands. This is done by pressing the up or down arrow keys.

Fig. 6.1: A
Windows XP’s
Command
Prompt

Graphical
User Interface
Graphical User
Interface
(GUI) is a way
by which users
interact with
the computer
system through images (icons, menus and windows) with the aid of the mouse. With the

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mouse, the user points to icons (pictures) that may be files, folders and disks. The effect
of this could be the running (execution) of a program which may open a dialog box so
that the user enters some values and click an appropriate button (such as OK).

Fig. 6.2: Windows XP GUI

6.2 Utility Programs and Device Drivers

Utility programs or utilities enable the user to perform maintenance tasks on the
computer hardware, operating system and application programs. The main purpose of
the utilities is to service the computer system so as to perform to it optimal. In fact,
utilities are programs that support the using of the computer. Most utility programs have
been integrated to the operating system making it difficult to differentiate which
programs are parts of the operating system and which are not. Some common utilities
are discussed below.

Scanning the Disk

As you use the disk, some area become unusable commonly known as bad sectors. The
operating system need to be informed as which of your disk has good sectors and which
are bad sectors. If this is not done the operating system may store parts of a file in these
bad sectors that will make retrieving it very difficult, if not impossible unless you use
disk recovery software. When you scan your disk, the operating system is made aware

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of which sectors of the disk are bad so that it will not store file there. Examples are
Scandisk, and Norton Disk Doctor.

Defragmenting the Disk

These programs detect computer files whose contents have been stored on different
parts of the hard disk in disjointed fragments, and move these fragments together to
occupy a unified, continuous chunk on the hard disk (locations that are closer). The
process of disk defragmentation increases efficiency of accessing files since it allows
the drive's heads to read an entire file without having to jump back to the drive index for
more lookups. Examples are Disk checker, Disk cleaner, PerfectDisk 7, Diskeeper 9
and the Disk Defragmenter utility.

Fig. 6.3: Before and after using Microsoft Disk Defragmenter

Compressing and Uncompressing files

File compression is also known as file archival. This program that can greatly reduce
the amount of disk space your files are occupying. To achieve this, it encodes your files
in such a way that it not human-readable. Therefore to restore the compressed file to its
original, usable state, you must uncompress the file. Transferring files from one
computer to the other is faster when the files are compressed than when they are not
compressed. It is important to note that files that are already at their minimum size
cannot be compressed any further such as many text files and some image formats.

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Furthermore, enclosing an archive in another archive will not reduce but increase its
size. There are many compressing formats and hence if you used a file compression
program that uses a certain compression format to compress a file, you may need the
same program to uncompress it. Some archive formats are ZIP, RAR, LZH, ARJ, ZOO,
ARC, TAR, PAK, SQZ, HYP, WAD, GRP, CAB, ACE. UltimateZip, WinRAR,
PKWARE, Info-ZIP, Camunzip, EnZip, Winzip and ZipGenius are examples of file
compression and decompression programs.

Fig. 6.4: About to perform file compressing using WinZip

Backup Utility
A backup utility allows users to make a copy of your entire disk or selected files on
your disk unto another storage medium for safe keeping. One of the rules in safe
computing is to have a regular back up your files. Even the most reliable computer has
the possibility to break down someday hence your data files which is very difficult to
come by in the event of accidental erasure or corruption must be duplicated if not
triplicated. Experts in Computer and Information security not only recommend that you
make two, or even three, backups of all your files but also you should keep these
multiple backups on On-site and Off-site. On-site backups are kept in the same location
as where the backup was made while Off-site backups are kept in different locations
from where the backup was made. You can back up files using operating system
commands, or you can buy a special-purpose backup utility. Backup programs often
compress the data so that backups require fewer disks. Most backup utilities have dual
usage: for backing up files and Restoring files when needed.

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The three types of backup methods used are Full backup, Differential backup and
Incremental backup.

Full Backup
Full backups are also called Archival backup. Full backup is the starting point for all
other backups, and contains all the data in the folders and files that are selected to be
backed up. Because the full backup stores all files and folders, frequent full backups
result in faster and simpler restore operations. Remember that when you choose other
backup types, restore jobs may take longer.

It would be ideal to make full backups all the time, because they are the most
comprehensive and are self-contained. However, the amount of time it takes to run full
backups often prevents us from using this backup type.
A full backup should be performed weekly or monthly on production systems, along
with daily differential backups. A full backup should also be performed before any
major planned changes to a system. With increasing speed and capacity of backup
media, making overnight full backups is achievable. Full backups, if you have the time
to perform them, offer the best solution in data protection. Each full backup contains an
entire copy of the data. If the backup media were to be illegally accessed or stolen, the
hacker or thief would then have access to an entire
copy of your data.

The main advantage is that restoration of data is the fastest. The disadvantages are (1)
Backing up of data is the slowest, and (2) The storage space requirements are the
highest.

Differential Backup
A differential backup contains all files that have changed since the last full backup. That
is where it gets its name: it backs up everything that's different since the last full
backup.

In other words, if a full backup was done on Monday, Tuesday's differential will backup
all changed files since Monday's full backup Wednesday's differential will backup all
changed files since Monday's full backup including the files that have changed on
Tuesday.

If you perform the differential backup too many times, the size of the differential
backup might grow to be larger than the baseline full backup.

Restoring a differential backup is a faster process than restoring an incremental backup

because only two backup container files are needed: the latest full backup and the latest
differential.

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Use differential backup if you have a reasonable amount of time to perform backups.
The upside is that only two backup container files are needed to perform a complete
restore. The downside is if you run multiple differential backups after your full backup,
you're probably including some files in each differential backup that were already
included in earlier differential backups, but haven't been recently modified.

The advantages are (1) Restoration is faster than restoring from incremental backup, (2)
Backing up is faster than a full backup, and (3) The storage space requirements are
lower than for full backup.

The disadvantages are (1) Restoration is slower than restoring from full backup, (2)
Backing up is slower than incremental backup, and (3) The storage space requirements
are higher than for incremental backup

Incremental Backup
An incremental backup stores all files that have changed since the last backup (which
could be FULL, DIFFERENTIAL OR INCREMENTAL). When making an
incremental backup, only the files that have changed since the most recent backup are
included for backing up. That is where it gets its name: each backup is an increment
since the most recent backup. In other words, if a full backup was done on Monday,
Tuesday's incremental will backup all changed files since Monday's backup. However,
Wednesday's incremental will only backup files that have changed since Tuesday's
incremental backup. When restoring from incremental backup, you need the most recent
full backup as well as EVERY incremental backups made since the last full backup.

The Advantages are: (1) Backing up is the fastest and (2) The storage space
requirements are the lowest.

The disadvantage is restoration is the slowest.

Scenarios
If you perform a full backup on Sunday and a differential every night, and the system
crashes on Thursday, you will only need to restore the full backup from Sunday and the
differential backup on Wednesday. In contrast, if you perform a full backup on Sunday
and incremental backups every night, when the system crashes on Thursday, you will
need to restore the full backup from Sunday along with the incremental backups from
Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday.

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Fig. 6.5: Microsoft Backup Utility

Anti-virus
Malicious programs are any computer programs that act without user’s knowledge and
intentionally change the computer’s operation. Examples are viruses, worms, and
Trojan horses.

 A computer virus is a program designed to spread itself by first infecting

executable files or the system areas of hard and floppy disks and then making copies of
itself. Viruses usually operate without the knowledge or desire of the computer user.
 Worm copies itself repeatedly, using up resources and possibly shutting down
computer or network.
 Trojan horse hides within or looks like legitimate program until triggered.

Antivirus software consists of computer programs that attempt to identify, prevent and
eliminate computer viruses and other malicious software (malware). Examples are
Norton Anti-Virus, Mcafee Anti-Virus, AVG Anti-Virus, Command Anti-Virus, PC-
cillin, Panda, Avast and so on.

The main operations performed by anti-virus include the following:

 Detect the presence of virus on a storage medium
 Attempts to remove any virus detected
 Quarantines any infected files that cannot be removed

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 Create a rescue disk on a removable disk. This rescue disk contains an

uninfected copy of the key operating system commands and others that enables the
computer to restart correctly.

Antivirus software typically uses three different techniques to accomplish this:

1. Examining files to look for known viruses matching definitions in a virus

dictionary known as virus signature or virus definition. The virus signature of an anti-
virus must be constantly be updated so that the anti-virus will be aware of new virus. If
this is not done, the anti-virus cannot detect new viruses.
2. Identifying suspicious behaviour from any computer program which might
indicate infection. The anti-virus monitors the computer, by hunting for any activity of
the viral type and start an alarm. The activities that the anti-virus seeks to monitor
includes the following:
a. The attempts at openings in read or write mode of the files with the
extension COM and EXE
b. The attempts at writing on the boot sectors of a partition
3. Inoculating all existing files on a disk. To inoculate a program file, the anti-virus
program gathers certain vital information of the inoculated files such as size and the
date the file was created or last updated in as separate file. The anti-virus program then
uses this information to detect if a virus has temper with the data describing the
inoculated program file. For example if the size of the file on the disk has changed or
increased but it’s date on both the disk and the one in the inoculated files have not, then
the anti-virus must suspect a viral activity.

How Antivirus Works

 Checks Memory: When you first boot up your computer, the anti-virus software
will check the memory to ensure no virus is present before the computer starts opening
any other files.
 Checks before opening files: Anti-virus software allows you to specify which
types of files will be checked before opening them. If you don't specify, the software
usually defaults to checking executable files, since these are the most common types of
files to be infected. However, you can set up the software to check every file you open.
By doing so, it will check for viruses before it opens the file, thus ensuring if a virus
does exist, it will not be spread.
 Notification of Detected Virus: If a virus is found during any of any of the above
mentioned processes, you will be notified. Most anti-virus software will present a
screen asking you how you'd like to proceed, giving you choices and a suggestion of
what should be done. It is best to follow what the software advises.

Whenever an anti-virus detects a virus on a computer, it does the following:

1. Remove the virus if possible

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2. Repair the infested file

3. Quarantines or deletes infected files that cannot be repaired

Choosing Anti-Virus Software

When choosing anti-virus software, users should look for two key functionalities: real-
time scanning and virus updates.

1. Real-Time Scanning: This means the software will automatically run in the
background continuously until the system is shut down, monitoring and checking files
as they are opened or executed, and in some cases, checking e-mail as it is downloaded.
Some products check files and directories when they are opened through Windows
Explorer.
2. Virus Updates: The only good anti-virus program is the one that is up-to-date in
its viral definition. A good anti-virus should offer daily updates. Users should only buy
anti-virus products whose vendors offer free updates from their web-sites. Users may
also find that while some vendors include updates and/or upgrades as part of the
purchase price, others will charge a monthly or yearly license fee for the service.
3.

Self-Assessment Question

1. What is system software?

The operating system interacts with the computer’s hardware and
the user. True/false
2. List the difference between multitasking and multiprocessing
3. List the similarities and the differences between single user operating system with
multitasking and multi user operating systems.
4. Give 3 examples of servers
5. Give 2 examples of utility programs and explain what they do.
6. Kofi just bought a new computer for his school work. His friend
Amma told him to backup his data from time to time. Should Kofi
listen to the advice of Amma and why should he do so?
7 7. Kofi just noticed that his computer’s hard drive memory is running out. What
utility program should he use in order to create space on the hard drive?
8. An Antivirus software is used to
a. Cause the computer to run faster
b. Disinfect viruses on the computer
c. Infect the computer with viruses
d. Used to enhance the Graphical User Interface of theComputer
What are device drivers?

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UNIT 3: PRODUCTIVITY SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS

Unit Outline
Session 1: Introduction to Windows
Session 2: Word Processing Software
Session 3: Spreadsheet Software
Session 4: Database Software
Session 5: Presentation Software

In this unit, we shall discuss some general purpose software application

packages that used can be almost everywhere computers are found. We
also briefly discuss some education packages. The publicity surrounding
computers are mainly due to the application packages that it can run. We
hope you will find this unit very interested and practical since some of the software
packages that would be treated here are need if you want to call yourself a Computer
Literate.

Unit Objectives
At the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
1. Explain Word Processing Software and list examples
2. Identify common features of Word Processing software
3. Use Microsoft Word
4. Explain what spreadsheet software is with examples
5. Identify common features of spreadsheet software
6. Use Microsoft Excel
7. Explain database and functionalities of database applications
8. List examples of database application software
9. Use Microsoft Access
10. Explain what a Presentation Software is
11. Identify the basic Presentation Software features
12. Use Microsoft powerpoint
13. Explain desktop publishing, multimedia and webpage authoring
14. Use Microsoft frontpage
15. Explain educational software packages
16. State some examples of software packages
17. Explain the importance of educational software in the world today.

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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SESSION 1: INTRODUCTION TO WINDOWS

The most widely used operating system for desktop and laptop computers is the
Windows operating system. Developed by Microsoft, Windows provides a
graphical user interface (GUI) and desktop environment in which applications
are displayed in resizable, movable windows on screen to make it easier for
people to use their computers.

The first version was released in 1985. Since then, it has grown significantly, and it now
dominates the market.

Please be with us as we journey through the world of the Windows operating system.

Objectives
At the end of this section, you should be able to:
(a) switch a computer on and off
(b) log in to a computer with or without a password and log out of the computer
(c) identify common features of a Windows desktop
(d) know how to navigate through Windows using the mouse pointer; clicking, double
clicking, right clicking and scrolling.
(e) run programs on the computer
(f) open a window from the desktop or the start menu
(g) create and name folders on the computer
(h) delete objects from the computer temporarily and permanently.

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1.1 Powering / Switching On The Computer

The computer, like most equipment has to be switched on before it can be used.

One power cable connects the System Unit to the main power outlet (socket) on the wall while
another connects the Monitor also to the outlet. If the System Unit and
Monitor connect to a UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply), the UPS is
required to be switched on before the computer receives power.

To power the UPS, the System Unit and the Monitor, Power Cable press on the power
button located on each of the devices.

Booting (also “Booting up”) is the process where a computer loads an operating system into the
computer's main memory or random access memory (RAM). Once the operating system is
loaded (and, for example, on a PC, you see the initial Windows desktop screen), it's ready for
users to run applications. Sometimes you'll see an instruction to "reboot" the operating system.
This simply means to restart the computer which leads to reloading the operating system.

The Welcome Screen shows immediately after booting if more than one user account is found on
the computer or the single account on the computer requires some authentication in the form of a
password before the user can use the computer.

Fig 1.1: Window XP Logo screen

A user would usually select the preferred user by clicking on the small picture next to the
username. If a password is required, the user must key (type) in the password in the correct case
(upper case or lower case) to use the computer. This entire process is generally referred to as
logging in.

1.2 General Terms

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Drives
Drives are devices used to store data. Most computers have at least two drives: a hard drive C:
(Which is the main means of storage) and a floppy drive A: (which stores smaller volumes of
data (1.44 Mb) on 3.5" disks - floppy disks). The hard drive is typically designated the C: drive
and the floppy drive is typically designated the A: drive. If you have an additional floppy drive,
it is typically designated the B: drive. Drives are lettered as and when they are identified by the
computer with A:, B:, and C:, usually reserved.

Please take note that drives can also be labelled in addition to the drive letters. The default label
is usually “local disk” but can be renamed.

Folders
Folders are used to organize the data stored on your drives. Think of your drives as filing
cabinets. You want to sort your filing cabinets with folders that store different files. The files that
make up a program are stored together in their own set of folders. You will want to organize the
files you create in folders. You will probably want to store files of a like kind in a single folder.

Fig 1.2: A drive and folders analogy

Directory
A Directory is the path given to a folder on a drive. For example a text file called PhoneNumbers
is located in the My Documents directory on the C: drive. It would therefore read "C:\My
Documents\PhoneNumbers.txt"

Icon
An Icon is a graphic image. Icons help you execute commands quickly. Commands tell the
computer what you want the computer to do. To execute a command by using an icon, double-
click on the icon.

Hierarchy
Windows organizes folders and files in a hierarchical system. The drive is the highest level of the
hierarchy. You can put all of your files on the drive without creating any folders, but that is like
putting all of your papers in a file cabinet without organizing them into folders. It works fine if

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you have only a few files, but as the number of files increases, there comes a point at which
things become very difficult to find. So you create folders and put related material together in
folders.
1. A diagram of typical drive organization is shown here.

2. At the highest level, you have some folders and perhaps some files. You can open any of
the folders and put additional files and folders into them. This creates a hierarchy.

1.3 The Desktop

The desktop is the first thing you see on the monitor after logging in (or booting if there is only a
single user without a password). The desktop is regarded as a work area, just like a typical home
or office desk where you put your flat files, documents, etc and work.

Fig 1.3: The Windows XP Desktop

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Taskbar By default, the taskbar is located on

the bottom edge of the desktop. You
can click the taskbar and drag it to
other locations. The Start button,
active program buttons, icons for
quick access to programs, and the
current time are located on the taskbar.

My Computer The My Computer icon provides

access to the resources on your
computer. You can access your drives
and other peripherals by clicking on
the My Computer icon.

My Documents The Documents folder is nothing more

than a regular folder that resides on
your Windows Desktop. However, it
offers an easy-to-reach location where
you can store and retrieve important
data, and the icon is always available
in Windows Explorer and on the
desktop

Internet Explorer The Internet Explorer icon launches

the Internet Explorer browser.

The Recycle Bin When you delete an object, Windows

XP sends it to the Recycle Bin. You
can restore objects that are located in
the Recycle Bin or you can
permanently delete them.

Shortcut icon Icons with an arrow in the lower left

corner are shortcut icons. Click the
icon for quick access to the object they
represent (program, document, printer,
and so on).

Program, folder, and Program, folder, and document icons

document icons do not have an arrow in the lower left
corner. They represent the actual
object and provide direct access to the
object.

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1.4 Using the Mouse

 There are at least two (2) buttons on each mouse. Recently, it is more likely to find three
(3) buttons on a mouse.
Left Mouse button

Middle Mouse button

Right Mouse button

Fig 1.4: The top view of a typical mouse

 The left mouse button is used to open programs and to select items

 The right mouse button is used to open a sub menu to get other options

 The middle mouse button is a wheel which can be used to scroll and can be clicked as
well for additional purposes.

Mouse Operations
 Click: The mouse pointer (also known as cursor) is moved onto the desired object (such
as a menu, a button) and usually the left mouse button is pressed once and released.

 Double click: As in clicking, but the mouse button is pressed twice quickly without
moving the mouse.

 Drag-and-drop: The mouse pointer is moved on the desired object and the left mouse
button is pressed down without releasing the button. After this the object is dragged or
moved to the desired location and dropped by releasing the mouse button.

 Right click: Point the mouse to the desired object and then click or press on the right
mouse button. This displays a short-cut menu for that item.

 Scroll: Simply roll the middle mouse button or wheel.

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1.5 The Start Menu

The start menu is shown when you click on the start button at the bottom-left corner of the
taskbar.

It shows recently used programs, the programs on your

computer, access to the log-off and turn-off dialogs,
access to the Control Panel, My Computer and other
locations on the computer.

You can also access a Search window where you can

search for files, a Help & Support window where you
can seek help in using certain features of the computer,
and Printers and Faxes which shows all printers and/or
fax machines currently available to the computer.

To start a program:
1. Click the Start button, located in the lower
left corner of your screen.
2. Highlight All Programs. The Programs menu will appear.
3. Move to the Program menu and highlight the program you want to start. If you see a right
pointer next to your selection, a submenu will appear. Refine your choice by highlighting
the appropriate selection on the submenu. Continue until you get to the final submenu.
4. Click on the program name to start the program.
Note: A chevron at the bottom of the list of options means that there are additional options.
To view the additional options, click the chevron.

1. Following the right procedure, switch on a computer and log in to the desktop if
required
2. Open the Internet Explorer program
a. From the desktop
b. From the start menu

1.6 Log off / Switch User; Standby / Turn off / Restart

The “Log Off” and “Turn of Computer” buttons are accessible by clicking on the start button on
the left-hand side of the taskbar.

To Log Off (also log out) means to terminate your current session and to subsequently leave your
desktop but not turn off the computer. After a user logs off, all programs that were running are
terminated and the welcome screen is displayed.

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Fig 1.6: The screen for Logging off Windows

To Switch User means to leave your current session intact and running and yet exit to the
welcome screen. This leaves all the user’s programs running but enables a different user to also
log into the computer. This subsequently means that more than one user account would be active.
Stand By mode, sometimes referred to as sleep mode simply implies that the computer consumes
less power when idle but remains available for immediate use. While your computer is on
standby, information in computer memory is not saved on your hard disk. If there is an
interruption in power, the information in memory is lost.

Fig 1.7 (a): The screen to turn off the computer

To Turn Off or Shutdown the computer means all running processes are closed and the computer
is finally put off completely. This is the proper way to put off a computer and ensures no data
loss. Take note that you would have to switch off the UPS or sockets once the computer has shut
down.

The Restart button allows a user to reboot the computer. In simple terms, this means the
computer goes off and back on.

The computer may also be put in a state of

hibernate. Hibernation is a state in which a
computer shuts down after saving everything in
memory to the hard disk. When the computer is
powered on, programs and documents that were
open are restored to the desktop. Pressing on
the shift key on the keyboard while the shutdown
dialog box is visible changes “Stand By” to

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“Hibernate”

1.7 The Window

A window is a portion of the screen that can contain its own document or message in
applications and graphical user interfaces. In window-based programs, the screen can be divided
into several windows, each of which have its own boundaries and can contain a different
document (or another view into the same document)
My Computer is a window. It is a central location where you as a user can have access to the
resources of the computer.

My Computer can be accessed by double-clicking on the My Computer icon on the desktop or

the My Computer link on the right-side of the Start Menu. So can many other windows such as
My Documents, Recycle Bin, My Network Places, etc.

Fig 1.8: The window for My Computer

In the My Computer window, you can identify hard disks, the floppy drive and CD-Rom drive
that are attached to the computer. Other windows have other contents such as files and folders
and may even be empty as in an empty folder.

The structure of the My Computer window is similar to that of many others such as My
Documents, My Network Places and even the folders found on the Desktop on in other locations
on the computer.

At this juncture, let us do a quick survey of the various elements of a window. These are the key
features that can be found in all windows.

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Fig 1.9: Elements of a Window

The Title Bar

The area located at the top of any window is called the Title Bar. It displays the name of the
active window or the application you are currently using. It also runs across the top of your word
processing document, spreadsheet, etc.
In this position it displays the name of the word processing document or spreadsheet displayed
beneath it.
Note: To move a window around the desktop, simply click-and-drag the window by the title bar.
On the right-hand side of the title bar you will find three buttons
to control the state of the window. The buttons are from left-to-
right: minimise, maximise/restore, and close buttons. These are
three buttons that appear together in the top right hand corner of
all windows in Windows.
The Minimise button has a dash on it. Clicking on this button reduces your current document or
application program to a button on the task bar. You will not lose unsaved alterations to the
document or exit the program until you close them.

The Maximise button has a square on it and is in the middle of the other two buttons. Clicking on
this will expand your window to cover as much of the screen as is possible. The button will now
have changed to a button with two squares on it - the Restore button. Clicking on this button will
restore the window size to what it was before you clicked the maximise button.

The Close button has a cross on it. It closes the window, document or program currently active.

The Menu Bar

It runs across the top of your window usually directly below the Title Bar and above the Tool
bar. It contains all the menus that can currently be used with respect to the active window or
application. Common menus include the File, Edit, View, Tools and Help menus. Where
applicable, sub-menus appear under menus when clicked.

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The Toolbar
The Toolbar usually sits directly below the menu bar. It usually has buttons which you click on
to perform some specific action. You can have different types of tool bars; the most common
being the Standard Toolbar.

The Taskbar

The taskbar is usually positioned at the bottom part of the window. Every window that is opened
is shown on the taskbar. It is also houses icons of some programs so that they can be launch
quickly. At the both extreme ends of the taskbar you see the Start and Time/Calendar icons
respectively. You can relocate the position of the taskbar to the left or right or upper part of the
screen.
To do so follow the steps below:
 Click on any part of the taskbar where there is no icon;
 Hold down the left button and drag it to the new position;
 Release the mouse.

1.8 Creating/Renaming Folders

The right click menu most importantly provides you with the ability to create folders into which
you can organise your files. Folders can be created on the desktop, in drives, or in folders.

A. To create a folder on the

desktop, simply
1. Right-click on the
desktop (not on any
icon)
2. Highlight the
New menu. A
submenu
should appear
immediately.
3. Click (or
select) folder.
4. The folder has its
default name “new folder”highlighted. Simply type in your desired name for the
folder and press the Enter key on the
keyboard.

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B. To create a folder in a drive, say drive C:

1. Open My Computer. Either by the icon on the
desktop or alternatively through the start menu
2. Open the C: drive.
3. Right-click on any empty space in the drive
C: window and highlight the New menu.
A submenu should appear.
4. Select “folder” and rename the created folder to the desired name. Press “Enter”
to effect the changes.

C. To create a folder in a folder

1. Open the target folder from its location.
Could be a folder on the desktop or a
folder in the C: drive or elsewhere.
2. Right-click on any empty space in the
folder and highlight the New menu. A
submenu should appear.
3. Click on folder.
4. Rename the created folder to the desired
name and press Enter to effect the
changes.

D. To rename a folder
1. Locate the folder; either on the desktop or in a drive or in a folder.
2. Right-click on the target folder
3. Select “Rename” from options provided by the popup menu that appears.
Note that this procedure is the same for renaming files, folders, drives, icons, etc.

1. Minimise one of the Internet Explorer windows opened in the previous self-assessment
question and Close the other.
2. Create a folder on the desktop named “My Practice”. In this folder, create another folder
this time named “practice 01”.
3. Rename the folder “practice 01” to “exercise 1”
4. Log off the current user and return to the welcome screen.

1.9 Copy/Cut and Paste and Delete

1.9.1 Copy and Paste / Copy Here

To copy an object (file, folder, icon, etc.) means to make an exact copy of that item onto a
temporal location called clipboard. The item is then pasted into the location where you desire the
duplicate to be placed.

This action, referred to as copy-and-paste can be performed by right-clicking on the item and
selecting copy. Next is to locate where you want to place the duplicated, right-click again and
this time select paste.

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Note that if an item with the same name exists in the destination, you would be asked if you
really want to replace the object existing in that location.

Alternatively, you can right-click on the item and while still pressing on the right mouse button,
drag the object to the location where you want to make a copy to.

Select “Copy here” from the menu that appears to create a duplicate in that location.

Fig 1.10: A screen demonstrating copying

1.9.2 Cut and Paste / Move Here

To cut an object means to remove the item from its current location onto the clipboard. The item
is then pasted into the new location where you want it to be.

This action, referred to as cut-and-paste can be performed by right-clicking on the item and
selecting cut. Next is to find the new location, right-click again and this time select paste.

Note that if an item with the same name exists in the destination, you would be asked if you
really want to replace the object existing in that location. If you opt for “no” the original object
remains in its position

Alternatively, you can right-click on the item and while still pressing on the right mouse button,
drag the object to the new location where you want to move it to.

Select “Move here” from the menu that appears to move the object to that location.

1.9.3 Delete
To delete an object means to remove the item from its current location into the recycle bin.
Likened to a trash can, the recycle bin stores deleted items temporarily on the
computer until final deletion.

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The recycle bin shows a slightly different icon when it contains at least one
deleted item.

To delete an item, right-click on the item and select “Delete”. Next is to confirm deletion by
clicking “Yes” on the confirm deletion dialog.

Fig 1.12: Dialog box confirming Delete Folder

The contents if any of the object are deleted as well. The object would not be deleted if you
select “no”.

Alternatively, simply click on the object once to select it and then press “Delete” or “Del” on
keyboard to delete.

Deleted objects as mentioned earlier are stored in the recycle bin.

If you want a deleted object back;
1. Open the recycle bin;
2. Right-click on the object and select “Restore” to restore the object back to its original
position.

Fig 1.12: The window for the Recycle Bin

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If you want to permanently delete an object;

1. Open the recycle bin;
2. Right-click on the object and select “Delete”. The object is then gone forever.

Alternatively you can hold down the shift key while pressing the delete key to permanently
delete a file.

Self-Assessment Questions

1. Log back in the logged out user to the desktop.

2. Open the “My Practice” folder and copy the “exercise 1” folder. Paste it on
the desktop.
3. Move the “exercise 1” folder back into the “My Practice” folder using the second
alternative of cutting-and-pasting files (i.e. move here)
4. Delete the “My Practice” folder (permanently).
5. Turn off the computer following the right procedure.

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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SESSION 2: WORD PROCESSING SOFTWARE

Do you want to use the computer to type the report of your research or
assignment? You will need to learn a word processing package in order
to do this. Typing your own report is better that giving to someone in a
communication centre. This is because that person may not understand
the document to know that a paragraph needs to be reworded.

Please be with us as we journey through the world of word processing package in

general and Microsoft Word specifically.

Objectives
At the end of this section, you should be able to:
(a) explain Word Processing Software and list examples
(b) identify common features of Word Processing software
(c) use Microsoft Word
(d) identify Microsoft word’s screen elements, their functions and icons
(e) create a new document and format it
(f) insert table, pictures, page number and date; and
(g) use the spell-checker to check spellings in your work.

Read on …

2.1 The Basics of Word Processor

A word processor is a computer application used for the production of printable
documents. It enables users to the following: composition, editing, formatting, and
printing of letters, memos, and brochures and so on. In fact you need a word processor
any time you want to use the computer as a glorified typewriter.

Microsoft Word is the most widely used computer word processing package. Microsoft
estimates over five hundred million people use the Office suite. There are also many
other commercial word processing applications, available such as:
 WordPerfect.
 AppleWorks Word Processing - Windows and Mac
 Applix Word - Linux
 Ashampoo Office TextMaker
 Atlantis Word Processor – Windows
 Easiwriter – Risc OS
 EasyWord
 Evermore Integrated Office Word Processor - Windows

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 FrameMaker
 Gobe Productive Word Processor
 Han/Gul
 IntelliTalk
 Lotus Word Pro
 Mariner Write - Mac
 Mellel
 Microsoft Works Word Processor
 Open Office Writer
 KWord

2.2 Common Features of Word Processing Software

Among those stated in the above, most word processing packages will enable users to
perform the following tasks:
 Creating of customize mails using a form letter template and an address database
(also called mail merging);
 Creating of indices of keywords and their page numbers;
 Creating of tables of contents with section titles and their page numbers;
 Creating tables of figures with caption titles and their page numbers;
 Checking of spellings " (actually checks against wordlists);
 Checking of grammar (checks for what seem to be simple grammar errors);
 Using the thesaurus" function (finds words with similar or opposite meanings).
In most languages grammar is very complex, so grammar checkers tend to be
unreliable.

Almost all word processors enable users to employ styles, of which are used to format
the document. Styles are the key to managing the formatting of large documents, since
changing a style automatically changes all text that the style has been applied to. Even
in shorter documents styles can save a lot of time instead of formatting the various part
of the document yourself. However, most help files refer to styles as an 'advanced
feature' of the word processor, which often discourages users from using styles
regularly and also not all the font, font size, colours etc that comes with a particular
style appeal to user hence they prefer formatting the document themselves.

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2.3 Starting and Exiting Microsoft Word

Starting Word
There are basically two ways to activate Microsoft Word.
1. Double clicking on the Microsoft Word icon on the desktop. This can only be
done if and only if a shortcut for Microsoft Word has be created on the desktop.

2. Clicking Microsoft Word from Programs. This is the default

mean of launching programs in Microsoft Windows. You start by clicking the Start
button follow by pointing to the Programs menu. Then look for Microsoft Word
and click it when you find it. The short form of the above procedure is Click on
Start --> Programs --> Microsoft Word

Fig 1.1: Picture indicating the steps in starting the word application.

Exiting Word

In a live situation, before you quit Microsoft Word, you have completed save your
work. To exit Word, do the following:

1. Click File Click Exit.

2. If you have entered text, you will be prompted: "Do you want to save changes to
Document1?" To save your changes, click Yes. Otherwise, click No.
3. Specify the correct folder in the Save In box.
4.

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5. Give
an
appro
priate
or
meani
ngful
name
to
your
docum
ent by
typing
it in
the File Name field. Why appropriate name?
6. Click Save.

2.4 Screen Elements and their Descriptions

Fig 1.2: Elements of an opened Microsoft word document

 Title bar: Identifies the program and other window oriented buttons such as
maximize or restore, minimize and close. Side whiles window oriented buttons
such as minimize, maximize (or restore) and close are found on the right hand
side.

 Menu bar: This consists of the major grouping of options/headings. When a

major menu is clicked, a list of other options is displayed. This displays options
for performing commands. A chevron appears at the bottom of the list. Click
the chevron to display additional menu options.

 Control menu buttons: It is used to size and close the word window and
document.
 Insertion Pointer: It tells you where the next character you type would be
placed. It position can be changed by moving the mouse follow by clicking.

 Status bar: The Status bar appears at the very bottom of the screen and
provides information about the document. The information that is displays

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include: the current page number, current section, total number of pages,
inches from the top of the page, current line number, and current column
number, typing modes (Insert or Overtype) default dictionary, the Spelling and
Grammar check etc.

 Scroll bars: Enable you to display different parts of a file on the screen
horizontally (top to bottom) and vertically (left to right).

 Office assistant: Activated by double – clicking it or press the F1 key, when

activated, it gives you the option to either type what help you needed or select
the appropriate heading contain the information you needed.

 Toolbar: This consists of icons of some commands that are commonly used.
There are many different toolbars among which standard and formatting
toolbars are default. These two toolbars are merged as one by default (see Fig
1.3 (a) ) but can be separated into (see Fig 1.3 (b) ).

(a)

(b)

Fig 1.3: Default Toolbars

Viewing the toolbars

The toolbars in Microsoft Word provide easy access and functionality to the user. There
are many shortcuts that can be taken by using the toolbar. First, make sure that the
proper toolbars are visible on the screen.

1. Click View
2. Select Toolbars
3. Select Standard, Formatting, and Drawing
4. Other toolbars can be selected if you wish

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Fig 1.4: A picture indicating how to select other tool bars

2.5 The meaning of the icons in Formatting and Standard toolbars

The icons of the Standard toolbar are described below:

Name Icon Description
New Blank
Creates a new, blank file based on the default template.
Document
Open (File menu) Opens or finds a file.
Saves the active file with its current file name, location,
Save (File menu)
and file format.
Sends the contents of the document as the body of the e-
Mail Recipient
mail message.
Prints the active file or selected items. To select print
Print (File menu)
options, on the File menu, click Print.
Print Preview (File
Shows how a file will look when you print it.
menu)
Checks the active document for possible spelling,
Spelling and grammar, and writing style errors, and displays
Grammar (Tools suggestions for correcting them. To set spelling and
menu) grammar checking options, click Options on the Tools
menu, and then click the Spelling and Grammar tab.
Removes the selection from the active document and
Cut (Edit menu)
places it on the Clipboard.

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Copy (Edit menu) Copies the selection to the Clipboard.

Fig 1.5:
Inserts the contents of the Clipboard at the insertion
Table of
point, and replaces any selection. This command is
Paste (Edit menu) Standard
available only if you have cut or copied an object, text,
or contents of a cell. Toolbar
Copies the format from a selected object or text and icons.
applies it to the object or text you click. To copy the
Format Painter formatting to more than one item, double-click , and
(Standard toolbar) then click each item you want to format. When you are
finished, press ESC or click again to turn off the
Format Painter.
Reverses the last command or deletes the last entry you
Undo (Edit menu)
typed.
Redo (Edit menu) Reverses the action of the Undo command.

Hyperlink Inserts a new hyperlink or edits the selected hyperlink.

Displays the Tables and Borders toolbar, which contains
tools for creating, editing, and sorting a table and for
Tables and Borders
adding or changing borders to selected text, paragraphs,
cells, or objects.
Enter a magnification between 10 and 400 percent to
Zoom
reduce or enlarge the display of the active document.
The Office Assistant provides Help topics and tips to
Office Assistant
help you accomplish your tasks.

By default the document you create has no page numbers. Page numbers are use to refer
to pages within your document. To add page numbers do the following:.

a) Click the Insert menu in the menu bar

b) Select Page Numbers. The Page number dialog box is displayed. To change the
default setting, click the Format button. This pop up the Page Number Format
dialog box. Specify the appropriate option. ( Try the various format options)

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Fig 1.6: Pictures indicating the steps involved in inserting page numbers.

2.6 Working with an opened but new document

Normally, once you activate Microsoft Word, a new document is open for you.

2.7.1 Typing of text

Here a text is whatever you want to type, which may be a sentence, paragraph or a page
or more. It is made up of characters.

To enter text, just simply type the needed text , which would be in small
letters(lowercases) but to capitalize a , hold down the Shift key while pressing (typing)
the letter. You press the spacebar key whenever you want to create a space between the
current text and the next text.

When you get to the extreme right margin of the document, you do not need to press
Enter to start a new line. This is because Microsoft Word will automatically move the
text if it is more than the remaining space left for the text. This is known as wraps at the
end of the line. You press Enter whenever you want to start a new paragraph.

2.7.2 Removing a typed text

Two situations can arise, which text is currently being entered and already entered.

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 When you make a mistake in the text that you are current typing, press
the Backspace key. The backspace key will delete a character at a time
and the character to be deleted must be at the left of the cursor (the
blinking – or |).
 When you find an error in the text that is already typed, move the
pointer to the space before the text and press the Delete key. The delete
key deletes a character at a time. To delete the whole text, highlight the
text first then press the delete key.
(We shall teach you how to highlight very soon).

2.7.3 Inserting Text

You can insert a text in between two text already typed. To insert text, you must be in
the Insert mode. To check to see whether you are in the Insert mode, look at the Status
bar, located at the very bottom of the screen. If the letters "OVR" are grey, you are in
the Insert mode. If the letters "OVR" are black, you are in the Overtype mode. You
can only insert a text when you are in insert mode. To insert a text in between two text
insert mode, you must do the following:

 Move the pointer to the text on the left

 Press the spacebar key
 Type the desired text and at the end press the spacebar again.

Fig 1.7: Status bar showing Overtype and Insert modes

If you are in Overtype mode the any character you type will replace an existing one
except there is no character at the right of the cursor.

To change to the Insert mode:

1. Double-click the letters "OVR."

2. The letters "OVR" are now grey.

You can type over the current text (replace the current text with new text). However,
you must be in the Overtype mode. Do the following to change to the Overtype mode.

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1. Double-Click "OVR" on the Status bar.

2. The letters "OVR" should now be black.
3. Type the new text. If the characters in the new text is more than that of the old
one then when the number of characters typed for the new is the same as the old
one you must double-Click "OVR again. After which you continue typing. You
should forget to press the spacebar key to space the text.

2.7.4 Alternative Methods of Highlighting Text

Highlighting text is very important especially when you want the same format to apply
to more than one character or text.

I. By the Mouse: This is done when you drag your mouse over while holding down
the left mouse button. The process is as follows:
a. Move the pointer to one end of the text that you would like to format and
click (i.e. press the left button).
b. Press and hold down the left button whiles dragging mouse to the other
end of the text.
c. Release the button. You will observe that the selected text have different
colour over it.

II. By Using the F8 and Arrow Keys

a. Place the cursor before or after the text you wish to highlight and click
the left mouse button.
b. Press the F8 key, which will serve as an "anchor" showing where text
you wish to highlight begins or ends.
c. Press the appropriate arrow key (left arrow to move to the left or right
arrow to move to the right) until the text is highlighted. You can use the
up or down arrow key to highlight one line at a time. Press Esc to
remove the anchor.

III. By Using the Shift and Arrow Keys

a. Place the cursor before or after the text you wish to highlight and click
the left mouse button.
b. Hold down the Shift key
c. Press the appropriate arrow key until you reach the other end of the text.

2.7.5 Formatting Text

a) Highlight the text that you want to format.

b) Change the text to your desire by clicking the appropriate formatting.

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Alignment
Change Change font size Font colour
font style Make bold,
Italic,
Underline

Fig 1.8: Labelled picture of the common formatting tools of MS word.

2.7.6 The Font Dialog box

This box is used to change the font, font style, size, colour and etc of text in your
document. The box is displayed by the following Choose Format > Font from the
menu.

Fig 1.9: The Font dialog box

2.7.7 Bolding, underlined and italicized using the font dialog box

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In the exercise that follows, you will learn three different methods for bolding,
italicizing, or underlining when using Word. You will learn to bold, italicize, or
underline by using the menu, an icon, or the keys.

Please the type the following text below in exact manner.

Line 0: This is line shows a text that is BOLDED, UNDERLINED, and ITALICIZED.
Line 1: This is line shows a text that is BOLDED.
Line 2: This is line shows a text that is UNDERLINED.
Line 3: This is line shows a text that is ITALICIZED.

a) Highlight all the text in Line 0:

b) Activate the Font dialog box
c) In the Font style section click on Bold Italic
d) In the Underline style section, click the drop-down arrow and you will see
the diagram below.

e) Click any of the Underline option

Note: You can see the effect of your selection in the Preview window. To turn off
the bold, click Regular.

f) Click OK to close the dialog box.

Alternate Methods to bold a text

I) By Using an Icon

a) Highlight all the text in Line 1:

b) Click the Bold icon on the toolbar.

Note: To turn off bold, highlight the text and press the Bold icon again.

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c) Click anywhere in the Text area to remove the highlighting.

II) By Using the Keys

a) Highlight all the text in Line 1:

b) Press Ctrl-b (hold down the Ctrl key while pressing b).
Note: To turn off Bold, press Ctrl-b again. You can also remove formatting by
pressing Ctrl-spacebar.
c) Click anywhere in the Text area to remove the highlighting.

2.7.8 Copying/ Cutting and Pasting

In Microsoft Word, you can either copy or cut (delete) text from one area of a document
and paste it in another area in the document or different document. When you either
copy or cut text, it is stored on the Clipboard. Information stored on the Clipboard stays
there until the Clipboard is full or you exit the document. With Microsoft Word 2002,
Clipboard can save up twenty-four (24) different information that was either copied or
cut into it. The twenty-fifth copy or cut text could replace the first text.

I) Cutting and Pasting using the Menu

Cutting

a) Type the following:

This is the first sentence. This is the second sentence.
b) Highlight “This is the first sentence."
c) Choose Edit > Cut from the menu.
d) Your text should now read:
“This is the second sentence."

Pasting

a) Place the cursor after the period in the sentence. “This is the second sentence. “
b) Press the spacebar to leave a space.
c) Choose Edit > Paste from the menu.
d) Your text should now read
“This is the second sentence. This is the first sentence “

II) Alternate Method of cutting and pasting by using the Icon

Cutting

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a) Type the following:

This is the first sentence. This is the second sentence.
b) Highlight “This is the first sentence."

c) Click the Cut icon .

d) Your text should now read:
" This is the second sentence."

Pasting

a) Place the cursor after the period in the sentence

“This is the second sentence.”
b) Press the spacebar to leave a space.

c) Click the Paste icon .

d) Your text should now read:
" This is the second sentence. This is the first sentence "

III) Alternate Method of cutting and pasting by using the Keys

Cutting

a) Type the following:

This is the first sentence. This is the second sentence. Highlight “This is the
first sentence."
b) Press Ctrl-x.
c) Your text should now read.
“This is the second sentence."

Pasting

a) Place the cursor after the period in the sentence: “This is the second sentence."
b) Press the spacebar to leave a space.
c) Press Ctrl-v.
d) Your text should now read.
“This is the second sentence. This is the first sentence "

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2.7.9 Finding and/or Replacing

If you need to find a particular word or piece of text, you can use the Find command. If
you want to search the entire document, simply execute the Find command. If you want
to limit your search to a selected area, highlight that area and then execute the Find
command.

After you have found the word or piece of text you are searching for, you can replace it
with new text by executing the Replace command.

Using the Finding a text using the Find menu

a) Type the following:

I know that Ato had his Basic School at Airport Police School, Accra. This
school is located closer to the Kotoka Airport, Accra.
b) Highlight: the above sentence.
c) Choose Edit > Find from the Edit menu.
d) Type Accra in the Find What field.
e) Click Find Next.
Note that the first occurrence of Accra is highlighted.
f) Click Find Next.
Note that the second occurrence of Accra is highlighted.
g) Click Find Next.
h) Click Find Next. The following message should appear: "Word has finished
searching the selection. Do you want to search the remainder of the document?"
i) Click No.
j) Click Cancel.

Using the Replacing a text using the Find Menu

a) Highlight the above text.

b) Choose Edit > Find from the Edit menu.
c) Type "school" in the Find What box.
d) Click Find Next. Note that the first occurrence of Accra is highlighted
e) Click on the Replace tab .
f) In the Replace With box, type Middle School.
g) Click Replace. Word replaces School with Middle School.
h) Click the Find Next button. The third occurrence of School is highlighted.
i) Click the Find Next button Replace. The following message will appear: "Word
has finished searching the selection. Do you want to search the remainder of the
document?"
j) Click No.

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k) Click Close.
l) Your text should now read,
" I know that Ato had his Basic School at Airport Police Middle School,
Accra. This school is located closer to the Kotoka Airport, Accra.

Alternatively you can replace a text by using the Replace menu instead the procedure.
We shall use this method to repeat the above replacement.

a) Highlight the text

b) Choose Edit > Replace from the Edit menu
c) In the Find what: section type School
d) In the Replace with: section type Middle School
e) Click the Find Next Button
f) When the first occurrence of Accra is highlighted, click the Find Next button
g) Follow steps g through l just the one done when you were learning how to
replace using the Find men.

Self-Assignment Question

1. Use the Alternate methods to underline and italicized Line 2: and Line 3
respectively. Again try to all the three using the Bold icon on the Formatting
toolbar and also the keys
2. Use the above mentioned steps of cutting and pasting to copy and paste a
text. What is the difference between copying and cutting
3. Try to change the Font style, size a and colour of a text using the appropriate
icon on the Formatting toolbar

2.7 Inserting a Table

Sometimes you need to create a table in a document in order to display pieces of
information in rows (horizontally) and columns (vertically) neatly. To do so, you must
perform the following:
a) Click where you want your table to be placed
b) Click Table at top of screen (menu bar)
c) Select Insert
d) Select Table
e) Give your table dimensions by specifying the number of columns (say 4) and the
number of rows (say 5). See Fig 1.10
f) Click the OK button. You will see the below in your document.

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Fig 1.10: Pictures indicating the steps involved in inserting tables.

Entering Text into a Table

To enter text into a table, simply type as you normally would. Press Tab to move to the
next cell. Enter the text shown below into your table.

1. Type A in the first cell in the first column. Press the Tab key.
2. Type B in the first cell in the second column. Press the Tab key.
3. Continue until you have entered all of the text.

Use the skill learnt earlier to format you work as shown the table below:

A B C D E F
Homework Quiz Exams
Name (20%) (20%) (60%) Total Position

Gaga 14 16 51
Caca 12 13 50
Haha 15 15 45
Baba 12 18 45
Kaka 12 19 53
Mama 17 20 57
Jaja 10 17 30

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Fafa 10 19 49
Lala 16 19 48
Dada 20 20 55

Using the Help Feature of Word to learn the following

 How to size the height and width of rows and columns of a table
 Insert a new row/column in between exist rows/columns or at the end last
row/column.
 Calculate the totals and display the record according to positions from the
highest to the lowest.

2.8 Inserting Picture into document

It is said that a picture is worth thousands of words. Pictures beautify a document. To

insert a picture into a document, do the following:

a) Click where you want your picture to go

b) Click Insert at top of screen (menu bar)
c) Select Picture
d) Select Clip Art or From File ( specify the location of the File containing the
Picture in the Insert Picture dialog box)
e) Select picture and click Insert. The selected picture is inserted into your
document.

Fig 1.11: Pictures indicating the steps involved in inserting pictures.

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2.9 Spell Checking Your Document

Word checks your spelling and grammar as you type. Spelling errors display with a red
wavy line under the word. Grammar errors display with a green wavy line under the
error.

To check the spellings of word in your document, you can do any of the following:

a) Press F7 key, OR

b) Click the spelling icon , OR

c) Choose Tools > Spelling and Grammar from the menu.

To check the spellings of a particular area of your document, highlight that area you
want to spell check and use any of the above methods.

Any word that is not found in the Dictionary of Word would be highlighted.

Fig 1.12: Pictures indicating the steps involved in checking spellings and
grammar.

2.10 Pri
nti
ng

You save
document
is softcopy,
which can
be read
only when
the
computer is
on. What
how can
you read
this document when there is no light. The only way out is to have a hardcopy of the
document i.e. to have a printout copy of it. To print your documents do the following:

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a) Choose File > Print from the menu. The print dialog box is displayed. This
enables you the change the default settings.
b) Check whether or not the print’s name is selected in the Print name section.
Under the print range section select of the appropriate range. If you want a
multiple copy of the document then specify it under the Number of copies’
sections.
c) Click OK.

Alternatively you can print your document by clicking the Print icon on the
Standard toolbar. This will not display the Print dialog box.

Self-Assignment Questions
Using the help in Microsoft word, briefly describe the process involved in
performing the following task
 Inserting headers and footers to documents
 Inserting Bullets, and Date to your document
 To change the case of a selected text.
Exercises: 3.1
1. What is the relationship between a word processor and a typewriter?
2. The white space that appears when Ms Word is opened is called____.
3. The mouse icon stands for
(a) Select text
(b) Busy
(c) Text Area
(d) Scroll Area
4. View ca be found on the
(a) View toolbar
(b) Standard toolbar
(c) Menu bar
(d) Scroll bar
5. ‘New Times Roman’ is an example of a
(a) Toolbar
(b) Mouse action
(c) Font Size
(d) Font Type

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SESSION 3: SPREADSHEET SOFTWARE

You are warmly welcome to this session, where we are going to

discus another wonderful software package known as the
Spreadsheet. I think you have heard Spreadsheet before especially
from the Accounting people.

We learnt how to create and enter information in Table in our last lesson. How did you
find the calculation exercise? Is your answer Easy or confusing? Well never mind you
answer. Spreadsheet is the deal software for manipulating of values entered in columns
and rows (tables). It is very difficult to type letter using spreadsheet since that is not
what it design was for.

With spreadsheet, the Teacher can enter his/her students’ scores and rank the in
descending order of Total marks (indicating Position in class for the first to the last).
The Accounting Office can use the spreadsheet to enter his/her Try balance, receipts,
Invoices, Payroll etc.

Gird you loins and let us take another flight in the world of Technology.

Read on ……

Objectives

At the end of this section, you should be able to:

(a) explain what spreadsheet software is;
(b) mention at least three spreadsheet packages;
(c) identify common features of spreadsheet software;
(d) use Microsoft Excel;
(e) identify screen elements of Microsoft Excel and mention their functions;
(f) format cells, and use styles and break pages
(g) give header and footer and print
(h) use Formula and AutoSum.

3.1 What is Spreadsheet Software?

A spreadsheet is a rectangular table (or grid) of information, often financial information.

The word came from "spread" in its sense of a newspaper or magazine item (text and/or
graphics) that covers two facing pages, extending across the centre fold and treating the
two pages as one large one. The compound word "spread-sheet" came to mean the

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format used to present bookkeeping ledgers—with columns for categories of

expenditures across the top, invoices listed down the left margin, and the amount of
each payment in the cell where its row and column intersect—which were traditionally
a "spread" across facing pages of a bound ledger (book for keeping accounting records)
or on oversized sheets of paper ruled into rows and columns in that format and
approximately twice as wide as ordinary paper.
Some common spreadsheet packages are:

 Microsoft Excel
 OpenOffice.org Calc
 Lotus 123
 Quattro Pro from Corel WordPerfect Office
 SuperCalc
 VisiCalc
 Ability Office Spreadsheet
 Ashampoo Office PlanMaker
 EasySpreadsheet from EasyOffice
 Microsoft works
 Apple works
 Claris Works

The three commonly used spreadsheets are Excel, Lotus 123, and Quattro Pro.

Spreadsheets are often used for the following:

 Cash flow analysis,

 Decision-making,
 Cost estimating,
 Inventory management,
 Financial reporting.
 Entering of students’ grade
 Preparing Students’ transcripts
 Payroll slip and cheque preparation,
 etc

3.2 Common Features of Spreadsheet

Spreadsheet files normally have 256 columns and 65,536 rows. A letter identifies each
column, and a number identifies each row. The column letters begin with A whiles row
numbers begin with 1.
Only a small fraction of these columns and rows display on the screen at one time.

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To view different parts of a worksheet, you can scroll to display it on your screen.

The intersection of a column and a row is called a cell. Cells are identified by the
column letter followed by row number. For example, the intersection of column C and
row 5 form a cell whose reference number or cell address is C5.

Cells may contain three types of data: labels (text), values (numbers), and formulas. The
text or label, entered in a cell is used to identify the data and help organize the
spreadsheet. Using descriptive labels, such as Room and Board, Tuition and books, and
clothes, helps make a spreadsheet more meaningful.
Spreadsheet cells may contain a number, a value or formulas that are used to generate
values.

Another standard feature of spreadsheet software is the capability of turning numeric

data into a chart that graphically illustrates the relationship of numeric data.

3.3 Launching and Exiting Microsoft Excel

1. Click the Start button.
2. Choose Programs from the Start Menu and select Microsoft office, then Microsoft
Excel as shown in Figure below.

Fig. 1.1:
Picture
indicating the
steps in
starting the
excel
application.

Alternatively
you can also
launch EXCEL
from the
shortcut icon
created on the
desktop by

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double clicking on it.

3.4 Some Elements of Microsoft Excel

Because of the standard of GUI software applications, most elements in Microsoft
Excel have the same meaning as their counterpart in Microsoft Word. Therefore only
the elements that are different from Microsoft word would be treated here.

Workbook
An Excel file is called a Workbook and can one or more worksheets. You can link data
from one worksheet in a workbook to other worksheets in the same workbook.

Worksheet Area
The entire worksheet and all its elements, including cells, gridlines, row and column
headings, scroll bars, and sheet tabs.

Fig 1.2 (a): Some elements of Excel worksheet

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Fig
1.2 (b): Other elements of Excel worksheet.

Fig 1.2 (c): View of an opened Microsoft excel document.

Microsoft Excel consists of worksheets. Each worksheet contains columns and rows.
The columns are lettered A to IV; the rows are numbered 1 to 65536. The combination

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of a column coordinate and a row coordinate make up a cell address. The addresses of
cells highlighted above are B10, D6, F6, and I9.

Formula Bar

This displays the constant value or formula used in the active cell. Also it is used to
enter or edit values or formulas. If the Formula bar is turned on, the cell address
displays in the Name box on the left side of the Formula bar. Cell entries display on the
right side of the Formula bar.

Sheet Tabs:
This displays the name of a sheet. You can click the sheet tab to make that sheet the
active sheet.

Active Cell
The cell currently in use is the active cell, which contains the pointer and whose cell
address is displayed in the formula bar. The active cell receives any thing that is type
data.

Status Bar
This displays information about a selected command or an operation in the progress.
The right side of the status bar shows whether keys such as CAPS LOCK, SCROLL
LOCK or NUM LOCK are turned on. If the Status bar is turned on, it appears at the
very bottom of the screen.

Status Bar

Moving Through Cells

Use the mouse to select a cell you want to begin adding data to and use the keyboard
strokes listed in the table below to move through the cells of a worksheet.

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Fig. 1.3: Keystrokes for navigation.

Selecting Cells
Before a cell can be modified or formatted, it must first be selected (highlighted). Refer
to the table below for selecting groups of cells.

Cells to select Mouse action

One cell click once in the cell
Entire row click the row label
Entire column click the column label
Entire
click the whole sheet button
worksheet
drag mouse over the cells or hold down the SHIFT key while
Cluster of cells
using the arrow keys

Fig 1.4: Ways of selecting cells

Viewing the content of a cell

To activate the contents of a cell, double-click on the cell or click once and press F2.

3.5 Entering data in the worksheet

You create an excel worksheet by entering data into specific cells. The kind of data you
enter into a cell depends upon whether the entry will act as a label, as a number used in
a calculation, or as an expression that will perform a calculation. In this regard the kinds
of data that can be entered in a cell of a worksheet are Text, Numbers, Formulas, and
Functions.

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Text
Text is any combination of letters, symbols, numbers, and spaces. You normally enter
text as a label that describes the data within the worksheet. The numerical value of a
text is zero (0).
To enter text in a worksheet
a) Select the cell in which you want to enter the text by clicking the cell to select it,
b) Type the text. Excel automatically aligns the text on the left side in the cell.

Numbers
Number in excel are the values you will use to perform calculations. A number can
contain only the following characters: 0-9+-( ), / $ %. E e
Excel ignores leading plus signs (+) and treats a single period as a decimal. Numbers
are entered according to the text labels that define the overall worksheet structure. The
numerical value of an empty cell is zero (0). Numbers can be formatted with leading
characters, as currency, dates, percentages, or in a number of other standard formats.
Excel treats a telephone number (233-42- 30859) or a Social Security number (123-98-
7654) as text hence it cannot be used for calculations.
To enter text in a worksheet
a) Select the cell in which you want to enter the text by clicking the cell to select it,
b) Type the text. Excel automatically aligns the numbers on the right-side in the
cell.

In some situations such having zeros before a number, you will want to treat numbers as
text. Else you can have the zeros before the number. If you want display 0001234, you
must make it a text.
To display a number as text, append a single quote (') to its left. For example, to display
0001234 as text do the following:
a) Place the pointer in the cell where you want the number to be;
b) Press the single quote symbol (‘ )
c) Type the 0001234 and enter. The single quote will not display and will not print,
but the number, treated as text, will be left aligned.
Formulas
Formulas are what give an electronic worksheet its power. (Detailed discussion of
formulas would be done later in the next section)

Functions
A function is a predefined or built-in formula that’s a shortcut for commonly used
calculations. (Detailed discussion of functions would be done later in the next section)
3.6 Modifying a Worksheet

3.6.1 Adding Worksheets, Rows, and Columns

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a) Worksheets - Add a worksheet to a workbook by selecting Insert|Worksheet from

the menu bar. The notation A| B meaning click A follow by clicking B.
b) Row - To add a row to a worksheet, select Insert|Rows from the menu bar, or
highlight the row by clicking on the row label, right-click with the mouse, and
choose Insert.
c) Column - Add a column by selecting Insert|Columns from the menu bar, or
highlight the column by click on the column label, right-click with the mouse, and
choose Insert.

3.6.2 Resizing Rows and Columns

There are two ways to resize rows and columns.

1. Resize a row by dragging the line below the label of the row you would like to
resize. Resize a column in a similar manner by dragging the line to the right of
the label corresponding to the column you want to resize.
- OR -
2. Click the row or column label and select Format| Row| Height or Format|
Column| Width from the menu bar to enter a numerical value for the height of
the row or width of the column.

3.6.3 Moving and Copying Cells

Moving Cells
To cut cell contents that will be moved to another cell select Edit|Cut from the
menu bar or click the Cut button on the standard toolbar.

Copying Cells
To copy the cell contents select Edit|Copy from the menu bar or click the Copy
button on the standard toolbar.

Pasting the content of a cut or copied text

Highlight the cell you want to paste the cut or copied content into and select
Edit|Paste from the menu bar or click the Paste button on the standard toolbar.

Drag and Drop

whenever you are moving the cell contents only a short distance, the drag-and-
drop method may be easier. Simply drag the highlighted border of the selected
cell to the destination cell with the mouse.

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3.6.4 Freezing of Panes

If you have a large worksheet with column and row headings, those headings will
disappear as the worksheet is scrolled past the first screen. By using the Freeze Panes
feature, the headings can be visible at all times.

If you want the first or the topmost row (i.e. row 1) to be frozen do the following:

a) Click the label of the row below the row that should remain frozen at the top of
the worksheet ( i.e. any cell in row 2 such as A2-IV2)
b) Select Window|Freeze Panes from the menu bar.
c) Now is can scroll downwards or upwards and the headings will not disappear.

Fig 1.5: Example of Frozen panes

In the above diagram (Fig 1.5), the heading in row 1 is frozen that is why you could see
Row 6 next to Row 1 or appearing to have no data for Class 1 to class 4.

To freeze the row containing the Months just like the one in the diagram, the pointer
should firstly be in Row 2.

If you want to freeze the first or the leftmost column or column A as in the diagram
above (i.e. freezing column containing the Class), the pointer should be in any cell in
the second column or column B. What about freezing both the Column A and Row 1 at
the same time? The pointer should be in cell A2.

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To remove the frozen panes do these

 Select Window| Unfreeze Panes

3.7 Formulas and Functions

The distinguishing feature of a spreadsheet program such as Excel is that it allows you
to create mathematical formulas and execute functions. Otherwise, it is not much more
than a large table for displaying text. In this section, we shall show you how to create
these calculations.

3.7.1 Formulas

A formula is the arithmetic used to calculate values appearing in a worksheet. You can
take advantage of the power of Excel by using formulas in worksheets. If you change
one number in a worksheet, excel recalculates any formula affected by the change. The
result of the formula appears in the cell where you entered the formula.
To view the formula that has been entered in a cell, you must first select the cell, and
then look at the formula bar.
Formulas, which always begin with an equal sign (=), can include one or more of
Excel’s functions. Formulas can also include conditional statements (IF – THEN) and
Boolean logic (GREATER THAN OR EQUAL TO, LESS THAN, and so on).

The formula may include any or all of the following:

a) Operands (elements to be computed), which may be

o a constant value (e.g. 23.345, -89, etc), or
o a cell or range reference, (e.g. B23, C1:C123, etc) or
o a worksheet function (e.g. SUM(), AVG(), PI(), etc)

 Operators, which determine the kind of calculation or computation that must be

performed on the operation the operands.

After the formula is typed into the cell, the calculation executes immediately and the
formula itself is visible in the formula bar.

3.7.2 Types of operators in Excel

Four general categories of operators are use in Microsoft Excel. These are arithmetic,
comparison, text, and reference. We shall not consider the text operators.

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a) Arithmetic operators: These are used to perform basic mathematical

operations. Operators that fall within this category are:

Arithmetic operator Meaning Example

+ (plus sign) Addition A1+A2= 35
– (minus sign) Subtraction A1-A2= 11
Negation –A1= 23
* (asterisk) Multiplication A1*A2= 276
/ (forward slash) Division A1/A2= 1.916667
% (percent sign) Percent A1%= 0.23
^ (caret) Exponentiation A2^2= 144

We assumed that the contents of the cells are A1= 23 and A2=12.
b) Comparison operators: These are used to compare the values of two operands.
When two values are compared by using these operators, the result is a logical
value, which is either TRUE or FALSE. Operators that fall within this category
are: = (equal sign), <> (not equal to sign), > (greater than sign), <
(less than sign), >= (greater than or equal to sign), and <= (less than or equal to
sign) .

c) Reference operators These are used to combine ranges of cells for

calculations.

Operator Meaning (example)

: (colon) Range operator, which produces one
reference to all the cells between two
references, including the two
references (B5:B15)
, (comma) Union operator, which combines
multiple references into one reference
(SUM(B5:B15,D5:D15))
(space) Intersection operator, which produces
on reference to cells common to the
two references (B7:D7 C6:C8)

3.7.3 Operator precedence

Excel calculates the formula from left to right, according to a specific order for each
operator in the formula. If you combine several operators in a single formula, Excel
performs the operations in the order shown in the following table. If a formula contains
operators with the same precedence they are executed from left to right. However you
can use parentheses ( ) change this order of precedence such that anything inside the

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parentheses are executed first. For nested a parenthesis that is parentheses within
another parentheses, the innermost parentheses are executed before the outermost
parentheses.

Operator Description Order

: (colon) (single space) , Reference operators 1st
(comma)
– Negation (as in –1) 2nd
% Percent 3rd
^ Exponentiation 4th
* and / Multiplication and 5th
division
+ and – Addition and subtraction 6th
& Connects two strings of 7th
text (concatenation)
= < > <= >= <> Comparison 8th

3.7.4 How Formulas are entered

The steps that enable you to enter a Formula are:

a) Click the cell where you want the result to appear
b) Type = and then type the rest of the formula
c) For formulas that include cell references, such as C23 or D70: D78, you can
type the cell reference or you can use the mouse or arrow keys to select each
cell.
d) When the formula is complete, press the enter key.

See the example below to view the formula for calculating the sub total for a number of
textbooks. The formula multiplies the quantity and price of each textbook and adds the
subtotal for each book.

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Fig 1.5: The display of a formula in the Formula bar

Another method of achieving the same result is to label the cell D1 as Amount and the
in D2 you enter the formula =B2*C2. This formula is copied from D3 to D5. After
which you find the Amounts in the range D2 through D5. Try out this method. Which
is easier? There may be alternative approaches to the same problem.

3.7.5 Relative, Absolute, and Mixed Referencing

Calling cells by just their column and row labels (such as "A1") is called relative
referencing. When a formula contains relative cell referencing or addressing and it is
copied from one cell to another, Excel does not create an exact copy of the formula. It
will change cell addresses relative to the row and column they are moved to. For
example, if a simple addition formula in cell C1 "=(A1+B1)" is copied to cell C2, the
formula would change to "=(A2+B2)" to reflect the new row.

If you want the column part of formula containing a cell address not to change, you
should have $ before letter part of the cell address such as $A1. The implication is that
the row number of the cell when copied will change but the column letter. Therefore we
can have $A2, $A3, $A10, and so on.

On the hand, If you want the row part of formula containing a cell address not to
change, you should have $ before number part of the cell address such as A$1. The
implication is that the column letter of the cell when copied will change but the column
letter. Therefore we can have B$1, C$1, H$1 and so on

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Note that $A34 or A$34 is known as mixed cell referencing and can be used where
only the row OR column need not to change.

Assuming in C1, we have formula such as A8*B1+29.67. If this formula is copied to

C2: C18. The result is display in Fig 1.6(A). Here you could that the values in the cell
range C3:C18 has the constant value of the formula. Because you copied the formula in
C1 hence Excel used Relative addressing in the copying. The logic behind Spreadsheet
is that if the A8 was the component of the formula in C1 obvious in C2 it should change
to A9 since is the next C column after C1 is C2 therefore the next A column cell after
A8 should also be A9. The same argument holds for C3:C18 (see Fig. 1.6 (B) below).
But you know that there is no value in A9 downwards making A9*B2+29.67=
0*1859+29.67, which is 29.67. The same argument holds for C3:C18. Therefore we
have to instruct Excel that when copying, it should not use the Relative addressing for
the column A part of the formula but rather make it absolute addressing. The B column
part can use have the Relative addressing. To make a cell address absolute address place
$ before both the column letter and row number hence A8 becomes $A$8. The cell
addressing such as $A$8 is known as absolute cell referencing.

Therefore to achieve the result of Fig 1.6 (C), the formula in C1 should be

$A$8*B1+29.67.

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Note that relative references automatically adjust when you copy them whilst those of
absolute references do not.

Fig 1.6: An illustration of absolute addressing in spreadsheet.

What could have happened if A9:A18 had had values in them when the copying was
done? Be very careful when copying formula in Excel.

3.7.6 Specify a range of cells

Sometimes there may be the need to specify a range of cells in a function. A range is a
group of cells, either a single cell or a rectangular block of cells. To specify a range of
cells do the following:
1. Specify the first cell in the range
2. Press the colon (: ) symbol
3. Specify the cell which is diagonally opposite to the first cell specified (i.e. in
step 1 above)

Examples of legal range specifications in Excel are A1: A15, C2:G2

D5:G11, C18:C18, etc.

A rectangular block of cells must have the following

a) The beginning cell in a range address specification must be any of these
 the uppermost or topmost cell address (for a vertical range e.g. A1) or
 leftmost cell address (for a horizontal range e.g. C1) or
 Upper-left corner cell address (for a range that includes two or more
columns and rows e.g. D5).
b) The ending cell in a range address specification must be any of these
 the lowest or bottom cell address (for a vertical range e.g. A1) or
 rightmost cell address (for a horizontal range e.g. C1) or
 Lower-right corner cell address (for a range that includes two or more
columns and rows e.g. D5).
c) The colon separating (a) and (b) of the range.

Figure 1: 7 shows several examples of ranges. Do you think A15:A1, G2:C2, and
D11:G2 respectively refer to the same as A1: A15, C2:G2
D5:G11 respectively?

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Fig. 1.7:
Illustrations
of range

specifications in Excel

3.7.7 Basic Functions

Functions can be a more efficient way of performing mathematical operations than

formulas. For example, if you wanted to add the values of cells D101 through D110,
you would type the formula
"=D101+D102+D103+D104+D105+D106+D107+D108+D109+D110". A shorter way
would be to use the SUM function and simply type "=SUM (D101:D110)".

To enter the above the SUM Function

 Click the cell where you want the result to appear
 Type = to begin the function
 Type SUM in either uppercase or lowercase letters, followed by an opening
parenthesis
 Type the range of cells you want to sum, separating the first and last cells in the
range with a colon, as in D101:D110, or drag the pointer to outline the cells you
want to sum
 End with a closing parenthesis.

Below is a table of other functions and examples.

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Function Example Description

SUM =SUM(A1:100) finds the sum of cells A1 through A100
AVERAGE =AVERAGE(B1:B10) finds the average of cells B1 through B10
MAX =MAX(C1:C100) returns the highest number from cells C1
through C100
MIN =MIN(D1:D100) returns the lowest number from cells D1
through D100
SQRT =SQRT(D10) finds the square root of the value in cell D10
TODAY =TODAY() returns the current date (leave the parentheses
empty)

Assignment: 2.2

Use the Help facility of Excel to learn functions under these general categories Date and
Time, Financial, Logical Maths and Trigonometry, and Statistical.

3.7.8 Autosum

You can use the Autosum function to add the contents of a cluster of adjacent cells. In
our example below, we want to use the Autosum A2 and B2 at C2. The steps are as
follows:

a) Select the cell that the sum will appear. This should not include cluster of
cells whose values will be added. This is Cell C2 in our example;
b) Click the Autosum button (Greek letter sigma) on the standard toolbar;
c) Highlight the group of cells that will be summed (cells A2 through B2 in this
example);
d) Press the ENTER key on the keyboard or click the green check mark button
on the formula bar .

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Fig 1:8: An Example of AutoSum.

3.8 Formatting Cells

The contents of a highlighted cell or cells can be formatted in many ways. Font and cell
attributes can be added from either shortcut buttons on the formatting bar or the
formatting menu.

3.8.1 Formatting Toolbar

If this toolbar is not already visible on the screen, select
View |Toolbars |Formatting from the menu bar. The names of some of the icons on
the Formatting toolbar are shown below.

Fig. 1.9: Formatting toolbar.

3.8.2 Format Cells Dialog Box

For a complete list of formatting options, right-click on the highlighted cells and choose
Format Cells from the shortcut menu or select Format|Cells from the menu bar.

 Number tab - The data type can be selected from the options on this tab. Select
General if the cell contains text and number, or another numerical category if the
cell is a number that will be included in functions or formulas.
 Alignment tab - These options allow you to change the position and alignment
of the data with the cell.

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 Font tab - The entire font attributes are displayed in this tab including font face,
size, style, and effects.
 Border and Pattern tabs - These tabs allow you to add borders, shading, and
background colours to a cell.

Fig. 1.10: Format Cells Dialog Box.

3.8.3 Dates and Times

If you enter the date "January 1, 2001" into a cell on the worksheet, Excel will
automatically recognize the text as a date and change the format to "1-Jan-01". To
change the date format, do the following:

a) Activate the Format Cells Dialog Box;

b) Select the Number tab from the Format Cells window;
c) Select "Date" from the Category box;
d) Choose the format for the date of your choice from the Type box;

. If the field is a time, select "Time" from the Category box and select the type in the
right box. Date and time combinations are also listed.

e) Press OK when finished.

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Fig. 1.11: Typical dialogue box for a particular Format Category.

3.8.4 Styles

The use of styles in Excel allows you to quickly format your worksheet, provide
consistency, and create a professional look. Select the Styles drop-down box from the
formatting toolbar (it can be added by customizing the toolbar). Excel provides several
preset styles:

Fig. 1.12: Preset Styles

 Comma – This adds commas to the number and two digits beyond a decimal
point.
 Comma [0] - This comma styles that round to a whole number.
 Currency – This formats the number as currency with a dollar sign, commas,
and two digits beyond the decimal point.
 Currency [0] – This currency styles that round to a whole number.

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 Normal – This reverts any changes to general number format.

 Percent – This changes the number to a percent and adds a percent sign.

Style Dialog Box

You can create your own styles from the Style Dialog Box.

a) Highlight the cell(s) you want to add a style to.

b) Select Format|Style... from the menu bar.
c) Modify the attributes by clicking the Modify button.
d) Check all the items under Style includes that the style should format.
e) Click Add to preview the formatting changes on the worksheet.
f) Highlight the style you want to apply to the paragraph and click Apply.

Fig. 1.13: Style Dialog Box

3.8.5 Format Painter

A handy feature on the standard toolbar for formatting text is the Format Painter. If you
have formatted a cell with a certain font style, date format, border, and other formatting
options, and you want to format another cell or group of cells the same way, follow the
steps below:

a) Place the cursor within the cell containing the formatting you want to copy.
b) Click the Format Painter button in the standard toolbar (notice that your pointer
now has a paintbrush beside it).

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c) And highlight the cells you want to add the same formatting to. You will see that
the new cell also have the same format as the previous one.

To copy the formatting to many groups of cells, double-click the Format Painter button.
The format painter remains active until you press the ESC key to turn it off.

3.8.6 AutoFormat
Excel has many preset table formatting options that when included in your workbook
gives a professional outlook.

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.14: using AutoFormat to change the appearance of (a) to (b)

To add these styles go through the following steps:

a) Highlight the cells that will be formatted.
b) Select Format| AutoFormat from the menu bar.
c) On the AutoFormat dialog box, select the format you want to apply to the table
by clicking on it with the mouse. Use the scroll bar to view all of the formats
available.
d) Click the Options... button to select the elements that the formatting will apply
to.
e) Click OK when finished.

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Fig 1.15: AutoFormat Dialog Box.

3.9 Page Properties and Printing

Since the Worksheet is very large, printing a pages are as easy as that of Word hence
Page properties are very handy.

3.9.1 Page Breaks

To set page breaks within the worksheet, select the row you want to appear just below
the page break by clicking the row's label. Then choose Insert|Page Break from the
menu bar. You may need to click the double down arrow at the bottom of the menu list
to view this option.

3.9.2 Page Setup

Select File|Page Setup from the menu bar to format the page, set margins, and add
headers and footers.

 Page: Select the Orientation under the Page tab in the Page Setup window to
make the page Landscape or Portrait. The size of the worksheet on the page can
also be formatting under Scaling. To force a worksheet to print only one page so
all the columns appear on the same page, select Fit to 1 page(s) wide.

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Fig 1.16: Page set up dialogue box.

 Margins: You can change the top, bottom, left, and right margins under the
Margins tab. Enter values in the desired margin fields, which indicates how far
from the edge of the page the data in the sheet should appear. Check the boxes
for centring horizontally or vertically on the page.

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Fig 1.17: Page Setup window with Margin tab active.

 Header/Footer: Add preset headers and footers to the page by clicking the
drop-down menus under the Header/Footer tab.

 Sheet: Check Gridlines if you want the gridlines dividing the cells to be printed
on the page. If the worksheet is several pages long and only the first page
includes titles for the columns, select Rows to repeat at top to choose a title row
that will be printed at the top of each page.

Fig 1.18: Page Setup window with Sheet tab active.

3.10 Printing a Worksheet

Sometimes the printed sheet may not be exactly it was on the screen. Hence it is
important to preview the worksheet before it is printed. Preview is WYSIWYG (What
You See Is What You Get) view, which is the same as when it is printed.

To Preview the worksheet, do these:

a) Select File| Print Preview from the menu bar to view how the worksheet will
print.
b) Click the Next and Previous buttons at the top of the window to display other
the pages
c) Click the Zoom button to view the pages closer. When necessary, make the
page layout modifications by clicking the Page Setup button.

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d) Click Close to return to the worksheet or Print to continue printing.

To print the worksheet you should follow these steps:

a) Select File| Print from the menu bar.
b) Specify the necessary from the Print dialog box(see Fig 1.16)
c) Clock OK

Fig 1.19: Print Dialog box.

 Print Range - Select either all pages or a range of pages to print.

 Print What - Select selection of cells highlighted on the worksheet, the active
worksheet, or all the worksheets in the entire workbook.
 Copies - Choose the number of copies that should be printed. Check the Collate
box if the pages should remain in order.

3.11 Linking Worksheets

You may want to use the value from a cell in another worksheet within the same
workbook in a formula. For example, the value of cell A1 in the current worksheet and
cell A2 in the second worksheet can be added using the format "sheetname!cell
address". The formula for this example would be "=A1+Sheet2! A2" where the value
of cell A1 in the current worksheet is added to the value of cell A2 in the worksheet
named "Sheet2".

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3.12 Charts

Charts allow you to present data entered into the worksheet in a visual format using a
variety of graph types. Before you can make a chart you must first enter data into a
worksheet. This page explains how you can create simple charts from the data.

3.12.1 Chart Wizard

The Chart Wizard brings you through the process of creating a chart by displaying a
series of dialog boxes.

a) Enter the data into the worksheet and highlight all the cells that will be included
in the chart including headers.
b) Click the Chart Wizard button on the standard toolbar to view the first Chart
Wizard dialog box. ( You will see Fig. 1:20)
c) Choose the Chart type and the Chart sub-type if necessary.
d) Click Next. ( You will see Fig. 1:21)

Fig 1.20: Chart type and sub-types screen

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e) In the Data range section, specify the range where the data whose chart you
want is found (if this is different from the area highlighted in step a). You must
also specify how the data to be charted were entered by selecting either Rows or
Columns
f) Click Next. ( You will see Fig. 1:22)
g)

Fig 1.21: Data range screen

h) Enter the title for the chart (Class size in our example) and titles for the X- axis
(Courses) and Y-axis (Number of Students). Other options for the axes, grid
lines, legend, data labels, and data table can be changed by clicking on the tabs.
i) Click Next to move to the next set of options. ( You will see Fig. 1:23)

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Fig 1.22: Chart Options screen

j) Click As new sheet if the chart should be placed on a new, blank worksheet or
select As object in if the chart should be embedded in an existing sheet and
select the worksheet from the drop-down menu.

Fig 1.23: Chart Wizard step 4.

k) Click Finish to create the chart.

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Fig 1.24: The chart embed into the Spreadsheet containing its data

3.12.2 Resizing the Chart

To resize the chart, click on its border and drag any of the nine black handles to change
the size. Handles on the corners will resize the chart proportionally while handles along
the lines will stretch the chart.

3.12.3 Moving the Chart

Select the border of the chart, hold down the left mouse button, and drag the chart to a
new location. Elements within the chart such as the title and labels may also be moved
within the chart. Click on the element to activate it, and use the mouse to drag the
element to move it.

3.12.4 Chart Formatting Toolbar

The Chart formatting toolbar is used to format the chart drawn. It is usually displayed
when you click on the chart. Below is a brief description of the various icons of the
Chart formatting toolbar.

 Objects List - To select an object on the chart to format, click the object on the
chart or select the object from the Chart Objects List and click the Format
button. A window containing the properties of that object will then appear to
make formatting changes.
 Chart Type - Click the arrowhead on the chart type button to select a different
type of chart.

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 Legend Toggle
- Show or hide
the chart legend
by clicking this
toggle button.

Fig 1.25: The Chart formatting toolbar

 Table view - Display the data table instead of the chart by clicking the Data
Table toggle button.
 Display Data by Column or Row - Charts the data by columns or rows
according to the data sheet.
 Angle Text - Select the category or value axis and click the Angle Downward or
Angle Upward button to angle the selected by +/- 45 degrees.

Fig 1.26: A chart with its X-axis text displayed in Angle Text.

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3.12.5 Copying the Chart to Microsoft Word

A finished chart can be copied into a Microsoft Word document. Select the chart and
click Copy. Open the destination document in Word and click Paste.

Assignment: 2.2
Create an Assessment form for a class with Quiz1, Quiz2 and Exams
marks. After the input of the marks, the formula bar to compute the totals
of both Quizzes and that of the quiz and exams
After, use the ‘IF’ statement to grade the marks for you.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise: 2.2
1. Spreadsheets are often used for the following except
(a) Cash Flow Analysis
(b) Decision Making
(c) Financial Report
(d) Job Financing
2. You can start Ms Excel in how many ways?
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
3. Horizontally grouped cells are called ______ whiles vertically
grouped ones are called ______.

4. Which of the following is a Preset Style?

a. Currency
b. Arial
c. Copy
d. Help
5. Which tool is used to copy formatting text to many groups?
a. Format Painter
b. Format Copy
c. Format Paste
d. Format Printer

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 issues that are not clear to; and

 difficult topics if any

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SESSION 4: DATABASE SOFTWARE

Databases are all over us helping us to retrieve the information we

wanted quickly.

The address book in your mobile phone is an example of a simple

database that store phone numbers of relatives, friends, etc. In some supermarket (the
‘modernized’ or ‘Hi-Tech’ ones, I mean), the information of all their items such as item
id, name, price, number in stock, etc are kept in the computer. At the Point of Sales’
terminal, as the Cashier scans each of the items cart or carrier, the store's computer then
deducts each item from the store's inventory and, at the same time, adds the price of
each item to your bill.

In certain Department Stores in some countries where only members are allowed to buy,
the computer has to read your membership card (which is simply to scratch cards we
use in Ghana for phones) as you items are scanned, the store's computer compiles a list
of what you buy, and uniquely linked them to you by the ID number of your card. By so
doing they could your purchasing habit, give deduct when you buy up to a certain
amount, etc.

Again, the ATM card for each back in Ghana can be used to redraw money in any of
that bank’s branch that has an ATM all over the country. Apart of the usage of ATM
cards, some banks like the Ghana Commercial Bank, it is possible to withdraw money
in your Saving Account everywhere provided that particular bank in networked and
connected to their WAN.

All these and many others are possible firstly due to database stored in computers. In
session, we shall discuss the fundamentals of database and how to design a simple one.

Read on…

Objectives
At the end of this section, you should be able to:

(a) explain database;

(b) Describe the some functionalities of database applications;
(c) list examples of database application software;
(d) use Microsoft Access; to design a simple database;
(e) open Microsoft Access and use basic commands;
(f) create a table and populate it;
(g) manipulate data;
(h) run simple Query and use simple Query Wizard

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(i) print reports;

(j) establish relationship between tables.

4.1 Database software?

A collection of related information is called a Database. For example, you could create
a database with information such as the names, addresses, and phone numbers of your
relatives, friends, and students.
To create, populate, manage, and retrieve electronic database, one needs specialized
software for those tasks. This is called a database management system. Therefore, a
database management system (DBMS) is a software program that lets you create
databases and then manipulate data in them. Most of today’s Database management
systems including Access are called Relational database management system in which
data is organized as a collection of tables.
Specifically, a relational DBMS provides the following functionality:
 It allows you to create database structures containing fields, tables, and table
relationships.
 It lets you easily add new records, change field values in existing records and
delete records.
 It contains a built-in query language, which lets you obtain immediate answers
to questions you ask about your data.
 It contains a built-in report generator, which lets you produce professional-
looking formatted reports from your data.
 It provides protection of databases through security, control and recovery
facilities.

Examples of Database Application Software:

 Microsoft Access
 MySQL
 Oracle
 SyBase

4.2 Using Microsoft Access

To start Access,
a) Click the Start button on the task bar, point to Programs, and then point to
Microsoft Access. At times you have to point Microsoft Office then to Microsoft
Access 2003 ;
b) Click the Microsoft Access to start Access and after a short while the Access
windows opens.

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Fig 1.1(a): A picture indicating the steps in starting the access application.

The access window contains the task Pane that allows you to create a new database or to
open an existing database. You can click the “Blank Database” option in the “New”
section of the Task Pane to create a new database on your own, or you can click the
“The General Templates” option in the “New from Template” section of the Task Pane
to let Access guide you through the steps for creating one of the standard databases
provided by Microsoft.

a) Make sure you have created your copy of the Access Data Disk, and then place
your Data Disk in your appropriate drive.
b) In the “Open a file” section of the Task Pane, click the more files option. The
open dialog box is displayed. See the diagram below.
c) Click the Look in list arrow, and then click the drive that contains your Data
Disk.
d) Click The Folder’s in the list box (if necessary) and then click the Open button
to display a list of the files in the tutorials folder.
e) Click the database name in the list box and then click on Open button. The
seasonal database opens in the Access windows.
f) In the database window, click on the name of the database to select it.
g) Click the Open button in the database window. The table opens in the datasheet
view on top of the database and Access windows.

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Fig 1.1(b): A newly opened window of access application.

Unlike other applications in the Office suite, only one database file can be opened at a
time.

4.3 Basic Elements in Access

4.3.1 Database Objects

When you name the database and select its location, you create a "container" to hold all
the database objects you will create as you progress. Unlike in some database programs,
every object you create here—every table, form, query, and report—becomes part of the
same file, neatly held and listed for your convenience in the database window. Once
you open the database, there is no need to open other files. The following are the
database objects, also known as "pieces" of your database:

 Table: The Table tab is where your actual data that you will store and
manipulate resides.
 Query: The Query tab accesses the query storage area. A query is a carefully
structured question that asks for specific data from one or more database tables.
You can use the queries to perform calculations, delete multiple records, or
retrieve data.

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 Form: A form is a "window" in which you can enter, edit, or view data in
neatly defined areas. You can use the Form tab to create a data-entry form, even
one that carries out certain actions after the data is input.
 Report: The Report tab enables you to have access to reports, which are
presentation-ready designs for compiled database data. This is the most effective
way to present your data in a hard-copy format.
 Macro: A macro is a set of instructions that executes a series of commands.
You can create macros to automate commonly used tasks: one action or a
sequence of actions.
 Module: A modules is an event procedure written in the Visual Basic
programming language that controls the behavior of forms and reports, available
in your database. Modules let you automate tasks using Visual Basic.

4.3.2 Table specification

A database could also be defined as a collection of related tables. The things that can be
found in a University database include Lecturers, Students, Courses, Halls,
Departments, Programmes etc. Information on each of these things or technically
known as entities are kept in a single table. Again one entity could be linked to another
entity forming a relationship. For example a Department has many lectures and may
have many programmes ( BSc. Computer science, Information Technology etc). One
must have at least a past grades in certain courses for he/she in awarded a degree in a
certain Programme. A lecturer teaches certain Courses and advises certain Students. A
Student resides in a hall and is admitted to pursue certain degree programme. A Course
in taught in a semester in a particular Room. These are many more are condition that
much be captured in the database. Therefore tables in a database must form relationship.
Therefore a table is to store information about a single thing or a relationship.

Each table is made up of a numbers of related fields. The fields are description or
properties of the thing whose information is to be stored. A student can be described by
name, Age, programme studied, department and hall he/she belongs among others. All
these information about a student are kept in the fields. Therefore some of the fields in
the Student table could be Index- Nos, First_Name, Last_Name, Birthdate, Postal-
Address, Phone, Programme, Level, etc

Each field must store a particular type of information, which could be a number, text,
picture, etc. You tell Microsoft Access the information to be stored in a field by using
datatype. Some of the datatypes in Access are:

 Text: Stores up to a maximum of 225 characters, symbols, and numbers.

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 Memo: Stores text up to 65,535 characters. Usually used for nonessential

information. •Number: Stores various forms of numerical data, no text. This data
type is for numbers that will have calculations performed on them.
 Date/Time: Stores various formats of date and time entries. You can perform
calculations with this data type.
 Currency: Stores monetary values expressed in various formats. You can
perform calculations with this data type.
 AutoNumber: An automatically incremented value at each successive entry by
Access.
 Yes/No: Allows one of two choices to be entered.
 OLE Object: An item linked to an object in another file.
 Hyperlink: Combinations of text and numbers used as a hyperlink address to
World Wide Web pages and files on a hard drive. (A hyperlink automatically
opens another file for viewing.)
 Lookup: Lets you choose a value from another table or from a list of values

Fig 1.2: A table showing Fields and Columns

The information concerning a particular student is called a record for that student.
Therefore the record for Haha will have the following particulars:
 Index Number= Sc/csc/02/002
 Surname = Haha
 Birthdate =12-09-1970
 Level =500
 PID =CS

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Whilst it is possible to have no value for some of the fields, other fields should have
values in them always. The values of some fields within a particular record may be
unknown or may not apply to apply to that record. In Database parlance a field without
value contains a specialized value called null. For a field to contain null value, it should
be designed to accept null.
Null could have any of these implications:
 Value unknown
 Value exists but not available
 Attribute does not apply to this record

Hence if you don not know the date of birth of a particular student and that the birthday
field has be design to accept null then you can leave it blank.

4.3.3 Primary Key

In a Relational Database |Management system such as Access, each row in a table must
be unique. A unique key or primary key is a candidate key to uniquely identify each
row in a table. A unique key or primary key comprises a single column or set of
columns. No two distinct rows in a table can have the same value (or combination of
values) in those columns. Depending on its design, a table may have arbitrarily many
unique keys but at most one primary key.
A unique key must uniquely identify all possible rows that exist in a table and not only
the currently existing rows.
Examples of unique keys are Social Security numbers (associated with a specific
person) or ISBNs (associated with a specific book) or employee’s identification number
(associated with a particular employee) or student’s identification number (associated
with a particular student) or car registration number (associated with a particular car). A
primary key is a special case of unique keys

For the table in Fig. 1.2, the Index_Nos field is the primary key hence it cannot be
duplicated or be null. By assigning a primary key to that data, you tell Access to alert
you when you inadvertently enter a duplicate. Basically, you tell Access that no two
Students can have the same index number (Index_Nos), and Access makes sure they
don't.

Because the field that contains the primary key cannot contain duplicate data, it is the
field most often used to link two tables together. When you designate a field as a
primary key field, the words Yes (No Duplicates) appear in the field properties box next
to Indexed.

Sometimes it requires more than one attribute to uniquely identify an entity. A primary
key that made up of more than one attribute is known as a composite key. Below shows

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an example of a composite key. Each instance of the entity Work can be uniquely
identified only by a composite key composed of Employee ID and Project ID.

EmployeeID ProjectID HoursWorked

101 Elearning 100
101 Payroll 120
102 Elearning 75
102 Archival 115
103 Archival 140
103 Student 80
Portal

4.3.4 Foreign Key

It is possible to extract information from two or more tables that have been linked.
Assuming we want link two tables say A and B such that the primary from A is in B. In
that case A is called the referenced table and B is the referencing table. The primary
key of A that is in B is known foreign key.

Foreign key is therefore a column or a set of columns in one (referencing) table that
refers to a column or set of columns in another (referenced) table. A foreign key
completes a relationship two tables by identifying the parent entity.

The values in one row of the referencing columns must occur in a single row in the
referenced table. Thus, a row in the referencing table cannot contain values that don't
exist in the referenced table. This way references can be made to link information
together. Multiple rows in the referencing table may refer to the same row in the
referenced table.

The referencing and referenced table may be the same table, i.e. the foreign key refers
back to the same table. Such a foreign key is known as self-referencing or recursive
foreign key.

A table may have multiple foreign keys, and each foreign key can have a different
referenced table. Every relationship in the must be supported by a foreign key.

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4.4 Creation of Tables

Fig 1.3: A picture of the Database window.

1. From the database table, click on Tables in the Object Pane and click on
New to pop up the New Table dialog box.
2. On this box click Design View to create your own table. (You can also click on
Design directly on the Database window). The table window opens.

Fig 1.4: A picture of the Table Design View.

3. The table window has three columns; Field Name, Data Type and
Description.
4. Beneath them is the Field Property, which displays properties of selected
fields. Below a brief explanation of the elements in the Field property pane:

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Description The Description property enables you to provide description information

about the field. A description can be up0 to 255 characters long.

Field Size The Field Size property enables you to specify the maximum size of data
stored in the field. Refer to Table 2.1 for the maximum field size values.

Format The Format property controls how data appears when displayed. This
property enables you to customize how numbers, currency, text, and date-time data
appear.

Input Mask The Input Mask property provides a mechanism for making data entry
easier. For example, with a telephone number, an input mask of (____) - ___ - ___
makes entering the various components of a phone number easier. Access provides a
wizard to create values for this property.

Caption The Caption property specifies the contents of the descriptive label that is
used on a form or report in which the field is used. The Caption property also specifies
the contents of the column header for a field in the Datalist View. (Refer to Figure 2.1
for an illustration of the Datalist View.)

Default Value The Default Value property specifies the value that is automatically
entered into the field when a new record is created. For example, a number type field
might have a default value of 0, and a date-time type field might have a default value of
the current date-time value.

Validation Rule The Validation Rule property specifies a condition that an entered
value must satisfy. For example, a number type value must be >= 0. Validation rules
help preserve data integrity.

Validation Text The Validation Text property specifies the message text displayed
to the user when the validation rule fails. The maximum size of a validation text
property is 255 characters.

Required The Required property specifies whether a data value is required for the
field.

Allow Zero Length The Allow Zero Length property specifies whether a zero-length
string is a valid entry. This property applies only to text, memo, and hyperlink fields.

Indexed The Indexed property specifies whether an index is created for the field. Two
types of indexes can be created. One allows duplicate field entries, and the other type
does not allow duplicates.

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Unicode Compression
Access supports Unicode character representation, which means characters are
represented by two bytes instead of one. With two bytes, multiple language code pages
can be supported. With one byte, on the other hand, a single code page is supported and
a smaller disk storage requirement exists.

Fig 1.5: The Student Table.

5. Using student table for example, type in the field name registration number.
6. Click in the Data Type column to pop up a list of possible data types.
7. Look through and select Text.
8. In the description column, briefly describe the field name.
9. Continue with the next Field Name, Data Types and Description.

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10. The Data Type for the Field Names fname, lname, mname, gender,
programme, hall of affiliation and permanent address is Text.
11. That for the Field Names date of birth and year of admission is Date/Time.
12. Lastly, that of Field Name phone number is Number.
13. Apart from the Field Names phone number and mname, all fields require
some value hence in their Required space in the Field Properties, select Yes.

Assigning a field a specific set of characters

 Example) Making a Registration Number only allows 14 characters.

1. Switch to Design View
2. Select the field you want to alter
3. At the bottom select the General Tab
4. At the bottom select the General Tab
5. Select Field Size
6. Enter the number of characters you want this field to have

Selecting a Primary Key.

Fig 1.6: The Student Table with a Primary Key.

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1. Select the entire row for a particular field name, which you consider appropriate,
be a primary key (A field that unique identifies a Entity or Student) in this case,
the Field Name registration number is best.
2. Click on the Primary Key icon on the database toolbar.
3. When done correctly, a small key symbol appears just beside the field name.
4. Click on the Save button to pop up a dialog box for table name.
5. Type in the student and click OK.
6. After naming and saving the table properly, the table name appears in the
Database windows as shown below.

Fig 1.7: Student Table in the Database window.

Switching Views
To switch views form the datasheet (spreadsheet view) and the design view, simply
click the button in the top-left hand corner of the Access program.

Datasheet View Design View

Displays the view, which allows you Displays the view, which allows you to enter
to enter raw data into your database fields, data-types, and descriptions into your
table. database table.

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4.5 Populating your Table with Data

1. In the Database window, select the name of your table and click on Open
.
2. This brings up a window that looks like the one below. (see Fig 1.8)

Fig 1.8: An opened Student Table view.

3. You can now populate your table with the necessary data.
4. To populate a new record, press the Enter key to go to the next

NOTE: Before starting a new record, the registration number field must have
something in it, because it is the Primary Key. If you did not set a Primary Key then it is
OK.

Manipulating Data

 Adding a new row

o Simply drop down to a new line and enter the information
 Updating a record
o Simply select the record and field you want to update, and change its
data with what you want
 Deleting a record
o Simply select the entire row and hit the Delete Key on the keyboard.

To Copy and Paste

1. Click the row selector for the field name row
2. Click the Copy button on the table Datasheet toolbar.

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3. To paste a copied data, click the row selector for a particular row.
4. Click the Paste button. The pasted record remains highlighted.

To Navigate The A Datasheet:

1. Click the right arrow button in the horizontal scroll bar a few times to scroll to
the right and view the remaining fields in the table.
2. Drag the scroll box in the horizontal bar back to the left to return to the previous
display of the datasheet.
3. Click the Next Record navigation button .The second record is now the
current record, as indicated by the current record symbol in the second record
selector.
4. Click the Last Record navigation button The last record in the table is now
the current record.
5. Click the Previous Record navigation button to view a previous record.
6. Click the First Record navigation button to view the very first record.

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Shortcuts:

Keyboard short cut for Database Actions and Editing

Fig 1.9: Some keyboard Shortcuts for Microsoft Access.

To print a table:
1. Click the print button on the table datasheet toolbar. The table will print on
two pages if the can’t fit on a single page.

To exit Access:
1. Click the Close button on the Access window title bar. The tables and the
whole database close and Access closes.

4.6 Queries

The purpose of a query is to organize the data in a table. This could mean sorting a table
alphabetically by last names. This could also mean looking for records that contained a
certain piece of information that every record may not have. By using queries you can
organize your data to fit your needs. Queries select records from one or more tables in a
database so they can be viewed, analyzed, and sorted on a common datasheet. The
resulting collection of records, called a dynaset (short for dynamic subset), is saved as a
database object and can therefore be easily used in the future. The query will be updated
whenever the original tables are updated. Types of queries are select queries that extract
data from tables based on specified values, find duplicate queries that display records
with duplicate values for one or more of the specified fields, and find unmatched

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queries display records from one table that do not have corresponding values in a
second table.
Create a Query in Design View

Follow these steps to create a new query in Design View:

1. In Access window, click the query button on the left hand side of the window as
shown

Fig 1.10: Access window

2. From the Queries page on the Database Window, click the New button

Fig 3.11: New Query Window.

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3. Select Design View and click OK.

4. Select tables and existing queries from the Tables and Queries tabs and click
the Add button to add each one to the new query.
(In this case select the COUSE,
DEPARTMENT,HALL,LECTURER,SESSION,STUDENT,TRANSCRIP)

Fig 3.12: Show Table window

Click Close when all of the tables and queries have been selected.

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Fig 1.13: Your screen should look like this.

Suppose we want to retrieve all the particulars of a student with the registration
number “SC/CSC/02/0001”,then follow the following steps

5. Add all fields from the STUDENT table to the new query by double-clicking the
field name in the table boxes or selecting the field from the Field: and Table:
drop-down menus on the query form. Specify sort orders if necessary.

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Fig 1.14: The Query Window

6. Enter the criteria for the query in the Criteria: field. In our case, we type
=SC/CSC/02/0001 and press on the enter key. ( You see that in Fig. 1.15 )

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Fig 1.15: The Query Window showing a specified Criteria

7. The following table provides examples for some of the wildcard symbols and
arithmetic operators that may be used. The Expression Builder can also be used
to assist in writing the expressions.

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Query Wildcards and Expression Operators

Wildcard / Explanation
Operator
? Street The question mark is a wildcard that takes the place of a
single letter. Hence in our example we can have 1 Street, K
Street, or # Street.
43th * The asterisk is the wildcard that represents a number of
characters.
<100 Value less than 100
>=1 Value greater than or equal to 1
<>"FL" Not equal to (all states besides Florida)
Between 1 Numbers between 1 and 10
and 10
Is Null Finds records with no value
Is Not Null or all records that have a value
Like "a*" All words beginning with "a"
>0 And <=10 All numbers greater than 0 and less than 10
"Bob" Or Values are Bob or Jane
"Jane"

8. After you have selected all of the fields and tables, click the Run button on the
toolbar.

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Fig 1.16: A Query Window showing the Run icon

9. Save the query by clicking the Save button.

Suppose we want to retrieve the first name, family name and date of birth of all
students student whose first begins with ‘A’ then follow the following steps

10. From the first field select STUDENT for table and FIRST_NAME for the for
field. Then in the second and third field, select STUDENT for table and
FAMIL_NAME and DATE_OF_BIRTH for fields respectively.

11. In the FIRST_NAME field Criteria, type Like “A*” as shown.

Fig 1.17: The Query Window

4.7 Using the Query Wizard

With Query Wizard of Access, you can easily in creating queries. To do that , we must
follow the steps below:

a) Click the Create query by using wizard icon in the database window to have
Access step you through the process of creating a query.

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Fig 1.18: Access Window

b) From the first window, select fields that will be included in the query by first
selecting the table from the drop-down Tables/Queries menu. Select the fields
by clicking the > button to move the field from the Available Fields list to
Selected Fields. Click the double arrow button >> to move all of the fields to
Selected Fields. Select another table or query to choose from more fields and
repeat the process of moving them to the Selected Fields box. Click Next >
when all of the fields have been selected.

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Fig 1.19: Simple Query Wizard window.

c) On the next window, enter the name for the query and click Finish

Fig 1.20: The Simple Query Wizard window.

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Fig 1.21: Query result window.

4.8 Eliminating Duplicates in Query

Sometimes there may be the need to weed out all duplicates results in a query and not in
the database or table itself. You can use Find Duplicate Query Wizard filter out records
in a single table that contain duplicate values in a field. To arrive that this results, do
the following:

a) Select Query in the Objects pane,

b) Click the New button on the Queries database window, select Find Duplicates
Query Wizard from the New Query window and click OK.

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Fig 1.21: Selecting the Find Duplicates Query Wizard

c) Select the table or query that the find duplicates query will be applied to from
the list provided and click Next >

Fig 1.22: Selecting tables for the Find Duplicates Query Wizard

d) Select the fields that may contain duplicate values by highlighting the names in
the Available fields list and clicking the > button to individually move the fields
to the Duplicate-value fields list or >> to move all of the fields. Click Next >
when all fields have been selected.

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Fig 1.23(a): Selecting field(s) for the Find Duplicates Query Wizard

e) Select the fields that should appear in the new query along with the fields
selected on the previous screen and click Next >

Fig 1.23(b): Selecting tables for the Find Duplicates Query Wizard

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f) Name the new query and click Finish

Fig 1.23(c): Query result without duplicates

4.9 Working with Forms

Forms provide those working in the database with a user-friendly look. You could have
people enter information into the database using the open table view which means that
could see all the finds. But most databases, not all tables are accessible everybody and
even for the table(s) that one can use, not all fields at he/she have access.
Using a form allows you to place all of the fields for a particular application or
transaction in one place.

Forms link you to the table fields. You can look through all of the information in
various records using the form view. Depending how the form is designed, you may
only get to look at one record at a time.
There are 2 ways to create a form in Microsoft Access. These are:

1. Create a Form in the Design View. This option requires that you know how to
insert form elements, understand how they link to table fields and use the design
tools.

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2. Create a Form by using a Form Wizard. This method is good for creating quick
forms or for those who are inexperienced with using Microsoft Access.

To create Forms using an AutoFormat Wizard

a) Click the Forms tab in the Database window to display the forms List. This is
currently empty because you have not created any forms yet.
b) Click the New button to open the New Form dialog box.

Fig 1.24: The new form dialogue box.

c) Click AutoForm: Columnar to select this AutoForm Wizard.

d) Click the list arrow for choosing the table or query on which to base the form.
e) Click the OK button. The AutoForm Wizard creates the form and displays it in
Form View.

Getting Help
You can simply press F1 to get help. For vivid help topics, you can click on the Office
Assistant button on the database toolbar.

4.10 Reports

Reports are used to provide a summary and review of the contents of the database. This
report can be as simple as a brief outline of the data or as complex as identifying each
field in each record. Your report should answer the series of questions asked earlier
about what information do you want to gather and why you are gathering it.

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There are two ways to create a report.

1. By using a “Report Wizard”: This will take you step-by-step through the
process of creating a report. This is helpful if you are new to the process of
creating a report or if you would like Access to set everything up for you. This
allows you to spend time later in the “Design View” editing the report.

2. By using “Design View”: You use this when you want to create the report from
scratch. This is for those that are familiar with creating a report. You will use the
“Design View” toolbar to insert the desired fields, set their font characteristics
and size and position them. You can also add your own graphics and other
effects to the report to make it stand out.

4.10.1 Using the Wizard

To create a report using Access' wizard by following these steps:

a) Click the Report button as shown below

Fig 1.25: Access windows

b) Double-click the "Create report by using wizard" option on the Reports

Database Window.
c) Select the information source for the report by selecting a table or query from
the Tables/Queries drop-down menu.

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d) Then, select the fields that should be displayed in the report by transferring them
from the Available Fields menu to the Selected Fields window using the single
right arrow button > to move fields one at a time or the double arrow button >>
to move all of the fields at once. Click the Next > button to move to the next
screen.(See Fig 1.26)

Fig 1.26: Selecting Table and Fields for the Report

e) Select fields from the list that the records should be grouped by and click the
right arrow button > to add those fields to the diagram. Use the Priority buttons
to change the order of the grouped fields if more than one field is selected. Click
Next > to continue. .(See Fig 1.27)

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Fig 1.27: Changing the Priorities of the fields to be displayed

f) If the records should be sorted, identify a sort order here. Select the first
field that records should be sorted by and click the A-Z sort button to
choose from ascending or descending order. Click Next > to continue.

Fig 1.28: Specifying the sort oder for the Report Wizard

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g) Select a layout and page orientation for the report and click Next >

Fig 1.29: Specifying the layout for the Report Wizard

h) Select a color and graphics style for the report and click Next >

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Fig 1.30: Specifying the layout for the Report Wizard

i) On the final screen, name the report and select to open it in either Print
Preview or Design View mode. Click the Finish button to create the
report.

Fig 1.31: Specifying the title for a Report

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Fig 1.32: The outlook of your report

4.10.2 Printing Report

Select File|Page Setup to modify the page margins, size, orientation, and column setup.
After all changes have been made, print the report by selecting File|Print from the
menu bar or click the Print button on the toolbar.

Creating, Previewing and Printing a Report

1. Click the Reports tab in the Database window and then click the new button to
open the New Report dialog Box.
2. Click AutoReport: Columnar to select this wizard for creating the report.
3. Click the list arrow for choosing the table or query on which to base the report.

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4. Click the OK button and the report wizard creates the report and displays it in Print
Preview which shows exactly how the report will look when printed.
5. Click the Maximize button on the report window, click the Zoom list arrow and
choose 100% then Fit to view the entire window.
6. You can select the particular record using the Next, Previous, First and Last
Record buttons.

4.11 Table Relationship

To prevent the duplication of information in a database by repeating fields in more than

one table, table relationships can be established to link fields of tables together. A
relationship works by matching data in key fields - usually a field with the same name
in both tables. In most cases, these matching fields are the primary key from one table,
which provides a unique identifier for each record, and a foreign key (a primary key
from a different table) in the other table. For example, STUDENT table can be linked to
HALL table by creating a relationship between the STUDENT table and the HALL
table using the REGISTRATION_NUM fields (primary key in STUDENT table and
foreign key in HALL table).

The following steps are used to show the relationship between tables.
1. In the database window view, at the top, click on Tools ---> Relationships or
click the Relationships button on the toolbar.
2. From the Show Table window (click the Show Table button on the toolbar to
make it appear), double click on the names of the tables you would like to
include in the relationships. When you have finished adding tables, click Close.

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Fig. 3.20 Picture showing the steps involved in displaying the tables in the database.

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Fig 3.21 Picture showing the tables in the database.

To link fields in two different tables, click and drag the primary key of the Parent table,
and drop it into the same field (foreign key) in the Child table and release the mouse
button.
The Edit Relationships window will appear. From this window, select different fields
if necessary and select an option from Enforce Referential Integrity if necessary. These
options give Access permission to automatically make changes to referential tables if
key records in one of the table are deleted. Check the Enforce Referential Integrity
box to ensure that the relationships are valid and that the data is not accidentally deleted
when data is added, edited, or deleted. Click Create to create the link.

Fig 3.22 Picture indicating the procedure in creating relationships between tables.

A line now connects the fields of the tables in the Relationships window.

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Fig 3.23 Picture indicating the relationship between tables of the database.

Assignment: 3.3
1. Use Microsoft Access to Create the Following tables and show all
relationships that exist between them.

STUDENTS TABLE
Field Name Data Type Field Required Primary Foreign
Size Key Key
registration_number Text 20 Yes Yes No
fname Text 20 Yes No No
mname Text 20 No No No
lname Text 20 Yes No No
date_of_birth Date Yes No No
gender Text 6 Yes No No
programme Text 20 Yes No No
year_of_admission Date Yes No No
hall_of_affiliation Text 20 Yes No No
address Text 30 Yes No No

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city Text 20 Yes No No

country Text 20 Yes No No
phone_number Text 13 No No No
Lect
urers Table

Field Name Data Type Field Required Primary Foreign

Size Key Key
staff_id Text 20 Yes Yes No
fname Text 20 Yes No No
mname Text 20 No No No
lname Text 20 Yes No No
date_of_birth Date N/A Yes No No
gender Text 6 Yes No No
dept_id Text 20 Yes No Yes
year_of_admission Date N/A Yes No No
highest_degree Text 20 Yes No No
area_of_specialization Text 30 Yes No No

DEPARTMENT
Field Name Data Type Field Size Required Primary Key Foreign Key
dept_id Text 20 Yes Yes No
dept_name Text 20 Yes No No
dept_location Text 20 No No No
faculty Text 20 Yes No No
Head_id Text 20 yes No Yes

HALL TABLE

Field Name Data Field Required Primary Key Foreign

Type Size Key
hall_id Text 50 yes yes No
hall_name Text 20 Yes No No
hall_location Text 20 No No No
registration_number Text 20 Yes No Yes

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COURSES TABLE
Field Name Data Type Field Required Primary Foreign
Size Key Key
course_code Text 10 Yes Yes No
course_name Text 20 Yes No No SE
SSI
dept_id Text 20 Yes No Yes
ON
credit_hours Text 5 Yes No No
year Date N/A Yes No No
semester Number 1 Yes No No
Field Name Data Type Field Required Primary Foreign
Size Key Key
course_code Text 20 Yes Yes Yes
registration_number Text 20 Yes Yes Yes
staff_id Text 20 Yes Yes Yes
Day Date Yes No No
Time Date/time Yes No No
Venue Text 20 Yes No No

TRANSCRIPT

Field Name Data Type Field Required Primary Foreign

Size Key Key
course_code Text 20 Yes Yes Yes
registration_number Text 20 Yes Yes Yes
assesment_1 Number 3 Yes No No
assesment_2 Number 3 Yes No No
examination Number 3 Yes No No
Total Number 3 Yes No No
grade Text 2 Yes No No

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 3.4

1. Which of the following is not database application Software?

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a. SyBase
b. MySQL
c. SQL
d. DatabaseS
2. In Access the following is an example of a datatype?
a. Fname
b. Date/time
c. Field name
d. Description

3. When Yes option is selected it means the field should not be Null True/
False.

4. A field that uniquely identifies an Entity in a database is called

a. Foreign Key
b. Primary Key
c. Registration Number
d. Required Key

5. The icon stands for

a. Design view
b. Datasheet view
c. Drawing view
d. Open view
6. A query is the same as report in Access. True/ False

7. You can either do your own query of use the __________.

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 Issues that are not clear to; and
 Difficult topics if any

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SESSION 5: PRESENTATION SOFTWARE

Well done for traveling this far; the road from Database software to
presentation software has not been easy but you are here. The next
powerful productivity software we will discuss is mostly used for
presentations.

Even though this tool was developed for business presentations, its usefulness cut
across several activities. Teachers can prepare their teaching lessons with this package
because it can accommodate audio and images of all your teaching aids. Nowadays IT
inclined preachers use presentation software to present their sermons, resource speakers
for conferences and seminars also present their talk using presentation software.

Objectives
At the end of this section you should be able to:
(a) explain what a Presentation Software is
(b) identify the basic Presentation Software features; and
(c) use Microsoft PowerPoint
(d) open an existing presentation
(e) use normal view and view slide show
(f) create a working folder and save your work
(g) use AutoContent Wizard and edit slides
(h) use slide sorter view create speaker note, preview and print

Now read on …

5.1 What is Presentation software?

Presentation software is a computer tool for creating on-screen multimedia

presentations or overhead transparencies. A presentation is a combination of slides,
handouts, notes, and outlines all in one file. You can add text, graphics, photos, clip art,
sound and video to your slides. Presentation software can help you present a topic at
work, or school or conference, workshop, seminar, or church. The program helps
prepare an outline, slides, speaker's notes and handouts for the audience. Mostly
presentation applications are used to open and view presentations creating, and saving
presentations with the AutoContent wizard, organizing and outlining of slides, creating
audio or speaker notes for slides spell checking and printing of outlines, handouts and
speaker notes.
It typically includes three major functions:
1. an editor that allows text to be inserted and formatted,
2. a method for inserting and manipulating graphic images
3. slide-show system to display the content.

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Presentation programs can either supplement or replace the use of older visual aid
technology, such as Pamphlets, handouts, chalk boards, flip charts, posters, slides and
overhead transparencies.
The "slide" analogy is a reference to the slide projector, a device which has become
somewhat obsolete due to the use of presentation software. Slides can be printed, or
(more usually) displayed on-screen and navigated through at the command of the
presenter. Transitions between slides can be animated in a variety of ways, as can the
emergence of elements on a slide itself.

Example of presentation programs are:

 Microsoft PowerPoint
 OpenOffice.org Impress
 Apple's Keynote
 Adobe Persuasion (formerly Aldus Persuasion)
 MagicPoint (an open source program)
 KPresenter (open source program that is part of KOffice )
 Harvard Graphics
 IBM Lotus Freelance Graphics
 Lotus Freelance
 WordPerfect Office’s Corel Presentations
 Sun Microsystems' StarImpress ( part of StarOffice)

Microsoft is by far the most commonly used presentation software. It basic features are:

 Slide sorter view

 Slide show view
 Notes Pane
 Menu and standard toolbars
 Slide tabs and outline tabs.

5.2 Using Microsoft PowerPoint Application

1. Make sure Windows 98/200/XP is running on your computer and that the
Windows desktop appears on your screen.
2. Click the Start button on the task bar, point to ‘All programs’ and then point to
Microsoft PowerPoint. (Microsoft Office then to Microsoft PowerPoint 2003 )
3. Click the Microsoft PowerPoint to start PowerPoint and after a short while the
PowerPoint windows opens.
4. If necessary click on the Maximize button so that the PowerPoint window fills
the entire screen.

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Fig 1.1: Picture indicating the steps in starting the power point application.

5.3 The Elements of The PowerPoint Window

The PowerPoint Window has toolbars and panes to help you quickly create
presentations. Most of the toolbars are common in Office applications but may feature
options unique to PowerPoint.

 Title Bar - displays the document name followed by a program name.

 Menu Bar - contains a list of options to manage and customize documents.
 Standard Toolbar - contains shortcut buttons for the most popular commands.
 Formatting Toolbar - contains buttons used for formatting.
 Status Bar - displays slide position and the type of design in PowerPoint.
 Drawing Toolbar - contains tools for drawing lines, shapes and objects.
 Task Pane - located on the right side of the computer screen, this pane allows
you to select tasks in different categories and allows you to quickly enhance
your slides in a few steps. It provides quick access to the most common actions
and features in PowerPoint.
 Outline and Slides Tabbed Pane - allows the user to easily view the
presentation in outline format (text), as well as a list of all the slides in the
presentation (with visuals).
 Help - provides quick access to Help topics.
 The Notes Pane. This pane allows you to add notes to the current slide. These
notes can later be printed with copies of the slides for handouts or for lecture
notes.

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Fig 1.2:
Opened
window of
the
PowerPoin
t
application

 Vie
w
but
ton
s- These buttons allow you to

Change the way you view a slide presentation. The first is the Normal view.
Followed by the slide Sorter view; This changes the view to miniature images of all
the slides at once and let you reorder the slides or set special features for your slide
show. Finally to present your slide show you click on the slide show button (the
third button)

The default view for PowerPoint 2003 is the Tri-Pane View. This view, which opens
when you launch PowerPoint, allows you to see multiple parts of a presentation at once.

5.4 Opening an Existing PowerPoint Presentation

1. Make sure the New Presentation Task Pane appears on the right side of the
PowerPoint window. If no task Pane appears, click View on the menu bar and
then click Task Pane list arrow and then click on New Presentation.

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Fig 1.3: How to activate the Task pane.

2. Under Open a presentation, click More Presentations. The Open dialog box
appears on the screen.
3. Click the Look in list arrow to display the list of drives on your computer and
then select the drive that contains your work.
4. Double-click the presentation folder, select the presentation and click on Open
button to display the presentation.
5. If necessary click on the Normal View button near the lowest lower left
corner of the screen.
6. To view the slide show, click the Slide Show button on the view toolbar
and the slide show begins by filling the entire viewing area of the screen with
the first slide.

Fig 1.4: an arrow showing the Position of Normal View and Slide View buttons.

7. Pressing the Spacebar, moves the current slide show to the next.
8. To save, click the Save button on the standard toolbar. The save dialog
box opens

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9. Click the Save in list arrow and then click the drive that contains your
presentation folder.
10. You can also create a new folder by clicking the Create New Folder button on
the Save As dialog box toolbar.

Fig 1.5: Create New Folder Button.

11. Type the name of the folder and click.

12. Open this folder and click on the OK button to save your presentation.
13. You can click the Close button on the PowerPoint window to exit PowerPoint.

5.5 Creating the Presentation with the Auto content Wizard.

To help you quickly create an effective presentation, powerpoint has a feature called
The Auto Content Wizard. This wizard which will ask you a series of questions about
your task and then help you perform them. The wizard lets you choose a presentation
category and auto matically give you an outline that you follow to complete your task.
To do that
1. Start PowerPoint and then click From AutoContent Wizard on the New
Presentation Task Pane on the right side of the PowerPoint window.(As show
in figure 4.6 A below)

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Fig 1.6: The auto content wizard dialogue box.

2. Read the information in the AutoContent Wizard dialog box and then click the
Next button to display the nest dialog box of the Wizard. This one allows you to
select the type of presentation.
3. Click the Sales/ Marketing button and if necessary on Selling your Product and
services. See diagrams below.

Fig.4.7: Arrow showing the

Sales /Marketing button.

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4. Click the Next button to display the dialog box with the question “What type of
output will you use?”
5. If necessary, click the On-Screen presentation option button to select it and then
click the Next button. In this dialog box you will specify the title and footer of
the presentation.
6. Click the Next button after the entry and the final AutoContent Wizard dialog
box opens letting you to know that you have completed the AutoContent
Wizard.
7. Click the Finish button and PowerPoint displays the AutoContent outline in the
outline tab and the title slide in the slide pane as slide 1.

5.6 Editing Slides

Some times upon a second thought there arises the need to make changes on an
already created slide and this how to go about things…

1. With slide 1 in the slide pane click the Next slide button.
2. Select the title text so that the text box becomes active and any text in it
becomes highlighted. You may now edit by typing in the text box.
3. Within the main text box, select the text of the first bulleted item. This is the
main point in the presentation. To get the next level of importance you press the
tab key on your keyboard.
4. Press the enter key to get to the next line.
5. To insert a new slide, click the New Slide button on the formatting toolbar and
the new slide appears in the slide Pane.

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Fig. 4.8: The New Slide button.

6. You can also increase or decrease the indent using the Increase Indent and
Decrease Indent buttons on the formatting toolbar.

Fig 1.7: Formatting toolbar showing Indent Buttons

5.7 Moving Slides in the Slides Sorter View

The slide sorter View allows you to have an eagle’s eye view of your slides so you can
arrange the slides properly.
1. Click the Slide Sorter View button on the View toolbar. You can now see your
presentation in Slide Sorter View. Move the pointer over a slide and a frame
appears around it.
2. Press and hold down the mouse to drag any slide to a particular position. Notice
that the frames become thicker implying that the slide is selected.
3. You can also delete a particular slide in the Slide Sorter View. Select the slide,
go to edit on the menu bar and click on Delete Slide.
4. To change the slide design, go to Format on the menu toolbar. Go to Slide
Design to view sample designs and select the desired designs.

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Fig 1.7: Slide Sorter View.

5.8 Creating Speaker Notes.

The speaker notes allow you to add notes to the current slide. These notes can later be
printed with copies of the slides for handouts or for lecture notes. Note that Speaker
notes are note displayed when slides are previewed.
1. Go to slide 1. As you can see notes already appear in the Notes Pane just below
the slide pane.
2. Click anywhere in the Notes Pane and press Ctrl+A to select everything then
press delete to delete them.
3. Type the speaker note of that particular slide in this portion.
4. Go to the next slide and repeat the steps in deleting and typing your speaker
notes where applicable.

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Fig 1.8: Arrow showing where to put speaker notes.

5.9 Previewing and Printing the Presentation

1. Make sure the slide appears in the slide pane, click the Colour /Greyscale
button on the standard toolbar, and then click Greyscale to view the slides in
Greyscale.
2. Click Format on the menu bar, click Background to display the background
dialog box, click the Omit background graphics from master check box and then
click the Apply to all button. The slide appears as before but without the
background graphics.
3. Click File on the menu bar and then click Print to open the Print dialog box.
PowerPoint provides several printing options.
4. Click the Print what list arrow, click Handouts, then in the Handout section,
click the Slides per Page list arrow, and then click number you desire. Make sure
the Frame slides check box is selected and the Colour/ Greyscale text box is set
to Greyscale.

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Fig 1.9: Print Dialog Box.

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5.10 Keyboard Shortcuts for Powerpoint Application

Below are some keyboard shortcuts to enable you navigate in the powerpoint
application. Key board shortcuts are combination of two or more keys simultaneously
on the keyboard to activate a command.

Fig 1.10: Ms. PowerPoint shortcuts.

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Assignment 3.4

Make your presentation of this particular section using only the subtitles
of this section. Apply speaker notes for your slides. Also, try printing the
‘black and white’ copy.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 3.4

1. The following are basic presentation application features except

i. Notes pad
ii. Slide sorter view
iii. Slide show
iv. Task pane
2. The window that appears at the right hand side of your presentation
application is called
i. Notes pane
ii. Slide sorter view
iii. Slide show
iv. Task Pane

3. The icon stands for

i. Task pane
ii Notes pane
iii. Slide sorter view
iv. Slide show button

4. Speaker notes help the one making the presentation during the
presentation, True/ False.

5. The stage where we can arrange and rearrange our slide is called?
i. Notes pane
ii. Slide sorter view
iii. Slide show
iv Task pane

6. What is the name of this icon and what is the use.

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7. Why is it beneficial to preview a presentation before printing it ?

8. Explain how to add a slide to a presentation.

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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UNIT 4: MULTIMEDIA IN THE CLASSROOM

Unit Outline

Session 1: What is Multimedia?

Session 2: Multimedia Application
Session 3: Media Elements
Session 4: Educational Software for Basic Schools and JSS
Session 5: Creating Multimedia Applications
Session 6: The Importance of Multimedia Application

You are welcome to unit four of the introduction to using computers

for education.

This unit takes you through some basic multimedia applications; describe various media
components used in multimedia application and finally discuses the educational
applications of the multimedia technology. It is going to be very interesting and I am
sure you will enjoy it.

Unit four will also take us through the different types and uses of multimedia
applications. The unit has been divided into section and each session is further divided
into sub-sessions to make the book easy to read and understand.

Unit Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. define multimedia
2. identify types of media used in multimedia applications
3. describe the different uses of multimedia applications
4. create simple multimedia applications

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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SESSION 1

SESSION 1 WHAT IS MULTIMEDIA?

In this session we shall look at what multimedia is all about and

why it is so importante in education, business and entertainment.
We shall also discuss the educational implications of the multimedia
technology.

Objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) define multimedia
(b) know about interactive multimedia

Now read on…

1.1 What is Multimedia?

Multimedia involves the use of computers to integrate and present information by using
the combination of text, graphics, video, animation and sound. Most multimedia
applications are interactive and hence they allow the user to choose what they want and
define the order for presentation. The user then receives feedback on the action. This is
one of the essential features of multimedia applications.

Interactivity make the student part of the learning adventures and give them the ability
to explore in many visual and interactive ways. This implies the ability to accept input
from the user through the keyboard, voice or a pointing device. Everything we do today
is being changed by interactive multimedia technology. The classroom today is being
revolutionized through effective use of interactive multimedia. Interactivity is the most
unique and importance features of multimedia.

Multimedia software refers to any computer-based presentation or application software

that uses multimedia elements such as text, graphics, video, animation and sound. Such
software engaged students and challenged them thus encouraging them to think
creatively and independently.

In multimedia applications most objects are clickable. Hence any clickable objects such
as text, graphic, animation and video can function just like the links on web pages.

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Figure showing an example of a multimedia interface.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 4.1

1. What is Multimedia?
2. What is meant by interactive multimedia?
3. What are the multimedia elements?
4. What is multimedia software?

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SESSION 2

SESSION 2 MULTIMEDIA APPLICATIONS

In this session we shall look at multimedia application. We will

also learn about the different types of multimedia applications
including computer-based training, electronic books and
references, how-to-guides, electronic newspapers and magazines.
The unit will also cover the use of multimedia in entertainment, virtual reality;
information kiosk and the importance of multimedia on the World Wide Web.

Objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) define multimedia application
(b) describe some examples of multimedia applications
(c) describe the important of multimedia application

Now read on…

2.1 What is Multimedia Application?

A multimedia application involves the use of multimedia technology in education,
business and entertainment. They are used in many situations to enhance student
learning through seeing, reading, hearing and interacting with the course content. They
are also used in computer games and entertainments. A good example of interactive
multimedia application is simulation. Simulation is a computer-based model of real-life
situation. Ideally, is used to replace costly and some hazardous demonstration and
training in the area of chemistry, biology medicine and aviation. The following section
looks at some of the applications.

2.1.1 Computer-Based Training

Computer-based training is a tool for teaching and learning. The student is able to learn
new skills and complete exercises using instructional software. It is also used to train
teachers how to teach students Computer Skills, Maths, English and virtually any
subject. These facilities are available in multimedia form and therefore can be used to
practice games and also for simulation. They are available on CD-ROM, DVD-ROM
and also on the web.

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2.1.2 Electronic Book (e-book)

This is a digital version of the regular books that we buy and use. It is a digital text that
uses links to give access to materials or information in textbooks stored in electronic
form. The user is able to turn the pages of the electronic book by just clicking. Table of
content, glossary and index are all available in the same way as they appear in regular
books. The most modern type of electronic book is called e-book. This uses a small,
book-sized computer that can hold thousands of pages of text and small graphics. E-
book can also be viewed on a small hand-held computer. Electronic reference is another
type of e-book. A good example is the multimedia encyclopedia which uses text,
graphics, sound and animation to explain topics or provide additional information. An
example is Microsoft Encarta, a multimedia encyclopedia.

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2.1.3 How-to Guides

A number of application incorporate facilities that help the individual do a number of
things such acquire new skills, buy or repair etc. These applications are called how-to-
guides. How-to-guides are interactive in nature. They are designed to make users more
productive in virtually any field. They are available on the web, on CD_ROM or DVD-
ROM.

2.1.4 Multimedia Newspapers and Magazines

These are digital versions of newspaper and magazines available either on CD-ROM
and DVD-ROM or on the web. Modern technologies enable the media to create their
own website and store electronic versions of newspapers and magazine creating an
opportunity for people to read online. Electronic publication of this kind uses many
types of media to convey information. Some examples are Daily Graphics, Graphics
Sport, Journals, and Newsletter etc.

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2.1.5 Entertainment and Edutainment

This is the use of multimedia applications and software for entertainment and education.
The combination of graphics, text, sounds and video create a real game situation and
sometime fictitious world for entertainment purposes. In the situation where the
experience is meant to be both educational and entertainment it is called edutainment.

2.1.6 Virtual Reality

This is the use of a computer to create an environment that feels like the real world
situation. The parameters can be manipulated to change the look of a virtual reality

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application like a building, a molecule or an object. The architect sometimes uses

virtual reality software to communicate with clients. The advanced form of virtual
reality software requires the use of specialized headgear, body suit and gloves to
enhance the experience of the artificial environment. Virtual reality games are also
available.

2.1.7 Information Kiosks

An information kiosk is a computer version of an information Center that provides
specific information to users. It is a self-service facility that uses touch screen monitors
or keyboards as input device. They are usually located at public places and contain a lot
of information. Usually Kiosks are located at public places such as Shopping Centers,
hotels, shopping centers, hotels, airports and train stations.

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2.1.8 World Wide Web

The web today contains a lot of multimedia application which make it look very
attractive and interesting to the user. The Internet has become more exciting because of
the multimedia technology that enables the incorporation of graphics, animations, audio
and videos to reinforce text-based content and provide a lot of interesting information.

2.1.9 Web-Based Training

This is a type of computer-based training that uses the web technology. Tit is typically
self-directed learning and the user move at his own pace. It available to individuals at
home or offices and the technology is the most popular for offering training online. The
technology has replaced the computer-based training. Many web users take advantage
of the several training facilities available.

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Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 4.2

1. What is meant by Edutainment?

2. What are Information Kiosks?
3. Differentiate between WBT and CBT?

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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SESSION 3: MEDIA ELEMENTS

In this session we shall look at media elements. These elements play an

important role in multimedia application. We shall discuss each of them.

Objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) list the media elements.
(b) differentiate between Text, Graphics, animation, audio and video
(c) understand the important of compression and MPEG standard

Now read on…

3.1 Media Elements

Media elements are Text, graphics, audio, video and animation. We take these ‘media
elements’ for granted, but their presence or absence make a considerable difference to
what each method can achieve. Text conveys specific meaning and the way they are
read also convey specific meaning. Images can convey meaning more directly that
words and also more easily memorable. Importantly moving images attracts attention
and so on.

3.1.1 Text
Texts are characters used to create words, sentences, and paragraphs. When we speak,
we use words and when we write we use words. Text is used in multimedia applications
to convey information. They are also given different colour, style and font size to
emphasize certain words or phrases. Some multimedia applications used text-based
menus.

3.2 Graphics
These are digital representation of information other than text. For example drawing,
chart, photograph, pictures or image. Some of these contain no movements or
animation.

Graphics can illustrate certain concepts more vividly than text and therefore play an
important role in teaching and learning. Most people retain a higher percentage of
materials they see graphically. Most software applications used today are graphic based.

3.2.1 Animation
An animation is a graphic that has the illusion of motion. They can convey information
more vividly than text. It is achieved by displaying a series of still graphics. They range
from basic graphic with simple motion to a detailed image with complex movements.

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They are used to provide better illustration about how certain devices, equipment,
system and many phenomena work more than text can do. It is used in a variety of ways
to improve the quality and make both educational software and website more
fascinating.

3.3 Audio
Digitized music, speech or sound that is produced by computer is called Audio. It
provides information in a form that is not possible within the computer environment.
Vibrations are hard to convey without sound. The use of audio together with text and
graphics enhances the understanding of concepts. Sounds are captures using
microphones, tape or CD players etc. Audio can be stored as files and used over and
over again. Audio files can be edited and altered to produce an entirely new sound.
They can also be downloaded from the web and stored on CDROM.

3.4 Video

Photographic images that can be played back at speed between 15 to 30 frames per
second to provide a full motion in real time are called Video. In multimedia application,
video are captured, digitized and edited using special video production hardware and
software. The capturing is done using VCR or video cameras. Video files are often very
large and occupy a lot of space. A video compression program is used to reduce the file
while maintaining the quality. This is decompression prior to viewing. A standard has
been defined by the Moving Picture Experts Group for compression and decompression
called MPEG. The standard method reduces picture up to 95%.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 4.3

1. What are media elements?

2. Differentiate between Text, Graphics, animation, audio and video
3. Explain why compression is useful

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MULTIMEDIA IN THE CLASSROOM
SESSION 4

SESSION 4: EDUCATIONAL SOFTWARE FOR BASIC SCHOOL AND JSS

In this session we shall look at the concept of educational software

for schools. The concept of Computer Assisted Instruction and
gaming software are also considered.

Finally the barrier to students with disability is also discussed.

Objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) understand the concept of Computer Assisted Instruction
(CAI)
(b) describe other terms related to CAI such as integrated learning
(c) identify the barriers to students with disabilities and the role play
by technology

Now read on…

4.1 Educational Software for Basic School and JSS?

4.1 1 Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)
Let us consider the concept of computer assisted instruction or instructional software.
Such software addresses many different instructional roles with a specific content focus.
This type of software comes in the form of: presentation, demonstration, tutorial, drill
and practice, simulation, games, etc. Many terms are related to the topic of computer
assisted instruction: computer based instruction; computer managed instruction,
integrated learning systems.

CAI software teaches specific skills and knowledge based on specific content area and
level. This is difference from productivity software that can be used in general to help
students through problem processing at any level and in any content area, such as: word
processors, spreadsheets, databases, audio-video editors, Powerpoint, web browsers etc.

As all of these instructional software categories are frequently mixed together, one of
these categories, gaming, deserves further consideration. Drill and practice assumes that
the skills have previously been presented and that further practice is necessary for
mastery.

Gaming is too often seen as problem by educators, as activity that unless tightly
restricted, is ultimately distracting and even harmful to sound learning practices.
Consequently, software and other titles that clearly indicate a game format or include

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game formats are somewhat suspect and purchase is often avoided. Game software
creates a contest to achieve the high test score and either beat others or beat the
computer or both. Discovery software provides a large database of information specific
to a course or content area and challenges the learner to analyze, compare, infer and
evaluate based on their explorations of the data Educational Simulation software can
provide an approximation of reality that does not require the expense of real life or its
risks.

Tutorial activity includes both the presentation of information and its extension into
different forms of work, including drill and practice, games and simulation.

4.1.2 Integrated Learning

Integrated learning systems are packages of networked hardware and software used for
education. Such systems provide instructional content as well as assessment and
management tools. Conventionally, instruction is organized around specific objectives
and the software embodies a mastery learning approach to instruction. Integrated
learning systems feature programmed instruction for the teacher and the student. Their
purpose is to direct and coach the student through the learning experience. Usually,
integrated learning systems are part of a comprehensive educational system that a
school purchases to integrate within its overall curriculum. The curricular goals for
literacy may include teaching children skills in language-arts mechanics and phonics
instruction. Yet integrated learning systems differ from off-the-shelf, drill-and-practice
programs. In an integrated learning system program, each student studies at his or her
level, because the system places every student at a level appropriate for the instructional
process. In a number of off-the-shelf, drill-and-practice programs, no adaptive testing
occurs, and the student works at whatever "level" of the program he or she chooses.

4.1.3 Application for Students with Disabilities

Students with disabilities meet barriers of all types but in recent times, technology is
helping to lower many of these barriers. By using computing technology for tasks such
as reading and writing documents, communicating with others, and searching for
information on the Internet, students with disabilities are capable of handling a wider
range of activities independently. Still, people with disabilities face a variety of barriers
to computer use. These barriers can be grouped into three functional categories: barriers
to providing computer input, interpreting output, and reading supporting documentation.
Hardware and software tools (known as adaptive or assistive technologies) have been
developed to provide functional alternatives to these standard operations.

Some of the specific products, and approaches to using them, are described below.

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Educational software where the computer provides multisensory experiences,

interaction, positive reinforcement, individualized instruction, and repetition can be
useful in skill building. Some students with learning disabilities who have difficulty
processing written information can also benefit from completing writing assignments,
tutorial lessons, and drill-and-practice work with the aid of computers

4.1.4 Curriculum-Specific Educational Software

These are high quality educational software available on CD and DVD. Such software
are interactive and multimedia covering specific curriculum. There are many different
categories such those for creativity, critical think, languages, mathematics, science and
so on.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 4.4

1. What is the difference between CAI software and productivity

software?
2. Differentiate between game software and discovery software
3. What are some of the barriers people with disabilities face.

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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MULTIMEDIA IN THE CLASSROOM SESSION 5

SESSION 5 CREATING MULTIMEDIA APPLICATION

In this session we shall look at multimedia application and how to

create simple multimedia application. We shall also learn about media
elements and a learn about using graphics.

Objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) how to create multimedia applications
(b) identify the relationship between media elements
(c) learn ways of using graphics and multimedia software

Now read on…

5.1 Creating Multimedia Application

To create multimedia application, there is a need to produce various media element and
define their relationship to each other and then sequence them in the required order.
Multimedia authoring software is available to help do this.

5.1.1 Obtaining Graphics

Digital Camera Scanners

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Graphics are visual presentations for information and illustration purposes. It is a digital
representation of non-textual information such are drawing, chart or photographs but
contains no movement or animation. A graphic is also called an image or picture.
There are many ways of obtaining graphics. Depending on the subject matter, you may
need to develop your own. You can create your own using software for drawing and
painting, using photo cameras and then scanning or using digital cameras and
transferring them unto the computer. Again one can easily obtain graphics from the web
by saving any graphics that you see in your browser on your disk. Obtaining graphics can be
a very time intensive process.

5.1.2 Multimedia and Web Authoring Software

This category of multimedia software is by far the most versatile. It can be used to
create anything from simple slide shows to full-blown games and interactive
applications. There are literally thousands of uses for this type of software: computer-
based training, surveys, quizzes and tests, encyclopedias, games, interactive kiosks,
interactive presentations, screen savers, CD-ROM/DVD content creation, and
advertisements to name a few.

There are facilities for a wide variety of multimedia file formats including images,
video, and sound, but not for clip-art and sound as compared to some of the other
multimedia software programs.

Some products allow you to author in a WYSIWYG environment (what you see is what
you get), while others use a timeline-based environment. Although it's not required for

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all software in this category, much of it involves learning advanced programming and
scripting languages to utilize its full capabilities.

Authoring tools typically require less technical knowledge than programming tools.
Other names are Authoring Software, Authoring Tools, and Author ware. For classroom
presentation, a large monitor or large screen television will be ideal if data projectors or
electronic whiteboard are not available.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 5.5
1. What are graphics?
2. Identify and describe two techniques which can be used in web
authoring

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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SESSION 6

SESSION 6 THE IMPORTANCE OF MULTIMEDIA

In this session we shall look at the important of multimedia

technology and also consider multimedia software and their
advantages.

Objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) highlight the importance of multimedia
(b) know the uses of multimedia software
(c) list the advantages of multimedia software

Now read on…

6.1 The Importance of Multimedia Application

Multimedia technology is an ideal platform to support advanced forms of learning and
training. Active learning, for instance, requires a high degree of interactivity in different
forms - for which multimedia technology provides an infrastructure solution. This
means that once Interactive Multimedia applications for teaching is properly developed
and implemented, could revolutionize education.

Multimedia appeals to a variety of learning styles and therefore all students can learn in
their own way and become active learners thereby increasing retention. Most students
motivated to learn and even to create their own multimedia application.

The advantage of multimedia for users with different learning styles is only part of the
total equation. Multimedia can also assist educators in overcoming linguistic, cultural,
and physical barriers; in addressing different learning levels; in providing the unique
experiences of students; in presenting materials in different formats and from different
perspectives; in providing feedback and decision-making resources; and in tailoring and
customizing information to the needs of individual student.

Again, Multimedia software can be used as productivity tools and an instructional tool.
By using this in the classroom, students also learn how to use this multimedia
effectively. Obviously, there is a much greater need to evaluate multimedia applications
before for contents and appropriateness before being used in the classroom.

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Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 4.6

1. What is the multimedia technology?

2. Identify the advantages of multimedia

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COMMUNICATION AND THE INTERNET

UNIT 5: COMMUNICATION AND THE INTERNET

UNIT OUTLINE

Session 1: What is communication?

Session 2: Networking in School
Session 3: What is the Internet? How the Internet works
Session 4: Connecting to the Internet, Address
Session 5: Services on the Internet
Session 6: Searching Information

You are welcome to unit five of the introduction to using computers

for education.

This unit takes you through communication. The unit explores the use of computers in
communication, networking and the Internet. We shall cover how the Internet work and
the services available on the Internet as well as how to search for information on the
Internet. It is going to be very interesting and I am sure you will enjoy it.
The unit has been divided into section and each session is further divided into sub-
sessions to make the book easy to read and understand.

Unit Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. define communication
2. identify communication network
3. list the most basic communication system setup
4. identify 5 communication channels

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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SESSION 1: WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

In this session we shall look at what communication and communication

network.

We exchange data and information everyday through several means. This

idea of sharing information or data is an essential part of our lives. The unit covers
communication from as related to Computers.

Objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) define Communication
(b) list, identify and describe the basic component of communication
(c) give examples of some of the devices used in communication

Now read on…

1.1 What is a Communication?

The transmission of data and information between two or more computers using a
communication channel such as telephone line is called communication. The ability to
exchange information using modern technologies has changed the way people interact
and carry out business or even learn and socialised. Telecommunication technologies
are heavily used on the Internet and other services provided as the result of the Internet
such as Electronics mail and the World Wide Web.

Communications Networks
A communications network is a collection of computers and other equipment put
together so as to share data, information, hardware and software. The most basic
communications system setup consists of the following equipment:
 One computer to send data.
 Communications devices that send and receive data.
 A communications channel over which data is sent.
 One computer to receive data
 A communication software that manages the transmission

Communications software is a set of programs that manage the transmission of data

between computers. A communication channel is the path through which data is
transmitted from the sending equipment to the receiving equipment. These channels are
the transmission media such as telephone wire, twisted-pair cables, coaxial cables,

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fiber-optic cable, microwave transmission, communications satellites, and wireless

transmissions. A typical communication may use one than one of such media.

Wireless technology is becoming very common as major computer companies are

providing wireless enable devices such wireless keyboard, laptops to be used with a
variety of devices such as smart pagers, a cellular telephones, a handheld computers.

Twisted Pair cables UTP cable with Connectors

Coaxial Cable Fibre Optic Cable

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 5.1

1. What is communication?
2. What is communication network?
3. What are the most basic communication system setup?
4. Identify 5 communication channels

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COMMUNICATION AND THE INTERNET SESSION 2

SESSION 2: NETWORKING IN SCHOOL

In this session we shall look at networking in schools. Even though

many schools are yet to create a network, it is expected that the
situation will improve and soon all schools will have one.

Objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) define networking
(b) what is the advantage of installing a school network?
(c) list the disadvantages of a school network.

Now read on…

2.1 Networking in School

Very few schools in Ghana have their computer laboratories network. In such school, a
Network server connects all of the computers located within the laboratory. A server is
a computer that can store large amounts of data and information including the software
that manages resources on the network and data communication. All users can access
the resources on the network subject to the limitation imposed by the network
administrators. That is to say, the administrator can limit access to specific records and
application.

2.1.1 Network
A LAN connects two or types Networks can be large or small. more computers
together, regardless of whether those computers are in the same room or on the same
floor of a building. This would include networks where the computers are relatively
close together. So

LANs would be within the same office, a single building, or several buildings close
together. Hence we can have a school LAN. Many computer users operate small, local
area networks (LANs) within their own home. A LAN is a Local Area Network.

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A WAN is a Wide Area Network,

which would be all networks too
large to be LANs. There doesn't
seem to be a clear line between the
two designations. A WAN would be
most useful for large companies
with offices or factories in widely
separated areas, like Microsoft,
IBM. A WAN will connect all
schools in the region.
Local Area Network (LAN)

Wide Area Network (WAN)

2.2 Network Devices

Network devices are devices used to connect the various network segments together to
allow for data communication between different systems. Examples of such devices
include hubs, repeaters, routers, and switches

Hubs are used to concentrate a series of computer connections into one location. They
are used with twisted pair wiring systems to interconnect the systems. Hubs can be
passive or active. A passive hub simply splits the incoming signal among all of the ports
in the device. Active hubs retransmit the received signal into the other access ports.

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A hub

Repeaters retransmit the signal on one network segment to another segment with the
same signal strength. This allows for very long networks when the actual maximum
distance associated with a particular transmission medium is not.

Routers are more sophisticated tools for steering data between networks. They use the
information in the network protocol (e.g. IP) packet to determine where the packet is to
be routed. They are capable of collecting and storing information on where to send
packets, based on defined configurations or information that they receive through
routing protocols. Many routers are only capable of two network connections, while
larger scale routers can handle hundreds of connections to different media types.

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A CISCO ROUTER

Switches allow for the connection of multiple networks for a certain length of time.
Two, and only two, networks are connected together for the required time period.
However, today’s switches not only incorporate this functionality, but also include
routing intelligence to enhance their capacity.

3Com Switch 3Com Switch

2.3 Advantages of Installing a School Network

 Speed. Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring files.
Without a network, files are shared by copying them to floppy disks, then
carrying or sending the disks from one computer to another. This method of
transferring files is very time-consuming.

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 Cost. Network versions of many popular software programs are available at

considerable savings when compared to buying individually licensed copies.
Besides monetary savings, sharing a program on a network allows for easier
upgrading of the program. The changes have to be done only once, on the file
server, instead of on all the individual workstations.
 Security. Files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy inhibit,"
so that you do not have to worry about illegal copying of programs. Also,
passwords can be established for specific directories to restrict access to
authorized users.
 Centralized Software Management. One of the greatest benefits of installing a
network at a school is the fact that all of the software can be loaded on one
computer (the file server). This eliminates that need to spend time and energy
installing updates and tracking files on independent computers throughout the
building.
 Resource Sharing. Sharing resources is another area in which a network
exceeds stand-alone computers. Most schools cannot afford enough laser
printers, fax machines, modems, scanners, and CD-ROM players for each
computer. However, if these or similar peripherals are added to a network, they
can be shared by many users.
 Electronic Mail. The presence of a network provides the hardware necessary to
install an email system. E-mail aids in personal and professional communication
for all school personnel, and it facilitates the dissemination of general
information to the entire school staff. Electronic mail on a LAN can enable
students to communicate with teachers and peers at their own school. If the LAN
is connected to the Internet, students can communicate with others throughout
the world.
 Flexible Access. School networks allow students to access their files from
computers throughout the school. Students can begin an assignment in their
classroom, save part of it on a public access area of the network, then go to the
media center after school to finish their work. Students can also work
cooperatively through the network.
 Workgroup Computing. Workgroup software (such as Microsoft BackOffice)
allows many users to work on a document or project concurrently. For example,
educators located at various schools within a county could simultaneously
contribute their ideas about new curriculum standards to the same document and
spreadsheets.

2.3.1 Disadvantages of Installing a School Network

Expensive to Install. Although a network will generally save money over time, the
initial costs of installation can be prohibitive.
Cables, network cards, and software are expensive, and the installation may require
the services of a technician.

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 Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a network requires

considerable time and expertise. Many schools have installed a network, only
to find that they did not budget for the necessary administrative support.
 File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure
than any other computer, when the files server "goes down," the entire
network may come to a halt. When this happens, the entire school may lose
access to necessary programs and files.
 Cables May Break. Some of the configurations are designed to minimize the
inconvenience of a broken cable; with other configurations, one broken cable
can stop the entire network.

2.3.2 Star, Bus and Ring Network

There are a number of ways that computers can be connected together to form a
school network. The pattern of connections depends in part on the distances
involved since that determines what hardware must be used. It also depends on the
degree of stable the network must be. Each device in the network, whether it's a
computer, printer, scanner, or whatever, is called a node.

The star pattern connects everything to one host, which is the computer that handles
the network tasks and holds the data. All communications between computers go
through the host. This configuration is good for businesses that have large amounts
of rapidly changing data, like banks and airline reservation offices.

2.3.3 Networking Topologies

Network topology is the pattern of links connecting pairs of nodes (a node is a
connection point) of a network. It's the shape of a LAN or other communications
system. A given node has one or more links to others, and the links can appear in a
variety of different shapes. The simplest connection is a one-way link between two
devices. A second return link can be added for two-way communication. Modern
communications cables usually include more than one wire in order to facilitate this,
although very simple bus-based networks have two-way communication on a single
wire.
Star, Bus and Ring Network
There are a number of ways that computers can be connected together to form a school
network. The pattern of connections depends in part on the distances involved since
that determines what hardware must be used. It also depends on the degree of stable the
network must be. Each device in the network, whether it's a computer, printer, scanner,
or whatever, is called a node.

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The star pattern connects everything to one host, which is the computer that handles the
network tasks and holds the data. All communications between computers go through
the host. This configuration is good for businesses that have large amounts of rapidly
changing data, like banks and airline reservation offices. The arrangement permits close
control of data. Each computer sees all the data and user sees up-to-date data always. If
a computer other than the host fails, no other computer is affected but if the host
computer or its software goes down, the whole network is down.

Star Topology

Advantages of a Star Topology

 Easy to install and wire.
 No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
 Reliable market proven system
 Security can be implemented in the hub/switch.
 The centre of a star i.e. the hub or switch is best place to find network faults.
 It is easy to adjust and add new computers to a star network without disturbing the
rest of the network.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology
 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
 If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators.

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The bus pattern connects the computer to the same communications line.
Communications goes both directions along the line. All the computers can
communicate with each other without having to go through the server. The main
advantage is that any one computer or device being down does not affect the others. The
main disadvantage is that a large number of computers cannot be connected this way.
It's physically difficult to run the one communications line over a whole building.

Bus Topology

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
 Requires less cable length than a star topology.
 Well suited for temporary networks (quick setup)
 Typically the cheapest topology to implement
 Faster than a ring network.
 If any node on the bus network fails, the bus itself is not affected.
 Cheap
Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology
 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.
 Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run
 Performance degrades as additional computers are added or on heavy traffic
 Low security (all computers on the bus can see all data transmissions)
 One virus in the network will affect all of them (but not as badly as a star or ring
network)
 Proper termination is required.(loop must be in closed path)

The ring pattern connects the computers and other devices one to the other in a circle.
There is no central host computer that holds all the data. Communication flows in one

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direction around the ring. This configuration is good when the processing of data can be
done on the local PC.

Ring networks tend to be inefficient when compared to Star Networks because data
must travel through more points before reaching its destination. For example, if a given
ring network has eight computers on it, to get from computer one to computer four, data
must travel from computer one, through computers two and three, and to its destination
at computer four. It could also go from computer one through eight, seven, six, and five
until reaching four, but this method is slower because it travels through more
computers.

The Ring Topology

Data is quickly transferred without a ‘bottle neck’.
 The transmission of data is relatively simple as packets travel in one direction only.
 Adding additional nodes has very little impact on bandwidth
Disadvantages
 Data packets must pass through every computer between the sender and recipient
Therefore this makes it slower.
 If any of the nodes fail then the ring is broken and data cannot be transmitted
successfully.
 It is difficult to troubleshoot the ring.

The disadvantage is that if host computer or its software goes down, the whole
network is down.

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Star Topology
Advantages of a Star Topology

 Easy to install and wire.

 No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

 If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators.

The bus pattern connects the computer to the same communications line.
Communications goes both directions along the line. All the computers can
communicate with each other without having to go through the server. The main
advantage is that any one computer or device being down does not affect the others. The
main disadvantage is that a large number of computers cannot be connected this way.
It's physically difficult to run the one communications line over a whole building.

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Bus Topology

 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

 Requires less cable length than a star topology. vantages of a Linear Bus
Topology

 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

The ring pattern connects the computers and other devices one to the other in a circle.
There is no central host computer that holds all the data.

Communication flows in one direction around the ring. This configuration is good
Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology when the processing of data can be done on the
local PC.

The Ring Topology

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Self Assessment Questions

Exercise 5.2

1. What is a server?
2. What is advantage the advantage of having a school network?
3. Differentiate between LAN and WAN

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COMMUNICATION AND THE INTERNET SESSION 3

SESSION 3 WHAT IS INTERNET? HOW THE INTERNET

WORKS.

In this session we shall look at what the Internet is and how it works.
The unit also covers the TCP/IP protocol, a very important so far as
the Internet is concern.

Objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) explain the term Internet
(b) explain how the Internet work
(c) define TCP/IP

Now read on…

3.1 What is Internet? How the Internet Works

The Internet is the world largest network. A large number of smaller networks are
linked together to form one big network called the internet. Each of these small network
provides some information on its own that can be shared and all put together we have
enormous amount of information that is available for everyone.

The Internet = Network of Networks The Entire Internet

In general the networks that make up the internet can be classified as a local area
network (LAN), a wide area network (WAN) or even a regional area network (RAN).
The smaller networks that make up the Internet are either public or private network.
They are therefore owned, controlled and managed by their owners. Unlike these
smaller networks, no single organisation or person owns the Internet. The Internet
Society (ISOC) serves as the international organization for global coordination and

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cooperation on the Internet, promoting and maintaining a broad spectrum of activities

focused on the Internet's development, availability, and associated technologies.

Why do people use the Internet? There are several reasons why people access the
Internet. The uses of the Internet are indicated below. In other words people use the
Internet to:
 Find general information about a subject, research educational materials and
learn
 Access information not easily available elsewhere
 Correspond with far away friends, meet friends and have funs (eg games etc)
 Discuss their interests with like-minded people
 Send messages and receive messages from across the Internet
 Read the news, download or watch movies and also download or listen to
music
 Access other computers to exchange files and download software
 Do business and shop for goods and services such as airline reservation,
vacation
 Take online courses for certification

This is made possible through the services such as the World Wide Web, electronic
mail, file transfer protocol, newsgroups, mailing lists and chat rooms.

3.1.1 How the Internet Works

What happens to your data as it is sent to another computer across the Internet? The
Internet works is based on the packet switching technology. As you piece of data
passes through the Internet

 It is broken up into a whole lot of same-sized pieces (called packets).

 A header is added to each packet that explains where it came from, where it
should end up and how it fits in with the rest of the packets.
 Each packet is sent from computer to computer until it finds its way to its
destination. Each computer along the way decides where next to send the
packet. This could depend on things like how busy the other computers are
when the packet was received. The packets may not all take the same route.
 At the destination, the packets are examined. If there are any packets missing
or damaged, a message is sent asking for those packets to be resent. This
continues until all the packets have been received intact.
 The packets are reassembled into their original form.

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3.2 The TCP/IP Protocol

Each computer connected up to the Internet has software called TCP/IP (Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) which is responsible for receiving, sending and
checking packets. TCP/IP is the 'glue' of the Internet. All devices on the network must
follow this protocol for packet switching to work.

The technique of breaking the packets, sending the packets along the best route
available, and reassembling the data is called packet switching. The packets travel along
the fastest route or path available to the recipient’s computer via hardware devices
called routers.

An alternate route or path is used if the most direct path to the destination is overloaded
or not operating.

All communication over the Internet is done through networks and communication lines
owned, operated and maintained by large communication companies called the Internet
Service provider (ISP).

How large file are broken into packets

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Self-Assessment Questions?
Exercise 5.3

1. What is the Internet?

2. Identify 6 uses of the internet
3. How does the Internet work?

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SESSION 4

SESSION 4 CONNECTING TO THE INTERNET

In this session we shall look at how one can connect to the Internet.
There are a number of ways of doing this but time will not allow us
to cover all of them.

Objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) describe how one can connect to the Internet
(b) identify the components needed to connect to the Internet
(c) define factors that affect Internet access

Now read on…

4.1 Connecting to the Internet

How do you connect to the Internet?
There are a variety of ways of doing this. These are via dialup connection, via leased
line or Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), via Radio connection, via VSAT and so on. We
shall concentrate on the dialup connection. Dialup connection allows users to have
Internet access at home and small offices.

There are four main components to getting connected to the Internet:

 A computer – typically Pentium with some basic multimedia facilities
 A modem – usually 56Kbps modem
 Internet Service Provider –
 Software - Microsoft Windows includes Internet Explorer to allow for
connection to the Internet. The ISP will normally handle this.

Factors that affect the Internet access are the speed of the connection and the
bandwidth. 56Kbps modem is faster than 28.8kbps modern when accessing the Internet.
Bandwidth is the amount of data transferred through the network.

There are two types of ISPs the service providers and the content providers. The service
providers are companies that provide Internet access and services. The content
providers provide online services for a fee.

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CONNECTING TO THE INTERNET

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 5.4

1. Identify four (4) ways of connecting to the Internet

2. Name the four (4) main components needed to connect to the Internet
3. State the factors that affect Internet access speed
4. Differentiate between a content provider and a service provider

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COMMUNICATION AND THE INTERNET SESSION 5

SESSION 5: SERVICES ON THE INTERNET

In this session we shall look at some of the services available on

the internet. The possibilities are many and new ones are coming
up.

Objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) know some services on the Internet
(b) know about Internet Conferences
(c) define file transfer protocols and how it works

Now read on…

5.1 Services on the Internet

Email - Alongside the WWW, email is the most popular service that the Internet
provides. It is the electronic version of the normal mail (snail mail), except it takes a
few minutes instead of a few days to be delivered. Email tends to have a more
conversational style than conventional mail, and therefore formalities of letter writing
are lost, and spelling and grammar become less important. E-mail has become a
primary communications method for both personal and business use. E-mails enable
administrators, researchers, businessmen, engineers, doctors, teachers and students to
communicate with millions of Internet users all over the world.

Your Internet Service Provider (ISP) usually creates an account for you on a mail
server. On this mail server is your personal mailbox which is just a storage location
allocated to you for mails. Your mails are stored in this mailbox automatically as they
are received by the ISP. A mail server is therefore a server that contains user mailboxes
and associated e-mail messages.

An e-mail address is a name or combination of a names and a domain name that

identifies the user. Your user name must be unique and it must differ from other user
names located on the same mail server.

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A discussion forum - A discussion forum is a group on the Internet where people

discuss things of common interest such as authors, singers, TV programs, research
interests, software, etc. The two main types of forums are Usenet and Mailing Lists.

Usenet: - (also called Internet News) is a huge network of discussion groups. There are
over 18,000 different 'newsgroups' where people discuss everything imaginable. The
groups are ordered hierarchically - with broad categories such as sci (science), biz
(business), comp (computers), soc (society) and alt (alternate). Once a message has
been posted to a newsgroup, anyone can read it. This makes it a very public discussion
and anyone can join in. Newsgroup sometimes generate a lot of 'noise' - messages that
have little or nothing to do with the subject being discussed. To read newsgroups you
need to have access to a news server. Most ISPs do not provide newsgroups.

A mailing list: - (also called a listserv) is a discussion forum based on email. You don't
have to have any special software to join a mailing list. All the forum discussion will
come straight to your email inbox.

When you subscribe to a mailing list, your email address gets added to a list of the other
subscribers' email addresses. When anyone sends email to the mailing list, that email is
distributed to everyone on the list. Depending on how the mailing list is set up, you
might find that replying to a message automatically means it will be distributed to

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everyone on the mailing list. This can be the cause of embarrassing situations, so be
careful and always check the To: address on your email before you press "send".

Chatting is a synchronous form of communication. You don't have to wait for someone
to reply to you - the conversation is in real-time, just like a normal conversation except
typing on a keyboard instead of spoken words. MSN Messenger is a popular, free chat
program from Microsoft. You can add contacts, and the software will inform you when
your contacts have come online so you can start chatting.

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Voice Chat - The PC can be used like a phone, with real-time voice conversations. All
you need is a microphone and headphones (or speakers) and some free software such as
Skype. The quality is often better than a phone conversation.

Internet Conferencing
Conferencing involves 2 or more people interacting with each other in multiple ways.
These could be video, audio, text chat or virtual whiteboard. A virtual whiteboard is a
window that appears on the screen of each person in the conference. Anyone can type
text or draw pictures into the whiteboard for everyone else to see.

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File Transfer Protocol

FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is the transfer files from computer to computer on the
Internet. It can be use it to transfer a Web page from your computer (where you are
writing it) to a Web server so it can be accessed by the world, or you may use it to
download a file from a public archive. An FTP server is a computer that allows users to
upload and download files using FTP.

In order to transfer a file to or from a computer you usually have to have an account (a
login name and password) on that computer. For instance you may have an account on
your ISP's computer so you can put Web pages on it.

Anonymous FTP means that you can access the files on a computer without having to
have an account on it. You can't transfer files (put files) to the computer, but you can
get files from it. For instance you may want to download a program, picture, song lyric,
or a research paper.

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Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 5.5

1. Define the following: Email, Usenet, Mailing list, Voice chat

2. What is the role of File Transfer protocol on the Internet?
3. Compare email to the normal post mail

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COMMUNICATION AND THE INTERNET SESSION 6

SESSION 6 SEARCHING INFORMATION

In this session we shall look at how to search for information on the

Internet. We all enjoy looking for information on the Internet but how
do we get the information we want. This unit explains the process
involved.

Objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) know how to use the ‘search engine’ on the Internet
(b) learn ways of searching for information on the Internet
(c) learn about multimedia on the web

Now read on…

6.1 Searching Information

It is not easy to search for information on the Web. This can be challenging due to the
large volume of information on the Web. Unlike the library, there is no catalog of Web
site content or even menu. However a number of companies provide search tools and
maintain organized directories of Web sites to help locate specific information. These
search tools are called search engines. Searching is based on one or more keywords
entered by the user. A simple word matches or a more specific search on a series of
word or entire phrase may be used depending on the search engine.

Google Interface List of some search engines

Search engines usually search an index or database of Internet sites to locate files and
documents. It does not search the entire Internet as this may take too long a time. The

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databases are therefore kept up-to-date all the time. Different search engines also scan
different parts of the Internet and therefore produce different result for the same search.

Another technique is to use subject directories. A subject directory is a search tool that
allows users to navigate to areas of interest without having to enter keywords. Using
subject directories is a simple matter of following the links to the specific topic you are
interested in. They are usually organized in categories such as education, sports,
entertainment, or business.

Multimedia on the Web

Most Web pages today, include more than just formatted text and hyperlinks. A number
of most exciting Web developments involve multimedia, which is the combination of
graphics, animation, audio, video and Virtual Memory (VR). The Internet is more
entertaining and exciting because most web pages that incorporate color, sound, motion
and pictures. Web pages which combine text, video, animation and sounds are more
attractive to viewers than those without them. Most browsers have the capability of
displaying basic multimedia elements on a Web page. Other may need an additional
program called a plug-in to extend its capability.

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Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 5.6
1. What is the use of the “search engines” on the Internet?
2. What make web pages more exciting today?

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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COMPUTER SECURITY

UNIT 6: COMPUTER SECURITY

Unit Outline

Session 1: Common Computer Security Risk & Safeguards

Session 2: Viruses, Detection and Removal
Session 3: Unauthorized access and use
Session 4: Hardware Theft & Vandalism, software theft,
Session 5: System Failures and Backup Procedures
Session 6: Information privacy

You are welcome to unit one of the introduction to using computers

for education.

This unit takes you through some of the issues in computer security as listed above. It is
going to be very interesting and I am sure you will enjoy it. Unit one will also take you
through common computer security, risks and safeguards.

The unit has been divided into section and each session is further divided into sub-
sessions to make the book easy to read and understand.

Unit Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. define Computer Security and risk management
2. identify types of Electronic infection and theft
3. identify different ways of making system backups
4. define Information privacy

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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SESSION 1

SESSION 1: COMMON COMPUTER SECURITY, RISK AND

SAFEGUARDS

In this session we talk about computer security, risk and safeguards.

Computers today are an integral part of day to day life. E-mail and
instant messages are heavily used for communications. Our school
administrative processes depend upon computer, record keeping,
and dependable, confidential, and quick access to reliable information. The academic
processes make use of computers for classroom presentations and online research. For
many of us, computers are also used frequently in our private lives. We all have a
vested interest in ensuring that the computing we use continues to operate reliably and
that it preserves the confidentiality and integrity of the information it handles. This
leads us to issue of securing the computing facilities. This is a very interesting topic.

Objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) learn about computer security, risks and safeguards
(b) learn about Information security
(c) define risk management

Now read on…

1.1 Common Computer Security, Risks and Safeguards?

Computer Security is a method of protecting information, computer programs, and other
computer system assets. Hardware security, which is the security of computer assets
and capital equipment, refers to computer location, access control, fire protection, and
storage procedures. Such measures as badges, electronic identification keys, alarm
systems, and physical barriers at entries are used for this purpose. Software security also
entails the protection of software assets such as Application Programs, the Operating
System and the Database Management System. Special user numbers and passwords are
typically used to prevent unauthorized access to software and data. In addition to
security for hardware and software, good internal control also requires that measures be
taken to prevent loss or accidental destruction of data. This involves specifying and
implementing a security policy. In a secure system, the authorized users of that system
are still able to do what they should be able to do.

The threats to the security of your information are varied – from computer hackers to
disgruntled employees to simple carelessness. While protecting computer systems is an
important aspect of information security, it is only part of the process. Here are some

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points to consider – and resources to help – as you design and implement your
information security plan.

Sound security for businesses means regular risk assessment, effective coordination and
oversight, and prompt response to new developments. Basic steps in information
security planning include:

 identifying internal and external risks to the security, confidentiality and

integrity of your customers’ personal information;

 designing and implementing safeguards to control the risks;

 periodically monitoring and testing the safeguards to be sure they are working
effectively;

 adjusting your security plan according to the results of testing, changes in

operations or other circumstances that might impact information security; and

 overseeing the information handling practices of service providers and business

partners who have access to the personal information. If you give another
organization access to your records or computer network, you should make sure
they have good security programs too.

When setting up a security program, your business should consider all the relevant areas
of its operations, including employee management and training; information systems,
including network and software design, and information processing, storage,
transmission and disposal, and contingencies, including preventing, detecting and
responding to a system failure. Although the security planning process is universal,
there’s no “one size fits all” security plan. Every business faces its own special risks.
The administrative, technical, and physical safeguards that are appropriate really depend
on the size and complexity of the business, the nature and scope of the business and the
sensitivity of the consumer information it keeps.

Risks are the possibility of suffering harm or loss. It is a factor, thing, element, or
course involving uncertain danger.

Risk management can be defined as the culture, processes, and structures that are
directed towards the effective management of potential opportunities and adverse
effects. This is a broad definition that can quite rightly apply in nearly all fields of
management from financial and human resources management through to
environmental management. However in the context of contaminated sites, risk
management can be taken to mean the process of gathering information to make

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informed decisions to minimise the risk of adverse effects to people and the
environment.

Risk assessment involves estimating the level of risk – estimating the probability of an
event occurring and the magnitude of effects if the event does occur. Essentially risk
assessment lies at the heart of risk management, because it assists in providing the
information required to respond to a potential risk.

Self-Assessment Questions

Exercise 6.1

1. Define hardware security and software security

2. What are the basic steps in information security planning?
3. Differentiate between risk assessment and risk management

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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COMPUTER SECURITY SESSION 2

SESSION 2 VIRUSES, DETECTION AND REMOVAL

In this session we shall look at the issue of computer viruses, how we

can detect them and how we can remove them.

Objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) define electronic infections
(b) learn about protection from electronic infections

Now read on…

2.1 Viruses, Detection and Removal

Computer viruses tend to grab our attention. On the one hand, viruses show us how
vulnerable we are. A properly engineered virus can have an amazing effect on the
worldwide Internet. On the other hand, they show how sophisticated and interconnected
human beings have become.

When you listen to the news, you hear about many different forms of electronic
infection. The most common are:
 Viruses - A virus is a small piece of software that piggybacks on real programs.
For example, a virus might attach itself to a program such as a spreadsheet
program. Each time the spreadsheet program runs, the virus runs, too, and it has
the chance to reproduce (by attaching to other programs) or wreak havoc.
 E-mail viruses - e-mail virus moves around in e-mail messages, and usually
replicates itself by automatically mailing itself to dozens of people in the
victim's e-mail address book.
 Worms - A worm is a small piece of software that uses computer network and
security holes to replicate itself. A copy of the worm scans the network for
another machine that has a specific security hole. It copies itself to the new
machine using the security hole, and then starts replicating from there, as well.
Worms use up computer time and network bandwidth when they are replicating.
Experts predicted that this worm could clog the Internet so effectively that
things would completely grind to a halt.
 Trojan horses - A Trojan horse is simply a computer program. The program
claims to do one thing (it may claim to be a game) but instead does damage
when you run it (it may erase your hard disk). Trojan horses have no way to
replicate automatically.

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To detect a virus antivirus software is required. Antivirus programs can be used in

many ways. These are:

 Preventing a virus-laden file from being down loaded from a network

 Preventing the virus program being inserting it self in your system
 Detecting a virus program so you can take emergency action
 Controlling the damage virus programs can do once they have been detected

The anti-virus program can be made to run when the system is booted. Another can scan
floppy disks for viruses, and a third program cleans the infected disks.

You can protect yourself against viruses with a few simple steps:

 If you are truly worried about traditional (as opposed to e-mail) viruses, you
should be running a more secure operating system like UNIX. You never hear
about viruses on these operating systems because the security features keep
viruses (and unwanted human visitors) away from your hard disk.
 If you are using an unsecured operating system, then buying virus protection
software is a nice safeguard.
 If you simply avoid programs from unknown sources (like the Internet), and
instead stick with commercial software purchased on CDs, you eliminate almost
all of the risk from traditional viruses. In addition, you should disable floppy
disk booting -- most computers now allow you to do this, and that will
eliminate the risk of a boot sector virus coming in from a floppy disk
accidentally left in the drive.
 You should make sure that Macro Virus Protection is enabled in all Microsoft
applications, and you should NEVER run macros in a document unless you
know what they do. There is seldom a good reason to add macros to a document,
so avoiding all macros is a great policy.
 You should never double-click on an attachment that contains an executable
that arrives as an e-mail attachment. Attachments that come in as Word files
(.DOC), spreadsheets (.XLS), images (.GIF and .JPG), etc., are data files and
they can do no damage (noting the macro virus problem in Word and Excel
documents mentioned above). A file with an extension like EXE, COM or VBS
is an executable, and an executable can do any sort of damage it wants.

Once you run it, you have given it permission to do anything on your machine. The only
defense is to never run executables that arrive via e-mail.

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Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 6.2

1. Define the following: Trojan horses, worms and email viruses

2. Name 4 simple steps for protection against viruses

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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COMPUTER SECURITY SESSION 3

SESSION 3 UNAUTHORIZED ACCESS AND USE

In this session we shall look at unauthorized access and use. The

unit discusses the issue of unauthorized access and use and how this
can be prevented through the use of password and firewall.

Objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) understand the issue of unauthorized access and use
(b) differentiate between good and bad password
(c) learn about firewall as a way of preventing access

Now read on…

3.1 Unauthorized Access and Use

This is the use of computer or network without permission. That is an unauthorized
attempt is made to access and use the system. This illegal access to such facilities is
called hacking. The hacker or cracker breaks into the computer logging into the system
as users. Some have no intention of causing harm but rather they wish to gain access to
information, data or programs. As soon as they get them, they log off.

Unauthorized access is therefore the use of computer or network without permission.

Unauthorized use is the use of computer or data for unapproved or illegal activities. For
example using your organization’s PC to send personal email or gaining access to a
sensitive data.

Security measures such as access controls which defines who access a computer, when
they can access it and what actions are allowed is one way of preventing unauthorized
access. Different levels and types of access controls (user ID and password) can be
implemented to prevent unauthorized access and use. In this case users have access only
facilities they are allowed to access. The user may be requested to select a user ID and
password at the time of setup.

3.2 Good and bad Password

Password which are to obvious or too easy to guess are bad. For example, initials,
birthdays, dictionary word. This means that if the password is not too obvious or easy to
guess then it is good. The more creative you password, the harder it is for someone to
guess. This does not give the user a complete protection since carelessness can result in
other people knowing the password. The following guidelines will help:
 Keep your password in a very secure place

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 Use a password that is easy to remember

 Change your password frequently
 Do not share your password

Also some guidelines for creating a good password:

 Use a combination of letters, digits, words, initial and dates
 Make password at least 8 characters
 Add one or more numbers at the beginning, middle or end of a word
 Choose word from other languages
 Choose a password you can easily remember

3.3 Firewall
A Firewall is a security system, consisting of hardware and/or software that prevents
unauthorized access to data and information usually on the network. It is designed to
prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network. Firewalls can be implemented
in both hardware and software, or a combination of both. Most frequently, Firewalls
are used to prevent unauthorized Internet users from accessing private networks
connected to the Internet, especially intranets. All messages entering or leaving the
intranet pass through the firewall, which examines each message and blocks those that
do not meet the specified security criteria. It is considered a first line of defense for
protecting privacy.

There are several types of firewall techniques:

 Packet filter: Looks at each packet entering or leaving the network and
accepts or rejects it based on user-defined rules. It is fairly effective and
transparent to users, but it is difficult to configure. In addition, it is susceptible
to IP spoofing.
 Application gateway: Applies security mechanisms to specific applications,
such as FTP and Telnet servers. It is very effective, but can result in
performance degradation.
 Circuit-level gateway: Applies security mechanisms when a TCP or UDP
connection is established. Packets can flow between the hosts without further
checking once the connection has been made.
 Proxy server: Intercepts all messages entering and leaving the network. The
proxy server effectively hides the true network addresses.

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COMPUTER SECURITY SESSION 3

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 6.3

1. What is the difference between unauthorized use and unauthorized access?

2. What are firewalls?

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SESSION 3

This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

 issues that are not clear, and
 difficult topics, if any.

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COMPUTER SECURITY SESSION 4

SESSION 4 HARDWARE THEFT, VANDALISM, SOFTWARE

THEFT, INFORMATION THEFT

In this session we shall look at issue of hardware and software theft,

vandalism, and information theft. We shall also learn about how to
avoid thefts.

Objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) learn about the different types of thefts
(b) learn how to avoid thefts
(c) define computer vandalism

Now read on…

4.1 Hardware Theft, Vandalism, Software Theft,

Information Theft
Hardware theft is stealing the computer hardware. Notebooks are a big theft problem
Computers, especially laptops, are stolen every day. And stolen computers are often
loaded with company proprietary data, possibly even access to company networks and
employee information. What to do is to lock the door, alarm or cables with lock.

Hardware Theft Protections

Hardware anti-theft solutions are one of the most effective. They include biometric
systems like voice or fingerprint recognition, smart card user identification and
authorization, USB keys and similar. Although it would not protect your laptop from
being stolen, it would successfully prevent thieves from accessing your data or even
booting your laptop.

Biometric Systems
Some laptop manufacturers offer laptops with biometric systems build-in. These are
however top shelf models and you would not find such feature in cheap refurbished
laptops. However, there are some solutions, which allow you to add biometric
fingerprint system to your laptop. They usually work as USB or PC Card hardware.
Because of this, they have to function with operating system. This makes bypassing
them quite easy. Combining them with data encryption makes them very effective.

USB Keys
You don't leave your car or house unlocked. So why not also lock your laptop with USB
key? They are small and easy-carrying so you can keep them for example together with

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SESSION 4 SOFTWARE THEFT, INFORMATIONTHEFT

your car keys. All of them have also at least 128MB of memory, which you can use to
store sensitive data. But their main usage is making thief unable to run your laptop
without USB key device. They are relatively cheap and good anti-theft solutions.

Software theft is the unauthorised duplication and/or use of computer software. This
usually means unauthorised copying, either by individuals for use by themselves or
their friends or, less commonly, by companies who then sell the illegal copies to users.
Many kinds of software protection have been invented to try to reduce software theft
but, with sufficient effort it is always possible to bypass or "crack" the protection, and
software protection is often annoying for legitimate users.

It is illegal to:
Copy or distribute software or its documentation without the permission or licence of
the copyright owner.
Run purchased software on two or more computers simultaneously unless the licence
specifically allows it.
Knowingly or unknowingly allow, encourage or pressure employees to make or use
illegal copies sources within the organisation.

 Infringe laws against unauthorised software copying because a superior,

colleague or friend compels or requests it.
 Loan software in order that a copy be made of it.

When software is upgraded it is generally the case that the licence accompanying the
new version revokes the old version. This means that it is illegal to run both the old and
new versions as only the new version is licensed.

Both individuals and companies may be convicted of piracy offences. Officers of a

company are also liable to conviction if the offences were carried out by the company
with their consent. Some people mistakenly think that, because it is so easy to make
illegal copies of software, that it is less wrong than, say, stealing it from a shop. In fact,
both actions deprive software producers of the income they need to continue their
business and develop their products.

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COMPUTER SECURITY SESSION 4

SECURITY LOCK SECURITY LOCK

Computer Vandalism is the act of damaging, altering, or destroying a computer,

computer peripherals, computer software, or computer service. That is no person shall
purposely, knowingly, or recklessly cause injury, harm, disablement, or damage to any
data, computer programs, or supporting documentation existing internal or external to a
computer, computer system, or computer network by:
 causing a computer, computer system, or computer network to malfunction for
any period of time; or
 temporarily or permanently removing, halting, or otherwise disabling any
computer data, computer programs, or computer software from a computer,
computer system, or computer network..
Viruses are the number-one method of computer vandalism.

Information theft
A person is guilty of the offense of computer information theft when he/she purposely
or knowingly and without authorization:
(1) Directly or indirectly accesses, or causes to be accessed, any computer, computer
system, computer network, or any of its parts and causes information to be;
 Copied for his/her own use, for his/her own benefit, or for the benefit of another,
whether the benefit is known or unknown; or
 Deleted from any computer, computer system, computer network or any of its
parts and taken for his/her own use, for his/her own benefit or for the benefit of
another, whether such benefit is known or unknown.
(2) Directly or indirectly causes information intended to be sent or received by another,
to be diverted for his/her own use, for his/her own benefit, or for the known benefit or
use of another, either by;
 Copying the information, or
 Denying the intended recipient of receiving the information.
(3) Uses information, which he/she knows, or should reasonably know, is stolen
information, for his/her own use, for his/her own benefit, or for the benefit of another.

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(4) Disseminates information, which he/she knows, or reasonably should know, is

stolen information.
(5) Deprives the owner of computer information, by deleting the information from any
computer, computer system, computer network or any of its parts.

To avoid information theft:

1. leave sensitive items secure at home or in the office.
2. if you must have sensitive information, never leave it unattended.
3. monitor who is around and ask questions. This help to protect your
information.
4. make a note of any strange activity and report it immediately to the event
management.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 6.4

1. How would you protect your system from hardware theft?

2. Describe four (4) offences that constitute information theft
3. Define computer vandalism

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 UNIT 6
COMPUTER SECURITY SESSION 5

SESSION 5: SYSTEM FAILURE AND BACKUP PROCEDURES

In this session we shall look at the effect of system failure on the

entire organization. We shall also look at the backup and how they
can be used to recover from failures.

Objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) identify the effect of system failure
(b) know the importance of backup procedures

Now read on…

5.1 System Failures and Backup Procedures

Computers have become a critical tool for accomplishing our ever increasing
workloads. When computer systems fail, it hurts our entire organization... from the
employee who may be frustrated and unable to complete their daily tasks, to the
manager who is ultimately responsible for the quality, timeliness, and volume of work
accomplished. Each one of us can ensure our systems function properly.

Performing regular backups should be considered one of a responsible system

administrator's top priorities. Although some systems are extremely reliable, failures
can, do, and probably will occur. They may be caused by hardware failure, power
outages, or other unforeseen problems. More likely will be those problems caused by
human error, resulting in undesired changes to, or even deletions of, crucial files. If you
are hosting users on your system, you will most certainly be requested to restore an
inadvertently deleted file or two.

If you perform regular backups, preferably on a daily basis (at least for user files which
are updated often), you will hopefully reduce the possibility of, and increase your
recovery from, such file loss.

The safest method of doing backups is to record them on separate media, such as tape,
removable drive, writeable CD, etc., and then store your backup sets in a location
separate from your system.

Unarguably, one thing that is more important than performing regular backups is having
them available when the time comes to recover an important file! The procedures for
performing a restore will differ depending on your choice of a backup solution.

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SESSION 5

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 6.5

1. What are the effects of system failure?

2. What is the primary effect of making backups?

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COMPUTER SECURITY SESSION 6

SESSION 6: INFORMATION PRIVACY

In this session we shall look at Information Privacy and identify how

it relates to security.

In the electronic age, raw data has become a valuable commodity—and the protection
of personal information has become increasingly important to our sense of privacy. This
section explains how new technologies have created challenges for the protection of
personal information, and provides an overview of the ways in which it affects privacy.
Privacy is a fundamental human right and a cornerstone of a democratic society. It lies
at the foundation of the rule of law, the secret ballot, doctor-patient confidentiality,
lawyer-client privilege, the notion of private property, and the value our society places
on the autonomy of the individual. This section provides information about the subject.

Objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) define information Privacy
(b) identify how information privacy is related to security
(c) learn about electronic tracking devices

Now read on…

6.1 Information Privacy

Privacy is the ability of an individual or group to keep their lives and personal affairs
out of public view, or to control the flow of information about them. Privacy is
sometimes related to anonymity although it is often most highly valued by people who
are publicly known. Privacy can be seen as an aspect of security, one in which trade-
offs between the interests of one group and another can become particularly clear.
Almost all countries have laws which in some way limit privacy. In some countries
individual privacy may conflict with freedom of speech laws and some laws may
require public disclosure of information which would be considered private in other
countries and cultures. Privacy may be voluntarily sacrificed, normally in exchange for
perceived benefits, but often with little benefit and very often with specific dangers and
losses.

Information privacy is also defined as "the right of individuals, groups and institutions
to determine for themselves, when, how and to what extent information about them is
communicated to others."

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SESSION 6

6.2 The New Information and Communication Technology

With the development of new information and communication technologies, the ability
of the state and the private sector to collect, record and "mine" personal information has
grown exponentially. The traffic in human information now is enormous. There is almost
nothing the commercial and governmental world is not anxious to find out about us as
individuals.

A lot of people are unaware that when they go online, we leave an electronic record of
our movements—and we can unconsciously provide personal information to people and
organizations that track such data.

Information about online surfing habits, preferences and purchases is a valuable

commodity for companies that conduct business on the Internet. Communication
technologies allow personal information to be compiled from several sources, to reveal
patterns in online behaviour. The collected information can be sold or traded to third
parties such as government departments, law-enforcement agencies or businesses.

Electronic tracking devices such as cookies, Web bugs and "spyware" are common
means of tracking our online behaviour. These devices collect information such as ISP
addresses, Web sites visited, purchases made, and emails sent.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 6.6

1. Define Information privacy

2. How is information privacy related to security?

352 CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Basic Education