Subject code : AVT 1103

TEST EQUIPMENT

PREPARED BY: VINOYA, MT

MIDTERM
LEARNING MODULE 01

1
 COURSE
LEARNING
OUTCOME
CLO 2 Describes the function MODULE
of A volt-ohm-Milli-Ammeter
,state its parameters & the LEARNING
functionalities as well as the OUTCOME
Digital multimeter
MLO 1: Recognizes the
CLO 8 Express and facilitate
Digital Multimeter as the
the different Test Equipment
development of Tester with
such as Digital Multimeter,
its function and advantages
signal generator, frequency
meter , cable tester ,ammeter,
voltage and capacitance
MLO 2:Define and observe TOPIC LEARNING
meter and their usage
the signal generator of its OUTCOME
working princple
TLO 5: Define and
describe the Digital
multimeter

TLO 6: Recite and label

the parts of a Digital
Multimeter and the
accuracy of the Digital
Multimeter and its
fundamental operation

TLO 7: Identify Signal

Generator, enumerate
the types of signal
generator and describe
how it operates

2
 TABLE OF CONTENT
Course Mapping-------------------------------------------------------
-----
Learning Outcomes-----------------------------------------------------
----
Table of Contents------------------------------------------------------
----
Academic Honesty Statement--------------------------------------------
-

TOPICS Page Time

Allotment
Digital multimeter 6-9 15 mins
Steps when using the DMM 9-10 10 mins
Overall Accuracy 10-11 10 mins
How DMMwork?-Fundamental 11-12 10 mins
Measurement Time 13-14 10 mins
Voltage Measurement 15-17 15 mins
Formative Assessment 01 60 mins
Signal generator 17-18 15.2mins
Function generator capabilities 19-22 15 mins
Types of function Generator 23-25 15 mins
Main function of Generator Specification 25-34 10 mins
Key points 35
Summary 35
Formative Assessment 02 37 51 mins
Laboratory Activity 38
Rubric for Video Presentation/video clip 39
assignment

3
 ACADEMIC HONESTY STATEMENT
Plagiarism is the use or close imitation of the language and thoughts of another
author and the representation of them as one’s original work. (1995 Random
House Compact Unabridged Dictionary)

In the academe, it is an adaption or reproduction of an original intellectual creation,

be it concepts, ideas, methods, pieces of information or expressions of another
author, whether individual, group, or organization without proper acknowledgment.
Moreover, plagiarism can range from borrowing a particular phrase or sentence to
paraphrasing someone else’s original idea without citing it. The most common
form of plagiarism, especially nowadays, is copying and pasting online material
without crediting the source.

Every student must practice Academic Honesty. Academic misconduct is subject

to an academic penalty by the instructor and/or disciplinary sanction by the
College.

I _____________________________ fully understood the definition and

description of plagiarism stated above and I am familiar with the Student Conduct
Code. I am aware that I shall be penalized if plagiarism is found evident on my
output which includes, gaining a failing grade.

As a college student and a member of scholarly community, I shall value other

people’s ideas. Thus, I pledged to commit to the following truthful statements:

1. I shall not submit other people’s work and present them as my own.
2. I will not take any passages from their own previous work without adding
citations.
3. I will not rewrite someone else’s work without properly citing sources.
4. I shall not use quotations without citing the source.
5. I will not interweave various sources together in my work, without citing.
6. I will not rely too heavily on other people’s work.
7. I shall bring original thought into my own work.
8. I will not disclose any exams/questionnaires/activities after I have taken
them.
9. I will not copy any material from another student and submit it as my own.
10. I shall not share my own completed output to another class/student

________________________
(Signature over Printed Name)
4
 DIGITAL MULTIMETER

When using a digital multimeter, it helps to have an

understanding of how the test instrument works. In this way the best
use can be made of it - understanding how the DMM works, enables
the best settings to be selected, etc.

In view of the digital technology used rather than analogue dials,

the DMM works in a very different way to the older analogue
multimeters. The DMM uses analogue to digital converter technology
and also they are able to provide many more measurement
capabilities because adding extra measurements into the basic IC
does not add significantly to the cost.

The basic measurements made by any multimeter are amps,

volts and ohms (resistance) and many digital multimeters provide a
host of other measurements including capacitance, transistor hfe,
continuity buzzer, temperature, etc dependent upon the particular test
instrument

Safety

Each application with a digital multimeter presents potential safety

hazards that must be considered when taking electrical
measurements. Before using any electrical test equipment, people
should always first refer to the user's manual for proper operating
procedures, safety precautions, and limit
5
Typical DMM controls and connections
The interfaces on the front of a digital multimeter are normally very
straightforward. The basic digital multimeter will typically have a
switch, display, and the connections for the test probes.

The main connection on a typical digital multimeter are given in the

image and description below, but obviously the exact layout and
capabilities will be dependent upon the particular test instrument in
use.

Digital multimeter showing the controls & connections

1. Display

The display on a DMM is normally easy to see and read. Most

have four digits, the first of which can often only be either a 0 or 1,
and there will normally be a + / - indication as well. There may also
be a few other smaller indicators such as AC / DC etc dependent
upon the model of DMM

2. Main connections

There will be some main connections for the probes to connect

to. Although only two are needed at any one time, there may be
three or four.

Typically these may be:

1. Common - for use with all measurements and this will take
the negative or black lead and probe

2. Volts, ohms, frequency - this connection is used for most

measurements and will take the positive or red lead and probe.

3. Amps and milliamps - this connection is used for the current

measurements and will again take the red lead and probe.

4. High current - there is often a separate connection for high

current measurements. Care must be taken to use this rather than
the low current connection if high levels of current are anticipated
6
 These are typical connections for a multimeter and each
model of multimeter may have its own requirements and connections.

3. Main switch

There will usually be a single main rotary switch to select the type
of measurement to be made and the range that is needed.

4. Additional connections

There may be additional connections for other measurements

such as temperature where a thermocouple will need its own
connections. Some meters are also able to measure the gain of
transistors, and these will require separate connections on the
meter.

5. Additional buttons and switches

There will be a few additional buttons and switches. The main

one will obviously be the on/off button. Other functions including
items such as peak hold may also be available

Broadly speaking, multimeters fall into one of a handful of categories:

• General purpose (aka Testers)

• Standard

• Advanced

• Compact

• Wireles

How to use a digital multimeter

The operation of a DMM itself is normally very straightforward. With a

knowledge of how to make voltage, current and resistance
measurements it is then a matter of putting the multimeter to use.

DMM OVERALL ACCURACY

7
There are a number of elements that contribute to what may loosely
be termed accuracy. Two of the major constituents are the resolution
and the actual accuracy of the measurement system

1. Resolution

The resolution of a DMM is often specified in the number of

digits.

2. Accuracy

The accuracy of the meter is different to the display resolution.

This represents the uncertainty of the reading due to inaccuracies in
the DMM.

Although the accuracy of a digital multimeter will be much greater than

that of a analogue multimeter, it helps to understand the difference
between the accuracy and resolution.

It is also necessary to understand the difference between them to

understand the overall accuracy of any measurements that are made.

How a DMM works - fundamentals

When looking at how a digital multimeter works, it is necessary to
understand the core technologies that are generally usedFor the DMM,
one of the key processes involved in this is that of the analogue to
digital conversion.

There are many forms of analogue to digital converter, ADC.

However the one that is most widely used in digital multimeters,
DMMs is known as the successive approximation register or SAR.

Typically for DMMs resolution levels of 16 bits are generally

used, with speeds of 100k samples per second. These levels of speed
are more than adequate for most DMM applications, where high levels
of speed are not normally required. Typically for most bench or
general test instruments, measurements only need to be taken at a
maximum rate of a few a second, possible ten a second.

Although the analogue to digital converter forms the key element

within the test instrument, in order to fully understand how a digital
multimeter works, it is necessary to look at some of the other functions
8
around the analogue to digital converter, ADC.

Although the ADC will take very many samples the overall digital
multimeter will not display or return every sample taken. Instead the
samples are buffered and 'averaged' to achieve high accuracy and
resolution.

Buffering and 'averaging' will overcome the effects of small

variations such as noise, etc., noise created by the analogue first
stages of the DMM being an important factor that needs to be
overcome to achieve the highest accuracy.

To measure resistance requires a slightly different approach,

often measuring the voltage across the resistor via a known resistance
from a stabilised voltage in the meter.

One of the other elements of the digital multimeter is the display.

Rather than using an analogue panel meter, digital multimeters use a
numeric display.

Typically the displays are relatively large and it is possible to see

all t he digits quite easily. In the dark the digits may be more difficult to
see, but some DMMs have backlights to provide additional light for
these circumstances.

MEASUREMENT TIME

One of the key areas of understanding how a digital multimeter

works is related to the measurement time. Apart from the basic
measurement there are a number of other functions that are required
and these all take a little time. Accordingly the measurement time of a
digital multimeter, DMM, may not always to be appear straightforward.

The overall measurement time for a DMM is made up from

several phases where different activities occur:

• SWITCH TIME

The switch time is the time required for the instrument to settle
after the input has been switched..

• SETTLING TIME:

9
 Once the value to be measured has been applied to the input, a
certain time will be required for it to settle. This will overcome any
input capacitance levels when high impedance tests are made, or
generally for the circuit and instrument to settle.

• SIGNAL MEASUREMENT TIME

This is the basic time required to make the measurement itself.

• AUTO-ZERO TIME:

Some digital meters, typically the higher end DMMs have a

capability known as auto-ranging.

• ADC CALIBRATION TIME:

In some DMMs a calibration is periodically performedThe

concept of the way the digital multimeter works is relatively
straightforward, but it can be understood that measuring varying
waveforms or intermittent voltages can give unusual results. .

VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT

Voltage is one of the easiest and most common measurements

to make using an analogue multimeter or a digital multimeter, DMM.

How to make a voltage measurement - the basics

Voltage measurements look at the potential difference between
two points. In other words they look at the difference in electric
pressure at the two points. In most cases the voltage is measured
between a particular point and the ground or zero volt line on a circuit.
However this does not mean that the voltage cannot be measured
between any two points.

10
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 01 :ONLINE QUIZ THROUGH GOOGLE FORMS ON
THETOPIC ON Digital Mutimeter

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Laboratory Activity:

Search A video presentation on how the Digital Multimeter works.

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_________________________________________________________
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13
RUBRIC FOR VIDEO PRESENTATION (assign)

criteria
4 3 2 1
Excellent Very Satisfactory Fair/ needs
Satisfactory Improveme
nt
Video The choice The choice The choice The choice
selection of Video is of Video is of video is of video is
very less likely not really not
informative informative informative informative
at all
Video Quality of the Quality of The quality Quality of
Quality video is good video is of the video video is
and clear good and yet is poor
sometimes somewhat
poor quality 70 % not
good
Audio Quality of the Quality of the Quality of the Quality of the
Quality audio is audio is audio is audio both is
arrange loud arrange low less loud and
arrange loud
and quite clear key and unclear
and clear unclear
content Content Content display Content Content
display display is is Very display display is not
Satisfactory Satisfactory fair enough
excellent
Timeliness Send/submit Send/submitte Send/submitt Send/submitt
ted the video d the video on ed the video ed the video 1
the following after 3 days week or more
on deadline
day
date
Effort

14
REFERENCES

Understand how DMM works?

https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/test-
methods/meters/how-a-dmm-digital-multimeter-works.php

How to measure voltage in a Multimeter

https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/test-
methods/meters/multimeter-voltage-measurement.php

Function Generator

https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/test-methods/signal-
generators/function-generator.php

15
16
 Subject code : AVT 1103
TEST EQUIPMENT

PREPARED BY: VINOYA, MT

MIDTERM
LEARNING MODULE 01

1
 COURSE
LEARNING
OUTCOME
CLO 2 Describes the function MODULE
of A volt-ohm-Milli-Ammeter
,state its parameters & the LEARNING
functionalities as well as the OUTCOME
Digital multimeter
MLO 1: Recognizes the
CLO 8 Express and facilitate
Digital Multimeter as the
the different Test Equipment
development of Tester with
such as Digital Multimeter,
its function and advantages
signal generator, frequency
meter , cable tester ,ammeter,
voltage and capacitance
MLO 2:Define and observe TOPIC LEARNING
meter and their usage
the signal generator of its OUTCOME
working princple
TLO 5: Define and
describe the Digital
multimeter

TLO 6: Recite and label

the parts of a Digital
Multimeter and the
accuracy of the Digital
Multimeter and its
fundamental operation

TLO 7: Identify Signal

Generator, enumerate
the types of signal
generator and describe
how it operates

2
 TABLE OF CONTENT
Course Mapping-------------------------------------------------------
-----
Learning Outcomes-----------------------------------------------------
----
Table of Contents------------------------------------------------------
----
Academic Honesty Statement--------------------------------------------
-

TOPICS Page Time

Allotment
Digital multimeter 6-9 15 mins
Steps when using the DMM 9-10 10 mins
Overall Accuracy 10-11 10 mins
How DMMwork?-Fundamental 11-12 10 mins
Measurement Time 13-14 10 mins
Voltage Measurement 15-17 15 mins
Formative Assessment 01 60 mins
Signal generator 17-18 15.2mins
Function generator capabilities 19-22 15 mins
Types of function Generator 23-25 15 mins
Main function of Generator Specification 25-34 10 mins
Key points 35
Summary 35
Formative Assessment 02 37 51 mins
Laboratory Activity 38
Rubric for Video Presentation/video clip 39
assignment

3
 ACADEMIC HONESTY STATEMENT
Plagiarism is the use or close imitation of the language and thoughts of another
author and the representation of them as one’s original work. (1995 Random
House Compact Unabridged Dictionary)

In the academe, it is an adaption or reproduction of an original intellectual creation,

be it concepts, ideas, methods, pieces of information or expressions of another
author, whether individual, group, or organization without proper acknowledgment.
Moreover, plagiarism can range from borrowing a particular phrase or sentence to
paraphrasing someone else’s original idea without citing it. The most common
form of plagiarism, especially nowadays, is copying and pasting online material
without crediting the source.

Every student must practice Academic Honesty. Academic misconduct is subject

to an academic penalty by the instructor and/or disciplinary sanction by the
College.

I _____________________________ fully understood the definition and

description of plagiarism stated above and I am familiar with the Student Conduct
Code. I am aware that I shall be penalized if plagiarism is found evident on my
output which includes, gaining a failing grade.

As a college student and a member of scholarly community, I shall value other

people’s ideas. Thus, I pledged to commit to the following truthful statements:

1. I shall not submit other people’s work and present them as my own.
2. I will not take any passages from their own previous work without adding
citations.
3. I will not rewrite someone else’s work without properly citing sources.
4. I shall not use quotations without citing the source.
5. I will not interweave various sources together in my work, without citing.
6. I will not rely too heavily on other people’s work.
7. I shall bring original thought into my own work.
8. I will not disclose any exams/questionnaires/activities after I have taken
them.
9. I will not copy any material from another student and submit it as my own.
10. I shall not share my own completed output to another class/student

________________________
(Signature over Printed Name)
4
 Signal/ Function
Generator

A function generator is a specific form of signal generator that is able

to generate waveforms with common shapes. In particular it can be
made to become a sine wave /.mgenerator, square wave generator,
and triangular wave generator.

Apart from just generating the waveforms themselves, this type of test
instrument has the capability to add a DC offset to the signal. This can
be very useful in a number of testing applications.

Function generator capabilities

Function generators are capable of producing a variety of repetitive
waveforms, generally from the list below:

5
Sine wave:
A function generator will normally be able to act as a sine wave
generator.

This is the standard waveform that oscillates between two levels with
a standard sinusoidal shape. this sinewave said to be the bench mark
for a sinewave that they called.

Using the function generator as a sine wave generator is one of the

more commonly used applications. Sine waves are widely used in
testing applications.

Square wave
Another very widely used waveform is the square wave. It consists
of a signal moving directly between high and low levels. Used as a
square wave generator, this test instrument provides a very useful
source of a basic digital waveform.

Square wave signal as synthesized in a function generator

Pulse: A pulse waveform is another type that can be produced by a

function generator. It is effectively the same as a square wave, but
6
with the mark space ratio very different to 1:1. This form of waveform is
again often used within digital applications.

The purpose of a “Pulse” and that of a trigger is to produce

a very short signal to control the time at which something
happens for example, to start a Timer, Counter, Monostable
or Flip-flop etc, or as a trigger to switch “ON” Thyristors,
Triacs and other power semiconductor device

TRIANGULAR WAVE
This form of signal produced by the function generator linearly moves
between a high and low point. This form of waveform is often
generated using an operational amplifier acting as an integrator. The
triangular waveform generator typically also has a square wave output
as well, and it is used as the basis for generating all the waveforms in
a function generator test instrument.

SAWTOOTH WAVE
7
 Again, this is a triangular waveform, but with the rise edge of the
waveform faster or slower than the fall, making a form of shape
similar to a sawtooth.

These are the basic waveforms that are produced within a function
generator test instrument. These waveforms satisfy most of the needs
for testing a number of items. Where specialised waveforms are
required, then an arbitrary waveform generator is required.

RECTANGULAR WAVEFORM

The example above shows that the positive pulse width is shorter in time
than the negative pulse width. Equally, the negative pulse width could be
shorter than the positive pulse width, either way the resulting waveform
shape would still be that of a rectangular waveform.

Function Generator
Early function generators tended to rely on analogue oscillator
circuits that produced the waveforms directly. Modern function
8
generators may use digital signal processing techniques to generate
the waveforms digitally and then convert them from the digital into an
analogue format.

Many function generators will tend to be limited to lower frequencies

as this is where the waveforms created by this type of signal generator
are often required. However it is possible for higher frequency
versions to be obtained

Function generator controls

In addition to a selection of the basic waveforms that are available,
other controls on the function generator may include:

*Frequency:

As would be expected, this control alters the basic frequency at which

the waveform repeats. It is independent of the waveform type.

*DC offset: This alters the average voltage of a signal relative to 0V or

ground.

*Duty cycle: This control on the function generator changes the ratio
of high voltage to low voltage time in a square wave

Function generator usage

Function generators are normally used within electronics development,
manufacturing test and service departments. They provide a flexible
form of waveform generation that can be used in many tests.

Types of function generator

There are several forms that the function generator can take. With
modern digital technology there are many formats for this type of test
equipment.

1.Bench top test instrument:

The most widely used form of function generator in the test

9
laboratory is the test instrument contained within a box that sits on the
laboratory bench

2.Rack based test instrument:

Another format that this type of test equipment can take is a

module within a rack system like PXI. Based on PCI, the PXI rack
system has been developed specifically for test applications and
includes a slot for either a controller or link to a computer.

3.USB function generator:

A number of small function generators are available as USB based test

instruments. 4.Computer based function generator:

A different approach is to use software based within a computer

to provide the required waveforms and then use a digital card of the
computer's audio output for the signal. Whilst very cheap, this may not
have the output capability and accuracy of other types of test
instrument. Also if the output is damaged as a result of the testing and
a possible misconnection, etc it can result in costly repairs.

Main function generator specifications

Although there are many different function generator specifications,

the main ones are summarised below:

● Waveforms
10
 Function generators generally produce sine wave, square wave,
pulse, triangular and sawtooth or ramp waveforms. It is worth
checking the specifications of these individual waveforms.

● Sine wave distortion: Analogue function generators create a

sine wave from the triangular waveform using a pair of back to
back diodes to shape the waveform.
● Triangular wave linearity: There will be some departure from a
straight line on the triangular wave.
● Square wave rise & fall times: Another important function
generator specification can be the square wave edge rise and
fall times. This can be an issue when driving some logic chips.
● Output symmetry: The function generator specification will give
a range over which the output symmetry can be changed. This
might be 20% - 80% ± 10%.
● Output level: The output level on most function generators will
be continuously variable. Often it will be able to easily adjust to
so that it is TTL compatible.. Typical maximum levels may be 10
or 12 Volts peak to peak.

● Output impedance: In many instances the load that can be

driven by the function generator is of importance. The figure is
measured in ohms, Ω and is typically 50Ω.
● DC offset: One facility that some function generators provide is
a DC offset. This enables the base voltage level of the signal to
be varied over a given range. It may be variable over a range +5V
to -5V for example.
● Frequency range: Function generators have a limited frequency
range.

There are a number of elements to the specification:

● Lower frequency limit: The lower frequency limits tend to be

below 1 Hz, often 0.1 or 0.2 Hz
● Upper frequency limit: The upper frequency limit tends to be a
headline specification for the function generator.
● Ranges: There may be several switched ranges to the coverage.
Often they tend to cover a decade in frequency, i.e. 1 - 10.
However this specification is dependent upon the particular test
instrument.
11
 ● Frequency stability: The stability of function generators can vary
considerably.
● Phase lock capability: Some generators may be able to phase
lock the signal generator to an external clock signal..
● Modulation: Some test instruments may have the capability for
the output signal to be modulatedPower requirements: many
items of test instrumentation can operate from a variety of power
line voltages, but it is still worth checking.
● Environmental: For some applications, issues like the
environmental considerations may be important.
● Mechanical: The size weight and general mechanical aspects
may not be particularly important for most applications, but it is
worth checking that there are no major issues.

A signal generator is piece of test equipment that produces an

electrical signal in the form of a wave. This is used as a stimulus for
the item being tested.

What is a signal generator

Signal generators come in various forms able to produce a

variety of waveforms for different test applications. Some of these test
instruments address the RF testing arena, whilst others are used for
audio testing, possibly as a sine wave generator, etc and others for
providing pulses, possibly for exciting digital circuits. There are
thousands of different applications for signal generators.

12
However they differ from the measuring test instruments like
oscilloscope, digital multimeters, spectrum analyzers, etc in that rather
than measuring a signal, they generate a signal to be applied to a unit
under test.

Signal generator definition:

A signal generator is an electronic test instrument that creates or
generates either repeating or non-repeating waveforms.

Summary of signal generator types

Looking at what a signal generator is, it will be seen that there are
many different types of signal generator:
1.Arbitrary waveform generator :  
The arbitrary waveform generator is a type of signal generator that
creates very sophisticated waveforms that can be specified by the
user. These waveforms can be almost any shape and can be entered
in a variety of ways, even extending to specifying points on the
waveform.Essentially an arbitrary waveform generator can be thought
of as a very sophisticated function generator.

2Audio signal generator:   As the name implies this type of signal

generator is used for audio applications.

They are often used in audio measurements of frequency response

and for distortion measurements. As a result they must have a very flat
response and also very low levels of harmonic distortion.

Pulse generator:
As the name suggests, the pulse generator is a form of signal
generator that creates pulses. These signal generators are often in the
form of logic pulse generators that can produce pulses with variable
delays and some even offer variable rise and fall times.

Pulses are often needed when testing various digital, and sometimes
13
analogue circuits. The ability to generate pulses enables circuits to be
triggered, or pulses trains to be sent to a device to provide the
required stimulus.

RF signal generator:  
As the name indicates, this type of signal generator is used to
generate RF or radio frequency signals.

A
The RF signal generators often have the capability to add
modulation to the waveform. Lower end ones may be able to add
AM or FM, but high end RF signal generators may be able to add
modulation formats OFDM, CDMA, etc . . so they can be used for
testing cellular and wireless systems.

Vector signal generator

Vector signal generators tend to be used for the testing of modern
data communications systems, everything from Wi-Fi to 4G, 5G
mobile telecommunications systems and many other connectivity
solutions that used advanced waveforms. As these waveforms use
modulation schemes and waveforms that use phase information, a
vector signal generator is often needed.

Signal generator formats

14
Like other forms of electronics test equipment, signal generators are
available in a variety of different formats. The types of format available
depend to a certain extent upon the exact type of signal generator, but
there are several options that may be available.

● Traditional bench test equipment: 

. The self contained box which includes the generator itself as well
as the power supply, control functions, the display and the external
controls are what is normally thought of as test equipment.

● Rack test instrument card: 

  There are test modules that can be slotted into a test rack The rack
consists of the basic 19 inch based rack system which includes a
power supply, and the first slot is reserved for the controller or link to
an external PC. The remaining card slots can be used for the test
instruments.. This approach is ideal for building an automated
system with a number of units.

● USB signal generator:  

Another option for many test instruments these days is to use the
power of a PC to take on several of the functions of the test
instrument. The test module provides the test equipment
functionality

● Use computer generated waveform

In some cases it is possible to generate a waveform digitally within a
computer using a signal generator app or programme. The resulting
waveform can be sent out via the audio socket of an audio card.
This route offers a very cheap route to creating a signal, but is
limited by the output of the PC audio or audio card. It may be ideal
for some applications, but the final output is very dependent upon
the audio or output from the PC, and this route is possibly not the
best option if an output with a guaranteed performance is needed.

15
KEY POINTS

● A digital multimeter is a test tool used to measure two or more electrical

valuesIt is a standard diagnostic tool for technicians in the
electrical/electronic industries.
● Signal generators come in various forms able to produce a variety of
waveforms for different test applications
● The different waveforms are sinewave, triangular wave, sawtooth wave and
square wave

SUMMARY

Digital multimeter has been evolved through the years that started of with analog
multimeter and now comes into different form that can test different parameters
in one single unit.

Signal generators have been used for many years. Early types were very basic by
the standard of today’s different types of signal generator. Performance levels
as well as the variety of facilities that are available have increased and improved.
Since there are different signal generator formats, this aim is to used in its
flexibility.

16
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 02: Online Quiz through google forms on
the topic in signal generator

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Laboratory Activity:

Search A video presentation on how the Digital Multimeter works.

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_____________________________________________

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RUBRIC FOR VIDEO PRESENTATION (assign)

criteria
4 3 2 1
Excellent Very Satisfactory Fair/ needs
Satisfactory Improveme
nt
Video The choice The choice The choice The choice
selection of Video is of Video is of video is of video is
very less likely not really not
informative informative informative informative
at all
Video Quality of the Quality of The quality Quality of
Quality video is good video is of the video video is
19
 and clear good and yet is poor
sometimes somewhat
poor quality 70 % not
good
Audio Quality of the Quality of the Quality of the Quality of the
Quality audio is audio is audio is audio both is
arrange loud arrange low less loud and
arrange loud
and quite clear key and unclear
and clear unclear
content Content Content display Content Content
display display is is Very display display is not
Satisfactory Satisfactory fair enough
excellent
Timeliness Send/submit Send/submitte Send/submitt Send/submitt
ted the video d the video on ed the video ed the video 1
the following after 3 days week or more
on deadline
day
date
Effort

REFERENCES

Understand how DMM works?

https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/test-
methods/meters/how-a-dmm-digital-multimeter-works.php

How to measure voltage in a Multimeter

20
https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/test-
methods/meters/multimeter-voltage-measurement.php

Function Generator

https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/test-methods/signal-
generators/function-generator.php

21
 Subject
cAVT e:
AVT 1103
MIDTERM
LEARNING MODULE 02

1
 DIFFERENT
TEST
EQUIPMENT

2
 COURSE LEARNING OUTCOME
CLO 1 Express ideas and concept of variety of test equipment and
examine the equipment of its form and wAys

CLO 8 Express and facilitate the different Test Equipment such as

Digital Multimeter, signal generator, frequency meter , cable tester
,ammeter, voltage and capacitance meter and their usage

CLO 10 Recognize the skills in using test equipment with

knowledge and competence

MODULE LEARNING OUTCOME

MLO 1 :Identify the function of the test equipment such as frequency
counter, logic probe,cable tester , signal generator and capacitance
meter

MLO 2: Enumerate the different test equipment and define each

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOME

TLO 8: Recognize the function of the Frequency counter and
Capacitance meter

TLO 9:state and recognize the Cable tester, Logic probe tester and
Standing wave to ratio and few test equipment used in aviation

3
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Course Mapping-----------------------------------------------------
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Learning Outcomes--------------------------------------------------
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Table of Contents----------------------------------------------------
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Academic Honesty Statement-----------------------------------------
----

TOPICS Page Time

Allotment
Frequency counter 6-13 30 mins
Logic Probe 14-19 30 mins
Cable tester 20 10 mins
Capacitance Meter 21-23 10 mins
Formative Assessment o1 24 60 mins
Standing Wave to Ratio 25-31 20 mins
Cable Fault Detector 31-33 15.8 mins
Formative Assessment 02 34 60 mins

4
 ACADEMIC HONESTY STATEMENT
Plagiarism is the use or close imitation of the language and thoughts of another
author and the representation of them as one’s original work. (1995 Random
House Compact Unabridged Dictionary)

In the academe, it is an adaption or reproduction of an original intellectual

creation, be it concepts, ideas, methods, pieces of information or expressions
of another author, whether individual, group, or organization without proper
acknowledgment. Moreover, plagiarism can range from borrowing a particular
phrase or sentence to paraphrasing someone else’s original idea without
citing it. The most common form of plagiarism, especially nowadays, is copying
and pasting online material without crediting the source.

Every student must practice Academic Honesty. Academic misconduct is

subject to an academic penalty by the instructor and/or disciplinary sanction by
the College.

I _____________________________ fully understood the definition and

description of plagiarism stated above and I am familiar with the Student
Conduct Code. I am aware that I shall be penalized if plagiarism is found
evident on my output which includes, gaining a failing grade.

As a college student and a member of scholarly community, I shall value other

people’s ideas. Thus, I pledged to commit to the following truthful statements:

1. I shall not submit other people’s work and present them as my own.
2. I will not take any passages from their own previous work without adding
citations.
3. I will not rewrite someone else’s work without properly citing sources.
4. I shall not use quotations without citing the source.
5. I will not interweave various sources together in my work, without citing.
6. I will not rely too heavily on other people’s work.
7. I shall bring original thought into my own work.
8. I will not disclose any exams/questionnaires/activities after I have taken
them.
9. I will not copy any material from another student and submit it as my own.
10. I shall not share my own completed output to another class/student

________________________
(Signature over Printed Name)

5
FREQUENCY COUNTER
What is a Frequency Counter

Frequency counters are test instruments used to provide very

accurate measurements of the frequency of a signal.Frequency
counters are test instruments used in many applications associated
with radio frequency engineering

These frequency counters and counter timers are widely used

within a variety of areas of electronics test to measure the
frequency of repetitive signals, and also for measuring the time
between edges on digital signals..

digital frequency counter

The wave meter can be used to create a signal
that can check the frequency of a receiver.
Alternatively when used with a transmitter, the
transmitted signal will be picked up by the wave
meter and heard as a heterodyne within the
wavemeter headphones

The first frequency counters introduced used

nixie tubes as indicators, but were able to provide
a very much faster means of frequency
measurement than was previously possible with
the heterodyne frequency meters.

6
 Digital frequency counters quickly developed as technology improved increasing the
maximum frequency of operation, improving the triggering, and providing more easily
visible forms of display.

RF frequency counter basics

RF frequency counters and timers are items of test equipment that
operate by counting events within a set period or discovering what
a period is by counting a number of precisely timed events. The
time periods within which events are counted, or the precisely timed
events can be generated using a highly stable quartz crystal
oscillator.
To look at the way in which a frequency counter or timer works, it is
necessary to described the two approaches separately. The two
approaches may be termed direct counting and reciprocal counting.

1.Direct counting frequency counter

Those digital frequency counters that use a direct counting approach count the number of
times the input signal crosses a given trigger

Within the basic counter there are several main blocks:

Input:   When the signal enters the frequency counter it enters the input
amplifier where the signal is converted into a logic rectangular wave for
processing within the digital circuitry in the rest of the counter.

● Accurate time-base / clock:   In order to create the various gate / timing

signals within the frequency counter an accurate timebase or clock is
required. This is typically is a crystal oscillator and in high quality test
instruments it will be an oven controlled crystal oscillator.

● Decade dividers and flip-flop:   The clock oscillator is used to provide an

accurately timed gate signal that will all0w through pulses from the incoming
signal.

 Gate:   The precisely timed gate enabling signal from the clock is applied to
one input of a gate and the other has a train of pulses from the incoming
signal.

Counter/ latch:   The counter takes the incoming pulses from the gate. It has a
set of divide-by-10 stages (number equal to the number of display digits minus
1). Each stage divides by ten and therefore as they are chained the first stage is
the input divided by ten, the next is the input divided by 10 x 10, and so forth.
These counter outputs are then used to drive the display.

● Display:   The display takes the output from the latch and displays it in a
normal readable format. LCD, or LED displays are the most common. There

7
 is a digit for each decade the counter can display.
●

Reciprocal frequency counters

Another method of measuring the frequency of a signal is to
measure the period for one cycle of the waveform and then take the
reciprocal of this. Although this approach is slightly more expensive
to implement than direct counting and it is not as widely used, it
does have some advantages.

In view of this it can be seen that reciprocal counters give a higher

resolution at low frequencies. At 1 kHz, a direct counter gives a
resolution of 1 Hz (4 digits). A 10 digit/second reciprocal counter
gives a resolution of 10 digits.The other advantage is that these
counters can make very fast readings. A reciprocal counter will give
1 mHz resolution in 1 milliseconds.
Frequency counters are widely used within any RF lab. They provide
a quick, easy and accurate method of measuring frequency, and
they are also relatively cost effective. They may also be a
8
requirement for ensuring that transmitter frequencies are being
transmitted within the required bands

RF frequency counter applications

RF frequency counters are used in very many applications where
the frequencies of radio frequency or even audio frequency signals
are to be measured.

● Measuring the frequency of a transmitter carrier.-

● Measuring the frequency of an oscillator in a circuit.-
● Measure the frequency of a signal on a line
● Any application where the frequency of a steady repetitive
signal needs to be measured.
● To be able to measure the frequency of an RF signal using a
frequency counter there are a few prerequisites.

Types of frequency counter

Although frequency counters may appear to be very straightforward,
there are several different types. Each one is applicable to its own
situation and capable of providing very good service.

1.Bench frequency counter: The bench frequency counter is the

most commonly used format for this type of electronics test
equipment.

2.PXI frequency counter : Along with many other items of test

equipment, it is possible to obtain frequency counters in a PXI
format. The PXI system provides a rack system for test and control
systems.

3.Handheld frequency counter: Frequency counter technology

does not need to be large and several handheld frequency counters
are available.

4.Frequency counter in a digital multimeter: Some digital

multimeters incorporate a frequency counter function

5.Panel meter: Frequency counters and timers are available in

panel mount modules. These can be incorporated into larger items
of equipment where they can be used for counting frequency or
time intervals.

9
.

HOW TO USE A TIME INTERVAL COUNTER / INTERVAL

TIMER
It is possible to make a variety of time interval measurements using
a counter- timer. The types of time interval measurement that can
be made vary according to the counter timer in use.

Single input time interval measurements:

The basic form of counter timer is one with a single input.
This gives the time interval for the waveform. On occasions
it may be possible to make a measurement using a single
input counter from the rising or positive edge to the falling
or negative edge.
Dual input time interval measurements: 
  Some counter timers that can be used have dual inputs.
To set this up, it is simply a matter of connecting the required
waveforms to the inputs and then selecting the edges.

Measurement variants for the time interval of two waveforms. It

can be seen that there are four combinations of timing. Let say for
instance

LOGIC PROBE

What is a Logic Probe?

Logic probes are cheap and easy to use forms of digital testers
being able to test logic levels of slow moving signals.

The logic probe or digital tester is normally a low cost handheld

probe contained within a pen-like tube with indicator lights to show
the state of the line being probed.

10
They often have three indicator lights on the body to indicate the
state of the line. As such logic probes are very basic forms of digital
testers, only able to test the state of a single line, but they can be
useful in many applications.

LOGIC PROBE MEASUREMENTS

A logic probe is restricted in the number of measurements it can make

when compared to other test instruments,

11
 ● LOGIC HIGH STATE:

LOGIC LOW:

The logic probe also is able to indicate a logic or digital low. A common
indication is with the use of a green coloured LED.

● DIGITAL PULSES

The logic probe may incorporate some form of pulse detection circuitry. When
the line is active and being pulsed a third colour, possibly amber will be
indicated. The logic probe may well incorporate circuitry to detect very short
pulses and in this way indicate when the LINE TRI-STATED:

Some logic probes may also be able to detect when a line has been put into
a tristate option.

Advantages and disadvantages of a logic probe

As with any item of test equipment, there are advantages and
disadvantages to the use of a logic probe tester than need to be
considered before buying or using one.

Logic probe advantages -

1.LOW COST

A logic probe does not contain much circuitry, and the display is
very rudimentary.

2.EASE OF USE To use a logic probe typically requires the

connection of power leads and then connecting the probe to the
required point on the circuit.

Logic probe disadvantages

1.VERY ROUGH MEASUREMENT The nature of the logic probe
means that only an indication of the presence of a logic signal can
be detected. It is not replacement for a test instrument such as an
oscilloscope.

2.POOR DISPLAY

A logic probe only uses a few LEDs to indicate the nature of the
logic signal. As a result, little information can be displayed about the
nature of the logic signal that is detected.

12
Logic probe typical specifications

While all models of logic probe will vary slightly, it is possible to

provide some outline of the typical specifications for a probe.

Generally logic probes are aimed at a basic test only and therefore
offer a relatively basic level of performance. Nevertheless they can
be invaluable in locating faults in many situations.

A typical specification may be:

TYPICAL LOGIC PROBE SPECIFICATIONS
PARAMETER SPECIFICATION
Logic 1
Signal input level TTL: > 2.3V ±0.02V
CMOS: > 70% Vcc ± 10%
Logic 0
Signal input level TTL: < 0.08V ±0.02V
CMOS: < 30% Vcc ± 10%
Max supply voltage withstand 20 V
Power supply range 5 - 15 V
Signal input impedance 1 MΩ
Max input signal frequency 20 MHz
Minimum detectable pulse width 30 ns

How to Use a Logic Probe

Whilst a logic probe is very easy to use a few instructions and
guidelines and tips help ensure that they are used to their best
effect.

One of the advantages of the logic probe tester is that it is very

simple and easy to use. It can very quickly give a basic indication of
the operation of a logic circuit.
Logic probe connections
Before using the logic probe, it is necessary to understand the
connections.
As can be seen, there are three connections to the logic probe:
1. Black lead with crocodile clip

 There are two leads which generally come out of the opposite
end of the instrument to the metal probe itself. The black lead is
connected to negative ground and is also used as the return.

13
2. Red lead with crocodile clip

 This lead will have red on it somewhere, possibly just on the

crocodile / alligator clip and is used to connect to the supply. Be
careful to connect this to the logic supply which will normally be
+5 volts and for some CMOS families up to 15 volts. Read the
instructions to see over what range the probe will operate - using
a voltage higher than that which is specified could damage the
logic probe.

3. Probe 
The probe, as shown on the diagram is a metal point used for
probing the circuit. When using this, be careful that the probe
cannot slip and cause a short circuit which could damage the
circuit under test.

The first requirement before using the logic probe is to connect the
power connections to the circuit. Apart from ensuring they are the
right voltage, the points used for connecting the crocodile clips to
should be accessible and provide a reliable connection without the
risk of touching any adjacent components or other connections.
Note: If possible connect the power connections to the unit under
test when it is powered off. In this way risk of damage due to
shorting, etc. is minimised.
Initial settings for using a logic probe
It is necessary to select the required settings on the switches when
starting to use a logic probe. Dependent upon the logic probe
manufacturer and model, there are a number of options that may
need to be set:

. CABLE TESTER
A cable tester is a device used to test the strength and connectivity
of a particular type of cable or other wired assemblies. There are
many different types of cable testers

14
.

CAPACITANCE METER
A capacitance meter is a piece of electronic test equipment whose purpose is
to measure capacitance, mostly of discrete capacitors. The capacitance meter
works based off of the directly proportional relationship between capacitance
and a time constant.

This relation is used in this method of measurement. So, we can first go

through a simple RC circuit with a supply voltage of VIN (shown below).

capacitance meter

When compared to other capacitance measuring techniques, this meter is

capable to hold electrolytic which is up to tens of thousands of Farad.

15
Steps for measuring capacitance with a digital multimeter.

How to measure capacitance

A multimeter determines capacitance by charging a capacitor with a

known current, measuring the resulting voltage, then calculating the
capacitance.
Warning: A good capacitor stores an electrical charge and may
remain energized after power is removed.
To safely discharge a capacitor: After power is removed, connect a
20,000 ?, 5-watt resistor across the capacitor terminals for five
seconds. Use your multimeter to confirm the capacitor is fully
discharged.

1. Use your digital multimeter (DMM) to ensure all power to the

circuit is OFF. If the capacitor is used in an ac circuit, set the
multimeter to measure ac voltage. If is used in a dc circuit, set
the DMM to measure dc voltage.
2. Visually inspect the capacitor. If leaks, cracks, bulges or other
signs of deterioration are evident, replace the capacitor.
3. Turn the dial to the Capacitance Measurement mode (   ).
The symbol often shares a spot on the dial with another
function.
4. For a correct measurement, the capacitor will need to be
removed from the circuit. Discharge the capacitor as
described in the warning above.

16
 5. Connect the test leads to the capacitor terminals. Keep test
leads connected for a few seconds to allow the multimeter to
automatically select the proper range.
6. Read the measurement displayed. If the capacitance value is
within the measurement range, the multimeter will display the
capacitor’s value. It will display OL if a) the capacitance value
is higher than the measurement range or b) the capacitor is
faulty.

Some additional factors involving capacitance are worth knowing:

● Capacitors have a limited life and are often the cause of a

malfunction.
● Faulty capacitors may have a short circuit, an open circuit or
may physically deteriorate to the point of failure.
● When a capacitor short circuits, a fuse may blow or other
components may be damaged.
● When a capacitor opens or deteriorates, the circuit or circuit
components may not operate.
● Deterioration can also change the capacitance value of a
capacitor, which can cause problems.

17
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 01:

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________________________________________________________________
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KEY POINTS

● Cable tester is used to test cable continuity

● Logic probe is a test measurement that has an audible
indication
● VSWR is defined as the ratio of the maximum to minimum
voltage on a loss-less line.

● Frequency counters are test instruments used to provide very

accurate measurements of the frequency of a signal.

SUMMARY

Counter timers are also widely used test instruments, used for
measuring intervals, and they can be used for very accurate
measurements

Understanding how to use a logic probe is very straightforward.

There are many different logic probe products, all of which are
slightly different, but they all conform to the same basic overview of
their functionality and operation, for example some have audible
indications as well as the visual ones whereas others may
not.Accordingly it is possible to give some basic guidelines about
how to use a logic probe, but there will be slight variation in the way
they are used dependent upon the particular logic probe in use.

19
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT 02:Online Quiz Through Google Forms

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20
LABORATORY ACTIVITY 01

Seatwork

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21
Laboratory Activity 02:

Research a video presentation of the following test equipment

showing a detailed information of how they are being used then
send to my email [email protected]

1.Cable tester

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Video Presentation

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2. Logic probe tester

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---------------- -----------------------------------------
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Video Presentation

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---------------3. standing wave to ratio

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Video Presentation

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REFERENCES

CAPACITANCE METER

https://www.electrical4u.com/capacitance-meter/

Cable Fault Location Measuring Methods

https://hvtechnologies.com/blog/cable-fault-location-measuring-
methods

https://www.electronics-notes.com/

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24