UNIT 2

THE PRIMARY SECTOR

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 AGRARIAN SPACES ..................................................................................................................................2
The importance of agrarian activities in the world ...................................................................................................................... 2
2 THE FACTORS OF PRODUCTION OF AGRARIAN ACTIVITIES ....................................2
2.1 Physical factors ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 2
2.2 Human factors ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
3 FEATURES OF AGRARIAN LANDSCAPES ...................................................................................3
3.1 Inhabited space ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
3.2 Farmland ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
3.3 Cultivation methods .................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
4 AGRARIAN SYSTEMS IN THE WORLD ..........................................................................................4
4.1 Traditional agriculture: subsistence farming.......................................................................................................................... 4
4.2 Advanced agrarian systems: industrial and organic agriculture ..................................................................... 5
5 LIVESTOCK FARMING: TYPES AND MODELS .........................................................................5
5.1 Livestock farming systems........................................................................................................................................................................ 5
5.2 Traditional livestock farming ................................................................................................................................................................ 5
5.3 Industrial and organic livestock farming .................................................................................................................................. 5
6 SILVICULTURE (FORESTRY) ................................................................................................................6
Production and environmental roles .......................................................................................................................................................... 6
7 FISHING: THE USE OF THE SEA .........................................................................................................6
Types of fishing................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6
8 THE PRIMARY SECTOR IN SPAIN ....................................................................................................7

1
 The primary sector is the sector of economic activity involving the production of animal or plant
materials, or in other words, obtaining resources directly from nature. The activities of the primary sector
are agriculture, livestock farming, fishing and silviculture (forestry).
We speak about agrarian spaces when we refer to land where agrarian activities are undertaken.
There is a difference with rural spaces, however, because this refers to all ‘non-urban’ spaces.
Agriculture is defined as the economic activity of the primary sector dedicated to the cultivation
of land and breeding of plants for the obtaining products such as of food, textiles and raw materials, etc.
Livestock farming is devoted to the breeding of animals, fishing to the extraction of products from the
sea, and forestry or silviculture to the exploitation of the forests for wood, cork, resin, firewood, etc.

As seen in unit 1, the importance of an economic sector depends on the weight it has on the GDP
and the occupied population of a country.
2013  About 37 % of the world’s population.
- Developed countries: minor role. Less than 10 % of the employed population, and even less in the
country’s GDP (ie. United Kingdom 0,6 % of the GDP, 1,3 % of the population).
- Less developed areas: the importance of the primary sector tends to be inversely proportional to
the level of development of an area. Therefore, in developing countries it is still important in terms
of employed population (30 to 50 %), but it counts for about a 10 % of the GDP (ie. Guatemala 30
% of the workforce, and 13 % of the GDP).
- In Sub-Saharan Africa and some countries with a very low development, agrarian population
reaches the 80 % of the labour force and a great deal of the GDP (ie. Chad: 59 % of the GDP and
80 % of the population).

Elements that determine the development of agrarian activities.

All types of plants need specific characteristics regarding sunlight hours, temperatures,
precipitations, winds, etc., so it can benefit or limit crops. However, there are certain conditions which
make agrarian activities almost impossible: temperatures below 0º C or over 45º C, high aridity (high
desert climate, for example), or those with very cold or very hot winds.

Farming is easier on plains and valleys, and more difficult on high altitudes and on steep terrain.
When necessary, some techniques such as terraces have been used. In addition to this, the influence of
the relief on the climate (the fall of temperatures with the altitude, sunlit or shady slopes of mountains,
etc.) affect agrarian activities too.
However, forestry and livestock farming are sometimes best suited to mountainous terrains.

The physical and chemical characteristics of the soil determine the possibilities of agrarian
activities. Depth, texture, composition, capacity for retaining water, porosity, acidity and alkalinity, etc.
have to be taken into account.

2
 The size of the population determines food production (the demand of food), which means that if
population grows, more land needs to be worked. The risk of overexploitation has been a constant worry
since the 18th century.
High densities imply high-yield agrarian spaces, and depopulated areas lead to crops and fields
being abandoned and neglected.

The level of technological development available to a society influences the farming tools and
techniques. Technology can be here understood as the capacity for controlling nature, and therefore the
capability to overcome the limits imposed by the natural factors.
- Traditional societies: basic tools and techniques which allow little productivity using a large labour
force and hard work.
- Advanced societies: modern tools such as tractors, harvesters and milking machines are combined
with chemical fertilisers, pesticides, greenhouses, crossbreeding and genetic modification, etc.
Labour forces are smaller and require less work.

1º ESO: positive feedback loop: if there was more food surpluses, there was more people. If there was more
people, there was more division of labour, and more people could create or improve agricultural tools, therefore
allowing greater surpluses and greater populations (see video ‘Neolithic agricultural revolution’).

 Land ownership: private or public property, communal or collective, etc.

 Exploitation: direct or indirect (renting, sharecropping [paying with part of the production, etc.),
etc.
 Agrarian economies: subsistence or market orientation. The former mixes crops and combines
them with livestock farming using very little technology for self-consumption, while the latter
tends to be carried out by companies employing workers with specialised production and with a
high use of technological advances.
 Agrarian policies: implemented by governments or by international organisations. They promote
or discourage certain products through incentives (grants, subsidies, etc.) or by introducing tariffs
and import taxes. Generally, these aim at raising levels of modernisation and competitiveness.

When analysing the diversity and types of agrarian spaces –and mostly regarding agriculture- we
can establish certain characteristics. We have to refer to fields, which are the basic divisions of agrarian
land. Fields are separated from one another by borders, and distinguished taking into account then
following features:

Settlement: way in which the agrarian population is distributed across the land.
It may be:
- Dispersed: the houses are separated to one another and surrounded by the land they farm.
- Concentrated: grouped into a village. They may be linear (along a road or a path) or clustered
(around a central point).
- Interdispersed: some dwellings are isolated, while others are grouped together.

3
 - Size: small (< 10 hectares), medium (10-100 hectares) or large (> 100 hectares).
- Shape: regular or irregular.
- Boundaries: open (separated only by a furrow or boundary markers) or enclosed (fences, trees or
walls separating).
- Use: agriculture, livestock farming, forestry or mixed.

They refer to the procedures used by farmers to grow agrarian products.

- Crop varieties: monoculture (one crop in one field) or polyculture (various crops).
- Water supply: irrigated (additional water required) or dry farming (only water from nature).
- Soil use: continual or crop rotation (alternating crops: two-year; three-year; four-year crop
rotation systems).
- Use of the land (or exploitation): intensive (land used to its full potential, involving significant
economic investment and large workforce for producing high yields) or extensive (large fields, less
productive).
- Technology: traditional or mechanised.
- Destination: self-subsistence or market-oriented.

The level of development of the different geoeconomic regions of the world is reflected in the
agrarian activities. Therefore, we have to distinguish between traditional and advanced agrarian systems.

Traditional agriculture requires a great deal of work, involves little mechanisation and advances,
and implies very low productivity of the land. It is typical of regions with low levels of development in
Africa, Asia and South and Central America.

In equatorial and humid tropical climates in Africa mostly, but also in Central and South America.
It consists in irregular shaped fields created by clearing trees and burning the wood and the
undergrowth. These fields are used for polyculture (cereal, sorghum, millet, maize, cassava, etc).
The soil is exhausted in two or three years because of the continuous work, so the farmers repeat
the process on another site.
This type of agriculture requires a semi-nomadic lifestyle.

In the savannah, and some areas of Asia and South America.

It consists in working plots and fields. The plots are located near the farmer’s house and fertilised
with waste and dung, so vegetables, maize and beans can be continuously cultivated. The fields
surrounding these plots use the three-year crop rotation system with a main crop (maize, millet, etc.), a
complementary one (groundnuts, tubers, etc.), and a fallow field fertilised with manure.
This type of agriculture implies the possibility of permanent populations.

In areas with tropical monsoon climate (south and south-eastern Asia).

4
 Paddy fields separated by ditches located in alluvial plains and river deltas for being flooded for
the cultivation of rice. This type of agriculture implies intensive labour, since the rice must be planted in
another field and then moved when it grows, and fields are emptied of water before the harvest.

Advanced agrarian systems reflect technological, mechanical and scientific innovations, with the
final objective of maximising yields and minimising the labour needed. Therefore, it is highly technological
and mechanised, includes the use of chemicals (fertilisers, herbicides, pesticides, etc.), involves selection
of the most productive seeds (including transgenic crops), etc.
It is used for mass production, so production tends to be specialised, and the destination of the
products is both national and international markets.
Because of the different demand of products, this type of agriculture takes place all over the world,
but it is in many cases under the control of multinational corporations. The main areas in which this type
of agriculture is found is certain areas of ‘new countries’ (Great Plains in the USA), Europe and the coasts
of tropical countries.
The types of advanced agrarian systems include:
- Extensive mechanised agriculture: for cereals.
- Plantations: in tropical areas for pineapple, cocoa, coffee, tea, bananas, fruits, etc.
- Greenhouses and hydroponic crops (method of growing plants without soil by using mineral
nutrient solu-tions in a water solvent).
In addition to these, in the last decades there has been an increase of organic agriculture, which
uses environmentally friendly techniques. It requires more work than in industrial agriculture, and the
production is lower. However, an increasing number consumers in developed countries demand these
type of products (and fair-trade products), and are prepared to pay more.

Livestock farming, as agriculture, involves a highly diversified activity in which a great range of
animals are involved (cattle, sheep, pigs, poultry, etc.) in different proceedings (extensive and intensive)
and in many systems (traditional, industrial and ecological).

 Extensive livestock farming: large, open-air fields, which require little labour force or capital.
 Intensive livestock farming: livestock is house in barns and fed completely or partially with artificial
feeds. This demands high levels of investment in buildings, breed selection, feeding technology,
veterinary care, etc.

 Nomadic livestock farming: livestock is continually moved in order to provide animals with fresh
pastures. It is typical of peoples living on edges of deserts.
 Seasonal migration: livestock is moved on a seasonal basis, between summer and winter pastures
(transhumant farming, for instance). It is typical of mountainous regions in America, Asia and
North Africa.

 Industrial livestock farming: its objective is to obtain the highest possible yield to be sold in the
5
 market.
o Extensive: large quantities of livestock are reared in the open air. Ranches in North America
and Australia, farms in Argentina (Pampas and Patagonia).
o Intensive: genetically selected livestock reared in barns and fed with artificial feeds. Highly
technological and mechanised.
 Ecological: the same idea as in organic agriculture, but relating with the well-being of the animals,
the breeding of local species, the respect for the environment, etc.

Forestry refers to the conservation and use of forests in order to obtain different products, to
create grazing areas for animals and hunting spaces, and to harvest wild fruits and mushrooms. About 30
% of the Earth’s surface is occupied by forests (about 40 million km 2), and there are various types of
woodland that depend on climatic conditions: equatorial and tropical woodland, temperate woodland
and the taiga or boreal forests.

The products obtained in forestry are:

 Wood as raw material for furniture and housing.
The main species are:
 Conifers (pines, firs, etc).
 Hardwood (birch, beech, maple, oak, etc.)
 Precious woods (ebony, teak, mahogany, cedar, etc.).
 Food products: fruits, mushrooms, etc.
 Raw materials: cork, rubber, resin, cellulose, pharmaceutical products, perfumes, etc.

Forests, also, fulfil an important environmental role as they absorb CO2 from the atmosphere
helping to reduce the greenhouse effect, add humidity to the atmosphere, protect the soil from erosion,
preserve biodiversity, and have an economic role for leisure and recreation activities. Thus, deforestation
due to uncontrolled exploitation is a challenge we have to face as societies.

Depending on the scale:

- Traditional fishing: in rivers and coastal areas. Self-consumption.
- Artisanal fishing: small-scale fishing using small boats and little mechanisation. Small production
for local markets.
- Industrial fishing: large factory ships, in which the products are conserved in refrigeration for
months. Very large captures for national or international markets.
Depending on the fishing areas:
 Inshore fishing: coastal areas.
 Deep-sea fishing: offshore.

Main fishing areas (they depend on abundance of plankton, cold currents or where cold and warm
currents meet).
- North Atlantic: Newfoundland, southern Greenland, coasts of Europe, Saharan-Canary fishery.
- South Atlantic: Namibia and the Argentinian coast.
- North Pacific: eastern Asia, Alaska and California.
6
 - South Pacific: Peru and Chile.
Fishing is also important in the Mediterranean Sea, the Indian Ocean (Southern Africa), certain great
rivers (Yangtze, Indus, etc.), lakes (Baikal) and internal seas (Caspian, Black, etc.).

The future of fishing face several problems: overfishing, sea pollution and conflicts regarding fishing
grounds (national fishing grounds). Fishing policies from national or international organisations try to find
solutions to these issues, establishing fishing quotas, applying anti-pollution measures, signing of
international fishing agreements and promoting aquaculture (breeding of species in underwater farms).

Little importance from the second half of the 20th century: 4,5 % of working population (around 900 000
people), and around 2,6 % of the GDP. It is more important in the regions in the interior (both Castillas,
Extremadura, etc.) than in coastal areas, where tourism and services tend to be more important.

The most important crops are:

- Cereals: wheat, barley, maize and rice (Castillas, Ebro Valley, etc.)
- Fruits and vegetables: potatoes, tomatoes, melons, lettuce, peppers, strawberries, etc. Irrigated
agriculture in the Mediterranean coast (water channels or greenhouses).
- Fruit trees: citrus fruits, peach, apples, etc, in the eastern Peninsula (MUR, VAL, ARA, Lleida),
bananas (Canary Islands), and tropical fruits (avocado, mango, etc.) in Southern Andalucía.
- Grapevines and olive trees: for wine and olive oil. Mostly in Andalucía, La Mancha and
Extremadura, but important vine fields in Castilla y León, La Rioja, Cataluña, etc.
- Industrial crops: cotton, sunflower, tobacco, sugar beet, etc.

Types of agrarian fields: latifundios (large-sized fields) in Castilla-La Mancha, Extremadura and Andalucía;
minifundios (small-sized) in the north, the archipelagos and the greenhouses in the south-east.

Forestry supply mostly wood, cellulose, resin and cork with beech, oak, chestnut, eucalyptus and pines.

The most important kinds of livestock:

- Bovine (about 6 million heads): Castilla y León, Extremadura and northern Peninsula.
- Ovine (about 16 million heads): central Peninsula.
- Caprine (goats) (about 2,5 million heads): Andalucía and Extremadura.
- Porcine (about 23 million heads): very important from northern Huelva (Jabugo), Extremadura,
Castilla y León, Aragón, Cataluña, etc.

Extensive coastline, so major historical importance. Currently, its importance has declined (0,5 %
of occupied population) because of the increase of other economic sectors and European fishing policies.
The most important fishing areas are Galicia, the Canary Island and Western Andalucía, and the main
species are hake, anchovy, tuna, bonito, sardine, molluscs (mussels), crustaceans (prawn, crabs, etc.) and
cephalopods (squid and octopus).
Spanish fisheries are mostly in the Cantabrian sea and the north west (52 %), the Mediterranean
(27 %), the Gulf of Cádiz (8,25 %) and the Canary Islands (8,13 %).

7
 GLOSSARY
Primary sector Extensive agriculture farming
Agriculture Migratory agriculture Industrial livestock farming
Livestock farming Sedentary dryland agriculture Intensive livestock farming
Fishing Irrigated Monsoon agriculture Extensive livestock farming
Silviculture Organic agriculture Ecological livestock farming
Field Nomadic livestock farming
Intensive agriculture Seasonal migration livestock

VIDEO – FARMING TODAY: 9 BILLION MOUTHS TO FEED. THE FUTURE

OF FARMING
1. Why do you think that agriculture and higher education should (or shouldn’t) be related?
2. Why hasn’t mechanisation -according with the video- expelled people from agricultural
activities? Do you think that it is true? Justify your answer.
3. What are the main crops in California?
4. What natural factors which influence agriculture are mentioned in the video?
5. What are the main responsibilities for agriculture workers and farming regarding the future?
6. What are the three Ps of agriculture that are mentioned in the video?

REVISE
1. Complete the diagram with the factors of production of agrarian activities and how they
condition them.

2. Do a mind map with the main features of fields.

8
3. Compare these agrarian landscapes by taking into account their characteristics.

4. Draw this table in your notebook and complete it comparing the traditional agrarian systems.

Migratory or slash- Sedentary dryland Irrigated monsoon

SYSTEM
and-burn agriculture agriculture agriculture
LOCATION
ORGANISATION OF THE
AGRARIAN LANDSCAPE
CULTIVATION METHODS
OTHER
CHARACTERISTICS

5. Draw a diagram like this one in the notebook and complete it.

6. Comment the following map.

a. Description: what is shown in the map? Include the key.
b. Interpretation:
i. How is the distribution of the elements of the map? What are the areas with more
elements, and the areas with less?
ii. What factors influence the distribution of the elements, and how?
c. Conclusion: why is this map relevant?

9
7. Link the concepts and characteristics.

a) The percentage give us the relative importance of the sector

in an economy
1. Primary sector b) Its objective is to control the influence of natural factors
2. Silviculture c) Receiving water in addition to what it is received naturally
3. Soil d) Their acidity or alkalinity affect agrarian activities
4. Agrarian policies e) 4,5 % of Spanish population
5. Livestock farming f) Production of animal or plant materials
6. GDP g) Small-scale, near the shore, small production.
7. Irrigated h) They aim to regulate activities encouraging or discouraging
8. Artisanal fishing the production of certain products.
9. Monsoon agriculture i) Very important role of the primary sector
10. Agriculture j) Traditional systems include nomadic and seasonal migration
11. Underdeveloped areas systems
12. Fisheries k) Production of rice
13. Technology l) Areas where the activity takes place. The most important
are in the Pacific and the Atlantic.
m) Exploitation of forests

10
 TEXT – UK could double its
fish catch if quotas allowed
stocks to recover, says study
Following scientific advice on rebuilding
overfished species would double British
catches within a decade creating
thousands more jobs, study suggests
Fiona Harvey. The Guardian. 13 March 2015.
to sustainably manage a vital environmental
Fishermen in the UK could benefit from resource.”
doubled fish catches within a decade and an Fishing quotas are set using historical quotas
expanded industry, if European Union fishing and records, and the size of the fleet in each EU
quotas were in line with scientific advice, a new member state. Ministers meet in Brussels each
study has found. December to wrangle over quotas, but are not
British fleets would be able to land 1.1 billon under an obligation to manage fish stocks without
tonnes of fish a year – up from about 560 million at overfishing.
present – within a decade if scientific advice on re- Under recent reforms to the EU’s common
stocking overfished species were heeded, fisheries policy quotas should be moved to a
according to estimates from the New Economics “maximum sustainable yield”, bringing scientific
Foundation. advice to the fore in setting quotas. However, the
Larger catches, with the revenue that would obligation to work towards a maximum sustainable
accrue to them – an extra €500m (£356m) a year in yield will be phased in gradually over the next five
the UK alone, based on current prices – and years.
thousands of extra jobs could become available if There is dispute over what a maximum
stocks were allowed to recover, because this would sustainable yield is, as scientists and fishermen
bring about higher yields. disagree about the size of fish stocks in European
Larger catches will only come at the cost of waters.
short-term gain, however: if the UK’s quota were to Last December ministers set quotas above
be re-balanced immediately, more than a tenth of scientifically advised limits for nearly two-thirds of
current levels would have to be sacrificed. This the EU’s fish stocks, according to the New
could be much higher for other member states. Economics Foundation report.
This is one of the major reasons why quota Cod and whiting, which are the main species in
negotiations are strongly tilted towards a short- most of the UK’s fishing areas, have good potential
term view. for recovery, the report found, and if they were
Griffin Carpenter, of the New Economics well-managed the stock may rise to levels at which
Foundation, said: “Our analysis shows that better catches are possible, while the UK would
rebuilding fish stocks can result in more jobs, more keep its share of the quota. British fleets would
profits and higher wages. Ministers are wasting benefit from taking the same share of a larger pie.
significant economic potential through their failure

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS IN YOUR NOTEBOOK

1. Why has the EU created fishing quotas? What are they?
2. What consequences would the re-balance of the fishing quotas –lowering them- would have for
British fishermen?
3. Why would scientists and fishermen disagree over the quotas?
4. What criteria should be used for the establishing of fishing quotas in the EU?
5. What is the ‘maximum sustainable yield’?

11
 TEXT – Spain's greenhouse effect: the shimmering sea of polythene
consuming the land
To grow food all year, Almería is cloaked in plastic. But soil-free farming is bringing
prosperity and problems. Giles Tremlett. The Guardian. 21 September, 2005
From the lens of a passing satellite, Almería province greenhouses are too strong to ignore. He points at up
is one of the most recognisable spots on the planet. The to 40kg of pesticide applied per hectare (88lbs per 2.5
roofs of tens of thousands of closely packed plastic acres). "Every time we test the hypothesis, the results
greenhouses form a blanket of mirrored light beaming point the same way." Pesticide-related residues are
into space. now present in umbilical cord blood and placenta. Last
The shimmering surface is down to an agricultural month he exposed an increased risk of cryptorchidism
gold rush that has turned one of Spain's poorest corners (undescended testicles) among boys.
into Europe's largest greenhouse. An area so arid and But it may take 20 years to prove cause and effect.
dusty that it provided the backdrop for spaghetti That, he says, would be too late. "We do not know what
westerns, Almería has made a fortune by covering itself will happen, but we have reasonable doubt."
with a canopy of transparent plastic. Above all, it is a Supermarkets
monument to the way we now grow our food. Almería, British supermarkets are secretive about how much
and the area around it, is Europe's winter market produce comes from Almería. Tesco calls this
garden, spread across 135 square miles. "commercially sensitive information". But Rafael
Antonio Moreno, one of thousands of smallholders Losilla, editor of a local farming magazine, names Tesco,
who have built this plastic jungle, knows how to put Waitrose and Sainsbury's as valued customers. "Britain
fresh tomatoes on British tables in January or is the third-biggest export market after France and
courgettes at Christmas. He grows crops that have no Germany," he says.
direct contact with nature beyond sun, air and water. Supermarkets said rigorous tests and standards
[…] Chemical fertilisers are drip-fed to each plant from imposed on farmers were in place to prevent goods
four large, computer-controlled vats in a nearby room. with excess pesticide residues reaching the shelves. But
He talks proudly of his vats. They hold, he says, Prof. Olea fears potential dangers are being ignored.
potassium nitrate, magnesium and potassium sulphate, "Something may have 10 substances in it that are all at
calcium nitrate and phosphoric acid. "The plants get legal levels, but what does the mixture mean? ... Why
exactly what they need, nothing more and nothing not measure the combined effect of the cocktail?"
less," he says. "There is no waste." However, he recognises UK consumer power has
Swamped been an unexpected force for good. In the 1990s, British
The greenhouses are so successful that they have supermarkets became the first to demand rigorous
swamped the plain of Dalías. Now the sheeting is controls - and pay extra for them. […] Mr Segura says
moving up the valleys of the nearby Alpujarra hills, one farmers look for ways to limit pesticide use. "Biological
of Spain's unspoiled areas. Diggers are also gouging controls" - or getting "good" insects to eat "bad" ones -
terraces in nearby Granada province. is the latest solution. But in the driest corner of a
"They block up dry riverbeds and destroy country struck by severe drought farmers fret more
mountainsides but nobody does anything, however about water. Drip irrigation may cut waste but aquifers
much we complain," says environmentalist Juan are still drying up. Some are so full of intruding
Antonio Martínez. "If there is a serious storm, much of seawater that some crops can no longer be grown.
this will be washed away." As problems arise farmers seek scientific fixes. Soon
[…] There is growing evidence, too, of more serious some will not even need rainwater. A desalination
damage. In his laboratories, Professor Nicolás Olea has plant, turning Mediterranean seawater into freshwater,
detected a link between some pesticides and increased is set to rescue them. That will leave only the sun and
risk of breast cancer in women and testicular problems air untouched by the human hand, or machinery,
in boys. Although this link has not been proved, he says before reaching their plants.
the signs for those who work in or live near the

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS IN YOUR NOTEBOOK

- What is the main idea of the text?
- What are the advantages presented for the use of greenhouses in Almería?
- What are the disadvantages? And the main environmental problems caused by this type of agriculture?
- What do you think that it could be done in order to minimise the disadvantages?
- What are the characteristics of this type of practices? (agricultural landscapes)

12