Unit 2: Thermal Physics

States of Matter & the Kinetic Theory

All matter is made up of tiny particles (molecules) that are moving. The idea that
molecules have a certain kind of motion is called the Kinetic Theory. The way that the
particles are arranged and the way that they move determine the properties of a material,
such as its state at room temperature or it density. Therefore, the kinetic theory can
explain the existence of solid, liquid and gas states.
All substances can exist in any of the three states (phases): solid, liquid or gas. The
increase in particle separation during a change of state from solid to liquid is small,
whereas particle separation during change of state from liquid to gas is large. This particle
separation is responsible for the main physical properties that we observe for any of the
three states, such that:
a) The particles (molecules) in a solid :
o are tightly packed (dense)
o Are held in a fixed pattern or crystal
structure by strong forces between them
(have a fixed shape).
o Have fixed volume and are
incompressible.
o Vibrate around their fixed positions
within the close-packed regular
structure.
 As we heat a solid, the particles vibrate more
quickly. The increase in the kinetic energy of the particles is noticed as an
increase in the temperature of the substance.

b) The particles (molecules) in a liquid:

o Are tightly packed (but have slightly
smaller densities than solids).
o Are not held in fixed positions but are
still bound together by strong forces
between them. Thus, they have a fixed
volume but not a fixed shape.
o Take up the shape of their container
(occupy the lowest part) and are almost
incompressible.
o Move at random with close packed irregular structure.
 As we heat a liquid, the movement of the particles becomes more energetic.

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 1
c) The particles (molecules) in a gas:
o Are very spread out (have much smaller
densities than solids and liquids)
o Have no fixed positions and the forces
between them are very weak. Thus, they
have neither a fixed shape nor a fixed
volume.
o Can fill up all the space available to them
and are compressible.
o Move with a rapid, random motion.
o Bump into anything in the gas or into the
walls of the container, and forces caused by these collisions are
responsible for the pressure the gas exerts.

Summary of the properties of solids, liquids and gases:

Property Solids Liquids Gases

Attractive forces Very strong attractive strong attractive

Negligible attractive forces
between molecules forces forces

Spacing between molecules are closely molecules are loosely

Molecules are far apart
molecules packed packed

Vibrate about a fixed Move around while Move with rapid, random
Motion of molecules
position sliding past each other motion

Not fixed, take up the

shape Fixed Not fixed
shape of the container

Can be easily
no no yes
compressed

relative density high high low

can flow (fluid) no yes yes

expands to fill all

no no yes
available space

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 2
Brownian motion:
Is an evidence for the continual motion of particles in a liquid or a gas.
**It shows that massive particles may be moved by light, fast moving particles**
Procedure of the experiment:
1) Fill the smoke cell (or glass cell) with smoke.
2) Replace the lid on the cell and set it on the
microscope platform.
3) Switch on the lamp; focus the light on the
smoke.
Observation:
Finding bright specks of light moving about in a random
jerky way “zigzag random motion”.
Explanation:
 The bright specks are the smoke particles seen by reflected light, which are
bombarded by the much smaller air molecules.
 Sometimes there will be more collisions on one side of the smoke particle than on
another; the resultant force makes the smoke particle change its direction or speed
of movement and remain suspended in air.

Conclusion:
The air molecules are: very tiny, moving randomly about and their motion is much
faster than that of the smoke particles.
The same experiment can be carried out by sprinkling some pollen grains in water and
observing the motion of the pollen grains.

Temperature:
The temperature of a body tells us how hot the body is. The temperature of a substance
is related to the motion of its molecules.
If energy is gained by a substance, its particles move faster. If energy is lost, its
particles move slower. Accordingly, temperature is a measure of the average kinetic
energy of the molecules of a body.

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 3
 Example:
Molecules in liquid water move faster than molecules in ice. Therefore, liquid water has more
energy than ice. Steam has higher temperature than liquid water, so molecules in steam have more
energy than molecules in liquid water. A transfer of energy, known as heat, causes the temperature
of a substance to change, which can also lead to a change of state.
 A substance is heated and its temperature does not rise. Is this possible?
Yes, in one of two cases: a) rate of heat loss = rate of heat gain (thermal equilibrium)
OR b) the substance is experiencing a change of state.
Thermal Expansion:
Generally, when matter is heated, it expands (volume increases). When it is cooled, it contracts.
Higher temperatures of a substance mean greater speed of molecules and bigger vibrations.
Accordingly, spacing between molecules increases causing expansion.
a) Expansion in solids:
The expansion of solid materials is often a nuisance. So, the effects of expansion must be well
considered in objects’ design. Example:
 For railway tracks: Gaps are left between lengths of rail to allow for expansion in summer.
 For cables: provide sagging between telephone poles to allow for contraction of cables.

b) Expansion of liquids:
The expansion of a liquid can be demonstrated using the apparatus shown. The flask is heated
by placing it in hot water. At first, the level of the liquid in the tube may fall slightly because
the glass flask expands before the heat gets through to the liquid. Eventually, the liquid does
warm through and it expands up the tube to the level shown. This shows that liquids expand
much more than solids do.
Also if the same experiment is repeated with a gas in the flask instead, the rise in the level will
be much more, proving that gases expand much more than liquids do.

Making use of expansion:

 Opening the metal cap of a glass/plastic bottle.

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 4
 Thermometers
Temperature is measured using a thermometer. There are several types of thermometers. Any
thermometer must have some physical property that varies with temperature to be used for the
measurement of temperature. Examples of such properties are:
 The volume of a fixed mass of a liquid – commonly mercury or alcohol
 The pressure of a gas at constant volume.
 The resistance of a pure metal.
 The voltage produced by a thermocouple.
Temperature Scales and calibration of thermometers: inventing any temperature scale is based
on choosing two fixed temperatures called the upper and lower fixed points. Those two points
should be easily obtainable to be able to calibrate the thermometer.
Once we have marked the fixed points on the stem, we can divide the space between them into 100
equal lengths. Equal lengths can also be added above and below the fixed points to measure
temperatures outside these points.
a) Celsius scale:
Temperatures are measured in ºC.
Lower fixed point: the temperature of pure melting ice (0 ºC).
Upper fixed point: the temperature of steam from boiling water at normal atmospheric pressure
(100 ºC).

b) Kelvin scale:
Kelvin scale is another scale for temperature, commonly used in physics, starting with 0 K
which is called the absolute zero. Absolute zero is believed to be the lowest possible
temperature, which is equivalent to -273°C. At this temperature, all the molecules of any
substance have no kinetic energy and stop vibrating.

To convert temperatures from °C to K:

𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐾 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℃ + 273
𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℃ = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐾 − 273

Liquid in glass thermometer:

Liquid in glass thermometers use the fact that liquids expand when heated, so the liquid in the glass
bulb expands by moving up the capillary tube next to the scale and vice versa.

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 5
Properties of thermometers:

1) Sensitivity: it is the change in length per unit change in temperature.

A thermometer is sensitive when it gives a large change in reading for a small change in
temperature.
To increase sensitivity:
a) Reduce the diameter of the capillary tube.
b) Increase the size of the bulb.
c) Use a liquid with higher expansivity.

2) Response time: this is the time taken for a thermometer to reach the temperature of its
surroundings.
To reduce response time:
a) Liquid contained in a thin wall glass bulb.
b) Bulb contains small amount of liquid, so smaller bulb.
c) Use a liquid with higher conductivity.

3) Range: this gives difference between the minimum and the maximum temperatures a
thermometer can measure.
To increase the range:
a) Increase the length of the capillary tube.
b) Increase the diameter of the capillary tube.
c) Freezing and boiling points of the liquid affect the range.

4) Linearity: When the scale divisions will be equally spaced (so the scale is easier to calibrate) or
when the change in volume of the liquid is uniform with temperature.

 Clinical Thermometers:
The range of temperatures that clinical thermometers can measure is from 35 C to 42 C only. In
case of lab thermometers, the range is wider. This short range allows for a shorter stem and
higher sensitivity.

The clinical thermometer has a narrow

constriction just above the bulb. This
prevents contracting mercury from
flowing back into the bulb when the
thermometer is taken out of the mouth for
the temperature to be read.

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 6
Thermometric liquids:

The two thermometric liquids that are normally used in a liquid in glass thermometer are mercury
and alcohol. The reason for this is that both liquids expand uniformly (i.e. linearly) with
temperature.

Point of Comparison Comparison between Mercury and Alcohol

Expansivity The expansivity of alcohol is more, its thermometer is more
sensitive.
Conductivity The conductivity of mercury is better, its thermometer has
shorter response time.
Boiling point The boiling point of mercury is higher, its thermometer can
measure higher temperatures.
Freezing point The freezing point of alcohol is lower, its thermometer can
measure lower temperatures.

Measuring a temperature with a thermocouple:

Thermocouples consist of two wires of different metals, e.g. copper and iron, joined together at
the end to form two junctions. When one junction is at higher temperature than the other, an e.m.f
(potential difference/voltage) is induced. This voltage difference is proportional to the temperature
difference and produces a deflection on a milli-voltmeter (or milli-ammeter or galvanometer due
to flowing current). The meter can be calibrated to give value of temperature. In practice, one
junction is kept at a fixed known temperature such a pure melting ice.

Wire A (iron)
Wire B (copper)

Advantages of a thermocouple:
1) Measures rapidly varying temperatures (quick response time) since it has low thermal capacity.

2) Suitable for measuring a wide range of temperatures.

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 7
 Properties of Gases
Gases are made up of particles that are spread out and constantly moving in a random, haphazard
way. Since gases do not have a fixed volume (as they fill up their container), it is relatively hard to
picture a gas. So, it is easier to think about a fixed amount (mass) of a gas and picture it in a
container (e.g. air trapped in a flask).
Through this part, we are going to consider three properties to be measured for a fixed mass of a
gas (in a sealed container): pressure, volume and temperature.
Pressure of a Gas:
The pressure of a gas is due to the elastic collisions (no loss of kinetic energy) of the gas molecules
which the walls of the container.
Since the molecules in a gas are in a continuous, fast and random motion, they are colliding
repeatedly with the container surface. Each time a molecule hits the container surface, it exerts a
small force on the surface which causes the pressure of the gas. The effect millions of molecules
colliding with the surface every second means a greater average force and therefore an even
pressure to be exerted on the surface.

 Factors which determine the pressure of a gas:

1. The speed with which the molecules hit the walls. As the speed increases, the molecules will
collide harder with the walls. This depends on the average kinetic energy of the molecules
which in turn depends on the temperature.
2. The frequency of collisions with the walls (number of collisions per second).

The Gas Laws:

To study the behavior of a fixed mass of a gas, we have to consider its pressure as well as its
volume and temperature. To find the laws linking those parameters experimentally, each one is
kept constant in turn while the relation between the other two is investigated.
1. Relation between pressure and volume at constant temperature:
In this experiment, air is trapped in a syringe. The volume of the air is reduced and the pressure is
measured. It is found that the pressure increases as the volume decreases.

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 8
  According to the kinetic theory this is due to:
Increase in the frequency of collisions.
(If the gas is kept at the same temperature, the average speed of the particles stays the same. If the
same number of particles is squeezed into a smaller volume, they will hit the container walls more
often. Each particle exerts a tiny force on the wall with which it collides. More collisions per
second means a greater average force on the wall, therefore a greater pressure).
Accordingly, the pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume
provided the temperature of the gas is kept constant.
1
𝑃∝
𝑉
𝑃₁𝑉₁ = 𝑃₂𝑉₂

1
Figure (b) shows a straight line passing through the origin, indicating that 𝑃 is proportional to .
𝑉

2. Relation between pressure and temperature at constant volume:

In this experiment, air is enclosed in a sealed piston in order to keep its volume constant and the
temperature of the air is increased. It is found that the pressure increases with temperature.

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 9
  According to the kinetic theory this is due to:
The speed of the molecules increases, thus they collide harder and more frequent
with the walls of the container.
(The number of gas particles and the volume they occupy remain constant. When the gas is heated,
the particles continue to move randomly, but with higher average speed. Thus their collisions with
the walls of the container are harder and happen more often. This results in the average pressure
exerted by the particles increasing).
Accordingly, the pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature provided the volume of the gas is kept constant.

𝑃∝𝑇
N.B.: T must be in Kelvin
𝑃₁ 𝑃₂
=
𝑇₁ 𝑇₂

The following figure shows that:

As we cool the gas, the pressure keeps decreasing (the

straight line does not pass through the origin). If the
straight line is interpolated, the pressure of the gas
cannot become less than zero. This suggests that there is
a temperature below which it is not possible to cool the
gas further. This temperature is the “absolute zero” = -
273℃.

The Kelvin temperature of a gas is proportional to the average kinetic energy of its molecules. At
the absolute zero the particles have no movement energy, so they cannot exert pressure.

Since plotting pressure against temperature using the Kelvin scale, gives a straight line passing
through the origin, therefore: The pressure of a gas is proportional to its Kelvin temperature.

E.g. if you heat a gas from 200 K (-73℃) to 400

K (127℃), its pressure will double.

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 10
 3. Relation between volume and temperature at constant pressure (expansion law):

In this experiment, the air trapped in the piston is free to expand or contract (piston is free to
move), so its pressure is always constant. It is found that the volume increases when the
temperature increases.

 According to the kinetic theory this is due to:

As temperature increases, the speed of molecules increases and they collide harder.
However, the frequency of collisions decreases due to the increase in the volume of the
gas. As a result the pressure remains constant.

Accordingly, the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature provide the pressure of the gas is kept constant.
𝑉₁ 𝑉₂
N.B. T must be in Kelvin. =
𝑇₁ 𝑇₂

 Combining the three gas laws:

By combining the three equations relating P, V and T, we obtain the general gas law:

𝑃₁𝑉₁ 𝑃₂𝑉₂
=
𝑇₁ 𝑇₂
N.B.:

 P1 and P2 must have the same units.

 V1 and V2 must have the same units.
 T1 and T2 must be in Kelvin.

Methods of Energy Transfer:

There are three methods by which energy is transferred:

1) Waves: energy is transferred through vibrations of particles or through electromagnetic waves.

2) Heating: Heat energy is transferred from one body to another due to the difference in their
temperatures.

3) Work: when an object moves through a distance in the direction of the applied force.

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 11
 Heat/Thermal Energy Transfer

Thermal or heat energy is a form of energy possessed by “hot” matter. Hot, here, is a relative term.
Thermal energy travels from a body/place that is hotter (at a higher temperature) to a body/place
that is colder (at a lower temperature). Thus, the cold object warms up by receiving heat energy
and the hot object cools down by losing heat energy till thermal equilibrium takes place.
The transfer of thermal energy between bodies/places that have different temperatures can occur in
three ways: conduction, convection and radiation.
Conduction:
Thermal conduction is the transfer of thermal (heat) energy through a substance
without the substance itself moving.
There are 2 methods by which conduction can take place:
1) Collisions between neighboring particles:
When heat is applied to a substance, the kinetic energy of its atoms increases so their vibrations get
bigger. The vibrating atoms bump into neighboring atoms and pass on their kinetic energy. These
atoms then pass on their kinetic energy to atoms close to them and so on. In such way, the heat
energy moves through the substance. Conduction takes place in solids, liquids and gases, but it
works best in solids as their molecules are closer together.
2) Flow of free electrons (for heat conductors only):
Metals are the best solids for conducting heat since they have free moving electrons. When a metal
is heated these free electrons gain kinetic energy and move towards the other cooler parts of the
metal, accordingly, spreading the energy to these cooler parts. This process is fast and that’s why
all metals are good conductors of heat.
Poor Conductors:
They do not possess free moving electrons. When such substances are heated, the kinetic energy of
the molecules increases and they move faster and bump into their neighboring molecules giving
them part of their kinetic energy. Here, this is a much slower process, that’s why these substances
are called poor conductors or insulators of heat.
Generally, most non-metal solids, almost all liquids (except
mercury) and gases are poor conductors of heat.

This figure shows that water is a poor conductor of heat.

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 12
 General rule:
 Conduction in solids is better than in liquids than in gases.
 Liquids (e.g. water) and gases (e.g. air) are poor conductors as the spacing between their
molecules is much greater than in solids.
 All metals are good conductors of heat, due to presence of free electrons
 Vacuum does not conduct heat, as there are no molecules in vacuum to pass the kinetic energy
on.
 During heat transfer by conduction, the molecules do not change their positions within the
substance.

Uses of good conductors and insulators of heat:

In cases where heat is required to be transferred quickly, we use good conductors (e.g. copper,
aluminium, iron and steel) as in saucepans, pipes and boilers of a solar panel, pipes in a domestic
heater.
In other cases where it is required to prevent heat energy from entering inside or escaping outside,
we use insulators (e.g. wood, plastic, cork) as in:
 Handles of saucepans, could be made of wood.
 Double glazed windows where a layer of air (best insulator) is trapped between two layers of
glass to keep the house warm in winter and cool in summer.
 Materials that trap air, such as, wool, fur and feather are very poor conductors and can be
used as “lagging” to insulate water pipes, ducts and pipes in central heating systems, ovens,
refrigerators and walls.

Convection:
Convection is the transfer of heat through fluids (liquids and gases) by the upward
movement of warmer, less dense regions of fluid.

Liquids and gases may be poor conductors of heat, but they can rapidly carry heat from one place
to another if they are free to circulate.

When a mass of liquid (or gas) is heated, the heated liquid

expands and become less dense than the colder surrounding
liquid (i.e. molecules gain kinetic energy, move faster and further
apart so take up more volume), so it floats up to the top of the
container. Colder liquid sinks to take its place, and is then heated
too. At the top, the warm liquid starts to cool, becomes denser
again and will begin to sink, so a circulating current is set up in
the liquid. This is called convection current.

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 13
 Convector heaters heat air which floats out of the
top of the heater to the top of the room. Cold air is
drawn in at the bottom and is heated. Then, heat
energy is eventually transferred to all parts of the
room.
Cold objects also produce convection currents. So,
the freezing compartment of a refrigerator is
positioned at the top, such that cold air will sink
down and warm air rises up to be re-chilled.

Convection causes the onshore and offshore winds which blow on the coast during summer.
During a hot day, the land heats up more quickly than the sea. Warmer air rises above the land and
cooler air blows in from the sea. At night, the land loses heat more rapidly than the sea. Warmer air
now rises above the sea and cooler air blows out from the shore.

To sum up: the direction of the sea breeze varies with the relative temperature of the land and the
sea. During the day: the breeze is towards the shore. During the night: the breeze is towards the
sea.

Why heat transfer by convection is possible in liquids and gases?

Because the molecules of liquids or gases are free to move around so they can transfer the heat
through convection currents.

Accordingly:
 Convection cannot occur in solids as the molecules are not free to move about within the solid
structure.
 Convection cannot occur in vacuum as there are no molecules to transfer heat by convection.
 Convection cannot occur if the fluid is heated at the top rather than at the bottom. The warmer,
less dense fluid simply stays at the top.

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 14
Radiation:

Thermal radiation is the transfer of energy by infra-red (IR) waves.

Unlike conduction and convection (both need matter to occur), radiation can occur in vacuum. In
radiation, heat energy is transferred by infra-red waves – one of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Radiation is emitted by all objects in all directions, at the speed of light (3×10 8 m/s). The amount
of radiation emitted depends on the surface temperature and surface area of the body, so the
hotter the object, the more heat energy it radiates.
It is important that heat can travel in this way, without the need for matter; otherwise we would not
receive heat, as well as light, from the Sun. Thus, radiation is the only way heat reaches us from
the Sun.

IR waves can be reflected and absorbed by different materials, just like visible light.

 Highly polished (silvered) shiny (light colored) surfaces

are good reflectors (poor absorbers) of thermal radiation. Dull
matt black and dark surfaces are poor reflectors (good
absorbers) of heat radiation. (e.g. better to wear bright white
clothes in summer as they reflect the heat and reduce
absorption of heat energy).
 Shiny silvered surfaces are poor emitters and poor
absorbers, whereas dull matt black
 (dark) surfaces are good emitters and good absorbers. (e.g.
cooling fins on the back of the refrigerator).

Experiment 1: Good and bad emitters of radiation:

Comparing the emission of different surfaces is shown in

the opposite figure:
1. One side of the metal cube is painted white, another
matt (dull) black, the third is shiny black and the
fourth is shiny silver.
2. The metal cube is filled with hot water which heats all
the surfaces of the cube to the same temperature.
3. A blackened bulb thermometer (or a thermopile) is
placed at the same distance from each surface and the
meter readings are compared.
The thermometer in front of the matt black surface is found to give the highest temperature
whereas the one in front of the shiny silvered surface gives the lowest temperature.

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 15
 Conclusion:
Dull dark matt surfaces are the best emitters; shiny mirror-like surfaces are the poorest emitters.

Experiment 2: Good and bad absorbers of radiation:

Comparing the absorption of different surfaces is shown in the opposite

figure:
1. Two flasks are used, one covered with dull (matt) black paint and
the other with shiny white paint.
2. Both flasks contain the same amount of water, at the same
temperature and are placed at equal distances from a radiant heater.

Results:
The temperature of the water in the flask with the dull black surface is
found to rise significantly more than the flask with the light shiny
surface.

Conclusion:
Dull dark matt surfaces are the best absorbers; shiny mirror-like surfaces are the poorest.

Applications on Heat Transfer:

1) Vacuum flask:
A vacuum flask has several features to reduce flow of
thermal energy, and will keep liquids hot (or cold) for
several hours.
 Transfer by conduction is minimized by making the
flask double-walled glass vessel with vacuum
between the walls.
 Heat loss by convection and evaporation is reduced
by using a stopper.
 Radiation is reduced by silvering both walls on the
vacuum side.

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 16
2) Solar panels:
A solar panel has several features that maximize the
flow of thermal energy:
 The transparent cover traps the solar radiation in the
manner of a green house.
 The heat absorbing surface is painted black to
improve the rate of absorption of radiation.
 The pipes beneath the heat absorbing surface are
made of metal for faster and better conduction of
heat to the water.
 The pipes are coiled to increase surface area and
therefore rate of heat transfer.

3) Energy-efficient houses (Home insulation):

Energy efficiency means using as much as possible of the energy we produce for the desired
purpose. So good insulation can prevent a lot of heat energy from escaping and keep the inside of
the house warm during winter. Insulation can also prevent the house from becoming uncomfortably
hot during summer.

 Two-layered wall with the cavity filled with insulation panels (made of glass fibres) or foam:
reduce heat loss by conduction (thermal bricks are good insulators and panels trap a lot of air)
and by convection (the gap is filled; no circulating air) and by radiation (the panels are surfaced
with aluminium foil that reflects IR radiation).

Glass fiber insulating

wool is used to stop
convection currents in
the air gap transferring
heat energy

 Windows are double or triple glazed: two or three layers of glass with vacuum in between or
with a moderate layer of air trapped in-between (if air layer is too thin: insulation effect is
reduced and if the air layer is too thick: convection currents will circulate). This reduces heat

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 17
 loss by conduction, convection and not radiation (if special glass which increases the
greenhouse effect is used – radiation will be reduced).

 Loft (roof) insulation: fiberglass wool (panels) with reflective foil laid across the whole loft
floor trapping a thick layer of air, where air is a poor conductor and at the same time preventing
convection currents and reducing radiation.

 Draught proofing: strips of foam and plastic around doors and windows stop draughts of cold
air blowing in and prevent warm air from leaving, i.e. reduce convection.

 Thermostats and computer control systems for central heating: they stop rooms being heated too
much by switching off the heat when reaching a certain temperature.

 Hot water tank jacket: lagging such as fiberglass wool reduces conduction and radiation from
the hot water tank.

 Think curtains: prevent cold air from entering and warm air from leaving, so reduce heat loss by
conduction and radiation.

4) Insulating people and animals:

Clothes that trap air around the body provide insulation because the trapped air cannot circulate
and is a very poor conductor. A large proportion of body heat is lost from the head, so hats are the
human equivalent of loft insulation.
Wind can cause rapid heat loss from the body by forced convection where air circulates close to the
body surface. Also, perspiration help the body lose heat by evaporation, causing rapid cooling.

When people lose heat at too great rate they may become hypothermic, to prevent this: people
rescued from mountains or marathon runners are wrapped in thin, highly reflective blankets. The
interior reflective surface reflects heat back to their bodies while the outer reflective surface is a
poor radiator of heat.

Animals have other ways for keeping warm: birds fluff up their feathers in winter to increase the
thickness of the trapped air layer around their bodies, so reduces conduction. Penguins huddle
together for warmth. Other animals will curl into small balls; this minimizes the body’s surface
area exposed to the cold so reducing heat loss.

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 18
Evaporation:
a) Explaining evaporation:
For a liquid to be changed into a gas, it does not have
to boil. But it gradually starts to turn into a gas below
its boiling point as the liquid evaporates, in a process
of evaporation.

Evaporation is what makes clothes dry and rain puddles disappear even on a cold day.
Liquids evaporate because some of their molecules move much faster than others.

According to the kinetic theory: Liquids evaporate due to presence of the most energetic
molecules at the surface (they are much faster than the rest). When these molecules possess
enough energy to overcome the attraction of their neighbouring molecules, they escape off the
liquid surface and become in gaseous state.

b) Cooling effect:
During evaporation, the liquid loses its most energetic molecules, leaving behind the less
energetic ones. Therefore, the average kinetic energy of the remaining molecules decreases,
accordingly, the liquid’s temperature decreases. This explains the cooling of a body in contact
with an evaporating liquid. This is known as cooling effect due to evaporation.
The cooling effect due to evaporation is more obvious in volatile liquids, which evaporate
rapidly at room temperature (e.g. alcohol).

c) To make a liquid evaporate more rapidly:

1. Temperature of the liquid: as it increases, the rate of evaporation increases. This is because
the molecules move faster, so more of them have enough energy to eascape from the liquid
within the same time.
2. Surface area of the liquid: as it increases, the rate of evaporation increases. As this gives
the faster molecules a greater chance of escaping. E.g. wet roads dry out quickly.
3. Air currents over the surface of the liquid: as it increases (increase draught), the rate of
evaporation increases. When air moves across a liquid surface, it carries away molecules
escaping from the liquid and reduces their chances of returning to it. This is why wet
washing dries quickly on a windy day.
4. Humidity: as it increases, the rate of evaporation decreases. Otherwise, Molecules escaping
from a liquid have lower chances of returning to it if the humidity is low.
5. Atmospheric pressure: as it increases, the rate of evaporation decreases.

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 19
6. Evaporation versus Boiling:

1. Evaporation happens at a range of temperatures while boiling happens at a definite

temperature which is the boiling point.
2. Evaporation occurs from the surface of the liquid only (by escape of energetic surface
molecules) while boiling occurs throughout the whole liquid (by escape of energetic surface
and bottom molecules).
3. In evaporation there are no bubbles while in boiling there are.

Heat Energy Measurements & Calculations

1. Heating and change of temperature

Heat capacity and specific heat capacity:

Some materials are more difficult to heat up than others. They have a greater capacity for
absorbing thermal energy i.e. greater “heat capacity”.

Specific heat capacity (c):

It is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 Kelvin (or 1
ºC). It is measured in J/kgºC or J/kgK.

When there is no change of state, the heat lost or gained by an object can be calculated using this
formula:
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
Where:

 E is the quantity of heat energy, measured in J. note that heat energy supplied by an electric
heater is given by: 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
 m is the mass of the object in g or kg
 c is the specific heat capacity of the material in J/kgºC or J/kgK.
 ΔT is the change in temperature in ºC or K since as the change in temperature of 1 ºC equals
the change in temperature of 1 K and is always expressed as (Tf - Ti).

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 20
Heat capacity (mc):
It is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of a whole body by 1 Kelvin (or 1 ºC). It
is measured in J/ºC or J/K. Note that thermal capacity might mean mc rather than c; depending on
the context of the question.

Finding specific heat capacities:

i) Liquid (e.g. water)

 Record the power of the electric heater.

 Find the mass (m) of the water contained in the aluminium pan.
i) using a top-pan balance, measure and record the mass (m1) of the empty pan.
ii) pour some water and record the new mass (m2)
iii) the mass (m) of water = m2 – m1

 Using a thermometer, measure and record the initial temperature of water (Ti) before
switching on the heater.
 Start the stop watch as you switch on the heater.
 After a certain time, switch off the heater, record the time (t) on the stop watch and record the
final temperature (Tf).
N.B. if the temperature rise is too large then too much heat will be lost.
 Calculate the temperature rise ∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 and the quantity of energy supplied as heat
 The specific heat capacity can be calculated using the following formula:
𝑃𝑡
𝐶=
𝑚(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 )

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 21
ii) Metal solid (e.g. Aluminium);

A similar method can be used to calculate the specific heat capacity of a solid except that the
heater and the thermometer are placed in holes drilled in the solid block. Place the electric heater
in the central hole and the thermometer in the other hole.

N.B. we would expect a higher value of ( c ) from data obtained from this experiment as
compared to the true value. This is because a lot of heat is lost to the surroundings (such as air,
container and thermometer) during heating. This heat loss may be reduced by insulation. This
can be achieved by wrapping with a thermal insulating material like expanded polystyrene and
covering it with a lid to minimize heat loss to the surroundings by convection).

2. Heating and change of state

When substances gain or lose energy, one of two things happens to the substance: its temperature
changes OR its state changes. Putting heat energy into a solid does not necessarily increase its
temperature. It may make the solid change into a liquid and similarly heat may make the liquid
change into a gas.

 Melting is the change of state from a solid to a liquid. The melting point of a substance is the
temperature at which the substance changes from a solid to a liquid. Most substances have a
unique melting point that can be used to identify them (a characteristic property of a substance).

During melting, some of the forces between the molecules are broken so energy is required to
achieve this. Similarly, when a liquid is heated to its boiling point, it changes state into
gas. Once again, energy is needed to do this. Like the melting point, the boiling point is a
characteristic property of a substance.

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 Freezing is the reverse process of melting. It is the change of state from a liquid to a solid
(sometimes called solidification). During freezing, some bonds are formed between the
molecules and energy is released to do this.

 Condensation is the change of state from gas to liquid, during which energy is also released and
bonds are formed.

The temperature at which a liquid changes into a solid is its freezing point. Freezing and melting
occur at the same temperature. Water, as an example, freezes at the same temperature that ice melts
at, 0 ºC.

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 23
 3. Latent heat

i) Specific latent heat of vaporization (LV):

It is the amount of heat energy needed to change 1 kg of a substance from liquid to vapor
without any temperature change.
It is measured in J/kg or J/g
𝐸 = 𝑚 𝐿𝑣

Finding the latent heat of vaporization of water (also called the specific latent heat of steam):

1) Record the power (P) of the electric heater.

2) Nearly fill a beaker with hot water and weigh it, m1. Fit the beaker into a lagging jacket.
3) Insert the heater to heat the water until it just begins to boil. At the same moment start the stop
watch.
4) After several minutes, switch off the heater, read the stop watch and record the time of heating
(t).
5) Remove the heater and lagging and weigh the beaker again, m2.
6) Calculate the mass of water converted into steam 𝑚 = 𝑚1 − 𝑚2
7) Calculate the quantity of energy supplied as heat 𝐸 = 𝑃𝑡
𝑃𝑡
8) Use the equation 𝐿 = to calculate the specific latent heat of vaporization of water.
𝑚

N.B. in this experiment, heat is lost to the surroundings so we would expect a higher value
of (L) from this experiment as compared to the true value.

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 24
ii) Specific latent heat of fusion (Lf):
it is the amount of energy needed to change 1 kg of this substance from solid to liquid
without temperature change.
It is measured in J/kg or J/g
𝐸 = 𝑚𝐿𝑓
Finding the specific latent heat of fusion of ice:

1) Record the power (P) of the electric heater.

2) Using a top-pan balance, measure and record the mass (m1) of the empty beaker.
3) Without the funnel resting on the beaker, place the apparatus above the beaker.
4) Switch on the electric heater and when ice starts dripping (begins to melt) start your stop watch.
5) After several minutes, switch off the heater, stop your stop watch and record the new mass
reading on the balance (m2).
6) Calculate the mass of the melted ice (ice converted into water) 𝑚 = 𝑚1 − 𝑚2
7) Calculate the quantity of energy supplied as heat 𝐸 = 𝑃𝑡
𝑃𝑡
8) Use the equation 𝐿 = to calculate the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
𝑚

N.B. In this experiment, heat is absorbed from the surroundings. So, we would expect a lower
value of (L) from this experiment as compared to the true value.
This is because in a warm room, some ice will melt with energy received from the room, not the
heater.

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 25
To allow for this, you should repeat the experiment twice, for the same length of time: once with
the heater off and once with the heater on. The first experiment tells how much ice melted by
absorbing heat from the room. The ice actually melted by the heater is the difference between the
masses in the two experiments.
Explaining Latent heat:
i) Fusion:
Latent heat of fusion is the energy that enables the molecules of a solid to overcome the
intermolecular forces that hold them in place. When this energy exceeds a certain value, the
molecules break free.
ii) Vaporization:
Latent heat of vaporization the energy that enables the molecules of a liquid to overcome the
forces holding them together, separate molecules and give them freedom to move around
independently as gas molecules.

4. Heating curves
If we take an ice cube at -25 C as an example, and we start heating it, the following curve is
obtained (by plotting temperature against time).

 Where the line is horizontal it shows that energy is being absorbed with no change of
temperature; this corresponds to a change of state. This is because while a substance changes
state, its temperature does not change until the change in state is complete. This happens during
the second (melting) and fourth (boiling) stages.
 Note that boiling takes more time than melting, so boiling requires more energy than melting
(this means that more work is done during vaporization as compared to melting). This is
because more forces (between the molecules) need to be broken down and the increase in
average separation between the atoms is much more.

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 26
 5. Internal Energy

Molecules of any substance possess two kinds of energies; kinetic energy and potential energy.
The internal energy of a piece of matter is the sum of the kinetic energy and potential energy of
all the molecules that make up this piece of matter.

A rise in the temperature of a body leads to an increase in its internal energy due to an increase in
the kinetic energy of molecules. Whereas, when a substance changes state, its temperature remains
constant, so the kinetic energy of the molecules remains unchanged. The energy supplied during
change of state increases the potential energy of the molecules.

Unit 2: Thermal Physics – IGCSE Physics 0625– Dr. Eman Salama Page 27