Development of the Periodic Table

Dobereiner's Triad
Newland's Laws of Octaves
Lother Meyer's Arrangement
Mendeleev's Periodic Table

Importance of Mendeleev's Periodic Table

Defects of Mendeleev's Periodic Table
Modern Periodic Table
Imp Properties and Periodic Trends

Classification of Elements Ionisation Enthalpy

Factors Governing Ionisation Energy
and Periodicity in Properties Variation of Ionisation Enthalpy

Electron Gain Enthalpy

Factors Affecting Electron Gain Enthalpy

Periodic Trends
Valency
General Characteristics of Block Elements
Mendeleev's Periodic table

On the basis of this periodic law, Mendeleev arranged all the known elements in the
form of a table known as the periodic table.
(Mendeleev's periodic table: see in NCERT)

The horizontal rows in the periodic table are called periods and the vertical columns
are called groups. The original periodic table by Mendeleev had six periods and eight
groups. In his table, each group is further subdivided into two sub groups, are marked
A and B groups except eight.

the Mendeleev's classification gave him so much confidence that he boldly left certain
spaces or gaps for undiscovered elements. Later on when these elements were
discovered their properties were found to be exactly similar to those predicted by
Mendeleev, eg. gallium and germanium were not discovered

Eka Aluminum Gallium Eka Silicon Germanium

Property

Atomic Mass 68 70 72 72.6

Density (gm/cm3) 5.9 5.94 5.5 5.36

Melting Point (K) Low 30.2 high 1231

Formula of Oxide M2O3 Ga2O3 MO2 GeO2

Formula of Chloride Mcl3 GaCl3 MCl4 GeCl4

Importance of Mendeleev's Periodic table

Mendeleev's periodic table was one of the greatest achievements in the

development of chemistry. Some of the important contributions of his periodic
table:

1.) Systematic study of the elements- Knowing the properties of one element in a
group, the properties of others can be easily guessed

2.) Correction of atomic masses- e, Beryllium was corrected from 13.5 to 9

3.) Prediction of new elements- At the time of Mendeleev only 56 elements were
known, while arranging these elements he left some gaps.
 DEFECTS OF MENDELEEV'S PERIODIC TABLE

1.) Position of hydrogen

2.) Anomalous pairs- In certain pairs of elements, the increasing order of

atomic masses was not obeyed, in these cases Mendeleev placed metals
according to similarities in their properties and not in order of their atomic
masses eg, CO (58.9) is placed before NI (58.0)

3.) Position of isotopes- According to Mendeleev's classification, these should

be placed at different places depending upon their atomic masses, but
isotopes have not been given separate places in the periodic table. eg.
(hydrogen)

4.) Some similar elements are separated and some dissimilar elements are
grouped together:-
eg. Cu and Hg - different group
Li,Na,K - Cu,Ag,Au - same group

5.) Position of lanthanides and actinides- not given

MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

Mosley by X-ray experiment he observed that the frequency which are

emitted by elements is proportional to their atomic no not on atomic mass.

Through this experiment, Mosley

concluded that atomic are the
fundamental property of the atom.

The Physical and chemical properties

of these elements are periodic
functions of their atomic numbers.
 THE LONG FORM OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

The long form of periodic table consists of horizontal rows called periods
and vertical columns turned as groups.

1.) Periods- A horizontal row in a periodic table is called a period. There

are 7 periods and each period starts with a different quantum number.
First period- 2 elements
Second Period- 8 elements
Third period - 8 elements
4th period- 18 elements
5th period- 18 elements
6th period- 32 elements
7th period- Incomplete containing only 19 elements

The periodicity occurs at regular intervals of 2,8,8,18,18 and 32 these

numbers are called magic numbers.
First three periods- Short period
Next three- Long periods

2.) Group- A vertical column in a periodic table is called a group.

18 groups- 1 to 18

SOME IMPORTANT PROPERTIES AND THEIR PERIODIC TRENDS

1.) Atomic radii - The size of the atom is significant because many physical and
chemical properties are related to it. Atomic radius means the distance from
the center of the nucleus to the outermost valence shell.

However, it is difficult to determine the exact radius of the atom, for the
reasons are:
an atom does not have a well-defined boundary
It is not possible to isolate an atom and measure its radius
size of the atom also changes from one bonded state to another.
So atomic radius is defined as the distance of the closest approach of one
atom to another in a given bonding situation
 Covalent Radius- half of the distance between the centers of the nuclei
of two similar atoms bonded by a single covalent bond
For Homonuclear: covalent radius= (internuclear distance)/2

VARIATION OF ATOMIC RADII IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

i.) Variation in a period: In general atomic radii decrease with an increase

in atomic number (going from left to right) in a period.

Reason- increasing nuclear charge along a period

Li Be B C N O F Ne
order Ne>Li>Be>B>C>N<O>F
in the case of Ne ( noble gas elements ), the atomic radius
abruptly increases this is because of the reason that the values
for other elements are covalent radii while the value for Ne is
Van der waal's forces.

ii.) Variation in a group: The atomic radii of elements increases from top to
bottom down the group. When we move down the group no of shells
increases as well as the nuclear charge The no shells is dominant over
nuclear charge so the size increases

2.) Ionic radii - The ions are formed as a result of the addition or removal of
electrons from the outermost shell of atoms.
Ions formed by the loss of electrons acquire a positive charge called
cations while the ions formed by the gain of electrons get a negative
charge and are called anions.
The effective distance from the nucleus of the ion up to which it has an
influence on the ionic bond.

Two Important generalization

1. The radius of the positive ion (cation) is less than the parent atom.
2. The radius of negative ion (anion) is larger than that of the parent atom
 The radius of cation is less than that of atoms

e=12 e=10
p=12 p=12

The effective nuclear charge per electron increases and the electron
are more strongly attracted and are pulled towards the nucleus. This
causes a decrease in the size of the ion.

The negative ion is always larger than that of corresponding atom

Cl Cl -
e=17 e=17
p=17 p=18

Q. N -3 O
-2 F -1 Na
+1
Mg
+2
Al
+3
(isoelectronic)
Order

Solution:

p=7 p=8 p=9 p=10 p=11 p=12

e=10 e=10 e=10 e=10 e=10 e=10

Order:
+3 +2 +1 -1 < -2 -3
Al < Mg < Na < F O < N
 IONISATION ENTHALPY
The energy required to remove an electron from an isolated gaseous atom
in its ground state.
The first ionization energy,IE is the energy required to remove the most
loose electron of the neutral atom and the second ionization enthalpy, IE2 is
the energy required to remove the second electron from the resulting
carbon and so on.

IE2>IE1

FACTORS GOVERNING IONISATION ENERGY

Size of the atom- Ionization energy decreases with an increase in atomic

size
Charge on nucleus- With the increase in nuclear charge, it becomes more
difficult to remove an electron, and the ionization energy increases.
Screening effect of the inner electron- The outermost electrons are
shielded or screened from the nucleus by the inner electrons, this is
known as the shielding or screening effect. The actual charge felt by an
electron is termed an effective nuclear charge (Z+)
Z+= Z – S
the increase in the number of inner electrons tends to decrease the
ionization enthalpy

Penetration effect of electrons- electrons in the s-orbital have the

maximum probability of being found near the nucleus and the probability
goes decreasing in the case of p,d, and f.
Penetration power: s>p>d>f
For the same shell, the ionization enthalpy would be more to remove a
s-electron than the energy required to remove a p-electron, which in turn
will be more than that for the removal of a d-electron and so on.
 Electron arrangement- half-filled and completely filled shells have extra
stability associated with them

VARIATION OF IONISATION ENTHALPY IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

Along a period - The ionization enthalpy increases with increasing atomic

number in the period, however some irregularities in the general trend
have been noticed.. These are due to half-filled and completely filled
configuration which have extra stability.

Li Be B C N O F Ne

Ne> F> N> O> C>Be> B>Li

Variation down a group- The ionization enthalpy decreases down the

group. It can be explained in terms of net effect of the following factors.

Size increases (no. of shells increase)

shielding effect increases
 ELECTRON GAIN ENTHALPY

The enthalpy change when an electron is added to an isolated gaseous

atom.
It may be exothermic or endothermic
In many elements, energy is released when an electron is added to the
atom therefore H is -ve but the second is always positive.

(EA1)

(EA2)

FACTORS AFFECTING ELECTRON GAIN ENTHALPY

Nuclear charge- The electron gain enthalpy becomes more negative as

the nuclear charge increases. This is due to the greater attraction for the
incoming electron if the nuclear charge is high.

Size of the atom- With the increase in the size of the atom, the distance
between the nucleus and the incoming electron increases, and this
results in lesser attraction. The electron gain enthalpy becomes less
negative with an increase in the size of the atom of the element.

Electronic configuration- The elements having a stable electronic

configuration of half-filled and completely filled valence subshell shows a
very small tendency to accept additional electrons and thus electron gain
enthalpies are less negative.
 PERIODIC TRENDS

Variation down a group- On moving down a group the size and nuclear
charge increase but the effect of the increase in atomic size is much more
pronounced than that of nuclear charge and thus the additional electrons
feel less attraction by the large atom

Variation along a period- On moving across a period, the size of the atom
decreases, and nuclear charge increases. Both factors favor increasing the
electron affinity. However certain irregularities are observed in the general
trend which is mainly due to the stable electronic configuration of certain
atoms.

IMPORTANT TRENDS

Electrons have the highest negative electron gain enthalpies which is due
to the fact that halogens have the general electronic configuration ns2
np5 and have only one electron less than the stable noble gas (ns2 np6)
configuration

Electron gain enthalpy values of noble gases are positive while those of
Be, Mg, N, and P are almost zero.
Noble Gases are having a stable configuration of ns2 np6 and thus they
have absolutely no tendency to take an additional electron.
Similarly, the low ( almost zero) electron affinity values for Be,Mg, N, and
P can be explained due to the extra stability of completely filled 2s and
3s orbitals in Be(2s2) and Mg(3s2) respectively.

The electron gain enthalpy of fluorine is unexpectedly less negative than

that of chlorine. The less negative electron gain enthalpy value of F is due
to the very small size of the F-atom and thus repulsion takes place
between the valence electron and the incoming electron.
 VALENCY
The electrons present in the outermost shell are called valence electrons
and these electrons determine the valency of the atom.
D-block elements show variable valency.
Alkali metal: +1
Nitrogen family: +3,+5,-3
Alkali earth metals: +2
Oxygen family: +2,-2,+6
Boron Family: +1,+3
Halogens: -1
Carbon family: +2,+4

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF S-BLOCK ELEMENTS

1. Electronic configuration- ns^(1-2)

2. They are soft metals having low m.p and b.p
3. They have low ionization energies.
4. They are very reactive and readily form univalent (alkali metals) and
bivalent (alkaline earth metals) ions by losing one or two valence
electrons respectively.
5. They act as strong reducing agents.
6. Most of them impart characteristic color to the flame.
7. They mostly form ionic compounds except beryllium.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF P-BLOCK ELEMENTS

ns^2 np^(1-6)

1. They include both metal and non-metals. Left to right metallic character
decreases.
2. Their ionization energy is high as compared to s-block elements.
3. They form mostly covalent compounds.
4. Some of them show more than one oxidation state in their compounds.

The elements of s-block and p-block are collectively called representative

elements. The elements of the last group are called noble-gases.
D-BLOCK ELEMENTS

The elements in which the last electron enters the d-orbitals of their last but
one energy level constitute d-block elements.

Electron configuration: (n-1)d^(1-10) ns^(1 or 2), also called transition

elements except for Zn, Cd, Hg

First transition series: Sc-21 to Zn-30 (3D series)

Second transition Series: Y-39 to Cd-48 (4D series)
Third Transition Series: La-57 to Hf-72 to Hg-80 (5D series)
Fourth Transition Series: Ac-89, Rf-104 to 112 (6d series)

1. General Characteristics of D-block elements:

They are metals having high m.p and b.p

Most of them form colored compounds.
Good tendency to form colored compounds
Generally paramagnetic
They exhibit several oxidation states.
Most of the transitional metals such as Mn,Ni,Co,Cr,V,Pt, and their
compounds are used as catalysts.

F-BLOCK ELEMENTS

The elements in which the last electron enters the f-orbitals of their atoms
are called f-block elements.

The first series follows Lanthanum, La(57), and the elements present in
the series Cu(58) -Lu(71) are called Lanthanoids and are also called Rare
Earth Metals.
The second series follows Actinium and the elements present in the
series (Th-Lr) are called Actinoids. They are radioactive in nature.

Electron Configuration (n--2)f^14 (n-1)d^0 or 1 ns^2

The elements included in these two series are called inner transition series.
General Characteristics of F-block elements:
They are heavy metals.
High m.p and b.p
exhibit variable oxidation no.
colored ions
form complex compounds
Actinides- Radioactive in nature