National Art Education Association

Three Decades of Research on Child Art: A Survey and a Critique

Author(s): Charles G. Wieder
Source: Art Education, Vol. 30, No. 2 (Feb., 1977), pp. 4-10
Published by: National Art Education Association
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 -- L

Three Decades of Rsearch on ChildArt:A Survey and a Critique

1%

Charles G. Wieder
ries, to communicate with one another, deficiencies which are common in
This paper will focus on a central and to explain what we are about to the research in the humanities and should
aspect of art education theory-child general public. not preclude efforts to gain what there
art. As the term will be used here:'child- To put the problem in context, there is of value in those earlier works.
art" implies no essential connection is today an unprecedented press to de- In the art education literature, child-
to art proper, but refers ratherto those velop art curricula-including state- art refers both to qualities inherent in
processes children employ when using ments of philosophy-and demon- the art objects made by children and
art materials which more or less result strate virtuallyimmediate instructional characteristics of their art-makingpro-
in products that resemble art. results amidst a backdrop of theo- cesses:
The application of conceptions of art retical uncertainty. (i) As a quality of children's art
and education to the development of Art educators are not alone in their objects, childart refers to the observa-
curriculum and to instructional prac- efforts and confusion concerning art ble media qualities, technical devices
tice presents numerous difficulties. and art-making.Aestheticians, art his- employed, and in figurative works, the
Educational practices are among the torians, psychologists, and characteristic type of representation. It
most complex of human interactions researchers in other fields of study differs from the art of adults in the rela-
whose character is frequently obs- have also attempted to discern and tively unsophisticated level of media
cured by a myriad of contingencies categorize artworks,to identify social- control.
affecting learning. Nonetheless, it is cultural values the arts afford, to study (ii) As a type of art-making tech-
unlikely that all the problems the arts the qualities of artworks that affect nique, childart refers to the art-making
face in today's schools can be attrib- human experience, and to understand processes exhibited by an individual
uted to a lack of art specialists, or to art-making processes. child or a group of children. It differs
administrators'insensitivity toward the There are no simple, immediatesolu- from mature art-making primarily in
arts, or to an uninformedpublic replete tions to the depressing state of affairs the limited range of techniques
with parents lacking concern for their we face, with the schools pressing us available and the relative absence of
children's education in the arts, or to from one direction and on other fronts conscious attention to either technique
any of the other explanations or an embedded confusion regarding the or style, which, to a lesser degree, can
excuses for the low status of the arts in educational value of the arts-these be found as well in adult art-making.
our schools. Putting aside criticism of burdens on top of our own theoretical Thus, as defined, conceptions of
school curricula where the arts are indecisiveness. style from the literature of art history
omitted or treated minimally, I will In all this, there appears to be cause and aesthetics can apply to childart.
instead focus attention on some for optimism in the recent resurgence The work of Lowenfeld, Beittel and
causes of the problems confronting art of interest in children's artistic devel- Burkhart, Gardner, Lovano-Kerr,and
education, rather than on the condi- opment. On the importance of con- others indicates that for many chil-
tions that have been their result. Con- ceptions of children's artistic devel- dren beyond the age of seven, distinc-
cern will be with the need to build upon opment to art education theory, Arthur tive patterns of art products and pro-
previous research efforts on childart Eflandwrites: cesses are manifest. To this point,
and to coordinate our ideas in a way The various views of the child, child Golomb argues persuasively that:
that strengthens their meanings and art and children's artistic devel-
applications. Analysis of the ongoirngrepresenta-
Questions regarding childart are far opment, the explanations offered of tional (drawing) processes reveals
from decided. Research findings in this what this development entails, is one the inadequacy of the conception of
area are relativelytentative, and impor- of the fundamental underpinnings of childart as imitation and suggests
tant problems remainunresolved. (Wil- a theory of art education. (ref. 7, p. 2) instead that a child's representation
son, ref. 34, p. 5) Key terms often lack A recent issue of Studies in Art Edu- is based on the establishment of cor-
the clear definition that would aid cation (17:2, 1976) was devoted to respondences and on the elabora-
research efforts. Many art educators research on children's artisticdevelop- tion of rules of equivolence for dif-
have studied the art products of chil- ment. In the introductory editorial, ferent media. (p. 24, emphasis
dren; others their manner of working. BrentWilson made the claim that "child added)
Some researchers have attended to art is one of the principal reasons for "Elaborationof rules of equivolence"
common features of childart and art- the existence of art education." He refers to a child's ability to selectively
making, while others have focused on called for a renewal of research efforts isolate certain aspects or attributes of
distinctive qualities. along the lines of the studies reported objects, events, and media qualitiesfor
One assumption underlying this pa- in that issue of the journal and for a some expressive or experiential pur-
per concerns the role of ideas in regard reassessment of prevailing theoretical pose. The term "establishment of cor-
to educational problems: namely, that assumptions concerning childart. respondences" designates the techni-
ideas about the value and the functions This paper intends to address a part cal and perceptual ability entailed in
of education, about how children learn of that challenge by examining con- the making and refining of visual
in the arts and what is important to ceptions of children's artistic devel- images-"making and matching" in
learn, play a central if not primaryrole opment from the art education Gombrich's terms. These two interre-
in determining educational policies literaturewith the purpose of identify- lated competencies both require
and, in turn, institutional practices. In ing theoretical discrepancies and indi- qualitativejudgement. Both are acts of
other words, I feel that much of what cating commonalities that are pres- invention. And most pertinent to this
troubles us is caused right at home in ently obscured by the lack of a study, these competencies are early
our research and curriculum devel- consistent interlinkingdialogue across manifestations of childart qua art.
opment. The field of art education is in different research approaches. The onset of style in childart has not
need of some house-cleaning. Com- Personally, I suspect that there is yet been traced to its developmental
monly held beliefs concerning art edu- much of value in the writings of our origins. In the name of style or some
cation impede our attempts to organize predecessors which has been over- rough equivalent, art education
our knowledge, to field-test research looked or prematurely dismissed on researchers (including theorists) have
< findings, to confirm or disconfirm theo- technical or stylistic grounds-
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
attended to an assortment of objects of
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 - ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ?L~~~~~~~~~~~~mm
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study. Some have emphasized the syncratic (individual) developmental Differences in conception can influ-
roles of culture and nurturewhile oth- factors and learning that is influenced ence the mode of inquiry adopted by
ers have focused on the internal,bioge- by others or the environment. Itmay be researchers as well as the objects of
netic variables affecting artistic devel- that in their early years when children study. To continue the above exam-
opment. Rhoda Kellogg, for example, tend to encounter the world primarily ple, where the Stanford research is
writes that: kinesthetically, there are optimal influenced by conceptions from psy-
periods for elemental haptic devel- chology, the methods tend to be exper-
... adults interfere with a natural opment. And duringthese years, if con- imental and quantitative. In contrast,
biological development of the child's ditions are suitable, children will as a the work of Beittel and Burkhart on
motor, visual, mental, and artistic consequence tend to manifest certain styles of art-makinginvolves longitudi-
abilities when they try to influence haptic attitudes and abilities. Alterna- nal studies that rely considerably on
the child's work in the early years. tively, should it happen that devel- self-reports and is centrally concerned
(quoted by Salome, p. 59) opment is hampered duringthese early with the effects of introspection during
And Lowenfeld implores: years, there might be a tendency to de- the act of drawing.
velop instead one's analytic and visual Another problem is that there has
Don't impose your own images on a capabilities. It would then be the case been little follow up or cross checking
child! All modes of expression but that nurture will have influenced an of the earlier research on childart.The
the child's own are foreign to him. We individual'sartistic aptitude. more rigorous laterinvestigations have
should neither influence nor stimu- In this example, a child's orientation tended to study the art and art-making
late the child's imagination .... The toward art experience and method of of older children. The most elemental
child has his own world of experi- expression would be largely a factor of factors that influence artistic devel-
ences and expression. (quoted by external learning conditions as these opment have not yet been studied sys-
Efland, ref. 7, p. 13) conditions were manifest commensu- tematically. The earlier research which
rate with the child's level of maturation. did concern itself with the work of
Inthese views instruction is depicted What has the art education literature
as more a detrimentthan an asset in art younger children was impeded by the
had to say on these issues? Following absence of accepted measurement
learning. the child-study movement of the instruments and the lack of sophisti-
This once popular view has come
under attack by many contemporary 1930's, considerable research effort cated research methods prior to the
was devoted to the study of children's 1960's.
writers who criticize the position's artistic development. Much of the In addition, there simply are
insensitivity to the effects of the envi- research on childart from the 1940's immense difficulties entailed in study-
ronment, culture, and instructionin the and 1950's, however, has not made the
development of children's artisticabili- ing younger children's artistic devel-
contribution to our understanding that opment. Clinical or other relativelyless
ties. one would expect. Manyof these stud- structured and far more complex test-
Attempting to demonstrate the ies stand as isolated efforts that have
interrelationship of biogenetic and ing procedures may be required. And
not had a significant cumulative effect. still another problem is that stylistic dif-
external variables affecting art learn- The lack of refinement of our under- ferences in the work of young children
ing, Norman Meier argues that artists standing of childart is in parta result of are more subtle or diffuse than in
are neither born nor made. Rather, the problem discussed earlier:that the mature adult artwork, and traditional
these internal and external variables
are said to: objects of study in these research categorization systems from arthistory
endeavors frequently lacked clear and and aesthetics are difficult to apply to
..interact with the energies of the consistent definition, and there was their work.
individual to develop his artistic considerable disparityof technical dis- Even where research efforts have
competence. The individual there- course and research methods. But been careful and systematic, there are
fore, not the inheritance nor the en- even where researchers studied the difficulties in relating the findings to
vironment, is the final same aspects of childart, the conclu- the body of art education theory
determiner.... (p. 115) sions drawn were often different if not (Efland, ref. 7) and of application to art
contradictory. In a criticism of this curriculum development and instruc-
Meier viewed artistic abilities as state of the field, Eflandwrites that the tion. (Lanier) Probably the most com-
comprising potentialities which an term child art "does not operate as a prehensive study of childart by
individualcould choose or choose not precise, standard term in the Alschuler and Hattwick in the mid-
to develop. literature."(ref. 7, p. 20) 1940's has had relativelylittle impact in
In a recent summary of her research An example of the disparity of usage the field on either research or instruc-
on childart, Hilda Lewis concludes in our literaturecan be seen in the use tion. Why?
that: of the term "cognitive/perceptual Art as hand-maiden to psychological
. . .the studies left unanswered the style"-a term borrowed frompsychol- diagnosis. Rose H. Alschuler and La
ogy. This term has a very different ref- Berta A. Hattwick studied the social
issue of the relative contributions of
maturationand learning to the rate of erent in the work of Beittel and Burk- behaviorof children as well astheir art-
artistic development.... Each fac- hart than in that of the Stanford work. On the surface, their research
tor exists in a state of complex inter- researchers of the early 1960's. methods appear equal to the authors'
action with the other.... From a (McWhinnie,p. 37, note 3) The former's ambitious objectives. They seem to be
theoretical point of view the nature- usage is consistent with such art covered on all fronts, submittingobser-
nurture controversy may, for the historian-theorists as Wolfflin and vational data to statistical analysis and
time, remain unresolved. (ref. 21, p. Gombrich (Qualley), where the latter's counterbalancing quantitativefindings
usage refers to a rather generalized with case studies. The writingis techni-
16)
mental process. Like Gombrich and cally clear. Educationally,the authors'
Thus, art education theory must Wolfflin,Beittel and Burkhartare more stated concern is that children should
operate with these fundamental ques- specifically concerned with visual per- "express themselves freely in creative
tions unanswered. Are some children, ception and focus their analyses on art media." (p. 30) "Youngchildren,"they
because of constitution or predisposi- objects and experiences. Secondly, maintain, "do not paint to express
tion, more dependent than others upon Beittel and Burkhart's work is con- ideas, but rather to express what they
external conditions for their artistic de- cerned with emotive, affective feel and how they feel." (p. 117) "Chil-

L velopment? Or, as Lewis argues,

perhaps there is an important,though
as yet unidentified, interaction of idio-

6 Art Education, February 1977

response to art, where the Stanford
research tends to treat only overt,
physical indicators of artistic behavior.
dren tend in the early years to paint
themselves as they feel from within."
(p. 122) The authors suggest that with
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I
 ___._
maturation there is a necessary art-making as a tool of psychological and intent which, to the sensitive
lessening of the "expressive" tenden- diagnosis. He is equally criticalof theo- viewer, "yields"elegant yet remarkably
cy: ries that consider art-making to be descriptive and aesthetically astound-
... we would expect painting during detached from psychological life pro- ing representations of human figures
the preschool years to be more reve- cesses. His own writingcalls for the in- and, less frequently, house and animal
latory (of feeling and personality) tegration of the study of artistic forms. These universalforms and com-
than painting at any other time. (p. creation and psychology of personal- positions, Kellogg feels, are a part of
117) ity. the inherited psychological constitu-
Upon close scrutiny, the research Arnheim stresses the universal or tion of the child, and are said to
methods of Alschuler and Hattwick common cross cultural characteristics account for early artistic development
tend to be reductionistic. (vol. I, p. 55) of development in art: in a manner that is never explained.
Formal design elements are the basis The influence of Carl G. Jung. Making
for their analyses of children's artwork. The development of pictorial form
relies on basic properties of the ner- specific reference to the theories of
(vol. 1, p. 4) Art-making is often vous system whose functioning is Carl Jung and Viktor Lowenfeld, Her-
thought of as emotional release and not generally modified by cultural bert Read emphasizes internal or
psychological therapy. (vol. I, pp. and individual differences. It is for biogenetic factors affecting artistic de-
158-59) The authors are prone to psy- this reason that the drawings of chil- velopment. Like Kellogg, he speaks of
chologize, drawing sweeping generali- dren look essentially alike through- inherited, universal, instinctual, bio-
zations from relatively little evidence. logical drives toward harmony with
For example, isolated qualities of col- out the world,and that there are such
striking similarities among the early nature and an innate sense of aesthetic
or, space, line, and form are taken as art products of differentcivilizations. order in the art-making process. Like
indicators of submissiveness, effemi- Arnheim and Kellogg, Read stresses
nateness, aloofness, self- (p.95)
the sensory-perceptual aspects of
centeredness, and a host of other such An individual's ability to discrimi- artistic development, and downplays
personality traits. (pp. 24, 125,127; see nate the details, properties, and quali- the functions of conception, culture
also the captions for plates 116, 117 in ties of the environment is said to and environment. Borrowing from
vol. I) increase with maturationas one's ges- Jung, Read speaks of archetypicalten-
Their work is lacking and very much talt or frame of reference proceeds dencies or patterns of perception that
in need of an operational concept of from generalities to particulars are biogenetically determined by racial
childart,especially childart as process. through a process of increasingly inheritance:
The primaryconcern is for diagnosis of refined and subtle differentiations. One thing that has been demon-
personality rather than the under- strated beyond any doubt is that the
standing of children's art and art- The complexity-simplicity continuum.
The work of Frank Barron represents aesthetic faculty is present in every
making processes. (vol. I, chap. on child as a birthright,and that it can be
"Aims and Method," esp. b, d, p. 169) still another psychological approach to
So preoccupied are the authors with artistic development. Barron de- made to blossom in the most unlikely
self-expression (or, more accurately, scribes differences in perceptual pref- surroundings.... (The) environ-
erence in terms of a continuum from ment begins to be reflected in the
self-exhortation) of deep-down feel-
ings and the child's inner life that they simplicity to complexity. Differences in subject matter. The style can devel-
equate conscious intent, awareness of creative processes are said to exist on op independent of the content. It is
the outer world, and the desire to com- another continuum between a tenden- not the method of teaching. (ref. 10,
municate with loss of innocence and cy toward structure and a tendency p. 263)
psychological contamination: toward diffusion. The artistic personal- On education, Read writes:
. the act of representing nonethe- ity is said to be characterized by a pref- The good teacher . . works with the
less involves ideas or conscious erence for complexity.
Barron's concern, like that of children, sympathizes with them and
intent, in other words, ... (impeding Alschuler and Hattwick, is with rela- encourages them, gives them that
the ability) to express pure feelings priceless possession which is self-
unmodified by conscious content. tively general-rather than art
traits. His confidence. (p. 264)
(p. 118) specific-personality
research grows out of a broad concern Structure and discipline are said to be
Their theoretical basis is psychoana- with the psychology of personality. subtle ratherthan deliberate. To Read,
lytic with remnants of a cognitive- Ideas pertainingto childart are derived a basic arteducation goal is to "encour-
affective dichotomy: from these more general findings and age the child to reveal its personality,
... children who emphasize form assumptions-an approach that is its innate characteristics." (p. 262).
are turning away from impulsive quite different from drawing generali- What makes Read the target of criti-
reactions and are functioning on a zations from the study of specifically cism by contemporary art educators
more logical, rational basis, (p. art-related phenomena as in the work such as Salome (p. 61) who are con-
of Beittel and Burkhart. cerned more with instructionaland en-
125)Our data reveal (choice of) vironmentalfactors affecting art learn-
crayons as a medium for expressing The mandala. Rhoda Kellogg, like Arn-
ideas, whereas easel painting is more ing are such statements as:
heim, is a universalistregardingartistic
often a medium for expressing feel- development. Like Lowenfeld, her We do not claim that we are teaching
ings. (p. 119) theories can be characterized as de- children to observe external objects
velopmental and organic in orienta- with exactness. We are not attempt-
In sum, loose psychological termi-
tion, minimizing if not negating the ing to sharpen the child's powers of
nology and preoccupation with an effects of external factors affecting observation, of classification, of
undefined, innate form of "creativity" memory. All that is a pedagogical
all seriously undermine what could learning.
have been a valuable contribution to Basic scribble forms are said to be activity which we are content to leave
variously combined-accidentally and to the science master, and we would
the art education literature.
then deliberately-into increasingly agree that a certain type of drawing
or design should be taught, like writ-

I
Gestalt theory of artistic perception complex arrangements called "com-
and development. Rudolf Arnheim, an bines" and "aggregates." As these ing and numeration, in conjunction
influential contemporary Gestalt psy- more complex forms "organically with scientific observation: it is a
chologist, is highly critical of research unfold,"there is eventually a "merger" necessary form of notation or rec-
on artistic development which views of the forms with the child's percepts ord. It is a skill which becomes ap-
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7
 I III I I I III I I I I I I I I
lef1

propriate at the secondary stage of haptic (kinesthetic) experiences." (p. general intelligence. As a conse-
education. (p. 261) 97) quence, these studies are of value to art
In EducatingArtistic Vision, ElliotW. Writingthe decade before the publi- education more for the questions they
cation of Creativeand Mental Growth, raised than for their findings or their
Eisner takes issue with this view, argu- Norman C. Meier may have inadvert- research methods. One must appre-
ing most emphatically that artistic de- ently laid the groundwork for Lowen- ciate these efforts in perspective. Sys-
velopment is not an automatic conse- feld's deterministic views of artistic de- tematic methods of research in the
quence of maturation;that perceptual, velopment. In a summary of a ten-year humanities and the social sciences
cognitive, and affective abilities need study of artistic ability, Meierwrites: were just emerging. Historically,these
to be learned in order to enhance one's
encounters with art. Eisner maintains . . certain neurophysical and de- were pioneering quests which repre-
that prior to such development, a sent the first attempts to study childart
velopmental factors seem to be nor- carefully.
child's efforts cannot accurately be de- mally a precondition for the rest of
scribed as creative;and likewise, due to the total development and that these The Perception-Delineation Theory
perceptual deficiencies, response to predisposing conditions are not and the Global-Analytic Continuum. If
art is initiallycrude and vague as Arn- present equally in all persons nor if ViktorLowenfeld can be said to be the
heim has argued. absent can they be established. (p. father of modern art education, a sec-
Brent Wilson states this position as 115) ond generation of researchers are his
follows: rebellious offspring. In the late 1950's
Meier's intent was actually to argue
When artists, usually mature ones,
against deterministic conceptions of through the 1960's, Lowenfeld's
have been firmly grounded in the artistic development. As noted earlier, research and his views on curriculum
conventions of cultural styles, he claims that the individualratherthan and instruction came under unified
themes, and symbols and then either inheritance or the environment is the attack by writers in the field.
reject and replace or significantly final determiner of artistic ability. But June King McFee and a number of
refine and extend what had existed Stanford University doctoral students
unfortunately,the factors identified by
previously, true creativity results. Meierthat are said to determine artistic published research with a very differ-
(ref. 34, p. 5) ent look and feel than that of their
aptitude are discussed in such general
predecessors. Their work has had con-
With this much of the groundwork psychological terms that one would siderable impact. LikeLowenfeld,they
laid, we can now returnto the question have difficultyrelatingthe ideas specif-
of the lack of impact of the earlier ically to art learning. His reference, for generally operated from a base that
was predominantly psychological and
research on childart and art-making. example, to imagination and critical they were concerned with children's
Why, for example, have the writings of judgement as "special"factors does lit- artistic development. But the parallels
Viktor Lowenfeld from the 1940's and tle to clarifytheir relationshipto artistic
seem to end there. There was a decisive
50's fallen into relative obscurity development. move away from the view that
among today's researchers? Is it prim- Writingtwo decades later, Florence constitutional factors were the pri-
arily because of Lowenfeld's alleged Goodenough is similarly concerned mary determinants of artistic devel-
lack of scientific sophistication and his with eye-hand motor coordination and
child-centered theoretical orientation? general intellectual development opment. Concern shifted to the effects
which are considered by her to be of instructionon art learning.This gen-
Visual-haptic attitudes. In its eighth central to children's art-making. She eration of art educators announced to
edition, Creative and Mental Growthis the field that their research methods
the first text to identify stages of chil- places much more emphasis than were far more rigorous and scientific
Meier on associative learning and
dren's artistic development and sug- than those of their predecessors. Their
response to external stimuli. methods were primarilystatistical and
gest corresponding instructionalactiv- Consider Goodenough's simplistic
ities and methods. account of the onset of representa- empirical.
Unlike Kellogg, Lowenfeld places tional drawing: The art education literature of the
considerable emphasis on individual period was becoming self-conscious
learner differences. Still, there are in The young child whose work has and self-critical. A common debate was
his writing similar seeds of determi- whether or not the field deserved the
nism. To Lowenfeld, art-making is an previously consisted only of random accolade "discipline."
innate human capacity which, unless scribbling suddenly sees a resemb- In other areas of educational
lence between the incoherent lines
hampered-usually by adult obtained by chance and some known research, the highly sophisticated
intervention-would develop along methods of educational psychology
object. He tries to complete or per- were gaining widespread acceptance.
biogenetically predetermined lines. fect the resemblence, and in this way
Children in his view develop their art the first real attempts at graphic The exemplar of research in the social
abilities in "unfolding" stages, each sciences had become the quantitative
expression come into being. (ref. 15,
tage a prerequisite for the following p. 144, emphasis added)
and experimental approaches of the
one. Development is generally either physical sciences. Only recently have
toward a "haptic"or a "visual"style of Goodenough sought to identify art educators, many of whom were
art-makingor experiencing. common developmental characteris- trained in these methods, begun to
His discrete, antipodal haptic-visual tics in children's artwork. Her primary question the appropriateness of the
typology is said to describe individuals concern was children's accuracy of model of the physical sciences for
on the basis of "two unlike reactions observation in the representation of research in art education.
towardthe world of experience." (p. 97) subject matterratherthanmedia use or McFee had developed a theory of
The visual type of individual is de- manner of depiction. That is to say, the children's artistic development that
scribed as objective, analytical, and stylistic aspects of children's artwork was consistent with this new research
introverted."(Their)tendency is to use were not taken into consideration. orientation. Her Perception-
their eyes as the main intermediaries We have seen that many of the early Delineation theory (P-D) attempts to
for their sense impressions." (p. 97) studies of young children's artwork provide a broadened conception of
The haptic type of individualis said to and art-makingprocedures grow out of childartthat takes into account individ-
be subjective, intuitive, and intro- general psychological theory rather ual learnerdifferences and the psycho-
verted. "Though with normal sight, than aesthetics or art history. Often a logical and cultural-anthropological
(these individuals) do not use their primaryconcern was diagnosis of de- factors affecting learning. To paraph-
eyes but are more concerned with velopmental disorders or the indication rase slightly, the theory identifies the
those perceptions that derive from of relationships between artwork and way a child:
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8 Art Education, February 1977
 -L

(I) is prepared to perceive his visual amorphous perceptual field, the Indeed, the characterizations of spon-
world (readiness), (II) is affected by his manner in which he deploys his atten- taneous, divergent, and deliberate art-
psychological (and cultural) tion in scanning a stimulus, the extent making strategies bear more than a
environment, (111)organizes the infor- he is analytical ratherthan global in his chance resemblance to Lowenfeld's
mation he receives (intellectual abili- approach to categorizing familiar haptic-visual typology. But no such
ties), and (IV) creates (invents) or bor- objects, and the degree he can over- connections have to my knowledge
rows symbols to communicate his come embedded or conflicting percep- been drawn,a state of affairs I find odd
responses. (pp. 38-41) tual cues in coping with a specific considering that Beittel studied with
problem. (p. 39) Lowenfeld and for a time they were col-
In McFee's conception: (I) indicates The terms "field dependent" and
the influences of culture and past leagues.
"field-independent"appear in place of Perhaps if Beittel and Burkharthad
learning; (II) indicates cultural Lowenfeld's "visual-haptic." One is studied the artwork of younger chil-
influences and personal feelings; and hard pressed, however, to discern sub- dren, as did their predecessors, refine-
(IV) indicates where an individual can stantial differences apart from the ment of our understanding of childart
personally intercede in the art-making obvious differences in terminology and would have resulted. Instead, there is a
process. theoretical orientations. Yet any such conspicuous and quite puzzling ab-
It is difficult to understand why the sence of any such integration.
research that was done by McFee's parallels would be arduously denied.
(Rouse) Nonetheless art teachers are Lowenfeld's research on children's
most prominent students during the still advised by Lovano-Kerr,as they artistic development and his attempts
early and mid-1960's was concerned were by Lowenfeld before her, to take to account for individuallearner differ-
almost exclusively with the effects of ences in art-making are landmarks in
instruction on visual perception and cognizance of and respect children's
individual predispositions toward art- the field's emergence as an indepen-
drawing, to the exclusion of any con- dent area of educational research. How
sideration of cultural and individual making. (p. 49, final paragraph) And
Harold J. McWhinnie expresses the odd, therefore, that for more than a
psychological factors. Their research hope that this body of research will in decade his work has, for the most part,
was primarily concerned with that the future, be applied to more humanis- been either attacked or disregarded by
aspect of P-D theory which was influ- tic educational ends. (pp. 36-37, final contemporary researchers. This in
enced by the writings of H. A. Witkin spite of the renewed concern to study
para.)
(1962) which they interpreted to pro- childart in much the same vein pursued
vide a classification system for chil- Spontaneous, divergent, and deliber-
ate art-making strategies. In an exten- by Lowenfeld.
dren's art-making. Why do contemporary researchers
There are some parallels between sive series of studies, Kenneth R. Beit-
so rarely make mention of the work of
the ideas of Witkin and Lowenfeld as tel, Robert C. Burkhart,and others at their predecessors? Many of the
well as striking dissimilarities. The Pennsylvania State University
research efforts cited by Wilson (Stu-
Perceptual-cognitive style is de- investigated the drawing processes dies in Art Education, 17:2) as exem-
scribed by Witkinas on a continuum in employed by college undergraduate
students. The drawing process they plarystudies of childartare proclaimed
contrast to the alleged haptic-visual by their authors to be of a tentative
dichotomy posited by Lowenfeld. (Wit- referred to as "art-making strategy."
nature-the implication being that
kin's continuum is alternately referred "Strategy"was defined as "a total sys- their research is pioneering in pre-
to as "global-analytical"and "fieldde- tem of behaviorwhich includes both an
individual's working procedures and viously unchartered territory,when in
pendent/field-independent.") Related his goals." (ref. 6, p. 292) The term fact, there were earlier efforts that
to Lowenfeld's views on visual-haptic could, in my opinion, shed some light
attitudes, cognitive style in Witkin's designates the observable consisten- on their work. Whatever the quality of
terms "characterizes the person's cog- cies in artworksas well as in modes of
the earlier research cited briefly in this
nitive functioning pervasively and it working. These strategies, like Lowen-
feld's haptic and visual attitudes, are paper, scholarship would seem to
continues to characterize him in a very require that today's researchers either
stable way over time." (quoted by said to have "personalitycorrelates ...
(indicating) different life orientations." acknowledge and attempt to build
McWhinnie,p. 32) upon those efforts or refute that body
In their departure from Lowenfeld, (p. 293) of research more decisively than Ihave
the Stanford researchers altered their Inthe initialstudies, three categories
of art-making strategies were identi- seen.
terminology and gave their work an fied: spontaneous, divergent, and ArthurEflandhints at some causes of
updated, scientific character. Their this absence of integration, asking:
concern was still to study factors deliberate. The spontaneous strategy
is described as a problem solving
influencing a student's disposition Is the knowledge pertaining to our field
toward art-making; but now the approach that is process oriented.
Procedures are said to varywhile goals sufficiently clear to permit a coherent
emphasis was on the external, expe- synthesis of views or are there too
riential conditions that affect learning. remain constant. The divergent strate-
gy is described as an inventive many confounding facts and conflict-
To the Stanford researchers, the envi- ing values to allow for the formationof
ronment ratherthan a child's predispo- approach in which goals are varied a foundation of framework ... ? (ref. 7,
sition was the single most important ratherthan the procedure. An individu-
al's concern here is with discovery p.1)
variable affecting learning.
It is ironic that the Witkincontinuum rather than the solution of a particular This lack of theoretical integration
was often treated by this group of problem: "... the objective of this and absence of accumulation of infor-
researchers as if it represented a polar- strategy is primarily discovery." The mation that characterize the last three
ity much like the claims regarding deliberate strategy (alternatively decades of our literatureon childart-
Lowenfeld's conception of artistic referredto as "academic"and "techni- in addition to those controversies prev-
style. cal") is concerned exclusively with alent today in all fields of humanistic
As an example of the new emphasis control. This strategy is referred to as inquiry-represent a serious problem.
on the external factors affecting learn- non-originative involving "choosing a To identify one effect: an unhealthy
ing and an indication of the shift in ter- known technique by which to proceed skepticism regarding the role and the
minology that had taken place, con- to a known goal." (pp. 292-93) importance of research and theory is

I
sider Jessie Lovano-Kerr'sdiscussion This impressive body of research common today among teachers and
of style: would seem capable of functioning to researchers alike. And this skepticism
bridge present research efforts with will likely remain with us until there is
. . . the way an individual organizes an some of the earlier studies of childart. greater clarity and confidence in our
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9
 basic assumptions concerning child- tantly, if we are to do a better job of Jungian Psychology, Mentor: N.Y.,
art, and until more precise connec- informing those outside our field, we 1973.
tions are drawn between research first need to communicate better 18. R. Kellogg. Analyzing Children's
methods and research problems. amongst ourselves. Art, N.P.P.: Calif., 1969.
(Wieder) 19. V. Lanier."The Futureof ArtEdu-
Another effect of these inconsisten- Charles G. Wieder is assistant profes- cation, or Tiptoe Through the Tea
cies of terminology and disparities in sor of art education, The Ohio State Leaves," Art Education, March, 1976,
research methods has been a prolifera- University,Columbus, Ohio. pp. 12-14.
tion of competing theories and cate- REFERENCES 20. "APlague on AllYour
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and their respective methodologies Ohio State University,whose Compre- 12-15.
were clearly presented forourscrutiny. hensive Examination (May, 1976) 21. H. Lewis. "Peregrinationsin Child
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tion difficult and the application of Robert Saunders who helped clarify Conceptual Style and Modes of Per-
research findings to instructionalprac- some historical trouble-spots in the ception to Graphic Expression," Stu-
tice nearly impossible. text. dies in Art Education, Sp. 1970, pp.
Similarquestions and complaints are 39-51.
raised time and again by art teachers 1. Alschuler & L. Hattwick.Painting 23. V. Lowenfeld. Creative and Men-
and sometimes in the literatureas well. and Personality: A Study of Young tal Growth (3rd edition), Macmillan:
Why has research not had a noticeable Children, U. of Chicago Press, 1947. N.Y., 1957.
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Instead of a cumulative effect as a Personality Dimension," and Research in Art Education," Stu-
encompassing previous research find- (reprinted in) Readings in Art Educa- dies in Art Education, Sp. 1970, pp.
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retical persuasions. Creative Action, mimeo, Penn. State Study of a Special Ability,"(reprinted
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... (theory) is an attempt to con- gies of Spontaneous, Divergent, and Spontaneous and Divergent Strategies
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members of a profession withcommon 7. A. Efland. "Changing Views of 17-24.
Children's Artistic Development: Their 29. H. Read. Education ThroughArt,
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and patterns of discourse. It pro- Impact on Curriculum and Instruc-
vides... an agenda and a basis for tion," The Arts, Human Development 30. The Grass Roots of
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chan: Calif., 1976, in press. 31. M. Rouse. "AComparison of Wit-
(ref. 7, p. 3) 8. "The School ArtStyle: kin's Field-Independence Dimension
Consistently, through all the indeci- A Functional Analysis," Studies in Art and Lowenfeld's Visual-Haptic The-
sion, there was been an admirable Education, 17:2, 1976, pp. 37-44. ory," (unpublished) doctoral disserta-
persistence to understand childart and 9. E. Eisner. Educating Artistic tion, Stanford U.: Calif., 1963.
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The intelligent application of 10. E. Eisner & D. Ecker (ed.) Read- Art: The Beginnings of Self-
research methods and the integration ings in Art Education, Blaisdell: Mass., Affirmation, H. Lewis (ed.), Diablo
of findings from within and outside of 1966. Press: Calif., 1966; reviewed in Studies
the field of arteducation is a formidable 11. H. Gardner.The Perception of the in Art Education, Aut. 1966, pp. 59-63.
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dren is equally demanding. Both are Development. Wiley: N.Y., 1973. tion," Studies in Art Education, Aut.
essential functions of art education; 13. C. Golomb. "TheChild as Image- 1975, pp. 17-24.
and both are at present hampered by Maker: The Invention of Representa- 34. B. Wilson. "ChildArtand ArtEdu-
ignorance and confusion concerning tional Models and the Effects of the cation" (guest editorial), Studies in Art
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For too long we have been blaming 17:2, 1976, pp. 19-27. 35. . "Little Julian's
outsiders and even the incompetence 14. E. Gombrich. Art and Illusion, Impure Drawings:Why Children Make
of fellow art teachers for failureto fulfill Princeton U. Press: N.J., 1960.1 15. F. Art,"ibid., pp. 45-61.
our noble intentions. It is time to con- Goodenough. "The Psychological 36. "The Superheroes of
sider whether our intentions-our Interpretationof Children'sDrawings," J.C. Holz Plus an Outline of a Theory of
ideas, aspirations, and, sometimes, (reprinted in) Readings in Art Educa- Child Art,"Art Education, 27:8, 1974,
theories-have actually been that tion, op. cit. pp. 2-9.
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We may know more about childart Intelligence by Drawing, Harcourt, entiation, Wiley: N.Y., 1962.
than outsiders; though there is more Brace &World:N.Y., 1954. 38. H. Wolfflin.Principles of Art His-
we need to know. But more impor-
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10 Art Education, February 1977