International Journal of Coal Geology 262 (2022) 104099

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International Journal of Coal Geology

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Petrological, mineralogical, and geochemical compositions of coal in the

Ombilin Basin, West Sumatra, Indonesia
Aulia Agus Patria a, Ferian Anggara b, c, *
a
Undergraduate Program, Department of Geological Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Jl. Grafika No. 2, Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta 55281,
Indonesia
b
Department of Geological Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Jl. Grafika No. 2, Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia
c
Unconventional Geo-resources Research Group, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Jl. Grafika No. 2, Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Coal deposits have received considerable attention in recent years owing to their by-product waste being a
Ombilin Basin promising alternative source of critical elements. The Ombilin Basin is well known as one of the largest coal-
Eocene coal producing basins in Indonesia. This study investigated the petrological, mineralogical, and geochemical com­
Coal geochemistry
positions of four Eocene coal seams in Ombilin Basin basement rock, and their relevance regarding critical
Basement rocks
element enrichment. Samples of coal and basement rock from the Ombilin Basin were analyzed using thin- and
polished-section scanning electron microscope energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma
atomic emission spectroscopy, and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Coals from the Ombilin Basin
are high-volatile bituminous C coals with mean random vitrinite reflectance values of 0.58%–0.66%. Vitrinite
content is the most dominant maceral (61.06 vol% mmf), followed by liptinite (24.95 vol% mmf), and inertinite
(13.75 vol% mmf). Minerals observed in the coal samples comprised pyrite, quartz, and clay. Pyrite was present
as discrete crystals, massive crystals, framboidal pyrite, and cell-filling on other macerals. Both syngenetic and
epigenetic pyrite was found in the Ombilin coal. Based on the petrological and mineralogical analyses, basement
rock in the Ombilin Basin can be divided into four groups: granodiorite, andesite-basaltic, marble, and meta-
sediment. In comparison with World Hard Coal and common Chinese coals, some layers/partings in the coal
seams in the Ombilin Basin are enriched in U (37.6 ppm), V (175 ppm), and total rare earth elements and yttrium
(REY; 126.15 ppm). REY-bearing minerals in the Ombilin coal samples were attributed to clay and sulfide
minerals, while others were found as dispersed and scattered, indicating that REY are organically bound.
Inorganic materials in Ombilin coal deposits have mainly intermediate-felsic provenance, are derived from
Cretaceous granitoid rocks and andesite intrusions, and have been subjected to freshwater conditions.

1. Introduction identified 24 and 31 minerals of interest, respectively (Hu et al., 2021).

Indonesia has some of the most extensive coal-bearing sedimentary
Currently, Indonesia is among the countries producing and basins in Southeast Asia with unique tectonic and geological control
consuming the largest quantities of coal in the world. The high volumes (Friederich et al., 2016), which means Indonesia could be a country with
of coal by-products produced annually have received considerable important prospects regarding critical element recovery from coal.
attention because the concentrations of critical elements in coal ash are Seredin and Dai (2012) identified four types of genetic critical element
equal to or higher than those found in conventional deposits (Seredin enrichment in coal basins: (1) terrigenous, (2) tuffaceous, (3) infiltra­
and Dai, 2012: Dai and Finkelman, 2018). Owing to their importance, tion, and (4) hydrothermal.
various countries have listed numerous critical elements of interest in Previous studies by Anggara et al. (2018a, 2018b, 2020); Patria and
such material. For example, Australia’s Critical Minerals Strategy in 2019 Anggara (2021) reported that significant enrichment of certain critical
identified 24 elements, the European Union has listed 27 substances in elements in Miocene coals from South Sumatra and from the Kutai Basin
the National Plan for Mineral Resources, and China and Japan have is related to tuffaceous or volcanic activity. However, there have been no

* Corresponding author at: Department of Geological Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Jl. Grafika No. 2, Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta
55281, Indonesia.
E-mail address: [email protected] (F. Anggara).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2022.104099
Received 28 February 2022; Received in revised form 29 August 2022; Accepted 29 August 2022
Available online 5 September 2022
0166-5162/© 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
A.A. Patria and F. Anggara International Journal of Coal Geology 262 (2022) 104099

Fig. 1. (A) Regional tectonic setting of Sumatra showing the Ombilin Basin controlled by the dextral Sumatra Fault System (Darman and Sidi, 2000), and the Eocene
Sawahlunto Formation stratotype as the coal-bearing formation in the Ombilin Basin (modified from Koesoemadinata and Matasak, 1981). (B) Geological map of the
Ombilin Basin based on field observations, and (C) stratigraphic sections of four sample seams at locations marked in B.

comprehensive reports on the geochemistry of Eocene-age coals in the 2. Geological background

Ombilin Basin, Indonesia.
The Ombilin Basin, which is one of Indonesia’s most productive coal- The geological setting of the Ombilin Basin has been described in
bearing sedimentary basins, has been mined since 1892 (Friederich and previous studies (e.g., Koesoemadinata and Matasak, 1981; Situmorang
van Leeuwen, 2017). The formation of the coal-bearing strata in the et al., 1991; Darman and Sidi, 2000; Noeradi et al., 2005). The Ombilin
Ombilin Basin, i.e., the Eocenic Sawahlunto Formation, developed Basin is an intermontane basin located within the continental crust and
during late syn-rift sedimentation (Zaim et al., 2012). This paper reports controlled by the Sumatra Fault System (Situmorang et al., 1991). It
new data on the maceral composition, coal properties, mineral matter, extends over a relatively small area of approximately 1500 km2, and
and coal geochemistry of the Ombilin Basin to assess the origin of and contains sediments with thickness of up to 15.000 ft from the Paleocene
the genetic processes behind the elevated concentrations of critical el­ to the Early Miocene (Koesoemadinata and Matasak, 1981).
ements in the Ombilin Basin coal beds. In this study, we selected rare Tectonically, the Ombilin Basin is located within a Paleogene graben
earth elements and yttrium (REY) and Ba, Ga, Sr, Zr, Hf, Nb, Ta, U, and V and a Neogene graben, separated by the N–S Tanjungampalu fault
for this purpose. (Situmorang et al., 1991; Darman and Sidi, 2000). These graben formed
because of NW–SE transtensional movement associated with oblique
subduction of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates (Darman and Sidi,
2000). As illustrated in Fig. 1, the Ombilin Basin is surrounded by

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A.A. Patria and F. Anggara International Journal of Coal Geology 262 (2022) 104099

Fig. 2. (A) Slightly weathered granodiorite pluton in the Ombilin Basin. (B) Hand specimens of granodiorite rock showing pinkish K-feldspar (K-Fs) and blackish
biotite (Bt). (C) and (D) Photomicrographs of granodiorite with Opaque mineral (Opq), Quartz (Qtz) and Chlorite (Chl) in plane-polarization and cross-polarization
light, respectively.

Cretaceous basement rocks such as granitoid rocks, slate, phyllite, thin-section, and proximate analyses and vitrinite reflectance measure­
limestone, and basaltic-andesitic intrusions (Koesoemadinata and Mat­ ment, geochemical analysis (inductively coupled plasma atomic emis­
asak, 1981). sion spectroscopy (ICP-AES) and inductively coupled plasma mass
The sedimentary sequences in the Ombilin Basin consist of Paleocene spectrometry (ICP-MS)), and scanning electron microscope energy-
up to Quaternary strata (Koesoemadinata and Matasak, 1981). The dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX).
Sawahlunto Fm., which is the primary coal-bearing formation in the Overall, 30 samples were prepared for petrographic analysis
Ombilin Basin, was deposited during a syn-rift cycle in a braided following ASTM D2797-04 (2004), and coal petrography was performed
meandering fluvial system (Koesoemadinata and Matasak, 1981). The following ASTM D2799-05a (2005); all analyses were undertaken at the
lower part of the Sawahlunto Fm. consists of conglomeratic sandstone Geochemistry Laboratory of the Universitas Gadjah Mada (Indonesia).
and upward-fining sequences with lenticular bedding, shallow marine Maceral classification followed the system of the International Com­
mollusks, and trace fossils. These sequences are interpreted as the mittee for Coal and Organic Petrology (1998), the system of the Inter­
product of a meandering fluvial system that transitioned into a del­ national Committee for Coal and Organic Petrology (2001), and Pickel
taic–intertidal sandflat depositional system for the coal-bearing units et al. (2017) for vitrinite, inertinite, and liptinite, respectively.
(Koesoemadinata and Matasak, 1981; Noeradi et al., 2005; Zonneveld Five selected samples (A-08, B1–04, B2–03, B2–06, and C2-09A)
et al., 2011; Zaim et al., 2012). from each seam and lithotype were measured for mean random vitri­
Coals in the Ombilin Basin can be divided into three major seams nite reflectance (Rr, unit: %) following Australian Standard 2856 (1986)
labeled the A, B, and C seams. The C seam represents the lower part of at the Indonesian Geological Agency, Bandung. Proximate analysis was
the coal sequence and is interpreted as a part of the intertidal sandflat performed on 35 coal samples following ASTM D3173 (2005), D3174-12
influenced by a marine water depositional system (Zonneveld et al., (2005), and D3175-18 (2005) to determine moisture content, ash yield,
2011). The B seam is found to split into B1 into B2 at several locations and volatile matter, respectively.
and to become separated by a sandstone–siltstone layer, and the A seam The analytical procedures of ME-ICP06 were followed when using
represents the upper part of the coal seam. Both the A and B seams are ICP-AES to determine the major oxides (stated as wt%). Trace elements
interpreted as a fan-delta lacustrine product (Whateley and Jordan, (stated as ppm) were calculated by ICP-MS using lithium borate fusion
1989. The authors measured and modified the general stratigraphic by following the ME-MS81 (2022) analytical procedures. The analyses of
units of the Sawahlunto Fm. and the coal sections, as shown in Fig. 1. all samples by ICP-AES and ICP-MS were performed by ALS Canada Ltd.
(Vancouver) using the fused bead method prior to acid digestion.
3. Sample and methodology Identification of mineral characteristics and determination of the
distribution of certain trace elements in the coal samples were realized
A total of 39 samples (35 coal plies and 4 basement rocks) were taken by SEM-EDX. The SEM-EDX analysis was performed at the Indonesian
from three measured sections of the Ombilin coalfield and surrounding Institute of Science, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The statistical and visuali­
areas. The samples were taken from the A, B1, B2, and C seams. The coal zation data from all of the geochemistry results were then analyzed
samples were collected based on coal lithotype and using the ply-by-ply using RStudio ver. 4.1.2.
sampling method. The samples were milled manually using a geological
hammer and mortar, sieved, and then prepared for polished-section,

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A.A. Patria and F. Anggara International Journal of Coal Geology 262 (2022) 104099

Fig. 3. (A) Highly weathered outcrop of andesite rocks. (B) Fresh grayish andesite with interlocking fine-grained minerals. (C) and (D) Photomicrographs of andesite
rocks under plane-polarization and cross-polarization light, respectively, with coarse-grained clino-pyroxene (Cpx), plagioclase (Plg) microlite, opaque minerals
(Opq), and chlorite (Chl).

Fig. 4. (A) Fresh outcrop of meta-sediment rocks in the Ombilin Basin. (B) Hand specimens of meta-sediment rock with whitish calcite veining across grayish relict
bedding. (C) and (D) Photomicrographs of meta-sediment rocks under plane-polarization and cross-polarization light, respectively, with calcite veining and relict
bedding of sedimentary rocks.

4. Results and discussion using several classifications by the recommendations by the IUGS sub­
commission. The IUGS systematicsofigneous rocks (Le Bas and Streick­
4.1. Basement rock eisen, 1991) and systematic nomenclature for metamorphic rocks
(Schmid et al., 2004). Detailed outcrop, megascopic samples, and pho­
Various basement rocks in the Ombilin Basin have been identified tomicrographs of all samples are shown in Figs. 2–5. The geochemical

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A.A. Patria and F. Anggara International Journal of Coal Geology 262 (2022) 104099

Fig. 5. (A) Fresh outcrop of marble rocks in the Ombilin Basin. (B) Hand specimens of marble rock with mega-crystals of calcite. (C) and (D) Photomicrographs of
marble under plane-polarization and cross-polarization light, respectively.

Granodiorite has phaneritic and interlocking texture, with crystals of

Table 1
quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar, biotite, and chlorite with size of 10–50
Geochemical compositions of basement rocks from the Ombilin Basin.
mm. Chlorite is found as a secondary mineral with a sieve texture that
Elements (ppm) BM-01 BM-02 BM-03 BM-04 shows remnants of biotite minerals (Fig. 2).
La 9.9 18.4 1.1 0.6 The geochemistry of granodiorite mainly comprises SiO2, Al2O3, and
Ce 22.0 37.5 1.6 0.6 Fe2O3 with contents of 47.9, 13.9, and 11.55 wt%, respectively. The
LREY Pr 3.27 4.9 0.22 0.09
total REY content of the granodiorite sample is 96.6 ppm, i.e., slightly
Nd 14.9 18.9 0.9 0.3
Sm 3.86 4.02 0.2 0.07
higher than that in a World Hard Coal sample and indicative of REY
Eu 1.27 0.89 0.06 0.03 enrichment in the coal sample.
Gd 4.24 3.76 0.27 0.05
MREY Tb 0.69 0.58 0.04 0.01 4.1.2. Andesite (BM-02)
Dy 4.38 3.57 0.2 0.06
Andesite is found as an intrusion with dark-gray, porphyroaphanitic,
Y 25.0 23.2 1.5 0.4
Ho 0.97 0.8 0.06 0.01 and interlocking texture with crystal sizes of 1–5 mm (Fig. 3). It includes
Er 2.72 2.43 0.14 0.03 phenocryst minerals of plagioclase and pyroxene, and plagioclase
HREY Tm 0.42 0.39 0.02 0.01 microlite as groundmass. The geochemistry of the major oxide of
Yb 2.63 2.64 0.14 0.03
andesite comprises mainly SiO2 (66.1 wt%) and Al2O3 (14.65 wt%). The
Lu 0.41 0.43 0.03 0.01
Total REY 96.66 122.41 6.48 2.3
total REY content (122.41 ppm) in the andesite rock is the highest of all
SiO2 47.9 66.1 45.3 0.56 the basement rock samples.
TiO2 1.18 0.4 0.76 <0.01*
Al2O3 13.9 14.65 11.2 0.09 4.1.3. Meta-sediment (BM-03)
Fe2O3 11.55 3.65 9.11 0.12
Meta-sediment rocks, also found in the research area, are composed
MgO 7.5 1.31 2.99 0.99
CaO 8.33 3.89 12.95 55.5 of relict sedimentary rocks with calcite veining evident across the
MnO 0.15 0.05 0.15 0.03 samples. Megascopically, meta-sediment rocks are darkish-red with
Major Oxide (wt%) Na2O 4.2 2.13 0.09 <0.01* relict bedding evident, see Fig. 4. The geochemistry of meta-sediment
K2O 0.47 2.32 0.94 <0.01* rocks is dominated by SiO2, CaO, and Al2O3 with contents of 45.3,
P2O5 0.25 0.09 0.16 <0.01*
Cr2O3 0.024 <0.002* 0.014 <0.002*
12.95, and 11.2 wt%, respectively. The total REY content of meta-
SrO 0.05 0.01 0.02 0.06 sediment rocks is low, i.e., 6.48 ppm.
BaO 0.02 0.03 <0.01* <0.01*
LOI 4.48 5.57 15.9 43.6 4.1.4. Marble (BM-04)
Total 100 100.2 101.17 100.95
Megascopically, marble samples are characterized as bluish–pale-
*
below detection limit. white with intergrowth of calcite with crystal sizes of 1–3 cm (Fig. 5).
Geochemically, the major oxide is predominantly CaO (55.5 wt%) and
compositions of the basement rocks are detailed in Table 1. the total REY content is low (2.3 ppm).

4.1.1. Granodiorite (BM-01)

Megascopically, the granodiorite pluton is seen as pinkish-brown in a 4.2. Floor, parting, and roof characteristics
fresh outcrop but it has been intensively weathered in several places.
A total of 12 samples (including three-floor benches, four roofs, and

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A.A. Patria and F. Anggara International Journal of Coal Geology 262 (2022) 104099

Fig. 6. (A) Fresh outcrop of parting in the Ombilin Basin. (B) Hand specimens of fine-grained sandstone with quartz (Qtz) and organic-matter detrital (Detr. Org). (C)
and (D) Photomicrographs of parting under plane-polarization and cross-polarization light, respectively.

five parting samples) were collected from the Ombilin basin. Most of the Petrographically, the partings were characterized by detrital-rich
roof, parting, and floor are fine-grained sandstone with various sedi­ organic matter and clastic materials, matrix-supported, and showing
mentary structures such as wavy and parallel lamination, crossbed, an orientation of material as a result of the burial effect. Primary con­
normal grading, and rip-up clast of organic-rich material. The partings stituents in the partings are quartz, clay minerals, organic-detrital, and
are relatively thin, approximately 5–20 cm thick. All of the samples were opaque minerals, see Fig. 6.
performed for geochemistry analysis (ICP-AES and ICP-MS, see Table 5). Major elements in the roof, parting, and floor samples are dominated
A sample of parting from the A seam (PA-01) was prepared for petro­ by SiO2 (12.25–68.40 w.t %), Al2O3 (6.94–27.60 w.t %), Fe2O3
graphic analysis. (1.30–33.70 w.t %). The PB1–03 sample from the B1 seam has distinct

Table 2
Coal characteristics based on proximate analysis (air dried basis, %), and random vitrinite reflectance (Rr, %).
Sample Code Seam A Seam B1

A-01 A-02 A-03 A-04 A-05 A-06 A-07 A-08 B1–01 B1–02 B1–03 B1–04 B1–05 B1–06

Rr (%) 0.63 0.59

Ash yield (adb) 1.80 1.04 8.81 1.83 1.51 4.73 5.21 2.50 12.40 4.16 9.80 1.43 4.74 5.96
Moisture (adb) 7.60 7.80 8.13 9.34 7.66 8.83 9.71 8.53 5.77 6.41 7.33 5.91 7.21 6.41
Volatile matter (adb) 37.32 35.99 35.44 35.49 37.94 34.92 34.97 36.28 34.76 37.74 33.57 37.73 36.11 36.15
Fixed carbon (adb) 53.29 55.18 47.64 53.56 52.90 51.53 50.12 52.70 47.08 51.71 49.31 49.94 51.95 51.48

Sample Code Seam B2 Seam C

B2–01 B2–02 B2–03 B2–04 B2–05 B2–06 C-01 C-02 C-03 C-04 C-05 C-06 C-07 C-08A

Rr (%) 0.66 0.58

Ash yield (adb) 11.72 23.30 2.21 38.91 33.85 6.42 3.34 11.49 2.07 7.22 3.46 15.52 1.45 14.04
Moisture (adb) 4.75 4.83 4.65 5.31 5.75 3.86 5.75 4.37 3.88 4.20 4.42 8.67 4.19 5.15
Volatile matter (adb) 32.27 29.18 34.64 25.73 25.93 35.10 38.08 35.12 38.56 38.11 38.37 34.14 37.99 33.80
Fixed carbon (adb) 51.17 42.70 58.51 30.06 34.49 54.64 54.69 49.03 55.51 50.48 53.75 41.68 56.37 47.02

Sample Code Seam C

C-08B C-09A C-09B C-10 C-11 C-12 C-13

Rr (%) 0.59

Ash yield (adb) 4.09 1.62 6.20 4.27 5.04 7.20 5.97
Moisture (adb) 4.03 3.30 4.08 4.18 4.04 4.95 4.93
Volatile matter (adb) 37.73 38.85 36.79 37.83 38.08 35.59 37.13
Fixed carbon (adb) 54.16 56.24 52.93 53.73 52.85 52.27 52.52

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A.A. Patria and F. Anggara International Journal of Coal Geology 262 (2022) 104099

Table 3
Petrographic composition and ash yield content of Ombilin coal.
Composition Seam A Seam B1

A-01 A-02 A-03 A-04 A-05 A-06 A-07 A-08 B1–01 B1–02 B1–03 B1–04 B1–05 B1–06

Maceral (%. vol. mmf)

Telinite 19.54 21.12 20.18 19.85 24.05 19.49 22.18 21.81 21.81 21.23 24.00 26.72 30.60 32.10
Collotelinite 12.92 14.93 13.09 12.20 16.75 11.37 15.90 12.47 10.36 12.71 12.73 11.64 10.90 16.90
Tot. Telovitrinite 32.46 36.05 33.27 35.05 40.80 30.86 38.08 34.28 32.17 33.94 36.73 38.36 41.50 49.00
Vitrodetrinite 6.90 5.83 4.36 5.64 3.09 4.51 4.51 6.69 4.90 6.35 7.27 4.90 4.33 4.54
Collodetrinite 6.72 4.73 3.64 5.28 2.36 3.97 3.97 5.78 4.36 4.72 4.91 3.64 3.23 2.18
Tot. Detrovitrinite 13.62 10.56 8.00 10.92 5.45 8.48 8.48 12.47 9.26 11.07 12.18 8.54 7.56 6.72
Gelinite 1.08 1.63 2.54 1.82 2.18 2.34 2.34 3.43 2.54 3.26 2.45 3.45 4.70 4.91
Corpogelinite 2.18 3.83 2.09 4.18 3.28 3.42 3.42 4.34 1.82 2.54 1.82 1.45 3.05 2.54
Tot. Gelovitrinite 3.26 5.46 7.63 6.00 5.46 5.76 5.76 7.77 4.36 5.80 4.27 4.90 7.75 7.45
Tot. Vitrinite 49.34 52.07 48.90 51.97 51.71 45.10 52.32 54.52 45.79 50.81 53.18 51.80 56.81 63.17
Sporinite 8.72 9.28 10.54 8.01 8.01 9.92 6.72 3.79 7.63 5.80 7.45 6.54 5.83 4.90
Cutinite 9.45 8.56 7.81 5.82 8.74 9.20 7.63 6.69 12.18 9.25 7.09 7.45 3.83 5.27
Suberinite 2.72 2.36 1.81 1.63 3.82 3.24 2.72 1.98 10.72 6.71 3.45 5.63 4.92 3.27
Resinite 6.90 5.82 7.27 4.91 5.10 5.77 4.90 4.52 6.72 7.62 5.63 6.36 4.01 4.54
Exsudatinite 3.27 2.73 2.54 2.18 2.00 3.24 2.90 2.17 1.45 1.99 2.18 2.90 1.54 1.09
Alginite 2.18 1.63 2.00 1.45 1.27 1.44 1.63 0.36 0.36 0.54 0.54 1.27 136 0.18
Liptodetrinite 3.81 3.09 1.81 4.91 2.91 3.79 3.54 3.25 3.45 3.81 3.27 3.81 2.00 1.63
Total Liptinite 37.05 33.47 33.78 28.91 31.85 36.60 30.04 22.76 42.51 35.72 29.61 33.96 23.49 20.88
Semifusinite 5.29 4.57 5.46 8.21 5.83 6.67 6.28 8.32 3.02 3.27 6.26 3.84 6.32 4.85
Fusinite 2.20 2.38 2.38 2.41 1.65 1.98 2.55 4.32 2.23 3.09 2.88 3.47 3.41 2.42
Funginite 4.74 5.84 8.37 6.99 7.67 7.94 7.81 8.02 3.92 4.92 5.73 4.21 6.63 5.86
Inertodetrinite 1.38 1.65 1.11 1.51 1.29 1.62 2.00 2.06 2.83 2.19 2.34 2.72 3.34 2.82
Total Inertinite 13.61 14.46 17.32 19.12 16.44 18.30 18.64 22.72 12.00 13.47 17.21 14.24 19.70 15.95
Mineral Matter 0.36 0.72 1.09 1.09 0.91 0.72 0.36 0.72 0.90 1.27 2.00 1.09 1.64 2.18
Ash Yields 1.80 1.04 8.81 1.83 1.51 4.73 5.21 2.50 12.40 4.16 9.80 1.43 4.74 5.96
TPI 2.16 2.43 2.45 2.48 3.89 2.48 3.30 2.64 2.27 2.11 2.30 2.82 3.27 3.39
GI 3.61 3.62 2.83 2.75 4.59 2.47 2.50 2.00 3.93 3.78 3.34 3.65 3.09 3.67

Composition Seam B2 Seam C

B2–01 B2–02 B2–03 B2–04 B2–05 B2–06 C-01 C-03 C-05 C-06 C-07 C- C- C- C-10 C-11
08B 09A 09B

Maceral (vol%.
mmf)

Telinite 19.11 32.10 21.66 34.20 27.19 34.02 18.94 22.58 21.11 31.62 28.87 28.71 26.67 28.37 23.04 20.32
Collotelinite 23.31 23.40 17.36 25.97 20.65 31.08 13.71 18.02 16.99 24.81 25.77 34.38 35.47 33.92 22.14 23.95
Tot. Telovitrinite 42.42 55.50 39.02 60.17 47.84 65.10 32.65 40.60 38.10 56.43 54.64 63.09 62.14 62.29 45.18 44.27
Vitrodetrinite 3.23 4.26 3.25 3.73 1.37 2.52 12.62 13.46 16.09 6.39 4.32 2.51 3.15 3.86 10.50 11.77
Collodetrinite 1.23 4.36 3.44 2.83 1.75 2.14 10.26 11.81 12.51 4.37 5.41 3.25 3.52 2.97 11.59 10.87
Tot. Detrovitrinite 4.46 8.62 6.69 6.56 3.12 4.66 22.88 25.27 28.60 10.76 9.73 5.76 6.67 6.83 22.09 22.64
Gelinite 2.50 2.13 4.45 2.12 2.75 2.57 2.13 1.64 2.66 4.73 5.87 3.56 4.59 4.94 3.37 3.01
Corpogelinite 4.69 1.59 6.07 1.21 4.76 2.44 1.89 2.39 1.97 3.50 4.87 3.41 3.27 4.82 3.89 3.72
Tot. Gelovitrinite 7.19 3.72 10.52 3.33 7.51 5.01 4.02 4.03 4.63 8.23 10.74 6.97 7.86 9.76 7.26 6.73
Tot. Vitrinite 54.07 67.84 56.23 70.06 58.47 74.77 59.55 69.90 69.00 75.42 74.91 75.82 76.67 78.88 72.36 71.27
Sporinite 2.28 2.12 2.06 1.97 3.85 1.83 3.25 2.55 2.69 1.47 1.64 2.01 2.15 1.43 2.18 2.00
Cutinite 6.75 7.62 7.45 5.74 7.57 5.86 4.70 4.01 3.23 2.76 2.91 4.03 4.49 3.22 2.00 2.55
Suberinite 3.71 4.72 5.20 3.77 4.26 3.84 3.98 3.47 3.76 3.31 3.82 3.85 2.87 3.76 2.55 2.91
Resinite 1.60 1.06 0.75 0.89 0.93 0.36 3.25 3.83 3.58 3.87 2.91 2.75 2.15 2.33 2.73 2.00
Exsudatinite 2.95 2.65 2.06 2.15 0.37 0.54 3.25 2.19 2.33 1.47 2.73 2.20 2.87 2.33 1.64 1.64
Alginite 2.64 0.35 0.75 0.71 1.49 2.19 4.34 1.64 1.79 1.57 1.64 2.20 1.62 1.25 2.18 1.45
Liptodetrinite 2.50 3.72 2.25 5.74 2.24 2.56 4.88 2.01 2.51 1.66 1.45 1.65 1.97 1.61 2.55 2.36
Total Liptinite 22.43 22.24 20.52 20.97 20.71 17.18 27.65 19.70 19.89 16.11 17.10 18.69 18.12 15.93 15.83 14.91
Semifusinite 7.97 3.36 7.64 2.51 8.41 2.38 3.25 2.37 2.15 1.84 1.64 1.47 1.62 1.43 2.18 2.55
Fusinite 4.06 3.08 5.07 2.15 1.37 2.01 1.45 1.09 1.97 0.55 0.73 0.55 0.72 0.54 1.64 2.00
Funginite 8.72 1.95 7.89 2.87 8.04 2.19 4.34 5.29 3.76 4.05 4.55 2.75 1.97 2.50 4.91 5.82
Inertodetrinite 2.75 1.53 2.63 1.43 2.99 1.46 3.25 1.64 0.90 2.03 1.09 0.73 0.90 0.72 0.91 1.09
Total Inertinite 23.50 9.92 23.25 8.97 20.82 8.05 12.30 10.40 8.78 8.47 8.00 5.49 5.21 5.19 9.64 11.45
Mineral Matter 7.66 3.01 5.83 3.77 5.42 3.29 2.89 2.19 2.33 2.76 3.45 3.11 5.03 6.08 2.18 2.36
Ash Yields 11.72 23.30 2.21 38.91 33.85 6.42 3.34 2.07 3.46 15.52 1.45 4.09 1.62 6.20 4.27 5.04
TPI 3.98 5.20 2.02 6.00 4.32 5.91 1.26 1.49 1.25 2.99 2.50 5.64 5.04 4.70 1.65 1.64
GI 4.86 7.54 1.31 7.38 2.20 6.01 4.64 6.50 7.85 8.58 8.93 13.23 13.75 14.03 7.51 6.22

high content of CaO (1.64 w.t %) and MgO (2.92 w.t %). K2O content is partings ranged from 111.14 to 183.52 ppm. The highest content of REY
elevated in FB1–01 and RB2–01 samples with 3.35 w.t % and 3.09 w.t %, is the roof sample from the B2 seam, which is directly in contact with the
respectively. The other oxides, Cr2O3, TiO2, MnO, P2O5, SrO, and BaO high REY content in the B2–06 coal sample.
have similar abundances of <1%.
The total REY of the floor benches ranged from 160.39 to 208.09
ppm, the roof samples vary from 93.34 to 224.78 ppm, while the

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A.A. Patria and F. Anggara International Journal of Coal Geology 262 (2022) 104099

Fig. 7. Macerals and minerals under white-light and fluorescence microscopy: (A) photomicrograph of fusinite and detrovitrinite, (B) syngenetic pyrite on a coal
sample, (C) clay minerals and telinite, (D) Fe-oxide minerals, telinite, and collotelinite, (E) cutinite and liptodetrinite, (F) alginite, sporinite, and cutinite, (G)
exudatinite, sporinite, and liptodetrinite, and (H) resinite.

4.3. Coal characteristics mmf), liptinite (14.91–42.51 vol% mmf), inertinite (5.19–23.50 vol%
mmf), and mineral matter (0.36–7.66 vol%), see Table 3. Pyrite is the
There are four coal seams in the research area, i.e., the A, B1, B2, and most common mineral in all of the seams. Other minerals observed
C seams, with three lithotypes: bright-banded coal, bright coal, and dull include Fe-oxide, clay minerals, and quartz. Both syngenetic and
coal only found in the B2 seam. The thickness of all of the coal seams epigenetic pyrite are also observed in the coal seams and typically
varies in the range of 1–6 m, and sandstone partings are commonly present as isolated forms, clustered framboids, euhedral crystals, and
found in the A and C seams. The average content of volatile matter in the fracture infillings usually associated with exudatinite and cell-infillings,
A, B1, B2, and C seams is 31.61%, 36.01%, 30.47%, and 37.08%, especially funginite.
respectively, indicating that the coal has the characteristics of high- Generally, the bottom of the sequence is dominated primarily by
volatile bituminous coal based on ASTM D388-12 (2015). The highest detrital macerals, the middle section is composed of well-preserved
average ash yield content is found with respect to the B2 seam (19.40%), macerals, and the top of the section is composed of inertinite-rich and
followed by the B1 (6.41%), C (6.19%), and A (3.24%) seams. detrital macerals. Unlike the other lithotypes, the dull coal lithotype
Coal in the Ombilin Basin has Rr values in the range of 0.58%–0.66% mainly consists of inertinite-rich macerals. Fig. 7 presents representative
(see Table 2); thus, the rank of Ombilin coal is subbituminous to high- photomicrographs of samples under fluorescence and reflected white
volatile bituminous C coal (Belkin and Tewalt, 2007). light.
Based on maceral analysis of the polished sections, it was established
that Ombilin coals are mainly composed of vitrinite (45.10–78.88 vol%

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A.A. Patria and F. Anggara International Journal of Coal Geology 262 (2022) 104099

Fig. 8. Scanning electron microscopy backscattered electron images of pyrite in Ombilin coal samples: (A) framboidal and spherical pyrite, (B) cell-filling pyrite, and
(C) and (D) framboidal and discrete pyrite.

4.4. Coal mineralogy studies have indicated that heavy REY (HREY) have greater organic
affinity than light REY (LREY) (e.g., Eskenazy, 1999; Dai et al., 2015),
4.4.1. Pyrite and sulfide-minerals which is in accordance with the observations of Ombilin coal samples.
Pyrite is a common mineral found in most samples of Ombilin coal. It
is observed as discrete crystals, massive crystals, framboidal pyrite, and
4.5. Coal elemental geochemistry
cell-filling on other macerals. Both syngenetic and epigenetic pyrite are
found in Ombilin coal. Framboidal and discrete pyrite are derived syn­
We performed statistical analysis using RStudio and visualized the
genetically during peatification or coalification, while cell-filling on
results as boxplots. A boxplot defines the variance of data such as the
macerals and microfractures forms in the epigenetic stage (Fig. 8).
quartile range, minimum–maximum values, and outlier data.
Sphalerite (ZnS), also found in the SEM analysis as a minor sulfide
mineral, is associated with kaolinite (see Fig. 9).
4.5.1. Concentrations of major element oxides and trace elements in
Ombilin coals
4.4.2. Clay minerals
Determination of the major element oxides in the Ombilin coal
Clay minerals are found in several samples of Ombilin coal. Clay
samples and parting was performed using ICP-AES. The Ombilin coal
minerals occur in various forms that present with massive, lump-
samples are dominated by SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 found higher in some
dispersed, and lens-banded characteristics and to a lesser extent as
samples (Table 4,). Other major oxides such as MgO, Na2O, K2O, Cr2O3,
cell-filling on macerals or microfractures. Clay minerals are also
TiO2, MnO, P2O5, SrO, and BaO have content of <2 wt% and/or below
observed in association with detrital quartz and Fe-oxide in the C seam
the detection limit for each element. Fig. 10 shows the distribution data
only.
of the major oxides of each of the seams. It can be seen that the A and B2
seams have patterns that are different to those of the other two seams,
4.4.3. Quartz
and that the concentration coefficients (CCs) are lower. The B1 and C
Although relatively less common than other minerals, quartz is
seams have high contents of SiO2 and K2O, with CC values of >1, and
observed in several coal samples. Quartz mainly occurs as detrital and
low content of CaO.
discrete particles, and is commonly found in association with clay
The high content of SiO2 is as might be expected given the abundance
minerals.
of quartz minerals. The average SiO2/Al2O3 ratio of the Ombilin coal is
3.02, which is higher than that reported for other Chinese coals by Dai
4.4.4. REY-bearing minerals
et al. (2012); it is also higher than the theoretical ratio of kaolinite
The SEM-EDX analysis indicated that REY-bearing minerals in the
(1.18), which assumes that SiO2 is present in a free or crystal form
Ombilin coal samples are attributed to organic and inorganically bound
(quartz) in the coal. Silicon can occur in quartz minerals and also in
(Fig. 9.). Areal individual element mapping revealed dispersed and
addition to a proportion of aluminum, it will form in clay minerals
scattered patterns indicating the presence of REY as organically bound.
(kaolinite, illite/smectite, and chlorite). Quartz and clay minerals,
Detailed spot analysis revealed REY-bearing minerals are related to clay
especially kaolinite, represent the major mineral constituents in coal
minerals such as kaolinite and sulfide minerals such as sphalerite. Some
samples (Seredin and Dai, 2012).

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A.A. Patria and F. Anggara International Journal of Coal Geology 262 (2022) 104099

Fig. 9. Scanning electron microscopy backscattered electron images of mineral content in Ombilin coal samples. Mineral matter in Ombilin coal is dominated by
pyrite (B2–03), kaolinite (B2–06), and sphalerite (C2-09A).

All trace elements have been normalized and compared with the 2015).
World Hard Coal by Ketris and Yudovich (2009) to establish the sig­
nificance of each element. Trace elements in the Ombilin coal deposit 4.5.2. Distribution patterns of rare earth elements and yttrium (REY)
are largely normal and depleted, although a few elements in the four A three-class geochemical classification of REY from Seredin and Dai
seams are enriched (see Table 5; Fig. 11). The enriched and slightly (2012) was used in this coal study: light (La, Ce, Pr, Nd, and Sm), me­
enriched samples of vanadium are more common in the B2 seam. Three dium (Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, and Y), and heavy (Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, and Lu).
samples are attributed to significantly enriched, i.e., B2–06, B2–05 and Following the method of Seredin and Dai (2012), the REY concentra­
B2–03. The three samples are characterized by mineral matter-rich tions were normalized by upper continental crust data from Taylor and
layers with low LOI values and is higher in the coal with high ash McLennan (1985) to plot spider diagrams (Fig. 12). The ICP-MS results
yield content. While the C seam has enriched in several samples i.e., C- revealed that the total REY concentrations in the Ombilin coal samples
09A, C-09B, and C-08B (2 < CC <5). were in the range of 1.6–126.15 ppm. Four samples from the C and B2
The coal samples with high mineral matters layer/parting has high seams had total REY content values above those of World Hard Coal
concentration of vanadium. It also supported by the SEM-EDX analysis, proposed by Ketris and Yudovich (2009).
the modes of occurrence of trace elements in the Ombilin coal is The REY spider diagrams show that the roof and floor of the B1, B2,
attributed to clay and sulfide minerals. Vanadium in low ash yield coal and C seams have similar patterns, with characteristics of M-Type and
layer is controlled by reductive syngenetic and diagenetic processes LREY depletion. The roof of seam A has distinct characteristics with
during peatification and coalification, which lead to organic material negative Ce and Eu anomalies, and weak positive Eu and Gd anomalies.
becoming organometallically bound to vanadium (Yuan, 2018). Humic Three different patterns are shown in the parting spider diagrams.
materials produce humic acid that can become bound with metal ele­ Parting from the A seam has a distinct negative Eu anomaly and slight
ments to form metal-humates and/or can become bound via ion depletion of HREY, while the B1 seam has a slight positive anomaly with
adsorption on organic volatile matter (Borovec et al., 1979; Eskenazy, depletion of LREY. Samples B1–06, B1–04, and B1–02, which directly

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A.A. Patria and F. Anggara International Journal of Coal Geology 262 (2022) 104099

Table 4
Concentrations of major oxides in the samples from the Ombilin Basin (unit: w.t %).
Sample Code Major Oxide (%)

SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K2 O Cr2O3 TiO2 MnO P2O5 SrO BaO LOI Total

R-A 12.25 8.66 1.3 0.11 0.19 0.11 0.29 0.002 0.16 <0.01 0.03 <0.01 0.02 76.4 100.13
A-08 0.72 0.47 1.05 0.02 <0.01 0.01 0.02 <0.002 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 97.5 99.8
A-07 1.91 1.5 0.51 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.1 <0.002 0.02 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 95.7 99.82
A-06 0.29 0.19 0.2 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 <0.002 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 99.1 99.84
A-05 3.57 2.97 0.35 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.02 <0.002 0.07 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 92.3 99.34
PA-01 36.8 27.6 3.64 0.24 0.18 0.04 0.21 <0.002 0.35 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 0.01 30.7 99.78
A-04 1.45 1.01 0.54 0.02 0.04 <0.01 0.01 <0.002 0.03 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 96.1 99.21
A-03 0.61 0.51 0.33 0.01 0.02 <0.01 <0.01 <0.002 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 98.4 99.89
A-02 0.49 0.11 0.06 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.002 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 99.3 99.97
A-01 0.8 0.05 0.41 0.05 0.04 <0.01 <0.01 <0.002 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 98.6 99.95
R-B1 50.3 14.85 12.95 0.54 1.54 0.26 1.88 0.01 0.63 0.16 0.09 0.01 0.03 16.00 99.25
B1–06 3.94 1.35 0.5 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.11 0.002 0.06 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 92.6 98.62
PB1–03 30.2 6.94 33.7 1.64 2.92 0.17 0.81 0.007 0.36 0.42 0.23 <0.01 0.02 23.2 100.62
B1–05 0.26 0.11 0.31 0.98 0.05 0.01 <0.01 <0.002 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 97.6 99.32
B1–04 4.55 2.74 0.49 0.02 0.05 0.04 0.17 <0.002 0.06 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 91.00 99.12
PB1–02 31.00 19.55 2.08 0.11 0.39 0.22 1.18 0.006 0.48 <0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02 44.1 99.17
B1–03 0.69 0.44 0.08 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.03 <0.002 0.02 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 92.1 93.44
B1–02 2.15 0.69 0.34 0.05 0.01 0.02 0.04 <0.002 0.02 <0.01 0.02 <0.01 <0.01 95.00 98.34
PB1–01 33.00 15.15 7.49 0.2 0.53 0.19 1.8 0.008 0.44 0.05 0.1 0.01 0.03 40.4 99.4
B1–01 7.56 2.82 0.62 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.28 0.002 0.1 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 87.1 98.61
F-B1 62.6 21.1 2.14 0.14 0.83 0.35 3.35 0.015 0.84 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.05 9.00 100.47
R-B2 59.1 20.2 2.88 0.23 0.83 0.29 3.09 0.014 0.81 0.06 0.08 0.01 0.07 12.4 100.06
B2–06 20.7 11.65 1.96 0.08 0.26 0.16 1.12 0.006 0.31 <0.01 0.02 <0.01 0.03 62.4 98.7
B2–05 19.35 11.5 2.6 0.06 0.24 0.15 1.03 0.005 0.26 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 0.02 63.9 99.13
B2–04 11.25 4.47 2.29 0.16 0.25 0.09 0.42 0.003 0.13 0.02 0.01 <0.01 0.02 80.2 99.31
B2–03 32.9 18.85 1.95 0.11 0.47 0.27 1.74 0.008 0.44 <0.01 0.03 0.01 0.06 41.5 98.34
B2–02 10.05 3.46 1.57 0.04 0.09 0.04 0.23 0.002 0.15 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 83.6 99.25
B2–01 1.96 1.14 0.13 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.07 <0.002 0.03 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 96.3 99.7
F-B2 36.4 20.2 2.12 0.11 0.58 0.26 2.05 0.009 0.49 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.06 35.9 98.21
R-C 58.6 11.25 11.55 1.12 1.67 0.24 1.55 0.01 0.57 0.25 0.11 0.01 0.03 14.7 101.66
C-13 8.44 3.01 0.69 0.35 0.13 0.05 0.35 0.002 0.11 <0.01 0.03 <0.01 0.01 86.3 99.47
C-12 3.91 1.52 0.53 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.14 <0.002 0.05 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 93.5 99.79
C-11 9.68 3.54 0.77 0.04 0.09 0.07 0.38 0.003 0.11 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 85.2 99.89
C-10 10.75 4.07 0.66 0.05 0.11 0.07 0.4 0.003 0.17 0.01 0.01 <0.01 0.01 83.4 99.71
C-9B 9.31 2.69 1.2 0.1 0.13 0.06 0.36 0.002 0.14 0.02 0.02 <0.01 0.01 85.8 99.84
C-9A 36.3 10.25 2.23 0.18 0.41 0.24 1.38 0.007 0.44 0.04 0.03 0.01 0.03 47.7 99.25
C-08B 13.3 3.96 1.08 0.08 0.16 0.09 0.52 0.005 0.17 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 80.7 100.09
C-08A 3.93 1.29 0.6 0.11 0.08 0.07 0.15 <0.002 0.05 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 93.7 99.99
C-07 15.2 3.99 1.18 0.35 0.21 0.22 0.54 0.003 0.17 0.02 0.03 <0.01 0.01 76.5 98.42
C-06 5.37 1.82 0.71 0.08 0.09 0.18 0.18 <0.002 0.06 <0.01 0.02 <0.01 <0.01 90.8 99.31
C-05 12.75 2.82 0.81 0.06 0.11 0.06 0.38 0.003 0.14 0.01 0.01 <0.01 0.01 83.1 100.26
C-04 3.35 1.14 0.3 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.11 <0.002 0.05 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 93.8 98.83
PC-01 67.9 9.7 4.55 0.15 0.36 0.07 1.1 0.01 0.61 0.06 0.06 <0.01 0.02 15.55 100.14
C-03 15.15 3.97 1.29 0.22 0.17 0.05 0.48 0.004 0.19 0.02 0.02 <0.01 0.01 78.9 100.47
C-02 11.7 3.01 0.91 0.1 0.11 0.04 0.36 0.002 0.14 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 83.9 100.29
C-01 5.72 1.61 0.46 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.17 <0.002 0.08 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 91.7 99.91
F-C 68.4 12.4 4.02 0.2 0.47 0.09 1.6 0.011 0.67 0.07 0.04 <0.01 0.02 12.65 100.64

overlie the parting samples PB1–03, PB1–02, and PB1–01, have similar means that the first and second factors are unimportant in terms of REY
distribution patterns of REY. A weak anomaly is shown in the C seam enrichment in Ombilin coals. However, the final two factors are
with slight intensification of medium REY (MREY). responsible for the mineralogical and geochemical anomalies of Ombilin
The REY in the Ombilin coal deposits is broadly characterized by H- coals.
M-Type enrichment and slight depletion of LREY. The samples from the
A seam have similar patterns with a single anomaly (A-01), which shows 4.6.1. Input from sediment source region
a distinct positive Eu anomaly. The B1 samples can be identified as As discussed in the above, the Ombilin Basin is an intermontane
having two different patterns: samples that overlie the parting with basin with different basement rocks in several margin areas. The base­
HREY enrichment, and samples that underlie the coal partings with ment rocks of the Ombilin Basin consist of pre-Tertiary pluton granite,
characteristics of a positive Eu anomaly and slight HREY enrichment. andesite-basaltic intrusion, marble, and meta-sediment rocks. The
The samples from the B2 seam are mostly the same with slight MREY geochemical compositions of the coal, partings, and basement rocks are
enrichment and LREY depletion, but with a single anomaly (B2–01) used to support this point of view.
showing HREY distribution pattern. Coal samples from the C seam have Trace element compositions can provide information on sediment
identical patterns with a slight MREY distribution pattern. provenance and source rock composition. The distinct geochemical
characteristics of clastic sediments have been used in various studies to
4.6. Organic and inorganic component sources identify the provenance of terrigenous sources (Cullers, 2000; Hayashi
et al., 1997; Krzeszowska, 2019). Proxies of the Al2O3/TiO2 and TiO2/Zr
Seredin and Dai (2012) discussed four genetic factors that control ratios, and the abundances and anomalies of trace elements, can be used
REY enrichment in coal: tuffaceous, hydrothermal, terrigenous, and to determine provenance. According to Hayashi et al. (1997), three
infiltration. There are no reports suggesting the occurrence of volcanic ranges of the Al2O3/TiO2 ratio can be used to identify provenance: 3–8
or magmatic activity during the Eocene in the Ombilin Basin, which for mafic igneous rocks, 8–21 for intermediate rocks, and 21–70 for

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A.A. Patria and F. Anggara International Journal of Coal Geology 262 (2022) 104099

Fig. 10. Concentration coefficients (CCs) of major element oxides in the four coal seams of the Ombilin Basin (CC, element concentrations in investigated samples vs.
World Hard Coal). The boxplot analysis represents the variation of statistical data, where the black square is the maximum value, the black circle is the minimum
value, the colored box is the interquartile range (Q1–Q3), the solid line is the median (Q2), the black rhombus identifies outlier data, and the solid red line represents
CC = 1. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

felsic igneous rocks. transitions between topogenous and ombrogenous mires. Based on
The Al2O3/TiO2 ratios of the Ombilin coal samples were in the range paleoenvironmental reconstruction (Patria, 2020; Patria and Anggara,
of 5–75 (average: 29.4); very high ratios and large ranges of variation 2022), it is suggested that development of the Ombilin coal mire formed
were found for the A seam, whereas the other seams presented similar in telmatic–limnic and forest–swamp conditions. REY-enriched coal in
ranges of variation. The Al2O3/TiO2 plots of all the studied samples from the Ombilin Basin was deposited in a telmatic environment with telo­
the Ombilin Basin suggest derivation from felsic-intermediate rocks (see vitrinite–liptinite microfacies, and the high ash yield content is a prod­
Fig. 13). uct of transition from ombrogenous mire to topogenous mire. Such
Plots of the concentrations of Zr and TiO2 are used for characterizing environments lead to algal growth and low Eh values, resulting in strong
the nature and composition of the source rock. The plots proposed by reductive conditions, and it is known that algae have strong capability to
Hayashi et al. (1997) show that the samples mainly fall into the category enrich certain metals and trace elements (Dai et al., 2012).
of intermediate-felsic rocks, although three anomalous samples from the Based on geochemical data, it appears that the peat depositional
B1 seam plot as mafic igneous rocks (Fig. 14). environments of the Ombilin Basin have been subjected to freshwater
Lithophile elements, especially vanadium, which are significantly conditions, as evidenced by the low Sr/Ba values in most coal benches
enriched in the coal, partings, and andesite-basaltic basement rock, (Fig. 15). The values of the Sr/Ba ratio in the Ombilin coal deposits are in
might be derived from the andesite basement based on comparison of the range of 0.16–2.96 (average: 0.48). The Sr/Ba value has been used
the patterns of distribution of the individual elements in the coals and successfully as an indicator of the water condition for peat depositional
basement rocks (Fig. 15). environments (e.g., Spiro et al., 2019; Dai et al., 2020a, 2020b; Liu et al.,
Based on geochemical redox and non-redox anomalies, REY enrich­ 2020), where Sr/Ba values of >1 indicate marine influence, and Sr/Ba
ment in the Ombilin coals is characterized by a clearly positive La values of <1 indicate detrital material input and dominance of fresh­
anomaly (average value of 1.53) and a distinct positive Eu anomaly water influences.
(average value of 1.22). These anomalies indicate coal derived from a The Y/Ho ratio can be used as a proxy to determine the aqueous
source with intermediate provenance (Dai et al., 2016). A positive Eu environment during sedimentation, as an attribute to the fractionation
anomaly indicates mafic–intermediate provenance because felsic rocks between Y and Ho. Elevated values of the Y/Ho ratio (~60–70) usually
undergo fractional crystallization (Cullers, 2000). A positive Eu anomaly reflect the influence of seawater input, whereas low values of the Y/Ho
also can result from Ca-rich minerals such as plagioclase that form as ratio (~25–30) are attributed to detrital clastic materials and freshwater
isomorphous replacements of Ca2+ with Eu2+ (Birk and White, 1991). conditions (Webb and Kamber, 2000; Liu et al., 2020. The Y/Ho values
Based on indicators such as the Al2O3/TiO2 and Zr and TiO2 ratios, of the Ombilin coal deposits are in range of 23.8–50.0 (average: 30.1),
comparative distribution patterns of individual elements between the indicating detrital input and no seawater influence (Fig. 16).
coal and the basement rocks, and geochemical redox and non-redox The TPI versus GI plots show that the C seam developed under tel­
anomalies, it can be concluded that the main source or provenance of matic conditions or under the influence of seawater input (Patria, 2020:
the Ombilin coal deposits was felsic-intermediate igneous rocks or Patria and Anggara, 2022); however, the geochemical data show no
andesitic rocks. indication that the C seam was influenced by marine water. It is sug­
gested that the maceral compositions might not always reflect marine
4.6.2. No seawater infiltration conditions, but might indicate plant or organic sources and very
The Ombilin coal paleomire is known to have undergone several reductive conditions of mire during peatification.

12
 A.A. Patria and F. Anggara
Table 5
Elemental concentrations of samples from the Ombilin basin (unit: ppm).
Sample LREY (ppm) MREY (ppm) HREY (ppm) TOTAL Trace Element (ppm) LOI
Code REY (%)
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Y Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Ba Ga Sr Zr Hf Nb Ta U V

R-A 13.9 27.7 5.55 18.2 3.49 0.92 3.84 0.44 3.22 11.5 0.61 1.85 0.18 1.68 0.26 93.34 115.5 10.1 50.9 37.0 1.1 10.4 1.0 2.96 12.0 76.4
A-08 0.8 1.3 0.21 1.1 0.43 0.16 0.79 0.13 0.87 5.9 0.19 0.56 0.08 0.46 0.08 13.06 10.2 3.0 5.2 6.0 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.16 11.0 97.5
A-07 2.6 4.8 0.67 3.0 0.81 0.23 0.87 0.14 0.82 4.6 0.15 0.48 0.07 0.46 0.07 19.77 25.9 2.1 11.3 7.0 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.32 30.0 95.7
A-06 1.3 1.7 0.18 0.7 0.12 0.03 0.15 0.03 0.15 1.5 0.04 0.12 0.02 0.13 0.02 6.19 12.0 0.3 8.7 4.0 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.11 5.0 99.1
A-05 4.2 10.1 1.25 4.3 1.12 0.19 0.95 0.21 1.38 7.5 0.31 1.02 0.18 1.34 0.2 34.25 19.5 4.0 9.3 42.0 1.5 7.2 0.4 2.16 16.0 92.3
PA-01 25.4 49.7 5.55 18.2 3.49 0.39 2.65 0.44 2.39 11.5 0.44 1.21 0.18 1.39 0.21 123.14 130.0 22.3 50.9 118.0 3.2 10.4 1.0 2.96 12.0 30.7
A-04 9.4 10.8 0.97 2.8 0.61 0.1 0.65 0.13 1.03 5.8 0.23 0.79 0.14 1.0 0.15 34.6 19.5 3.5 57.9 22.0 0.7 5.6 0.2 1.78 8.0 96.1
A-03 1.1 2.5 0.18 0.7 0.12 0.04 0.33 0.06 0.45 3.3 0.09 0.34 0.05 0.34 0.06 9.66 6.6 1.2 4.0 5.0 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.52 5.0 98.4
A-02 0.6 0.9 0.12 0.5 0.13 0.04 0.14 0.03 0.14 1.5 0.03 0.1 0.02 0.03 0.01 4.29 7.1 0.2 3.7 2.0 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.05 6.0 99.3
A-01 0.5 0.4 0.04 0.1 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.3 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.01 1.6 7.8 0.1 4.8 2.0 0.2 0.2 0.01 0.05 5.0 98.6
R-B1 27.1 50.2 6.03 22.5 4.65 0.99 4.51 0.7 4.51 27.5 0.92 2.81 0.39 2.44 0.39 155.64 278.0 16.3 84.4 144.0 3.9 10.8 0.8 2.26 99.0 16.0
B1–06 3.0 6.0 0.8 3.1 0.96 0.28 1.4 0.26 2.01 14.3 0.48 1.53 0.23 1.62 0.25 36.22 24.8 7.5 8.4 16.0 0.4 1.8 0.1 0.98 32.0 92.6
PB1–03 21.1 40.9 5.02 19.5 4.74 1.14 5.4 0.86 5.7 37.8 1.25 3.74 0.58 3.73 0.6 152.06 180.5 8.1 64.4 100.0 2.7 2.8 0.5 1.59 92.0 23.2
B1–05 0.6 0.6 0.07 0.3 0.06 0.03 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.3 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.01 2.16 28.8 0.2 36.0 2.0 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.05 5.0 97.6
B1–04 6.2 11.8 1.59 6.6 1.68 0.37 1.6 0.24 1.56 10.5 0.32 0.98 0.15 0.92 0.14 44.65 37.0 3.5 13.5 17.0 0.5 0.8 0.1 0.7 60.0 91.0
PB1–02 17.9 32.6 4.56 17.9 4.26 1.02 3.9 0.58 3.44 19.3 0.72 2.14 0.33 2.15 0.34 111.14 222.0 17.8 94.3 66.0 1.9 2.8 0.2 1.48 141.0 44.1
B1–03 1.3 1.8 0.24 1.0 0.25 0.07 0.22 0.03 0.16 1.7 0.04 0.12 0.02 0.3 0.02 7.27 20.4 0.5 11.6 2.0 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.11 12.0 92.1
B1–02 1.8 3.0 0.39 1.6 0.48 0.12 0.52 0.08 0.55 4.5 0.12 0.35 0.05 0.3 0.05 13.91 24.8 2.1 10.6 4.0 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.18 33.0 95.0
PB1–01 19.3 39.0 4.99 19.3 4.5 0.94 4.15 0.59 3.45 17.5 0.64 1.91 0.28 1.72 0.25 118.52 272.0 16.4 80.4 66.0 1.9 5.4 0.1 1.74 114.0 40.4
B1–01 4.7 8.1 0.99 3.9 1.15 0.31 1.51 0.29 2.09 14.8 0.49 1.63 0.26 1.61 0.28 42.11 57.4 8.2 21.4 28.0 0.8 1.8 0.2 0.53 26.0 87.1
F-B1 36.3 71.1 8.83 32.5 7.01 1.41 5.99 0.91 5.67 30.0 1.09 3.28 0.5 3.03 0.47 208.09 444.0 24.0 129.0 165.0 4.6 15.4 1.2 2.74 144.0 9.0
13

R-B2 40.5 81.2 9.22 34.9 6.99 1.31 6.07 0.9 5.16 30.4 1.07 3.12 0.47 3.0 0.47 224.78 649.0 24.3 152.0 169.0 4.8 14.7 1.1 2.76 137.0 12.4
B2–06 19.1 36.1 4.66 18.2 4.15 0.92 3.78 0.59 3.22 20.0 0.73 2.17 0.3 2.21 0.35 116.48 309.0 15.7 64.4 70.0 2.0 5.0 0.3 2.9 175.0 62.4
B2–05 17.9 32.9 4.05 15.9 3.11 0.77 3.18 0.46 2.43 14.0 0.5 1.6 0.24 1.55 0.26 98.85 227.0 14.1 58.2 65.0 1.7 3.9 0.2 2.13 128.0 63.9
B2–04 8.9 17.2 2.05 7.9 1.8 0.45 1.93 0.31 1.73 10.7 0.37 1.01 0.15 1.06 0.16 55.72 184.0 6.2 30.7 38.0 1.0 2.2 0.1 1.04 49.0 80.2
B2–03 23.3 40.8 5.09 19.7 3.82 0.9 3.76 0.6 3.16 19.2 0.73 2.18 0.3 2.25 0.36 126.15 535.0 21.5 97.0 108.0 3.1 6.1 0.4 2.51 132.0 41.5
B2–02 6.8 13.9 1.86 7.1 1.83 0.55 2.22 0.34 2.16 12.7 0.45 1.36 0.2 1.27 0.21 52.95 57.3 4.9 13.8 50.0 1.3 1.9 0.1 0.82 47.0 83.6
B2–01 1.4 2.2 0.27 1.3 0.25 0.09 0.36 0.07 0.52 2.9 0.11 0.38 0.04 0.43 0.08 10.4 35.7 5.9 5.8 16.0 0.3 1.3 0.1 1.01 23.0 96.3
F-B2 28.6 51.2 6.31 23.8 5.23 1.15 5.43 0.86 4.32 25.9 0.91 2.85 0.38 2.97 0.48 160.39 596.0 22.3 99.2 123.0 3.4 8.4 0.4 3.18 181.0 35.9
R-C 30.5 61.8 6.81 26.1 5.3 1.06 5.17 0.75 4.29 26.7 1.01 2.81 0.41 2.64 0.4 175.75 236.0 12.5 89.8 183.0 4.8 10.1 0.7 2.47 89.0 14.7
C-13 5.9 11.2 1.33 5.4 1.14 0.25 1.09 0.17 0.81 5.5 0.19 0.53 0.08 0.51 0.09 34.19 69.6 3.6 23.8 25.0 0.6 1.7 0.1 0.71 24.0 86.3
C-12 3.2 5.7 0.73 2.8 0.6 0.13 0.61 0.09 0.6 3.1 0.13 0.31 0.06 0.27 0.06 18.39 27.3 2.3 10.2 12.0 0.3 0.7 0.1 0.51 15.0 93.5
C-11 6.3 13.3 1.58 6.6 1.64 0.37 1.78 0.26 1.43 8.8 0.32 0.77 0.12 0.7 0.12 44.09 72.5 6.4 19.4 26.0 0.6 1.9 0.1 1.04 29.0 85.2

International Journal of Coal Geology 262 (2022) 104099

C-10 6.4 12.0 1.39 5.4 1.16 0.25 1.04 0.17 1.0 5.4 0.2 0.58 0.07 0.6 0.09 35.75 66.3 4.3 18.4 28.0 0.7 2.0 0.1 1.26 27.0 83.4
C-9B 5.8 11.4 1.3 5.0 1.06 0.23 1.02 0.15 0.81 5.0 0.17 0.52 0.08 0.53 0.06 33.13 83.6 3.4 19.9 32.0 0.9 1.9 0.1 37.6 23.0 85.8
C-9A 20.8 42.6 5.03 19.8 4.16 0.88 3.6 0.54 3.04 17.0 0.62 1.75 0.24 1.78 0.28 122.12 288.0 12.6 72.2 112.0 3.0 7.4 0.4 2.55 76.0 47.7
C-08B 8.1 16.1 1.89 7.2 1.85 0.36 1.76 0.31 1.73 10.1 0.39 1.17 0.13 1.03 0.15 52.27 95.6 8.4 27.2 49.0 1.2 3.1 0.2 1.43 55.0 80.7
C-08A 3.1 5.6 0.62 2.5 0.46 0.11 0.5 0.07 0.41 2.3 0.09 0.23 0.04 0.25 0.04 16.32 32.7 1.6 16.3 11.0 0.3 0.7 0.1 0.47 10.0 93.7
C-07 9.3 18.1 2.05 8.0 1.67 0.37 1.75 0.27 1.62 9.6 0.32 1.02 0.13 0.92 0.15 55.27 111.0 8.9 54.0 49.0 1.3 3.0 0.2 8.01 36.0 76.5
C-06 5.3 10.9 1.28 5.4 0.96 0.22 1.05 0.13 0.72 5.0 0.15 0.44 0.06 0.4 0.06 32.07 31.1 2.7 17.3 17.0 0.5 0.9 0.1 2.09 11.0 90.8
C-05 7.5 14.4 1.67 6.5 1.41 0.34 1.44 0.19 1.16 7.7 0.31 0.76 0.11 0.66 0.11 44.26 68.9 4.9 18.0 39.0 0.9 2.3 0.2 8.51 32.0 83.1
C-04 2.5 4.9 0.58 2.3 0.46 0.1 0.55 0.09 0.48 3.4 0.12 0.35 0.05 0.29 0.05 16.22 18.2 2.4 6.2 11.0 0.3 0.6 0.1 1.95 8.0 93.8
PC-01 33.5 69.0 7.75 28.6 5.56 1.04 4.7 0.68 3.73 22.6 0.85 2.3 0.34 2.5 0.37 183.52 168.5 9.9 42.8 293.0 7.5 10.6 0.7 2.35 56.0 15.55
C-03 9.1 18.2 2.04 7.8 1.76 0.38 1.49 0.25 1.47 9.8 0.32 1.03 0.16 1.04 0.17 55.01 97.1 8.4 23.1 56.0 1.3 3.3 0.2 8.08 39.0 78.9
C-02 7.4 13.8 1.53 6.0 1.09 0.25 1.35 0.15 1.03 6.9 0.24 0.55 0.09 0.58 0.1 41.06 56.0 4.2 15.9 38.0 1.1 2.2 0.2 0.96 22.0 83.9
C-01 3.4 6.8 0.86 3.3 0.88 0.22 1.1 0.17 1.08 7.0 0.24 0.69 0.1 0.62 0.1 26.56 29.3 6.7 10.7 19.0 0.5 1.1 0.1 3.66 15.0 91.7
F-C 35.6 70.3 8.05 29.4 5.72 1.04 4.63 0.72 3.98 25.2 0.93 2.75 0.43 2.92 0.44 192.11 231.0 14.2 60.6 262.0 6.5 12.7 0.9 2.66 80.0 12.65
A.A. Patria and F. Anggara International Journal of Coal Geology 262 (2022) 104099

Fig. 11. Concentration coefficients (CCs) of critical elements in the four coal seams of the Ombilin Basin (CC, element concentrations in investigated samples vs.
World Hard Coal (Ketris and Yudovich, 2009). The boxplot analysis represents the variation of statistical data, where the black square is the maximum value, the
black circle is the minimum value, the colored box is the interquartile range (Q1–Q3), the solid line is the median (Q2), the black rhombus identifies outlier data, and
the solid red line represents CC = 1. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

14
A.A. Patria and F. Anggara International Journal of Coal Geology 262 (2022) 104099

Fig. 12. Distribution patterns of rare earth elements and yttrium (REY) of the Ombilin coals. The REY plots were normalized by upper continental crust data (Taylor
and McLennan, 1985).

Fig. 13. Plot of Al2O3/TiO2 ratio of coal deposits in the Ombilin Basin. Fig. 14. Plots of Zr and TiO2 for the coal deposits from the Ombilin Basin.

5. Conclusions mmf), inertinite (5.19–25.68 vol% mmf), and mineral matter

(0.36–11.45 vol%).
(1) The coals from the Ombilin Basin in Sumatra are high-volatile (2) A number of coal samples from the Ombilin Basin are charac­
bituminous C coals (Rr: 0.58%–0.66%) with low–medium ash terized by elevated concentrations of critical elements such as U
yield (1.62%–5.96%, adb). Ombilin coals are mainly composed of (37.6 ppm), V (175 ppm), and REY (126.15 ppm).
vitrinite (45.82–72.71 vol% mmf), liptinite (13.53–42.55 vol%

15
A.A. Patria and F. Anggara International Journal of Coal Geology 262 (2022) 104099

100

Concentration (ppm) 10

0.1
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Y Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Rare Earth Element

B2-03 B2-06 C2-9A Granitoid Andesite

Fig. 15. Distribution of rare earth elements and yttrium (REY) in REY-enriched coal from the Ombilin Basin and the basement rock of the Ombilin Basin.

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