Teaching Adult

English Language
Learners
 Teaching Adult
English Language
Learners
A Practical Introduction

Betsy Parrish
Hamline University
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Dedication
To Jonas, Rémy, and Sina. Your genuine excitement for the work that I do in adult education is
what encouraged me to take on this new edition.

Dedication v
Contents
Dedicationv
Forewordxi
Acknowledgmentsxv
Introduction1

1 Working with Adult English Language Learners

MAKING THE ADJUSTMENT TO A NEW COUNTRY 5
1.1 Introduction 5
1.2 A process for understanding adult English language learners 6
1.3 Implications for the ESL classroom 11
1.4 Addressing the language demands of today’s world 12
WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO KNOW A LANGUAGE? 15
1.5 Introduction 15
1.6 Helping learners attain communicative competence 16
1.7 How do learners attain competence in a second language? 18
1.8 Behaviorism 18
1.9 A shift away from behaviorism 19
1.10 Krashen’s model of language acquisition 19
1.11 Interactionism 20
1.12 The Sociocultural Perspective 21
1.13 Taking learners beyond “Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills” 21
1.14 Age and the acquisition of a second language 22
1.15 Identity, investment, agency, and motivation 23

2 Approaches and Program Options for Adult English

Language Learners
APPROACHES TO TEACHING 31
2.1 Introduction 31
2.2 Taking a multi-faceted approach to teaching 32
2.3 Approaches for teaching adult English learners 33
2.4 Natural approach 34
2.5 Competency-Based Education 35
2.6 Communicative Language Teaching 36
2.7 Cooperative learning 38
2.8 Task-Based Learning 38
2.9 Content-Based Instruction 40
2.10 Participatory approach 41
2.11 Project–Based Learning 42
PROGRAM OPTIONS 45
2.12 Introduction 45
2.13 Programming to promote learner persistence and success 46
2.14 English language acquisition programs 48
2.15 Citizenship 49
2.16 Integrated English Literacy and Civics Education 49

Contents vii
 2.17 Family and intergenerational literacy 50
2.18 Literacy tutoring 50
2.19 Career pathways/career-focused programming 50
2.20 Distance education 53

3 Teaching Language for Meaningful Purposes

DEVELOPING INTEGRATED AND CONTEXTUALIZED LANGUAGE LESSONS 59
3.1 Introduction 59
3.2 An integrated approach to language learning and teaching 60
3.3 Teaching language for meaningful purposes 64
3.4 Scaffolding lessons for beginners 72
MEANINGFUL AND COMMUNICATIVE PRACTICE ACTIVITIES 80
3.5 Introduction 80
3.6 Language practice activities 80
CORRECTING LEARNER LANGUAGE 89
3.7 Introduction 89
3.8 Considerations in handling learner errors 90
3.9 Providing corrective feedback 91

4 Developing Listening and Speaking Skills

LISTENING SKILLS AND STRATEGIES DEVELOPMENT 101
4.1 Introduction 101
4.2 The nature of informal and formal communication 101
4.3 Getting students ready to listen 103
4.4 How do we listen? 105
4.5 Applying listening strategies instruction in the classroom 107
4.6 Summary of listening skills and activities 110
4.7 Sources of listening passages 112
DEVELOPING SPEAKING SKILLS 114
4.8 Fluency as the goal of instruction 114
4.9 Developing interactive speaking activities 115
THE PLACE OF PRONUNCIATION IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION 123
4.10 Making a case for pronunciation in your curriculum 123
4.11 Factors affecting pronunciation 125
4.12 What should we teach? 126
4.13 Approaches to teaching pronunciation 128

5 Developing Reading and Writing Skills

SITUATED READING AND WRITING SKILLS DEVELOPMENT 141
5.1 Introduction 141
5.2 Literacy is socially constructed 142
5.3 Types of literacy 143
5.4 How do we read? 145
5.5 Teaching literacy skills: working with learners with limited literacy 146
5.6 Other strategies and techniques for emergent readers and writers 150
ACCESSING A VARIETY OF TEXT TYPES 153
5.7 Preparing students for functional reading texts 153
5.8 Lessons to promote strategies development 154
viii Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
5.9 Reading and the development of academic language skills 157
5.10 Paired reading 160
5.11 Using learner-produced texts 161
5.12 Extensive reading: book groups and reading circles 164
TEACHING WRITING TO ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS 165
5.13 Introduction 165
5.14 Product-oriented vs. extensive writing tasks 165
5.15 Writing from the beginning: product-oriented tasks 167
5.16 Extensive writing 169
5.17 Graphic organizers as a scaffold to learning academic skills 173
5.18 Using dialogue journals with adult English learners 174
5.19 Technology and writing 175
5.20 Responding to learner writing 176

6 Planning for Teaching and Learning

LESSON PLANNING 183
6.1 Introduction 183
6.2 Identifying learner needs 186
6.3 Lesson planning approaches 187
6.4 Sitting down to plan 189
6.5 Building continuity from day to day 194
TEACHER AND LEARNER INTERACTIONS 197
6.6 Teacher language 197
6.7 Maximizing learner involvement 198
6.8 Giving directions 199
6.9 Checking learner understanding 200
6.10 Questions to promote critical thinking 202
PROMOTING LEARNING BEYOND THE CLASSROOM 205
6.11 Learning strategies development 205

7 Managing Learning in Adult English Language Classes

CREATING OPTIMAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS 213
7.1 Introduction 213
7.2 Working with multilevel classes 214
7.3 Establishing goals in multilevel classes 217
7.4 Differentiation in English language classes 220
7.5 Additional practices for working with multilevel classes 223
7.6 The classroom environment 231
7.7 Managing large classes 231
7.8 Open enrollment 232
7.9 Managed enrollment 233
7.10 Pairing/grouping students 234
7.11 Establishing appropriate boundaries 237
SERVING LEARNERS WITH PARTICULAR NEEDS 240
7.12 Learners with learning disabilities 240
7.13 Universal Design for Learning 241
7.14 Learners with physical disabilities 242
7.15 Victims of torture or abuse 243

Contents ix
 8 Selecting Instructional Materials and Resources
EVALUATE, SELECT, AND SUPPLEMENT TEXTBOOKS AND MATERIALS 251
8.1 Introduction 251
8.2 Types of textbooks 253
8.3 Evaluating and selecting textbooks 254
8.4 Selecting and evaluating online curricula 257
8.5 Choosing literacy-level materials 257
8.6 Adapting and supplementing textbooks 259
8.7 Making use of teacher editions 262
8.8 Taking learning outside of the classroom 263
DIGITAL LEARNING AND TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION 268
8.9 The place of digital learning in today’s world 268
8.10 Components of digital competence 270
8.11 Building language and digital skills at the same time 271
8.12 Digital learning tasks for the language classroom 273
8.13 Using technologies for independent learning 280
8.14 Learning software and apps 281

9 Assessing Learning and Teaching

FORMAL AND INFORMAL ASSESSMENT PROCESSES 287
9.1 Introduction 287
9.2 Assessment dilemmas 288
9.3 Clarifying terms 290
9.4 Standardized tests 291
9.5 Alternative assessment 295
9.6 Learner self-assessment 303
9.7 Using assessment results for accountability purposes 305
ASSESSING TEACHING EFFECTIVENESS AND CONTINUOUS
TEACHER DEVELOPMENT 309
9.8 Introduction 309
9.9 Self-directed professional learning and development 309
9.10 Journals and learning logs 311
9.11 Learners assessing instruction 314

10 Standards and Accountability

10.1 Introduction 319
10.2 What are standards? 319
10.3 Standards frameworks and reporting 321
10.4 Placing standards in context 323
10.5 Standards in the classroom 326
10.6 Emergent learner needs and standards: two cases in point 330
10.7 Standards and assessments 333
10.8 High-leverage instructional practices to meet rigorous content standards 335

Glossary 341

References 351

Index 365

x Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Foreword
Background: Why did we need this book then?
Why do we need it now?
Sixteen years ago, Erik Gundersen invited reviewers to consider a prospectus for a book
designed for novice teachers of adult ESL. It was huge in scope; a book you’d love to read but
hate to have to write. The author’s proposal addressed classroom practice, skills (speaking,
reading, writing, listening), literacy and language development, classroom management,
assessment, reporting, and federal accountability guidelines.
I (Janet) responded as thoroughly as I could to the prospectus, thinking all the while of how
challenging it would be to develop the book and also wondering, really, do we need another
handbook for teachers of adult English language learners?
Betsy Parrish developed and accepted her own challenge to bring such a book to print.
The text she wrote, and has subsequently revised, answers my question with an emphatic
yes. While there are many timeless elements to good teaching practice that may well have
been addressed in a text within the past 20 years, there are also many particular things
about teaching adults that have changed during that time. By bringing together a guided
set of readings and activities addressing sound educational practice, and providing detailed
resource lists, all within a solid framework, the author gives new (and not so new) teachers
a much-needed overview of what English language instruction for adults looks like, and
more importantly, what it looks like when done very well. Betsy brings her work as a teacher
educator, her own international experience in learning and teaching languages, and her keen
sense of what counts to this text; we hold in our hands a comprehensive introduction to an
overview of the work we do when we work with adults learning English.
The original text and this revision are informed by an understanding of the complexities of
teaching well, and of the specific issues surrounding instruction for adults possessing a range
of prior involvement with education, varied abilities to speak, read, hear, and write in their
own languages and in English, and varied expectations of what school looks like in an English-
speaking country. The text provides teachers with a thorough overview of what learning looks
like from intake to exit, who the stakeholders in the process are, and why it all matters in the
first place. Beginning with an overview of who adult language learners might be and how they
might learn, the text guides us through both theory and practice of classroom instruction,
examining the development of key approaches and their usefulness in different contexts
and for different purposes. The text includes a crucial section on assessment, enabling us
to engage in critical reflection on how we come to know what adults in our classrooms have
learned—and how adults come to understand their own progress as well.
Throughout this book, Betsy draws on examples of classroom practice and interaction
gleaned from her own work and from that of other educators around the world. She offers an
analysis of techniques and methodologies, describing processes through which to introduce
and expand language development activities, considering the different contexts in which
the work might occur, and pointing to strengths and drawbacks of methodologies. She
consistently credits the reader with the sense to explore, reflect upon, and analyze the choices
she or he makes in the classroom.

Foreword xi
 Betsy brings great integrity to this project. She believes in the primacy of learners’ strengths
and works against a deficit approach to teaching teachers—believing that English language
learners and educators possess skills and abilities, if not (yet) experience. Her aim here is
to assist teachers in assisting learners as well as they can. She believes that teachers are
constantly learning and that they want to know what works for their learners. She believes
that learning should occur in a safe and supportive environment and that teachers should
care about this learning deeply. With this text she provides both new and more experienced
teachers with key points to (re)consider in undertaking teaching, and a wealth of resources for
those who so choose, to dig more deeply.
Each chapter contains sufficient information to enable educators to know what questions
next to ask, what information next to seek. Betsy amply cites resources for further learning
as well, so that the text can function as both a linear guide to teaching adult English language
learners as well as a useful reference for regular review and consultation. Each chapter
offers an overview of standard terms and practices, resources for further learning, web and
print based materials, as well as references to others in the field knowledgeable in a given
area. This compilation of resources makes the book especially valuable as knowledge grows;
sources are scattered and time for searching, reading, and reviewing is limited. In our roles
as instructional leaders, we have often drawn upon the first edition including for a practicum
course as well as in planning professional development activities. We can attest to the text’s
accessibility and usefulness to new teachers. Moreover, as experienced educators ourselves,
we have often revisited the text to inform our own practice. This revised edition maintains its
predecessor’s initial strengths, while adding and incorporating changes that reflect shifts in
technology in its uses, as well as contemporary issues facing language learners—immigrants
and refugees—living in complicated times.
No work is neutral. As federal, state, and international mandates increasingly drive and limit
program possibilities, we need access to voices of reason to remind us of what good teaching
practice is still all about—and that measurement alone does not improve instruction. Betsy
walks readers through mandated frameworks and constraints incurred through those
mandates while remaining aware of the realities inherent in daily classroom work. We learn
how learners understand progress, how we can understand it, and how we can also translate
it to those outside our programs to whom we are accountable. The process is demystified
because Betsy has made it transparent. This is no small feat at a time when accountability
drives instruction in too many instances.

Audience
We see this book serving multiple audiences. As an overview text for teacher education within
higher education, it brings together points that other authors may cover in greater detail, but
not always within the broader contexts that this text addresses. It also lends itself quite well
to independent reading and exploration, and would be a useful vehicle for program-based,
as well as regional-level professional development. For instance, an instructional leader could
facilitate a study circle with a small group of teachers based on chapters of interest. Study
circles can be conducted face-to-face and online as well as through a blended model. Betsy
addresses an ongoing need for educators with a thirst for learning, but limited time and
resources for gathering information scattered across various media—print, web-based, and
video. She frames her intentions clearly, lays out each chapter carefully, and in the end has
created a text that welcomes educators into acknowledging the joys and challenges of the
work we do by informing us all of what’s come before, what’s possible, and what has to be
done. The online resources will serve, as well, to keep the book’s work current and to engage
an ever-broadening community of educators.

xii Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

This is a text that thoughtfully provides novice English language instructors with the guidance
they need to learn how to teach well. However, even educators with extensive experience will
be motivated to revisit the text again and again as they seek to enhance the effectiveness of
their teaching. The text offers teacher educators and professional developers a well-balanced
and theoretically-sound resource to use in courses and training.
This new edition reflects practices grounded in the latest research on language teaching. It
also adds relevant and timely guidance on how to meaningfully integrate technology into
instruction. Importantly, the text maintains the original version’s deep commitment to learner-
centered practice. This book is, in our view, the best primer available on the practical aspects
of teaching English to adult learners. We believe you will see it that way, too.
Janet Isserlis
Susan Finn Miller

Foreword xiii
Acknowledgments
Thanks to my editors at Cambridge University Press for bringing this new edition of my book to
life. Karen Momber, Teacher Development Publisher, showed tremendous respect, trust, and
professionalism throughout this process. She pushed me and was open when I pushed back. Her
attention to including other perspectives from the research was particularly helpful, along with her
patience and guidance through the writing process. Adult ESL publisher, Bruce Myint at Cambridge
in New York, encouraged me to submit the proposal for the new edition of my book to the UK
team, and I am grateful for the strong endorsement both he and Jeff Krum, Editorial Director, gave
this work as it was going through the proposal process. Senior Editor in Cambridge, Jo Timerick,
took the project on with enthusiasm and has provided valuable guidance throughout this process.
Finally, thanks to Joanna Garbutt for taking this through the last stages before production, to the
permissions team at Cambridge, and to John Contos for that final, very careful edit.
My deepest gratitude goes to my colleague reviewers, Susan Finn Miller, Janet Isserlis, and
Kathy Harris, for their insightful feedback, exhaustive recommendations for further research
and resources, and tremendous commitment to meeting the needs of both learners and
teachers. They have made this a book that is as responsive as possible to the ever-changing
needs of the field. They very generously contributed their expertise to the teacher vignettes
and voices found in the book as well. Janet worked with me throughout the development of
the first edition of this book and her insights and collaboration during that process have left a
mark on this edition as well. Thanks to all three of you!
Sylvia Ramirez provided extensive feedback on chapters in the first edition that are still central
to this one, and Lynn Savage introduced me to the Cambridge editors in New York. I am grateful
for their encouragement as well as everything I have learned from them about effective learning
and teaching with adult learners over the past decades. I want to acknowledge the editor of the
first edition, Erik Gunderson, for his foresight in identifying back in 2002 the need for this kind of
book for teachers working with adult English language learners.
My thanks go to Suzanne McCurdy, Andrea Echelberger, and Julia Reimer for commenting on
sections of my chapter drafts. As users of the first edition in their teacher education classes,
they all engaged in lengthy conversations about how best to meet the current needs of the
field. Thanks to Patsy Egan for sharing her insights on best practices for working with those
learners with limited or interrupted prior formal schooling.
Thanks to Ivana Ferguson, Kristin Klas, Celeste Mazur, and Jamie Kreil for welcoming me into
their classes as I was working on this new edition. Thanks to Astrid Liden, Brad Hasskamp,
Renada Rutmanis, Linda Taylor, MaryAnn Cunningham Florez, Ronna Magy, and Diane
Pecoraro for giving so generously of their time and expertise to talk about accountability,
assessment, standards, and text selection, and to Jayme Adelson-Goldstein for the many
discussions about professional development for teachers. Thanks also to those who
responded to surveys and questionnaires, including Margaret Corrigan, Colleen Crossley,
Colleen Schmitt, Dan Bruski, Nikki Carson, Lisa Gonzalves, George Schooley, Adrienne
Fontenot, Kathleen O’Connor, David Rosen, Jen Vanek, Susan Wetenkamp-Brandt, Donna
Price, and Dave Coleman. Also to the many teacher candidates in my classes who have
inspired me throughout the years. All of those voices help to bring the book to life!
Many thanks to my colleagues in the School of Education at Hamline University who
supported this endeavor.
Betsy Parrish

Acknowledgments xv
 The authors and publishers acknowledge the following sources of copyright material and are
grateful for the permissions granted. While every effort has been made, it has not always
been possible to identify the sources of all the material used, or to trace all copyright holders.
If any omissions are brought to our notice, we will be happy to include the appropriate
acknowledgements on reprinting and in the next update to the digital edition, as applicable.
Key: C = Chapter

Text
C1: Text adapted from “Meeting the Language Needs of Today’s Adult English Language
Learner” by Betsy Parrish. Copyright © 2015 Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education,
Office of Career, Technical, and Adult Education. Reproduced with kind permission of OCTAE;
Text on “Think about it.” Reproduced with kind permission of Janet Isserlis; C2: Text adapted
from “Leisure Time Activities sample instructional task ELPS Module 2: Analyzing Student Tasks
in Relation to Content Demands, Thinking Skills, and Language Use.” Copyright © 2018
American Institutes for Research; Text on “Problem posing.” Reproduced with kind permission
of Janet Isserlis; Text adapted from “Integrated Education and Training: Implementing
Programs in Diverse Contexts” by Andy Nash and Ellen Hewett. Copyright © 2017 EdTech
Center and World Education, Inc. Reproduced with kind permission of Andy Nash and Ellen
Hewett; Text adapted from “Defining On-Ramps to Adult Career Pathways.” Copyright © 2017
Center for Postsecondary and Economic Success. Reproduced with kind permission of Center
for Law and Social Policy; Text taken from “Learning English with Digital Literacy and
Community Engagement” by Heide Wrigley. Copyright © 2017 EdTech Center @ World
Education, Inc. Reproduced with kind permission of Heide Wrigley; Figure taken from “English
Innovations Transforms” by Heide Wrigley. Copyright © 2017 EdTech Center and World
Education, Inc. Reproduced with kind permission of Heide Wrigley; Text on “Getting Started
Task 2.4.” Reproduced with kind permission of Kathleen O’Connor, Margaret Corrigan and
Ivana Ferguson; Text on “Retail/Customer Service Certificate.” Reproduced with kind
permission of Renada Rutmanis; C3: Text adapted from “Experiential Learning Theory as a
Guide for Experiential Educators in Higher Education, Experiential Learning & Teaching in
Higher Education 1 no.1: 7-24” by Alice Y. Kolb & David A. Kolb. Copyright © 2017 Southern
Utah University Press. Reproduced with kind permission; Text on “Error Correction.”
Reproduced with kind permission of Julia Reimer; C4: Text and listening lesson based on the
interview with Sina Taghavi. Reproduced with kind permission; Screenshots taken from the
“Developing Reading Skills for Intermediate/Advanced Learner” by Betsy Parrish. Copyright ©
New American Horizons. Reproduced with kind permission of Barbara Allaire; Text adapted
from Academic Conversations: Classroom Talk that Fosters Critical Thinking and Content
Understandings by Jeff Zwiers and Marie Crawford. Copyright © 2011 Stenhouse Publishers.
Reproduced with permission of Stenhouse Publishers. www.stenhouse.com; Text on “Problem
solving.” Reproduced with kind permission of Ronna Magy and Donna Price; C5: Text taken
from the “Research on low-educated second language and literacy acquisition” by Ineke van de
Craats, Jeanne Kurvers, Martha Young-Scholten. Copyright © 2006 LOT, Netherlands Graduate
School of Linguistics. Reproduced with kind permission; Text on “Whole-Part-Whole.” Reproduced
with kind permission of Andrea Echelberger; Text on “Literacy level learners.” Reproduced with
kind permission of Andrea Echelberger; Text on “Sample of student writing.” Reproduced with
kind permission of Laura Lenz; Text taken from “The Change Agent: Becoming a Paramedic” by
Chrishana Burton. Copyright © 2017 The Change Agent. Reproduced with permission; Text on
“Dialogue Journals.” Reproduced with kind permission of Janet Isserlis; Text on “Responding to
Learner Writing.” Reproduced with kind permission of Janet Isserlis; C6: Text on “Lesson
Planning.” Reproduced with kind permission of Colleen Schmidt, George Schooley, Nikki Carson
and Dan Bruski; Text adapted from “Assessing Success in family literacy and adult ESL” by
National Clearing house for ESL Literacy Education. Copyright © 2000 Center for Applied
xvi Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
Linguistics. Reproduced with kind permission; Text on “Lesson planning process.” Reproduced
with kind permission of Jamie Kreil; Text adapted from “Meeting the Language Needs of
Today’s Adult English Language Learner” by Betsy Parrish. Copyright © 2015 Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Education, Office of Career, Technical, and Adult Education. Reproduced
with kind permission of OCTAE; Quotes from Jamie Kreil and Colleen Schmidt. Reproduced with
kind permission; Quotes from Kristen Klas. Reproduced with kind permission; Quotes from
Celeste Mazur. Reproduced with kind permission; Text adapted from “Meeting the Language
Needs of Today’s Adult English Language Learner” by Betsy Parrish. Copyright © 2015
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Career, Technical, and Adult
Education. Reproduced with kind permission of OCTAE; Text adapted from “Meeting the
Language Needs of Today’s Adult English Language Learner” by Betsy Parrish. Copyright ©
2015 Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Career, Technical, and Adult
Education. Reproduced with kind permission of OCTAE; Text adapted from “Language Learning
Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know” by Rebecca L. Oxford. Copyright © 1990 Heinle/
ELT, a part of Cengage, Inc. Reproduced by permission. www.cengage.com/permissions; Text
taken from “Transitions Integration Framework.” Copyright © ATLAS (ABE Teaching & Learning
Advancement System), 2016, www.atlasABE.org. Reproduced with kind permission; Text on
“Vocabulary Lesson.” Reproduced with kind permission of Susan Finn Miller; Text on
“Vocabulary Workout.” Reproduced with kind permission of Jessica Jones; C7: Text adapted
from “The Translanguaging Project: A Multilingual Pedagogy for Student Advocacy” by Rita Van
Dyke-Kao, Christina Yanuaria and Laura Jacob. Copyright © 2017 CATESOL. Reproduced with
kind permission of Rita Van Dyke-Kao, Christina Yanuaria and Laura Jacob; Text adapted from
“Managed Enrollment: A Process - Not A Product” by Sylvia Ramirez. Copyright © 2001
MiraCosta College. Reproduced with kind permission of Sylvia Ramirez; Text adapted from
“Universal Design for Learning graphic.” Copyright © 2011 CAST. Reproduced with kind
permission of David Gordon; Quote from Laura Kay Prosser. Reproduced with kind permission;
C8: Text on “Considerations in Selecting Textbooks and Course Materials.” Reproduced with
kind permission of Lyle Heikes and Renada Rutmanis; Text on “Getting Started Task 8.5.”
Reproduced with kind permission of Kathy Harris, David Rosen, Susan Wetenkamp-Brandt and
Jen Vanek; Text adapted from “DigComp 2.0: The Digital Competence Framework for Citizens
and Northstar Digital Literacy Standards (ND)” by Stephanie Carretero, Riina Vuorikari and Yves
Punie. Copyright © 2017 European Commission; Text adapted from “DigComp 2.0: The Digital
Competence Framework for Citizens and Northstar Digital Literacy Standards (ND)” by
Stephanie Carretero, Riina Vuorikari and Yves Punie. Copyright © 2017 European Commission;
Text adapted from “Integrating digital literacy into English language instruction: Professional
development module” by Kathy Harris. Copyright © 2015 Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Education, Office of Career, Technical, and Adult Education. Reproduced with kind permission
of OCTAE; Text on “Digital Learning Tasks.” Reproduced with kind permission of Kathy Harris;
Text taken from “The 5w’s of website evaluation” by Kathy Schrock. Reproduced with
permission of Kathy Schrock; Text taken from “Digital Literacy: Consume, Create, Curate!” by
Nell Eckersley. Copyright © 2017 World Education, Inc. Reproduced with kind permission of
EdTech Center @ World Education, Inc.; Text and table adapted from “Module 9: Information
Literacy.” Copyright © Northstar Digital Literacy. Reproduced with kind permission; Screenshot
taken from “ELL 5/6 class website.” Copyright © Kelly A. Ray. Reproduced with kind permission
of Alison Shank; C9: Text on “A different view of assessment.” Reproduced with kind permission
of Margaret Corrigan and Diane Pecoraro; Quote from MaryAnn Cunningham Florez.
Reproduced with kind permission; Quote from Brad Hasskamp and Astrid Liden. Reproduced
with kind permission; Quote and rubric taken from “#IamABE Curriculum.” Reproduced with
kind permission of Kristin Klas and Jamie Kreil; Text taken from “Learning for LIFE: An ESL
Literacy Curriculum Framework.” Copyright © 2011 Bow Valley College. Reproduced with kind
permission; Quote from Adrienne Fontenot. Reproduced with kind permission; Quote
reproduced with kind permission of Jayme Adelson-Goldstein, National Professional

Acknowledgments xvii
 Development Specialist, Lighthearted Learning. Copyright © Jayme Adelson-Goldstein; Quote
from Susan Finn Miller. Reproduced with kind permission; Text on “The mentoring pre-activity.”
Reproduced with kind permission of Celeste Mazur; Text taken from “The 6 Principles of
Exemplary Teaching of English Learners.” Copyright © 2018 TESOL International Association.
Reproduced with kind permission; U.S. Department of Education, Office of Vocational and
Adult Education. College and Career Readiness Standards for Adult Education. Washington,
D.C., 2013. C10: Quote from Dave Coleman. Reproduced with kind permission; Text taken from
“Australian Core Skills Framework: Theoretical underpinnings.” Copyright © 2012 Commonwealth
of Australia. Reproduced with kind permission; Text taken from Road to Work: Choosing a Job
Path by Ronna Magy. Copyright © 2017 New Readers Press, Publishing Division of ProLiteracy.
Reproduced with permission; Text adapted from “CASAS Reading GOALS Sample Test Items for
Instructional Use.” Copyright © 2018 CASAS — Comprehensive Adult Student Assessment
Systems. Reproduced with kind permission.

Photography
C2: Courtesy of Colleen Crossley; C4: Courtesy of Sina Taghavi; C5: Courtesy of Michigan State
University Museum; Courtesy of Sina Taghavi; Courtesy of Jose M. Espina; Courtesy of Ivana
Ferguson; Courtesy of Laura Kay Prosser; C7: GoodLifeStudio/E+/Getty Images; Philippe Roy/
Cultura/Getty Images; Monty Rakusen/Cultura/Getty Images; Musketeer/DigitalVision/Getty
Images; Tetra Images/Getty Images; RapidEye/E+/Getty Images; kupicoo/E+/Getty Images;
stevecoleimages/E+/Getty Images; C8: © abc English; Courtesy of Mary Zamacona;
C9: Courtesy of Kausila Rai.

Illustrations
C8: Illustrations taken from What’s Next by Lia Conklin. Copyright © 2012 New Readers Press,
Publishing Division of ProLiteracy. Reproduced with permission.

URLs
The publisher has used its best endeavors to ensure that the URLs for external websites
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xviii Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Introduction
This book is a completely revised and updated edition of my 2004 book, Teaching Adult ESL:
A Practical Introduction. How things have changed in the 15 years since I started writing that
book! At that time, the focus of instruction and assessments for adult ESL was primarily on
life-skills competencies. Today, we are placing far more emphasis on preparing adults for the
demands of work and school in the 21st century, which includes academic language, digital
competence, and strategies for accessing complex texts. Of course, development of literacy
in all its forms is still central to the work we do, but the field is now acknowledging the need
to assist adult English learners to transition to new opportunities at school, work, and in
their communities that takes them well beyond survival English. Instruction needs to provide
supports that allow all learners to thrive in their new communities. So this edition places
more emphasis on learning English for professional and academic success, while at the same
time providing ideas on working with newcomers with minimal English skills. I have also
placed far more emphasis on working with learners who may have limited or interrupted
prior formal schooling.
The earlier book was written primarily for teachers working with immigrant and refugee
learners in the U.S. This edition has shifted in a very significant way, with far more research,
resources, and teacher voices representing global contexts in which adult learners are
engaged with learning English in adult education programs, whether in Melbourne, Toronto,
or Minneapolis.
I would like you, the reader, to have a sense of what beliefs have shaped my work and then
invite you to reflect on your own beliefs about teaching and learning as a means of framing
how you read, interact with, and understand the teaching principles and practices presented
in the coming chapters.
It is my belief that learning starts from within. Every adult English language learner, as well
as every ESL teacher, experiences what we do in the classroom differently. Everything that
happens is shaped by experiences, culture, expectations, strengths, and needs. Each of you
will experience this text differently. Some of you may have spent a considerable amount
of time in an ESL classroom already and will draw on those experiences to shape and
understand the principles and practices covered in this book. Those of you who are new to
teaching English language learners will draw on your experience learning other things. It is
because of this belief that every chapter is interspersed with tasks that allow you to preview
content, explore your ideas and practices, and finally, apply what you’ve learned in your own
class, or through observing and collaborating with others.
I also believe that learning is cyclical and that it takes time. While I have chosen to organize
the content of this book in a particular order, there may be some topics that you’ll revisit as
you read the book, particularly those of you who are new to teaching. Chapters 1 and 2
provide a broad context for you as a reader, examining issues of English learner life
circumstances, the language demands learners face in today’s world, second language
acquisition theories, an overview of common teaching approaches, and descriptions of
program options. Chapters 3 through 5 focus on the tools of classroom teaching: presenting
and practicing language, developing listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills. Chapters
6 through 8 look at planning for teaching, creating optimal learning environments, choosing
print and digital materials, and helping learners to develop their digital competence. The last
two chapters provide an overview of assessment and accountability principles and practices

Introduction 1
 as well as standards that guide programming. While you may work through these topics in
a linear fashion, they should be viewed as interconnected and as a starting point for further
exploration.
Finally, I believe that the best learning and teaching are collaborative. Collaboration is what
makes my work as teacher, learner, and colleague rich and rewarding. I had the opportunity
to collaborate with many people as I developed this book. My collaboration with Susan
Finn Miller, Janet Isserlis, and Kathy Harris during the development of this new edition had
a tremendous impact on the content of this book. My collaboration with all of those who
invited me into their classrooms, and those who shared their expertise for the classroom
vignettes and quotes found throughout the book, challenged me to consider many possible
contexts, constraints, and beliefs about teaching and learning; they all added much more
depth to the text than I could have provided on my own. My collaboration with adult English
language learners and teachers throughout my career has given me myriad examples to
draw on, which I hope provide you, the reader, with vivid examples of learning and teaching
in action. The reflection tasks throughout this book serve to promote collaboration between
you and your classmates or colleagues, and the teaching principles presented in these
chapters are grounded in the belief that good teaching is based on a genuine collaboration
with learners.
Before you begin reading, take some time to think about your own beliefs about teaching
and learning. You will be invited to reflect on these beliefs again at the end of the book, but
continue to think about how your views evolve and change throughout the process of learning
more about teaching English to adult learners.

Looking forward . . .
Complete these statements with your current beliefs about teaching and learning in adult
ESL contexts. Work with a group of classmates or colleagues, or write your reflections in
a journal.
1. Strengths and challenges adult learners may bring to the classroom are . . .

2. Some common purposes for learning English are . . .

3. Learning a second language involves . . .

2 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

4. If I walked into an adult English language classroom, I’d like to see . . .

5. Learners’ roles and responsibilities in class are . . .

6. My responsibilities as a teacher are . . .

Introduction 3
4 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
1 Working with Adult English
Language Learners
To consider before reading this chapter:
• What factors may affect an adult English learner’s successful transition to living in a country?
• What does it mean to “know” a language?
• What do you think makes a class “learner-centered?”

Part I: Making the adjustment to a new country

1.1 Introduction
Adult English language learners (ELLs) come to communities and classrooms for a variety of
reasons and with a variety of backgrounds. For some, the transition from one country to the other
is far easier than it is for others. There are a number of factors that contribute to individuals’
abilities to adjust to a new country and to acquire the skills (linguistic and nonlinguistic) to thrive
in that new country, where cultural beliefs, practices, and norms may differ greatly from their
own. These factors include everything from the reason people emigrate from their country of
origin to access to transportation in the new country. In the first part of this chapter, we examine
factors that contribute to immigrants’ and refugees’ successful adjustments to a living in a new
country. We also consider principles of learner-centered teaching that are responsive to learners’
diverse strengths and needs, and that may help to ease the transition to a new setting and
culture. We explore the language and skills needed for access to information and full participation
at 21st-century work places and schools as well as in communities. We then turn to the issue of
second language acquisition. What do we know about the process of learning a second language?
How do age and previous educational experience affect the ability to learn a second language?

Getting Started
Task 1.1
There is no question that the primary goal of learners in English language classes is to acquire
the English skills needed to thrive in a new country, but why does meeting that goal come
more easily for some people than for others? Read the following stories of two immigrants and
consider the challenges each faces and the strengths they bring to the new setting. Identify the
advantages and challenges each may have and complete the table below.
Daris is a 50-year-old Bosnian immigrant who settled in the U.S. with his wife and two children in
2012, joining family members who came to the U.S. as refugees in the 1990s. Daris and his family
became U.S. citizens in 2018. He completed an engineering degree in Sarajevo and worked there
as an electrical engineer for four years before coming to the U.S. Daris never studied English in
school, but he studied German throughout high school and in college. His children were eight
and ten when they arrived in the U.S. and acquired English quickly. As a family, they always speak
Bosnian at home, and the children are completely bilingual. Daris’ first job was as a baggage
handler at the airport. Upon completing the highest level of ESL courses in the adult education

Chapter 1 Working with Adult English Language Learners 5

 program in his district, he entered a certification program to become a network engineer and now
works for a local telecommunications company. While he is satisfied with his professional situation
in the U.S., he misses the professional status he had in Bosnia where he led a team of engineers.
Daris and his family take part in sports, go to the YMCA, and spend time with their many extended
family members in the area.

Naw is a 39-year-old Karen refugee who is a widow and mother of four. She and her family came
to the U.S. in 2009 after spending two years in a refugee camp in Thailand due to turmoil in her
home country, Myanmar (formerly known as Burma). She came from a family of rural farmers,
and she has no formal education and only basic literacy in her first language. Two of her children
were born in Myanmar and the other two were born in the United States. Her husband died after
the birth of her fourth child. Her two younger children seem to be learning English and adopting
American ways very quickly. Her culture expects extreme respect for elders, which she doesn’t see
her children extending to her. As a widow, she would like her children to stay with her, but her
daughters want to live and work away from home. Naw has held the same job as a line operator
in manufacturing for the past three years.

Complete this chart with information from Daris’ and Naw’s stories:

Daris’ Advantages Daris’ Challenges

Came to the U.S. with an advanced degree

Naw’s Advantages Naw’s Challenges

Is currently employed

Follow-up: Compare and discuss your answers with a colleague or classmate. If you are
working on your own, you may want to start a journal with responses to the questions in the
book. What did you notice about Daris’ and Naw’s lives? Differences in education, connection
to family, and involvement in the community are all factors that would most certainly influence
their ability to reach their full potential while operating in a new country and in a new language.
These variables have a tremendous impact on teaching and learning, and while you cannot
possibly know everything about every learner in class, understanding students’ situations can
help teachers become more responsive to learner needs and more understanding of what
learners are going through as they adjust to a new life. We will return to Daris and Naw after
looking at these and other variables in more detail.

1.2 A process for understanding adult English language learners

Many ESL professionals can only imagine what it must be like for adult learners as they come to
a new country, which entails learning new systems of education, government, and commerce.
At the same time, they may have left behind family, jobs, and the country they probably lived in
their entire lives. What can help educators begin to understand the strengths learners bring to the
classroom as well as the challenges they face?
There are a number of factors that may influence how successfully one is able to acculturate to a
new environment (Dow 2011; Olsen 1988; Scarcella 1990). Acculturation describes how members
of minority cultures adapt to a dominant culture, a process which involves an understanding of the
6 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
beliefs, norms, and behaviors of the new culture, without letting go of the first culture (Scarcella
1990). Berry (1997) reminds us that acculturation is, ideally, a reciprocal process where the majority
culture makes adjustments as new groups join a community. Schumann (1986) has suggested
that acculturation leads to less social distancing and potential marginalization and also leads to
more active participation by ELLs in new communities. This, in turn, provides more opportunity to
engage with the target language. Acculturation is very different from assimilation, which implies
complete absorption of the second culture’s practices, beliefs, and norms. While some immigrants
may be anxious to fit into the new setting, assimilation as such can create both challenges in
terms of intergenerational dynamics, and feelings of belonging (or not) to either or both cultures.
The following section serves to illustrate that an immigrant or refugee’s ability to acculturate is
not, for the most part, based on conscious choices, but rather on his or her life circumstances.
Understanding those circumstances generally, and the particularities of learners’ communities can
inform teachers’ decisions about classroom materials, activities, and approaches.

Factors affecting cultural adjustment

To help you understand adult English learners’ life circumstances, you can consider various
factors identified as having an effect on a person’s ability to adjust to a new culture, which then
contributes to successful language acquisition. Table 1.1 provides an overview of factors you can
consider and the questions you can ask yourself about learners in your program.

Table 1.1 Factors Affecting Cultural Adjustment

Factors Things to Consider / Questions You Need to Ask Yourself

1 Country of origin Are there any similarities between life in the first and second culture
and country of (shared religions, customs)? Have there been waves of immigration
settlement from that country at earlier times (Olsen 1988)? Does the country of
settlement have a history of welcoming immigrants (Berry 1997)?
2 Reasons for coming Has the immigrant come by choice, or due to war or other trauma?
to the new country Was she or he forced to leave because of political circumstances?
In many contexts, refugees represent the smallest percentage of
participants in adult education programs overall (Wrigley 2007);
however, they may face particular challenges, for example, limited
prior formal schooling; coming from a rural area and now adjusting
to life in a large, urban area; and feeling “unsettled” in the new
country due to hopes of someday returning to their country if the
political or social conditions there change.
3 Age at which the As you will see in this chapter, the ability to acquire a second
person emigrated language can be affected by the age at which one begins learning
that language. The ability to adjust to differing cultural norms can
be easier for younger people as well.
4 Financial resources / Immigration may bring an extreme change in economic conditions
Changes in status or social status, for better or for worse. Does immigration mean
improved economic conditions? Many immigrants and refugees
come with few resources and find themselves with no work or in
low-paying jobs, even after a number of years in the new country
(Batalova and Fix 2015). They may not have the English language
skills needed to make their intellect visible or to find work
commensurate with their years of prior formal education (Wrigley
2007; Scarcella 1990).

Chapter 1 Working with Adult English Language Learners 7

 5 Difficulties in the Did the learner escape his or her country? Has she or he spent
journey / Potential time in a refugee camp? Many learners may have been victims
life disruption and of torture or may have experienced the trauma and atrocities of
upheaval during war. The result may be post-traumatic stress disorder, depression,
war or at the very least, feelings of insecurity (Dow 2011). It can be
extremely difficult for these learners to concentrate and attend to
the task of learning language.
6 Immigration status If a learner is an undocumented worker, is there fear of arrest?
(official refugee, Even those who are documented can be uncertain of immigration
with or without laws. A distrust of government and authority may result in
documentation) immigrants not taking advantage of social and government
services from which they could benefit (health, education, etc.).
Note that this isn’t something you would ask a learner, but it is
important be aware of what learners may be experiencing.
7 Education and level Does the learner have limited or interrupted prior formal
of literacy in first schooling? Are the educational conventions in his/her country
language / Types similar to or very different from those practiced in the new
of experiences and country? Is the learner pre-literate, meaning she or he can speak a
attitudes about language that does not have a written form, or has a form that is
teaching and rare or has developed very recently?
learning practices For those with prior formal schooling, educational practices/
expectations may be very different across cultures, e.g.,
expectations about teacher/student roles and differing
experiences with collaborative learning. Education and level of
literacy in the first language has an enormous impact on one’s
ability to acquire literacy and other skills in the second language.
That is not to say that learners without prior formal schooling
have less to bring to the classroom. All learners bring funds of
knowledge (Moll, et al. 1992) or “the historically accumulated and
culturally developed bodies of knowledge and skills essential for
household or individual functioning and well-being” (p. 133).
8 Previous exposure Has the learner studied English or other languages before? How
to English and many other languages does the learner speak? For many, English
other languages will represent a third or fourth (or more) language. Knowledge of
English can facilitate the process of cultural adjustment; knowing
other languages will facilitate the process of learning English.
9 Opportunities Does the learner have many opportunities to use English outside
to use the target of class? Learners may be raising a family, working, and attending
language language classes, giving them little time to use English outside
of class. Learners may live in an area where they can secure jobs
using their first language (Wrigley 2007).
10 Extent of family Did the learner come alone or with family? Is the extended
separation family in the new country or have they been left behind? Family
members’ opportunities to reunite or visit one another can have
an impact on adjustment to a new country.
11 Experience living Has the learner been through the experience of navigating new
in another country systems (education, government, etc.)?

8 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 12 Status of cultural There may be groups that hold more status, perhaps due to
group / Amount history or familiarity of the immigrants’ culture (e.g., North
of discrimination Americans, both in the U.S. and Canada, are more familiar with
they face Chinese culture than they are with Sudanese culture. Is the learner
from a group that faces particular discrimination? There may be
limited job possibilities due to educational background, literacy,
and different life experiences (Scarcella 1990).

Now we can use this list of factors to examine Daris’ and Naw’s stories. As you will see, this
process can lead us to a detailed description of the journey taken by any immigrant.

Table 1.2 Analysis of Daris’ and Naw’s Journey to a New Country

Daris Naw
1 Country of origin Country of origin
Daris came from the largest city in Bosnia The Karen people from Myanmar bring
and has settled in a major city in the U.S. religious and cultural beliefs and practices
where over 70,000 Bosnians reside. While that may differ from those practiced locally
as a Muslim, he may not be a member of in the U.S. While the Karen are a fairly recent
the majority religion in the U.S., he is in a immigrant group, there are many Karen
community with many Muslims. residing in her city in the U.S.
2 Reasons for coming to the U.S. Reasons for coming to the U.S.
Daris is an immigrant who came through Naw came as a refugee, as a result of turmoil
family reunification. He came by choice and in her country.
then chose to apply for citizenship.
3 Age at which the person emigrated Age at which the person emigrated
Daris came as an adult. His children came Naw came as an adult; two of her children
at a young age and acquired language skills came at a young age and have acquired
quickly. When leaving Bosnia, they experienced language skills very quickly and have tried to
separation from friends but the move to the assimilate into the second culture. This has
U.S. has brought them closer to extended caused a rift between Naw and her children.
family they didn’t know before.
4 F
 inancial resources / Changes in status Financial resources / Changes in status
Daris pursued further training and attained Possible economic deprivation as a single
employment related to his original degree. parent. Continued employment in past few
He has been able to support himself and his years is positive.
family. Perhaps some change in his status;
he led a team of engineers in Sarajevo.
5 D ifficulties in the journey / Extent of life Difficulties in the journey / Extent of life
disruption and trauma during war disruption and trauma during war
Daris didn’t resettle in the U.S. during the war Extreme disruption and likely trauma during
in Bosnia the way his brother and cousins the turmoil in her country; she has gone
did in the 1990s, but he may very well have from living in a rural setting to living in an
experienced trauma during that conflict as a urban area.
young man.

Chapter 1 Working with Adult English Language Learners 9

 6 Immigration status Immigration status
Citizen As a refugee, she has permanent residency
and can eventually apply for citizenship.
7 E ducation and level of literacy in first Education and level of literacy in first
language / Types of experiences and language / Types of experiences and
attitudes about teaching and learning attitudes about teaching and learning
practices practices
Highly educated with an advanced degree No prior formal education; basic literacy in
from his country. her first language.
8 P
 revious exposure to English and other Previous exposure to English and other
languages languages
Had not studied English formally before No previous exposure to English; no
coming to the U.S.; has studied German for experience learning other languages.
several years from middle school through
university.
9 Experience living in another country Experience living in another country
Had never lived in another culture, but had None
traveled extensively in Europe.
10 O pportunities to use the target Opportunities to use the target language
language Opportunities to use English with coworkers,
Considerable opportunities to use the target although she may be in a position that
language (English) in his studies, work, and doesn’t require extensive interactions in
most likely in activities in the community English. Opportunities to interact with
(e.g., membership at YMCA, interactions with children’s teachers.
children’s teachers).
11 Extent of family separation Extent of family separation
The move to the U.S. has brought him closer Many of Naw’s family members are in the
to extended family. He has left behind some United States. While there may not be
family in Bosnia, but he and his family can physical separation, there appears to be
return there for visits. emotional separation with her children.
12 S tatus of cultural group / Amount of Status of cultural group / Amount of
discrimination they face discrimination they face
He feels some loss of status here as compared Naw is part of a group that that may not be
to that which he held in Bosnia. It is difficult well understood by many in the community.
to judge the extent to which he experiences For Naw, this may come in the form of
discrimination; many immigrants, regardless discrimination at work because of her limited
of their country of origin, feel some degree education.
of discrimination by the majority culture. He
and his children may face discrimination as a
member of a minority religious group.

Through reading and thinking about Daris’ and Naw’s lives in great detail, we can begin to
answer the question: “What exactly is it that helps or hinders an immigrant’s ability to thrive in
the new culture?” Considering language learners’ lives in this way deepens opportunities for
understanding their circumstances, which in turn can inform classroom practice to address their
strengths, needs, circumstances, and abilities.

10 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Some other considerations
Many adult learners may be holding down more than one job or working split shifts due to
family needs and obligations. They may not want to leave their children in the care of strangers,
preferring to leave them in the care of relatives. This means that they may have to work and take
ESL classes at times that allow for other family members to care for their children. This can result
in sporadic attendance and fatigue in class, both of which are understandable. Lack of reliable
transportation is another factor affecting a learner’s ability to access ESL programming.
Another challenge for new immigrants is intergenerational tension that may occur within the
nuclear family. Children of immigrants may likely adapt to the new culture and acquire the new
language very quickly. They may attempt to assimilate in order to fit in with their peer group,
resulting in the rejection of their parents’ values and beliefs. Parents may experience diminished
self-esteem as they rely on their children to translate for them (Foner and Dreby 2011). In
cases where the children begin to lose proficiency in the home language while the parents
are still acquiring English, the parents’ ability to transmit values and provide discipline may be
compromised. Potential rifts between parents and children can add to the stress learners are
encountering in a new country. At the same time, it should be noted that feelings of closeness
often characterize intergenerational relations, which can provide a source of support, both
practical and emotional (Swartz 2009).
Unemployment rates can also have an impact on how long students stay with a program. As
the unemployment rate fell to record lows in Minnesota, many immigrants and refugees found
themselves in the workplace within two weeks of their arrival in the U.S. These realities can
have an enormous impact on what you need to be teaching students if they manage to attend
class while working. Let me share a scenario I encountered in a plant that manufactures plastic
containers and screwdriver shafts:
Five line workers from Russia had recently been hired at the plant. They had all been here a very
short time and had minimal oral language skills. The plant floor was very noisy and hectic, so it
was hard to hear people. The workers’ job consisted of filling molds and operating presses. One
day a supervisor noticed a problem with a piece of equipment that could have caused severe
injury to the employee using it. He made a frantic gesture of cutting his throat (meaning that
the employee needed to shut off the machine immediately). The employee took great offense
interpreting the message to mean: You’re fired!
In a class for newcomer immigrants, you might think of starting with basic introductions and greetings,
language needed to find their way around their communities, etc. But were you to have these five
newcomers in your class, they may have the more immediate need of understanding gestures used
on a noisy shop floor. Finding ways to integrate learners’ particular needs and interests is an ongoing
challenge in adult ESL classrooms. We look at the process of assessing learners’ needs and strengths
as well as the most prevalent types of programs in greater detail in Chapter 2. In any event, we need
to be mindful of the fact that there are always variables to consider that will differ with any group of
learners and these variables will inform and affect the choices you make as a teacher.

1.3 Implications for the ESL classroom

Personal factors (e.g., educational background, financial status, family, and job responsibilities)
as well as societal factors (e.g., pressure to move into the workplace before having adequate
language skills) have a significant impact on learning and many adult learners have precious little
time to attend ESL classes and practice outside of the classroom. That is why it is paramount that
adult ESL instruction be highly customized, accessible, and learner-centered, giving learners an
optimal setting for acquiring the language skills they need to thrive within their communities.

Chapter 1 Working with Adult English Language Learners 11

What does learner-centered mean?
Throughout this book, we explore practices that adhere to the following core principles of learner-
centered teaching:
• A ll learners bring to class rich knowledge and experiences that must be acknowledged and
incorporated into instruction.
• Learners’ first language and culture are resources for learning.
• The content of instruction is relevant to the learners’ needs and interests and draws on their
experiences and knowledge.
• Learners make choices about/inform content and classroom activities.
• Learners have active roles in the classroom and control the direction of activities.
• Classroom interactions and tasks are authentic, reflecting how language is used in the real world.
• Teachers use authentic language in their interactions with learners.
• Learners acquire strategies that help them learn inside and outside of the classroom without
the help of a teacher.
• Classroom tasks challenge learners and promote higher-order thinking skills.
• Teachers listen actively for themes that emerge from learners and build those into instruction.
• Teachers constantly assess teaching and learning in relation to learners’ needs and strengths.
A learner-centered view of teaching acknowledges that adult learners come to your class with
rich knowledge and experiences, but because of their limited ability to communicate and express
themselves in English, that knowledge and experience may feel locked inside of them. Good
teaching practice includes designing ongoing means of enabling learners to demonstrate what
they know through a range of activities and approaches. As we see in the chapters ahead, learner-
centered teaching does not mean leaving learners to their own devices; it entails considerable
teacher direction. Teacher-directed classes do not necessarily equate to teacher-centered classes.
The knowledge and skills teachers need in order to foster truly learner-centered, strengths-based
classrooms are the foundation of this book. Examining different program options, as well as
approaches and strategies for teaching ESL to adult learners, enables us to consider numerous
means of connecting instruction to learners’ lives. At the same time, we need to embrace the notion
that adult English language learners are capable of meeting rigorous standards that go beyond
basic survival skills. Let’s turn to what the language demands are for learners in today’s world.

1.4 Addressing the language demands of today’s world

The needs of adult learners are not always evident to a teacher new to the field, and addressing
those needs starts by recognizing the linguistic demands inherent to the tasks all learners must
tackle in today’s digital-rich, information-dense world.

Think about it
A learner comes to her teacher, Janet, with a very high electric bill. Together they discuss the
learner’s usage of electricity, ending up at a home repair website with recommendations for
simple home repairs that can cut energy costs, for example, products to insulate windows. They
also visit an online newsletter from the electric company that shares other tips for saving energy.
Consider the skills that went into this process: analyzing the impact of our actions on energy
costs, making use of digital tools to gather information, interpreting infographics at a home repair
website and online newsletter, and making decisions after weighing options.
Until not too long ago, many adult ESL curricula focused on basic survival skills, for example,
navigating the community, opening a bank account, and making a doctor’s appointment. Although
these skills are still important for newcomers, this approach does not adequately address the
12 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
demands of today’s world or prepare learners to access information they need for success in
all areas of their lives. At home, adult English learners need to read mail selectively, help their
children with homework, and communicate using digital tools. They may want to access a parent
portal to track their children’s grades at school. They need to make decisions about services
in their communities, such as healthcare, or the resources available to them from the utility
company as above, which require print and digital literacy as well as critical thinking skills.
The jobs and educational opportunities of the 21st century require higher reading levels,
understanding of more complex language, stronger communication skills, and more critical
thinking skills than ever before (Parrish 2015a). Employees in just about any job are expected to
work effectively in teams, understand and produce complex written communications, and use
digital tools on the job (Casner-Lotto and Barrington 2006; Trilling and Fabel 2009). Success at
the postsecondary level or in work-related trainings requires understanding complex nonfiction
texts, writing reports or research papers, note-taking, and synthesizing information from multiple
sources, print and digital (Parrish and Johnson 2010). These increased demands (e.g., academic
language, digital literacy, interpreting charts or graphs) are reflected in state and national
standards where English is taught as a second language to adults (see the Recommended
Resources section for examples from the U.S. and Canada).
These increased language demands can be particularly challenging for a student like Naw who
has low literacy levels and limited formal schooling. Naw is not alone. In fact, close to half of the
immigrants entering the U.S. have limited access to citizenship, jobs, and job training, or other
postsecondary education because of limited literacy and language skills (National Commission
on Adult Literacy 2008). As we see throughout this book, we need to provide instruction that
challenges learners and that mirrors the rigors of language use in the 21st century, thus allowing
adult English learners to gain access to opportunities and thrive in their communities. This can
start from the very beginning levels of adult ESL.

Task 1.2
Read this vignette of a learner who finds herself in what appears to be a primarily “life-skills”
class. What is missing for Daniela in this class? What might a more rigorous curriculum that
addresses Daniela’s needs look like?
Daniela, a mother of three school-aged children, is from Ecuador. She works in housekeeping at a
hotel and attends a low-intermediate-level ESL class at a volunteer-run program in her community.
The program she attends has a largely life-skills curriculum, covering topics such as shopping,
personal finance, and going to the doctor. Daniela feels frustrated because people don’t understand
her at work. She has a hard time explaining problems to her boss because she can’t express herself
well in English. She has trouble communicating with her coworkers and patrons at the hotel where
she works. Her dream is to get her high school equivalency and then one day become a nurse.
(Adapted from Parrish 2015b)

Work with a partner or on your own and write your ideas here:

Which of Daniela’s needs Which of Daniela’s needs What might a more rigorous
are being met? are not being met? curriculum include?

Chapter 1 Working with Adult English Language Learners 13

 Considering Daniela’s personal situation and her long-term goals, she may need help in
identifying and implementing the many steps it takes to reach her academic and professional
goals. Given her stated frustration with not being understood by her boss and not being
able to express herself clearly to her coworkers, Daniela needs practice with effective
communication strategies so that she can more easily ask for clarification, state a problem, or
interrupt appropriately in work contexts. With her long-term goals of attaining her high school
equivalency and one day becoming a nurse, she needs practice with academic reading and
listening strategies, and note-taking using a variety of text types, including short prose, charts,
and graphs. Her intelligibility (the ability to be understood by others) seems to be an issue for
her, so she could benefit from work on areas of her pronunciation that are causing breakdowns
in communication. Because of her interest in nursing, she could be working with rich content
related to that field. How does this analysis compare to the ideas you generated above?
Through this analysis, we can see that Daniela needs far more than English for survival; she
needs to develop skills that will allow her to thrive in her new community.
Next, we turn to what the profession has to say about what it means to know a language and
how it is that learners can achieve some level of competence in a second (or, in many cases
third, fourth . . .) language.

14 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Part II: What does it mean to know a language?

1.5 Introduction
In order to understand language instruction overall, it’s important to first understand what
it means to know a language. Is it a question of conjugating verbs correctly, using intelligible
pronunciation, or knowing how to ask someone for help or offer an opinion? Clearly, the answer
to this is dependent on the needs and strengths of the learner. There are, however, a number of
areas of language that you can draw on when developing your lessons for adult learners.

Getting Started
Task 1.3
What do the following areas of language have in common and what are the differences? See if
you can sort the following examples of language into four categories using the table below.

Grammar Appropriate intonation

Using gestures to demonstrate meaning Pronunciation

Guessing meaning of new words Vocabulary

Writing for different purposes Body language

Formal/informal language Asking for definitions

Language functions (e.g., making complaints, Reading for different purposes

greetings and introductions)

Using colloquial language appropriately Spelling

Asking someone to speak more slowly Listening only for the information
you need

Interpreting charts and graphs; punctuation

Chapter 1 Working with Adult English Language Learners 15

 Four different areas of language: Sort the examples of language into these four categories. If
you’re doing this in class, work with a partner:

Category 1: Language Forms Category 2: Social Interaction

Category 3: Language Skills Category 4: Learning How to Learn

Follow-up: Compare your answers with another group. Can you add one more example of
your own to each box? Our goal as language teachers is to help learners attain some level of
proficiency in all of these areas. We want them to attain communicative competence, which
goes far beyond a more traditional focus on learning vocabulary and grammar. Consider your
own experiences as a language learner. To what degree did your language learning include
attention to all four areas of language presented here?

1.6 Helping learners attain communicative competence

Communicative competence describes the ability to use language in a variety settings (at work,
at school, at a store, at home) with varying degrees of formality (with a friend vs. with a boss). In
order to achieve communicative competence, a learner needs to become proficient in a number
of areas, including language forms, social interactions, language skills, and learning strategies.
In other words, the ability to convey your intended message and make yourself understood are
equally, if not more important, than the ability to produce grammatically correct sentences. The
four areas of competence are outlined in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3 Areas of Language That Can Lead to Communicative Competence

Language forms (Linguistic Knowledge of grammatical forms, spelling, vocabulary,

competence) punctuation, and pronunciation

Social interactions Ability to use language, both verbal and non-verbal,

(Sociolinguistic appropriately in social contexts
competence)

Language skills (Discourse Ability to read and write, and the ability to understand
competence) and use spoken language

Learning strategies Ability to use strategies to make yourself understood;

(Strategic competence) how to learn on your own outside of the classroom

16 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Regardless of the focus of instruction, for example, English for work or basic literacy development,
attaining a degree of competence in all of the areas above should be the goal of any second
language instruction. Drawing from all of these areas of language helps shape and inform the
choices that adult ESL teachers make about their curricula, materials, and classroom practices.
The chart below represents the four areas of language competence along with the examples that
you sorted into categories in Task 1.3. How does this categorization compare to yours?

Category 1: Language forms Category 2: Social interactions

Grammar Formal/informal language

Pronunciation Language functions (e.g., making complaints,

greetings and introductions)
Punctuation
Polite intonation
Spelling
Using colloquial language appropriately
Vocabulary
Body language

Category 3: Language skills Category 4: Learning strategies

Writing for different purposes Using gestures to demonstrate meaning

Reading for different purposes Asking for definitions

Interpreting charts and graphs Asking someone to speak more slowly

Listening only for the information you need Guessing meaning of new words

In order to understand better how these concepts help to shape instruction in ways that are
appropriate for learners, look at two teachers’ objectives for their lesson plans on “Asking
Questions.” What areas of language does each teacher include? Which lesson do you think would
provide more opportunities to develop some degree of communicative competence in the area of
asking questions and why?

Chapter 1 Working with Adult English Language Learners 17

Table 1.4 Sample Lesson Plan Objectives for Two Lessons on “Asking Questions”

Teacher Objectives

Teacher A Students will be able to use DO-support correctly in questions.

Question formation Students will choose the correct question word (who, what,
when, where, how).
Students will use falling intonation for wh- questions; rising
intonation for Yes/No questions.

Teacher B Students will be able to interrupt coworkers politely.

Asking questions at work Students will be able to ask coworkers for help.
Students will explain when and why it’s appropriate to ask for
help at work.
Students will use appropriate polite intonation when asking for
assistance.
Students will be able to use modal verbs (can, could, would)
correctly in polite requests, e.g., “Could you please show me
how to . . .”

Everything in Teacher A’s lesson focuses on language forms: rules and patterns for question
formation, and rising or falling intonation. Teacher B, however, has taken a broader view of the
language of questions. She includes the following:
• Social interaction: teaching the language function of polite requests; interrupting coworkers
politely; using polite intonation when asking for assistance
• Learning strategies: learning how to ask for help at work
• Cultural competence: When is it advisable or necessary to ask for help at work? What are the
consequences of asking/not asking (e.g., many employers would prefer being asked before
workers make mistakes, wasting materials/time)?
• Language forms: learning appropriate forms for making polite requests
Teacher B’s lesson goes farther in addressing a variety of language outcomes and will address a
broader range of learner needs, for example, those identified for Daniela in Section 1.4. Lesson B
is more authentic as well, including communicative purposes for using language.

1.7 How do learners attain competence in a second language?

Language teaching professionals have long considered how a person becomes a proficient user
of a language. What processes underlie second language acquisition? While we may never have
an answer to that question, there are many theories about how languages are learned that have
been informed by research and observations in second language classrooms. We start with the
view of language acquisition that is no longer held by most ESL professionals. Behaviorism, a
theory that held its ground for many years, shaped much of language instruction throughout the
1950s and 1960s and continues to shape instruction in some venues around the world today.

1.8 Behaviorism
Behaviorism (Skinner 1957) is the theory that human beings learn new behaviors through a
stimulus and response cycle. In language learning it holds that language is learned through
mimicry and memorization of forms, which leads to habit formation. It suggests that the goal of
instruction is to replace bad habits (errors in production) with good ones (grammatical utterances).
18 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
This theory resulted in the creation and extensive use of the Audiolingual Method (ALM) for
teaching foreign languages. This method of teaching relied heavily on the use of memorization of
set dialogues and extensive repetition and drilling. It was developed in the 1950s as a method for
teaching foreign languages to military personal very quickly. Its focus on drills and repetition was
probably welcomed by that particular student body. However, when used in the public schools and
universities throughout the world, it fell short of producing competent users of foreign languages.
Why is that? Language production is not based on predictable, set dialogues; language use can be
unpredictable and it will vary depending on the contexts in which it is produced.
There is no doubt that human beings have behavioral responses to certain types of input, e.g., we
automatically slow down when we see brake lights on the car ahead of us. There may be certain
areas of language that are learned through mimicry and memorization, for example, formulaic
greetings (How do you do? Fine, thank you. Nice to meet you.), or pronunciation of unfamiliar
sounds. This theory does not go very far in explaining the complex processes that go into learning
a language, however.

1.9 A shift away from behaviorism

Noam Chomsky (1959) was the first noted linguist to refute behaviorism as an explanation for the
process of language acquisition. If humans learn though the imitation of forms they have heard,
why is it that they create novel utterances and new combinations containing language they have
never heard before? Chomsky suggests that as human beings, we are all endowed with the ability
to create innumerable forms based on a limited amount of input. We are somehow “hard-wired”
to learn language and we use this innate ability to analyze and make guesses about the language.
The guesses that we make as language learners often result in ungrammatical production. How
many of you have heard children say things like this?
a. We goed to the zoo today.
b. We bringed it.
c. We boughted it last week.
If we can say looked, why not goed? The last example was spoken by my son, Jonas, when he
was about four. He was not imitating anyone; he was making logical guesses about how to form
the past tense. He applied the rule of adding the –ed ending, even after learning the irregular
past of buy (bought). You’ve probably heard adult ESL learners make similar overgeneralizations
about rules of the language. These errors provide us with evidence that language learning
involves far more than imitation and help us see what and how students are learning. Many
others have supported Chomsky’s view that language learning is an innate process rather than
a behavioral one, and a number of the theories that followed have helped to shape the current
communicative, learner-centered approaches most prevalent in language teaching today.

1.10 Krashen’s model of language acquisition

Stephen Krashen (1985) proposed a model of second language acquisition that includes a
number of hypotheses, or proposals as to how a second language is acquired. Like Chomsky,
Krashen believes that we have an innate ability to acquire languages through sufficient input
and exposure. While many have challenged this model (Lightbown and Spada 2013), its influence
on language teaching practices beginning in the 1980s cannot be dismissed. What follows are
Krashen’s five hypotheses and the implications of each for classroom practice.
1. Order of Acquisition: Learners acquire forms of language in a predictable sequence
independent of their first language and of what is taught in the classroom. In the classroom,
this means that not all learners are at the same developmental stage and, as a result, may not
all be ready to acquire certain areas of language at the same time or rate.
Chapter 1 Working with Adult English Language Learners 19
2. Input Hypothesis: Learners need abundant comprehensible input in order for language
acquisition to occur. Language input needs to be at a level just beyond the learner’s current
level, what Krashen calls i + 1 (“i” is the learner’s current proficiency level and “+ 1” means a
step beyond that level). In the classroom, language can be made comprehensible through the
use of visuals, realia (real objects such as fruit, tools, etc.) and gestures. Teachers and more
proficient peers need to say things in more than one way; students need to see the language,
hear the language, and “do things” with the language (sorting pictures, ranking, etc.).
3. Acquisition vs. Learning: Acquisition refers to language picked up by learners without conscious
focus on rules or forms. Learning refers to conscious analysis of language. Krashen suggests
that acquired language is more permanent. In the classroom, learners should engage in real-
life interactions, and the teacher should use authentic materials (books, articles, broadcasts,
songs, etc.) and authentic contexts for practicing language. According to the acquisition vs.
learning principle, discovery-based learning with little or no emphasis on grammar rules
would more likely lead to “acquisition.”
4. Monitor Hypothesis: The learned language acts as a “monitor,” checking and correcting
language output. Overuse of the monitor can result in stilted, unnatural speech. We should
provide learners with ample opportunities for communicative, spontaneous practice that
are not interrupted by heavy use of the “monitor,” for example, role plays, information-gap
activities (tasks that include a genuine exchange of information), discussions, and skits, which
are described in Chapter 3.
5. Affective Filter Hypothesis: The affective filter represents barriers to learning such as stress,
anxiety, or embarrassment. The teacher can lower the affective filter by providing a classroom
that is supportive and free of constraints that can act as a filter:
• Provide encouragement that is meaningful.
• Allow for mistakes.
• Don’t spotlight learners.
• Allow for different learning styles and needs.
• Show respect for all learners.
Krashen’s model had a clear impact on teaching practices as the field moved away from the
drill-based approach of the audio-lingual approach. A greater focus was placed on learning
for meaningful purposes and on taking the learner’s affect into consideration. Can acquisition
occur simply through exposure to abundant comprehensible input, as Krashen proposed?
Michael Long (1983) suggests that while receiving comprehensible input is a desired element of
second language acquisition, it is not enough. In addition to input, there needs to be interaction,
and it is the interaction itself that helps to make input comprehensible. This theory is called
interactionism.

1.11 Interactionism
Long (1983) proposes that it is through interactions with competent users of the second language
that we move forward in our use of that language. He likens it to the progress children make
in their interactions with parents and other sympathetic listeners who modify their language.
The modified language has certain features and it is through these modified interactions that
language acquisition occurs:
• The listener uses comprehension checks.
• The listener asks for clarification.
• The listener repeats or paraphrases what he/she has understood.
• The listener simplifies his/her speech.
20 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
The listener does not need to be a native speaker or the ESL teacher in the classroom. The listener
can be another student, but this means that the classroom practices need to allow for ample
and meaningful interactions. The teacher needs to make these interaction strategies somewhat
explicit to students, i.e., teach them how to ask for clarification or check understanding.

1.12 The Sociocultural Perspective

Central to the Sociocultural Perspective is that learning is not an individual process but a social
one. Grounded in the work of Lev Vygotsky (1978, 1986), the belief is that understanding of
language is co-constructed through collaborative activities, or collaborative dialogue (Swain
and Lapkin 1998). Vygotsky proposed a zone of proximal development (ZDP) that represents the
distance between a learner’s current developmental state and potential state the learner can
reach provided they have the appropriate supports, or scaffolds, from a more expert listener.
Those scaffolds may come from a partner during a language activity, or from teachers when they
provide language supports needed to complete a classroom task, simplify tasks in such a way that
leads to success, or provide choice and options for the learner (see Sections 3.4, 7.4, and 7.5 for
ideas on scaffolding classroom activities and differentiating instruction).

1.13 Taking learners beyond “Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills”

One other theory to look at connects very closely to two of the cultural adjustment factors at
the beginning of this chapter: Education and level of literacy in the first language and Previous
exposure to English and other languages. Think about these questions for few minutes:
How long does it take a person to achieve oral skills sufficient to interact and survive in a new
culture (language needed to shop, interact with coworkers, make appointments, etc.)?
How long does it take to acquire oral and literacy skills sufficient to function fully in the new
culture (read newspapers, manufacturing instructions, or textbooks; listen to a lecture and take
notes; follow complex directions; state opinions and elaborate on others’ ideas)?
Jim Cummins (2000), a respected scholar of bilingual education, has researched the differences
between oral proficiency and level of literacy with learners in academic settings. He suggests that
there are two types of language proficiency. The first is Basic Interpersonal Communication
Skills (BICS), and they take about two years to acquire provided the learner is immersed in the
second language and has opportunities to use the second language. The second is what he
calls Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) skills, which can take anywhere from
7 to 15 years to acquire, depending on a learner’s experience with formal education and level
of literacy in the first language. Many other scholars have examined the importance of helping
all learners acquire academic language (Zwiers 2014; Zwiers and Crawford 2011; Gibbons 2009;
Snow and Uccelli 2009), which entails an understanding of “. . . the set of words, grammar, and
organizational strategies used to describe complex ideas, higher order thinking processes, and
abstract concepts.” (Zwiers 2014, p. 22)
What are some factors that determine one’s ability to acquire this academic language?
• Prior schooling and experience using complex language
• Level of literacy in the first language
• Amount of exposure and practice in the second language
• Amount of experience working with cognitively demanding materials and content
Much of this work on academic language development looks specifically at K-12 learners in school
settings. Central to its purpose is developing the understanding that an immigrant child’s ability to
communicate (to make small talk, follow simple directions, etc.), in and of itself is not an indicator
of his/her ability to complete cognitively demanding academic work in the second language. The

Chapter 1 Working with Adult English Language Learners 21

skills required for navigating academic language need to be developed if they have not already
been developed in the first language. Knowledge of and ability with this academic language is
connected to completion of higher education, employment with opportunity for professional
advancement, and socioeconomic rewards (Scarcella 2003).
So what are the implications of this for those of us working with adult learners? As we saw in 1.4,
adults need to engage in a variety of complex interactions and tasks at work, in their community,
and in school contexts. A learner like Daris already has highly developed academic language in
his first language, whereas Naw needs to work on developing that language for the first time
in English. Often there is a mismatch between an individual’s mastery of basic communication
skills and advanced literacy skills, meaning, for example, that one might speak well and clearly
but struggle with written communication. This can result in inaccurate assessments and
misperceptions about a language learner’s abilities in the classroom and in the world at large.
Read a supervisor’s comments about his employees:
Sometimes a worker won’t mark down that a defective part was thrown out. We have a form to
use, but sometimes they won’t even know where to mark it down. They don’t seem to understand
why this is a problem.
This supervisor shared with me that the team is very fluent in English, but as he described other
incidents like the one above, it became apparent to me that many of his employees had mastered
Basic Interpersonal Communications Skills, but lacked the literacy skills needed to perform tasks
that involved completing complex forms or reading technical manuals. Because the employees
had highly developed BICS, the employer expected the same level of understanding in completing
more complex literacy-related tasks.
The reverse can be true as well, where a supervisor makes the assumption that an advanced
education equals advanced oral proficiency in a second language.
Whenever I ask this one worker to do something, he doesn’t seem to understand. It surprises me
since I know he was an engineer in Russia and has studied English.
The employee in this second example may have well developed CALP, but if he recently arrived
in the English-speaking country, may not have acquired the same degree of BICS. Varying ability
in different areas of language is an enormous issue in just about every ESL classroom. Cummins’
model helps to give us some understanding of the cause of the discrepancies between basic
communication skills and more complex literacy skills.

1.14 Age and the acquisition of a second language

Another area to consider is the effect that age has on one’s ability to acquire a second language.
If you go back to Daris’ and Naw’s stories, you may recall that their children acquired the language
very quickly. Is this due to age, or do other factors come into play?
It has been suggested that there is a critical period for learning a second language, which begins
at birth to around puberty (some suggest the period ends as early as five to six). Changes that
occur in the brain at or around puberty make it more difficult, if not impossible, to become a
native-like speaker of the language. We have all seen that young children pick up a native-like
accent with little or no effort, and most of us would agree that far fewer adults attain the same
degree of proficiency, at least in terms of accent.
But is accent really an important measure of proficiency or is it about making oneself understood
to others? Many times, adolescents and adults can actually acquire other areas of language
(literacy, grammar, vocabulary) more quickly than children can (Singleton and Ryan 2004). Older
learners can bring the experience of learning other things through formal or informal education
to the task of learning a second language. Developed literacy or learning strategies from their
first language can be transferred to the second language. Many adults are able to attain very
22 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
intelligible pronunciation provided they have adequate input and opportunities for interaction in
the new language. Other factors such as motivation, identity, and access to adequate input may
play a more important role than the age at which one begins learning a language (Muñoz and
Singleton 2011).
We need to consider that adults often have far less input and interaction in the second language
than children have. Adults may be in a job that does not require extensive use of language and or
live in a community where they can get by with limited English. Children, on the other hand, enter
regular mainstream classrooms where there are numerous opportunities to hear and use English
every day. Some adults may have limited practice of English depending on their work status,
mobility within the community, and exposure to and interactions with others in English. All of
these factors can have an impact on the adult learner’s progress towards learning a language, and
these are not related to aptitude or a critical period for learning.

1.15 Identity, investment, agency, and motivation

A final area to consider is the role identity, investment, agency, and motivation play in the
language acquisition process. Identity refers to ways that learners perceive themselves within
their social networks. Norton (2000) defines identity as “. . . how a person understands his or her
relationship to the world, how that relationship is constructed across time and space, and how
the person understands possibilities for the future” (p. 5). Learner identities change over time and
place; they are ever evolving. Identity is closely tied to investment on the part of a learner, or the
degree to which a learner sees that his or her contributions are valued in a given social context
(Norton 2013). Related to identity and investment is learner agency, or the ability of individuals
to take control of their learning in pursuit of their personal goals and aspirations (Duff 2012). This
requires that classrooms are places where learners feel a sense of belonging and empowerment.
Consider the reaction of adult learners whose teacher presents only menial, low-paying jobs as
options in a lesson on career explorations. Course content should reflect the actual aspirations of
learners, not our perceived aspirations for them; providing multiple entry points for learner input
and careful assessment of learner needs is paramount. We revisit these concepts throughout the
book as we look at language skills development, lesson planning, and materials selection.
Identity, investment, and agency are all tied to motivation, which is highly complex and varies
from person to person. Is the learner’s motivation primarily extrinsic, or imposed on the learner
by an outside force (requirement for a job, citizenship exam), or intrinsic, coming from a desire
within the individual for personal growth? Of course, with an adult learning English to survive and
thrive in a new environment, those two may be hard to tease apart. Other models of motivation
describe instrumental motivation, or a focus on practical goals for learning a language versus
integrative motivation, or a desire to become part of a new language community. Dörnyei and
Ushioda (2011) remind us that motivation is highly dynamic and dependent on social context
and they view motivation as closely linked to the vision learners have of themselves in the
new language.
Based on the considerations discussed in Part II of this chapter, it is important to keep the
following in mind in your role as a teacher of adult learners:
• Adults are capable of acquiring a second (or third or more) language.
• Adult learners need ample and accessible language input: provide extensive practice with
listening to authentic language in your classroom. Support that language input with visual
aids and other tools for making language comprehensible.
• Adult learners need meaningful and authentic opportunities to interact with others in
order to acquire language: provide scaffolds for success with interactive classroom tasks,
help your learners learn beyond the classroom, and help them to become active members
of their communities.
Chapter 1 Working with Adult English Language Learners 23
• A dults need to see themselves reflected in the curriculum, materials, and approaches we take
to teaching.
• Adults need practice with academic language, complex informational texts, digital literacy,
and critical thinking skills to access opportunities of the 21st century.

Conclusion
In this chapter, you have been given a glimpse of the strengths adult learners bring to our
classrooms as well as the challenges they may face. Their journeys to a new country as well as the
contexts in which they are living and working comprise a vast array of needs and expectations
in any adult ESL classroom. It is crucial that adult ESL teachers tap into the experiences and
knowledge that learners bring into the classroom. It is essential to recognize the increasingly
complex language demands of today’s digital-rich world. It is also important to understand
the complex nature of second language acquisition. Teachers need to provide a classroom
environment that is supportive and engages learners in activities that are purposeful and
meaningful. We explore teaching principles and strategies that help ESL teachers achieve these
goals throughout this book.

24 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Key Terms

On your own, or with a partner, provide an example or brief definition for each concept:

Checklist of Key Terms

acculturation

assimilation

learner-centered

intergenerational tension

acquisition versus learning

comprehensible input

affective filter

interactionism

BICS vs. CALP

academic language

critical period

agency

investment

Chapter 1 Working with Adult English Language Learners 25

 Applying What You’ve Learned

Before doing these activities, revisit your answers to the questions at the beginning of the chapter.

1 Cultural Adjustment and Adult Learners

If you’re already teaching, identify a learner in your class who seems to be having particular
difficulty with learning English and adjusting to the new culture. What do you need to know about
this student? How can you know more? Based on information you have about the student, write a
description similar to the ones of Naw and Daris. Try to include as much information as possible
about the learner (reason for coming, current situation, family, etc.). Refer to Table 1.1 Factors
Affecting Cultural Adjustment to examine this learner’s journey as I did with Daris and Naw, and
then reflect on these questions:
What did this process reveal to you about some of the obstacles this learner might be facing?
What are some concrete steps you might take to help this learner in light of what you’ve learned?

NOTE: It may not be possible to gather all of the information you’d like. Even though you
cannot have a complete picture of this learner’s life circumstances, this exercise gets you
to think about the questions you need to ask yourself about any learner.

If you’re not teaching, use the following scenario for this task:
Ahmed came to the U.S. nine years ago as a refugee when he was 19. Before that, he attended school
for three years in a refugee camp after leaving war-torn Somalia. Due to this interrupted schooling,
he has minimal literacy skills in his first language. He is married and has four school-aged children.
He works as an attendant in a parking garage and attends ESL classes three mornings a week. Due to
his limited literacy skills, he has been placed in a beginning-level ESL class. At the same time, he has
strong oral skills and is quite confident communicating with teachers and people in his community.
His dream is to one day get his high school equivalency. He lives in the city that has the highest
number of Somali refugees in the U.S.

2 Applying Principles of a Learner-centered Classroom

If you are already teaching, give examples of the ways you have incorporated the following
principles into your teaching. If you are not teaching, observe a lesson and see whether the
teacher seems mindful of any of these principles in the choices she or he makes in the lesson.
Provide evidence of any of these principles in action:
1. All learners bring to class rich knowledge and experiences that must be validated.
2. Learners’ first language and culture are viewed as a resource for learning.
3. The content of instruction is relevant to the learners’ needs and interests and draws on their
experiences and knowledge.
4. Learners make choices about content and classroom activities.
5. Learners have active roles in the classroom and control the direction of activities.

26 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

6. Classroom interactions and tasks are authentic, representing how language is used in the
real world.
7. Teachers use authentic language in their interactions with learners.
8. Learners acquire strategies that help them learn inside and outside of the classroom without
the help of a teacher.
9. Classroom tasks challenge learners and promote higher-order thinking skills.
10. Teachers listen actively for themes that emerge from learners and build those into instruction.
11. Teachers constantly assess teaching and learning in relation to learners’ needs.
You may also use these questions to observe video-recorded lessons at New American Horizons
(newamericanhorizons.org).

3 Teaching Learners to Become Communicatively Competent Users of English

If you’re already teaching, look at a lesson you have taught over the past two weeks. What areas
of language were included in your lesson?

Areas I covered in my
lesson

Language forms

Social interactions

Language skills

Learning strategies

How would you assess your inclusion of different areas of language? What would you add
or change to make sure you have taken the broadest view possible of the language you are
teaching? Do learners practice language purposefully and meaningfully? How responsive is the
lesson to the demands of today’s world, e.g., incorporation of digital tools or critical thinking?
If you’re not teaching, choose a chapter in a textbook used for Adult ESL and evaluate the degree
to which it teaches the four areas above. What would you add or change in the unit?

4 Promoting Second Language Acquisition

If you are already teaching, reflect on and write about these questions (if you are not teaching,
consider what you would do):
1. What are you doing to make input comprehensible to your learners?
2. What are you already doing that may allow a learner to have agency in your classroom? What
are some others ways that you could create a classroom environment that is conducive to
learning?
3. In what ways are you promoting purposeful interactions among learners in your classes?

Chapter 1 Working with Adult English Language Learners 27

 Recommended Reading

Brookfield, S. (2013). Powerful Techniques for Teaching Adults. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. This
text explores the dynamics of power in the adult classroom and provides exercises, stories, and
practical teaching tips for empowering the learner both inside and outside the formal classroom.

Dörnyei, Z., and Kubanyiova, M. (2014). Motivating Learners, Motivating Teachers: Building Vision
in the Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. An accessible summary of
why vision is a principal motivational factor and how it can be enhanced, both in learners and
teachers.

Lightbown, P. and N. Spada. (2013). How Languages Are Learned, 4th edition. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. An introduction to the main theories of first and second language acquisition.

Yang, K. (2008). The Latehomecomer: A Hmong Family Memoir. Minneapolis, MN: Coffee House
Press. The firsthand account of a family’s experience of adapting to a new place and a new
language.

Websites and Online Resources

LINCS Literacy Information and Communication System Here you can join a LINCS community
of practice, self-paced online courses, and or use the searchable resources for adult education
practitioners. https://lincs.ed.gov/

LINCS ESL Pro Each topic-driven suite of resources includes an issue brief, online learning
module, and a companion learning resource for educators. The materials focus on advancing the
rigor of instruction, integrating digital literacy instruction, and preparing English learners for work
and career pathways. https://lincs.ed.gov/state-resources/federal-initiatives/esl-pro

Migration Policy Institute MPI provides information on migration and refugee policies at local,
national, and international levels. It aims to provide pragmatic and thoughtful responses to the
challenges and opportunities that large-scale migration, whether voluntary or forced, presents to
communities and institutions in an increasingly integrated world. https://www.migrationpolicy.org/

Standards and Frameworks Reflecting 21st-Century Skills

Canadian Language Benchmarks (CLB) National standards used for describing, measuring, and
recognizing the English language proficiency of adult immigrants and prospective immigrants for
living and working in Canada. https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/ircc/migration/ircc/english/pdf/pub/
language-benchmarks.pdf

28 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

College and Career Readiness Standards for Adult Education;
Office of Career, Technical, and Adult Education / U.S. Department of Education (2013) https://lincs.
ed.gov/publications/pdf/CCRStandardsAdultEd.pdf

English Language Proficiency Standards for Adult Education;

Office of Career, Technical, and Adult Education / U.S. Department of Education (2016)
https://lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/elp-standards-adult-ed.pdf

Partnership for 21st-Century Skills (P21):

Framework for 21st-Century Learning. Tucson, AZ: 2009. Available online
http://21stcenturyskillsbook. com/resources/

Transitions Integration Framework, ATLAS (2013; revised version 2016)

The Transitions Integration Framework (TIF) provides guidance to adult basic education (ABE)
programs and instructors on the effective integration of transitions skills into instruction at all
levels of ABE. The TIF defines the academic, career, and employability skills essential for adult
learners to successfully transition to postsecondary education, career training, the workplace, and
to enrich community involvement.

Chapter 1 Working with Adult English Language Learners 29

2 Approaches and Program
Options for Adult English
Language Learners
To consider before reading this chapter:
• W
 hat does it mean to take a multifaceted and principled approach to teaching English to
adult learners?
• What program options are available to adult English learners in your community?
• What factors do you think shape and inform the range of available programming?

Part I: Approaches to teaching

2.1 Introduction
Teachers of adult English language learners find themselves in a variety of settings with a variety of
roles. Public school systems, community colleges, community-based programs, correctional facilities,
libraries or volunteer organizations provide English language instruction for adult immigrants and
refugees. Teachers may work with learners one-on-one, at drop-in centers, at workplace programs,
through distance learning, or in classrooms with groups of learners. Each situation will have its
unique challenges both in terms of curriculum and teaching approach. What works well in a given
situation and contributes to learner progress? No one approach will meet the needs of all learners in
all situations. As with any teaching, a blending of approaches, methods, and techniques is necessary.
This chapter begins with a brief overview of the most common approaches that are particularly
well suited for working with adults learning English and from which a teacher can draw ideas and
inspiration. In the end, teachers should be able to articulate a principled approach to teaching. Then
we turn to descriptions of and purposes for the most common program options offered for adult
English language learners. Let’s begin by taking a look into Rosie’s Adult Basic Education ESL class.

Getting Started
Task 2.1
Read this class description and talk to your partner or write in your journal about the following
questions:
1. What might different learners in this class need to work on in their English?
2. What challenges might Rosie face in working with such a diverse group of learners?
3. What would happen if Rosie used one approach with all of these learners?
Rosie’s beginning-level ESL class is comprised of 24 students ages 17–75 from 14 different
countries including Thailand, Iraq, Syria, Vietnam, Russia, the Ukraine, Somalia, Peru, Mexico,
and Colombia. Some of the students have professional degrees from their countries, while
others have no prior formal education. The level of first and second language literacy varies
greatly as well. Very few of the students have had experience in interactive classes (pair or

Chapter 2 Approaches and Program Options for Adult English Language Learners 31
 group work) and many of the students rely heavily on writing everything down and checking
words in their dictionaries. Some have limited access to computers at home, but many have
a smartphone that they use as a resource in class. Rosie has found that a number of her
students balk at activities that seem like “fun and games,” while others are eager to take part
in role-plays and problem-solving activities. Some of the learners are in class to improve their
chances of finding employment, some hope to enter higher education, and others want to
acquire skills to navigate their communities. One goal they have all expressed is a desire to
improve their ability to speak English.

2.2 Taking a multi-faceted approach to teaching

Just as there are varying views on the processes that underlie second language acquisition, there
are numerous approaches to teaching ESL from which classroom teachers can draw. Rarely does
a teacher or program adhere to one method or approach to teaching. The choices we make hinge
on a number of factors:
• Who are the learners and how do they learn best?
• Why are they learning English?
• What experience have they had with formal and informal education?
• What are their views of teaching and learning?
• What are your views of teaching and learning?
• What are the overall goals of the program? Who decides or mandates these goals?
When you think about Rosie’s class in relation to these questions, you can see that there are
many complex issues involved in teaching Adult ESL. How do teachers determine approaches
that respond to such varying backgrounds, wants, needs, and learning preferences? Looking at
your own experience as a learner can provide a point of reference for you as a teacher as you
start exploring approaches that you might adopt in your own classroom, while being mindful of
similarities and differences in learners’ experiences and expectations.

Task 2.2
Think of recent experiences you have had learning a language, a new skill (cooking, gardening),
or how to use a new a computer program or an apparatus at work or home. Reflect on your
experiences by answering these questions in your journal or with a partner:
1. What has helped you learn best? Listening to someone describe things to you? Using the
language, skills, machine, etc.? Using your hands? Moving around?
2. What has been unhelpful to you as a learner?
3. How have you “figured things out?” Did the teacher give you examples and have you
deduce rules, patterns, procedures, or did the teacher just tell you these things?
4. What feedback have teachers given you? Corrections? Praise? What helped you the most?
5. What have you experienced to be more and less effective elements of your own experience?
Follow-up: Share your answers with several other people in your group, or with friends or
family if you are on your own. From my experience working with teachers over the past
30 years, there is always tremendous variation in the responses to the questions above.
Teachers need to be careful not to approach teaching as they were taught or only in ways that
worked for them as learners; all of us learn differently, and what may have worked well for you
may not work well for those you find yourself teaching.

32 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

The ways in which learners learn best can impact the success they have in a given classroom
situation. The theory of multiple intelligences (Gardner 1993) suggests that there are at
least eight intelligences that go beyond traditional definitions of intelligence, to include such
intelligences as musical bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Formal educational
systems and assessments have tended to favor verbal/linguistic and logical mathematic skills,
yet there are many other strengths/abilities that contribute to the development and well-
being of any community. While criticized in some circles for its lack of empirical support, an
approach to teaching that acknowledges multiple learning abilities is more likely to appeal to
a broader audience of language learners. The theory suggests that a learner with kinesthetic
intelligence who benefits from physical action may not be very successful sitting in a desk for
hours at a time. A learner who has strong logical/mathematical intelligence may prefer analyzing
grammar over an indirect, inductive approach to grammar teaching and learning. A helpful way
to consider this theory may be that all learners can benefit from developing multiple means of
processing information.
In addition to the theory of multiple intelligences, scholars in education and psychology have
proposed a variety of models for describing learning styles, that is, the ways people best acquire
and attain knowledge. In some models, learners are classified as visual, auditory, kinesthetic, or
tactile. Other models make distinctions between analytical (preferring to analyze smaller pieces
of information) vs. global (preferring to look at the whole) learners. Some people are said to
be random (they do not process information in a linear fashion) vs. sequential (preferring when
information is presented in a logical order). Recently, scholars (Kirschner 2017; Newton 2015)
have suggested that there is little empirical evidence to support learning style theory. The learning
style models imply that we are predisposed to learn a certain way, yet studies suggest that it
is more about learners’ preferences for ways of learning, or the learning strategies that work
best for them (An and Carr 2017). Learning preferences are also affected by past experiences
with learning and cultural norms within educational settings (Tsui 2009). Labeling someone as
“visual” or “auditory” may actually have a limiting effect whereby learners (and teachers) approach
learning in very narrow ways (Barry and Egan 2018). Barry and Egan (2018) suggest that learning
style inventories may best be used as a means of assessing learner strengths and needs rather
than as a tool for identifying a particular learning style. Learners may actually shift preferences
based on context and immediate needs (Griffiths 2012). In the end, anyone who has spent time in
a classroom knows that not everyone learns the same way; some people do prefer lectures while
others prefer reading about and discussing the information. The more varied the instruction, the
more engaged everyone will be. Since no single approach to teaching is going to be responsive
to all learners at all times, drawing on multiple approaches to teaching has become the norm in
adult ESL instruction.
In choosing teaching approaches, we can ask ourselves:
• What are learners’ and teachers’ roles within this approach?
• What types of learning tasks and activities comprise instruction within this approach? Are a
variety of potential learning preferences considered?
• What skills are emphasized in this approach (speaking, listening, reading, or writing)?
• To what extent does this approach provide opportunities to develop rich academic language,
strategies for accessing complex texts, and critical thinking skills?

2.3 Approaches for teaching adult English learners

The following overview of approaches to teaching English to speakers of other languages provides
a range of options from which to shape instruction. While some of them are less commonly used
today, it is important to understand how current practice and approaches have evolved. These
approaches are used with learners of different ages and in different contexts, but all of those

Chapter 2 Approaches and Program Options for Adult English Language Learners 33
highlighted here have been used extensively with adult immigrant and refugee English learners.
Project-based learning, for example, may use activities drawn from a variety of approaches. It is
included in this chapter because of its focus on learner participation and the opportunities for
highly rigorous outcomes (e.g., poster presentations, development of booklets, web pages) that
incorporate language development, digital literacy skills, and engagement around critical issues.
The Whole Language Approach and Language Experience Approach are also commonly utilized
for literacy development, especially with emergent readers who have very limited literacy skills
in their first language. Those approaches are described in detail with illustrations of classroom
application in Chapter 5.
Many of these approaches, particularly the Natural Approach and Communicative Language
Teaching, emerged as alternatives to the Audiolingual Method (ALM), which grew out of Behaviorism
in the 1960s. The Audiolingual Method relies heavily on memorization of largely formulaic dialogues,
drill and repetition; there is little room for meaningful use of language in this method. While there
are certainly elements of ALM that may be integrated into instruction (more limited use of drills,
dialogues), it is generally not used as a stand-alone method among adult ESL practitioners today.
As you read about these approaches, use the chart below to identify the core principles, as well as
classroom practices from each. While all of these approaches have merits, see if some are more
responsive to the needs of adult English language learners than others.

Task 2.3 (To complete as you read Part I)

Approach Core Principles Sample Classroom Practices

Natural Approach

Competency-Based
Education

Communicative Language
Teaching
Cooperative Learning
Task-Based Learning
Content-Based Instruction

Participatory Approach

Project-Based Learning

2.4 Natural approach

Core principles
Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell (1983) developed the Natural Approach based on Krashen’s
Input Hypothesis, which holds that language acquisition occurs when learners receive abundant
comprehensible input. Designed for learners at the early stages of language acquisition, it shares
many of the same principles found in Communicative Language Teaching (2.6); its primary
34 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
difference is its focus on comprehension first and production later. Based on the belief that
all learners will experience a “silent period” as part of the language learning process, learners
engage in activities that allow them to demonstrate understanding of a particular language point
before they are expected to produce it orally or in writing. The goal of the Natural Approach is to
replicate the conditions under which children acquire their first language.

Classroom practices
The teacher uses frequent comprehension checks, visuals, and gestures to convey meaning to
learners. The following example illustrates a typical teacher-student exchange in a class using the
Natural Approach.

Lesson Theme: Neighborhood Resources

Level: Beginning
1. Teacher displays a map with places in the neighborhood labeled. She begins by pointing to
words and saying place names (students repeat words only if comfortable with language).
2. Teacher removes labels, distributes them, and has each learner affix a label to the correct
place on the map (grocery store, park, bank).
3. Teacher removes cards again. Students in class have a set of Yes/No cards (yes one color,
no another color). The teacher points to and says a place name, sometimes correctly and
sometimes incorrectly. Learners hold up a Yes/No card according to whether the teacher
said the right or wrong word.

One of the primary goals of the Natural Approach is to allow learners to demonstrate their
understanding of language forms and vocabulary before they are necessarily able to produce the
language. In later lessons, the learners would take on the teacher’s role, directing activities, asking
one another questions, and engaging in simple paired activities. These “silent” techniques are not
unique to the Natural Approach and are used at any point when the teacher wants to check for
learner understanding.

2.5 Competency-Based Education

Core principles
Competency-Based Education (CBE) emerged in the 1970s and focuses on identifying targeted
student learning outcomes that are assessed through students’ actions and performances of
specific tasks (Ford 2014; Malan 2000). CBE, in its early days in the field of adult ESL, emphasized
several areas of knowledge needed for adults to function in society: occupational, consumer,
health, government and law, and community resources. The skills of listening, speaking, reading,
writing, interpersonal relations, problem-solving, and computation were considered requisite to
function fully in each of the areas above.
CBE in adult ESL met criticism because of its focus on clearly-defined, often limiting outcomes
rather than on learners’ actual and more immediate resettlement needs (Auerbach 1986).
Nonetheless, it quickly determined content and approach for ESL programs that were welcoming
waves of refugees throughout the 1970s and 1980s. Outcomes within each area were identified
in terms of performance objectives (learners will be able to . . .), which became the basis for
curricula. Most often these outcomes were related to basic “life-skills” competencies, for example,
“students will be able to make a doctor’s appointment; students will be able to return an item to
the store.”
There are still many curricula and textbooks that use these life-skills competencies as the core
for instruction, especially in those programs welcoming newcomers. With a move toward curricula
based on college and career readiness standards, CBE today is most common in career-focused
Chapter 2 Approaches and Program Options for Adult English Language Learners 35
programs (see Section 2.19); it reflects the competencies needed for success in a particular
vocational field. A careful analysis of competencies needed for success in a particular job is
conducted, and the outcomes of that analysis form the basis of instruction. Learners need
to acquire the language functions and skills, grammar, and vocabulary needed to perform
competencies as well, so the outcomes of a competency-based lesson in a Certified Nursing
Assistants class could look like these:
• Learners will be able to write a patient care report.
• Learners will be able to describe symptoms with sufficient details using simple past tense and
descriptive adjectives.
Also central to this approach is the use of carefully designed performance-based assessments
and rubrics to determine successful attainment of the competencies being taught (see Chapter 9
for more on these types of assessments).

Classroom practice
The sample below illustrates how this approach could be used in an English course for
newcomers; it shows the kind of activity learners could engage in within a competency-based
lesson on returning an item to the store.

Competency: Returning an Item to the Store

Learners will be able to:
• Explain reasons for returning an item.
• Demonstrate understanding of return policies: a refund, an exchange or store credit.

Sample activity:
Half of the class assigned the role of store clerk; each clerk is given store policies:
• Must have a receipt for a refund.
• Purchase made less than 30 days ago.
• Must have packaging for a refund.
Each of the other students in class is given an item to return; some are given a receipt; some
have item in the box; some have item with no packaging.

Role play:
Students return items to the appropriate store; redistribute items and assign new clerks.

Follow-up:
Did you get a refund, a new item or a store credit? Why? Did you get what you wanted? What
were the store policies and how did they affect you?

Assessment:
Teacher assesses students’ performance during the role play using a rubric that delineates the
expected outcomes.

2.6 Communicative Language Teaching

Core principles
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has its origins in a 1970s European movement to
make foreign language teaching responsive to the functional communicative demands of
people working across cultures, in workplaces, and in international organizations. Likewise, in
the U.S., linguists embraced the idea of communicative competence as the goal of instruction
36 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
(Hymes 1971). Course curricula included language functions (greetings, making invitations,
making requests, etc.) and notions (time, money), a departure from the grammar-based curricula
of the previous decades. CLT was also a departure from the rote learning of Audiolingual teaching
as it gave primacy to meaningful communication.
CLT is viewed as an approach or philosophy to teaching, not a set method; it sees fluency and the
ability to communicate in a variety of settings and in a variety of ways (verbal and non-verbal, oral
and written) at the core of teaching and learning. Teachers throughout the world might describe
their approach to teaching as CLT, yet their classes could look different from one another in terms
of activities, materials, and interactions. What they would share is a belief in the core principles
of CLT, which are outlined in 2.1, a belief that teaching should support learners in achieving
communicative competence.

Table 2.1 Key Principles of Communicative Language Teaching

• The goal of instruction is learners’ ability to communicative effectively and appropriately.
• Instruction is contextualized and meaning-based.
• Authentic materials are incorporated from the start.
• Repetition and drilling are used minimally, and only in service of reinforcing learning.
• Learner interaction is maximized; the teacher acts as a facilitator of learning.
• Fluency is emphasized over accuracy.
• Errors are viewed as evidence of learning and error are addressed judiciously if at all and
serve to inform instruction and assessments.
(Richards and Rodgers 2014)

More recently, the field has moved away from CLT as proposed in the 1970s to 1980s to
communicatively-based approaches, emphasizing the centrality of varying learner backgrounds,
strengths, and needs in the classroom as well as an acknowledgment that form-focused
instruction has its place within a communicative classroom. Those adhering to a strict view of
CLT tended to de-emphasize accuracy and/or the focus on discrete language features. Zoltán
Dörnyei (2013) encourages us to take a “principled communicative approach” where instruction
has personal significance to learners and is meaning-based, but also acknowledges the need
for focus on and understanding of form (Ellis 2008) in order to build the language competence
needed to engage in communicative tasks. Dörnyei also notes the need for teaching formulaic
language that is pervasive in day-to-day communication as well as time to build automaticity with
language through controlled activities. He still emphasizes the importance of language exposure
along with abundant opportunities for interaction in the second language and has provided an
important update to CLT, making it ever more appropriate for meeting the needs of adult English
language learners.

Classroom practice
A communicatively-based view of teaching and learning can be thought of as an umbrella under
which an array of approaches and instructional practices can be used. In fact, cooperative
learning, task-based learning, content-based instruction, and project-based learning which follow
this section all adhere to many of the same communicative principles. Even a competency-based
curriculum can be executed using communicative principles.

Chapter 2 Approaches and Program Options for Adult English Language Learners 37
 Communicatively-based
approaches
Meaning is central Communication for a
purpose
Integration of multiple skills Use of authentic materials
and tasks

Task ed Pro
ve bas jec
erati -b
nt- ion Lea t-bas
Coop ning Lea ased
rnin n t e t rni e
Lear g Co struc ng d
In

Figure 2.1 Communicatively-Based Approaches to Teaching

In all of these approaches, learners take on very active roles as they engage in problem-solving
activities, discussions, or debates. They work with pieces of authentic language, including news
reports (online or print), informational texts, or recorded interviews. Both content and classroom
activities should represent real-world uses of language that correspond to the strengths, wants,
and needs of the students in class. Students develop listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills
concurrently. A focus on form along with opportunities for controlled practice are encouraged
as needed by learners. The sample lessons presented in Chapters 3, 4, and 5 embody extensive
illustrations of how communicatively-based approaches can be applied in adult ESL classes.

2.7 Cooperative learning

Cooperative Language Learning derives from the general education collaborative or cooperative
learning approach that emphasizes peer support and learning through carefully planned pair
and group activities. It centers around group tasks where each member is held accountable for
his or her learning, and where outcomes to activities are dependent on a genuine exchange of
information among participants (Olsen and Kagan 1992). Clearly defined roles and outcomes
to task are essential. In language teaching, CLL can be considered an offshoot of CLT (Richards
and Rogers 2014) and there are many tasks and activities in Chapters 3, 4, and 5 that represent
cooperative learning in action, for example jigsaw tasks, group posters, or many of the outcomes
in project-based learning. Task-based learning has clear parallels to CLL as well, which we turn to
now in our exploration of approaches to language teaching.

2.8 Task-Based Learning

Core principles
Task-Based Learning (TBL) is based on classroom and real-world tasks that learners need to complete
in the target language (an information-gap activity or development of a project) rather than on a
set of language features that need to be taught. David Nunan (2014) suggests that while CLT is a
philosophy of teaching, TBL represents how we implement that philosophy in the classroom. The
tasks themselves and the language that emerges from them become the focus of instruction. Willis
and Willis (2007) suggest a three-step framework to successful task implementation: 1) a pre-task to
38 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
introduce the topic and the task; 2) the task cycle where learners engage in the task, and 3) language
focus where learners analyze and practice further the language generated by the task. TBL is used in
conjunction with many other approaches such as content-based instruction or project-based learning.

Classroom practice
Using Willis and Willis’s steps as the basis for this example, let’s see how a task could unfold in
a unit focused on health and wellness. The class has been exploring the dangers of a sedentary
lifestyle and the teacher will have learners analyze a pie chart on average time spent on activities
among adults in the U.S. The learners’ task is to analyze the chart in small groups and make a
claim about how healthy these practices are based on evidence in the chart and knowledge they
have gained from previous lessons.

Task: Read this chart and answer these questions with your partner:
1. How much time could people spend interacting with others?
2. How much of the time can be spent outdoors?
3. How healthy are these practices? Why?

Leisure time on an average day

Other leisure activities
Relaxing and thinking (12 minutes)
(17 minutes)

Playing games;
using computer for leisure
(25 minutes) Watching TV
(2 hours and 47
minutes)
Participating in sports,
exercise, recreation
(18 minutes)

Reading
(19 minutes)

Socializing and T tal leisure and

To
communicating sports time =
(41 minutes) 4 hours and 59 minutes

NOTE: Data include all persons age 15 and over. Data include all days of the week and are annual averages for
2015.
From Bureau of Labor Statistics, American Time Use Survey

Step 1: Build background knowledge and pre-teach concepts (leisure vs. work/chores)
• Present visuals with photos
• Picture sort/categorizing
Step 2: Answer the questions about activities and health issues related to leisure activities
using evidence from the chart to support your claims.

Step 3: Work with the language forms and functions needed to successfully complete the task:
• Pronunciation of vocabulary: word stress matching (words to stress patterns)
Chapter 2 Approaches and Program Options for Adult English Language Learners 39
 • Speculating using language like this:
• I think people could . . .
• People can do alone or with others.
• Co-construct language for comparing and contrasting
• People spend (a little, much, considerably) more time than .
As a final task and outcome, conduct class research on own groups’ leisure activities and
create their own pie chart. Compare their practices to those depicted in the pie chart.
Figure 2.2 Sample of Task-Based Learning

2.9 Content-Based Instruction

Core principles
Considerable research has been conducted on the benefits of teaching language through
content that is meaningful and relevant to students (Brinton, Snow, and Wesche 2003). Content-
Based Instruction (CBI) is an approach to teaching that makes subject matter such as history,
environmental studies, math, or citizenship the basis of the curriculum. CBI is used extensively
in university-based ESL programs because it prepares students for the work they need to do
when they enter degree programs with other English speakers and faculty who are not language
teachers. Some teachers are hesitant to adopt this approach, which requires knowledge of a
particular content area; many ESL teachers may not be not as comfortable with a particular
content area as they are with teaching language skills.
Within the broader field of English language teaching, there are a variety of models of content-based
instruction, from full-immersion in a content course taught in English (e.g., a community college
introduction to psychology) with supports from an ESL professional, to a theme-based approach
where a teacher uses content (e.g., environmental issues) as the basis of instructional units.

Classroom practice
The career contextualized Integrated Education and Training (IET) model (see 2.19) is an example
of content-based instruction in action. In a course preparing learners for jobs as personal
care assistants, one of the learning outcomes is to identify steps to take when handling client
complaints. Learners can engage in a problem-solving task that assesses their content knowledge
as well as giving them rich language practice:

What would you do?

Anna, a personal care assistant, is giving her client his daily medication for high blood pressure.
The client’s family has placed the correct dosage into the weekly dosage container. Anna also
has the medication bottle with dosages clearly marked. The client tells Anna he has already
taken the medication and is getting agitated. He complains that Anna doesn’t know how to do
her job. Anna tries to stay calm.
What steps should Anna take?
Figure 2.3 Sample Task from a Personal Care Assistant Integrated Education and Training Class

Citizenship is another example of content-based instruction within adult education. Learning about
history and systems of government are both the basis for instruction as well as its primary content.
Learners need to read, understand, and answer questions about this content. In such a content-based
class, learners take part in language activities that are typical of any communicative classroom: pre-
reading, pre-listening, role plays, problem-solving, or discussions. Teachers can focus on language
functions, forms, and vocabulary as needed to understand and talk or write about the content.
40 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
 2.10 Participatory approach
Core principles
Participatory, or Freirean approaches to teaching ESL grew out of Paulo Freire’s work in literacy
development. Freire, a Brazilian scholar and educator, developed an approach to teaching first
language literacy that has been adapted and replicated in developing countries all over the world.
His approach has the goal of enabling learners to have and use a voice in their communities. He
views education as a means for people “to liberate themselves from the social conditions that
oppress them” (Spencer 1993: 77). ESL practitioners have embraced the core principles of Freire’s
approach, namely that learning must derive from learners’ lives and personal issues within their
social context so that they can understand options in determining when or how to take action to
improve their lives through engaging in problem-posing processes. In the words of Wallerstein
and Auerbach (2004):
Problem-posing dialogue enables people to connect their personal lives to each other’s and to
understand the social, political, economic, and historical contexts of their lives. Through personal
stories, role plays, and dialogue, we can examine with people the multiple roles they have,
sometimes with power and sometimes not. Dialogue enables people to share their strengths and
the ways they may resist being labeled in situations where they may have less power (12).
As such, these participatory approaches do not rely on textbooks, set outcomes, or curricula.
Rather, the curricula and outcomes emerge and evolve through learner input and teacher guidance.

Classroom practice
In adult ESL, participatory education can take many forms, but it will share these features:
• C ontent evolves from learners’ real-life issues and concerns, what Auerbach (1997) calls an
emergent curriculum.
• Problem posing (identifying problems) is central to the approach and encompasses looking at
causes of problems, exploring additional resources, and possible remedies, gaining tools to
deal with these issues; then deciding whether or how to take action to address the given issue
(Wallerstein and Auerbach 2004).
• The approach emphasizes dialogue and collaboration among learners and between teacher
and students.
Auerbach (1997) proposes a series of steps in the process of problem posing, which are illustrated
below through a classroom experience shared by Janet Isserlis. Learners in a basic level literacy
class, comprised of refugees and immigrants from Liberia, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and
Russia, noticed and made questioning and disparaging comments about homeless people living
on the streets in and around the ESL program site. Learners were hard-pressed to understand
how people who appeared to be healthy and could speak English well were unemployed or
unwilling to work. They expressed a genuine desire to understand what brought these people to
living on the streets.

Table 2.2 Problem Posing Steps

Steps in the Problem- Problem Posing in Action
Posing Process
Describe the content. Understanding causes of homelessness
Identify: Is there a The problem of homelessness itself, but this isn’t something the
problem? class can seek to remedy per se. The objective is to understand
Define the problem. the causes of homelessness, a phenomenon that is new to them
in the context of the U.S.

Chapter 2 Approaches and Program Options for Adult English Language Learners 41
 Understand the The teacher shared information about jobs available to people
problem in the context with limited education, about costs of housing and about a
of our own lives. homeless shelter located within walking distance of the program
site. Learners engaged in discussions about how all of these
factors could lead to homelessness.
Discuss the problem. Over a period of several days, the class was invited to think about
how it was that people could speak well but still have trouble
finding work. They compared what might happen in their country
when someone loses a job, suffers from physical or mental illness
affecting the ability to work, or lacks the means to pay for housing.
Discuss alternatives to Learners decided to raise a bit of money to donate to the shelter.
the problem. They were invited to tour the shelter and learn for themselves
about the challenges of homelessness.

This process enabled the learners in Janet’s class to identify the issues and possible causes leading
to homelessness, and to arrive at an action that made sense within the contexts of their own
lives and situations. While few approaches are so fully anchored in learners’ lives, many of the
approaches discussed in this chapter and in Chapter 5 are participatory in nature, particularly the
project-based learning and language experience approach, and any instruction can and should be
centered around learners’ real-life issues and concerns.

2.11 Project–Based Learning

Core principles
Project-Based Learning (PBL) is an approach that allows for maximum learner involvement and
choice in the learning process. Learners choose a topic of interest or concern to them, and then
direct their learning through inquiry, research on a topic, and collaboration with others. Teams of
learners create projects that showcase their knowledge and then they present their work to others.
Heide Wrigley describes PBL in this way: “In its simplest form, project-based learning involves a
group of learners taking on an issue close to their hearts, developing a response, and presenting
the results to a wider audience” (Wrigley 1998, 1). PBL is an ideal vehicle for building learners’
understanding of complex language, developing skills required for accessing and engaging with
complex texts and tasks, and for developing critical thinking skills (Vinogradov 2016).

Classroom practice
There are a number of steps a teacher needs to consider in planning and facilitating projects (Alan
and Stoller 2005; Wrigley 1998) as outlined in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 Project-Based Learning: Steps to Consider

Identification of a task This is determined through a collaborative process with the
to complete, a problem learners. In some instances, teachers may provide options that
to address, a plan to are in keeping with the overall program themes and outcomes,
make but learners should always have a degree of choice in this process.
Determining a final Will the group create posters and have a gallery walk with
outcome / Product of others in the school building? Will they create a short video or
the project start a class blog?
Preliminary Where can we learn more about the topic? What resources are
investigation available? What do we already know and what do we want to learn?

42 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Planning and assigning Who is responsible for each piece of the project? This is
tasks determined by the students.
Researching the topic Different learners take on different responsibilities depending
on their interests, strengths, and language abilities. This
could include inviting guest speakers, interviews with others
outside of class, visits to the library and Internet research. This
is a place where learners can leverage all of their linguistic
resources (translanguaging), reading materials, or collaborating
with others in their first language (Van Dyke-Kao and Yanuaria
2017). (See Chapter 6 for a more complete discussion of
“translanguaging.”)
Drafting and What language support is needed to finalize the project?
developing a final Language development activities with the teacher or volunteer
product are part of the process. Peer editing and feedback are necessary.
Disseminating the Who is the audience for the project? One teacher had a job
product, if there is fair at the school after students researched job opportunities
one / Enjoying the in their community (Hoose 2017). One school created a school
celebration, event, garden and then developed a Garden Movie Project that was
activity disseminated to other classes in the community (see 8.12). Did
the class organize a field trip? A graduation event?
Evaluating the project / How is the success of the project evaluated? Audience
Outcomes participation is a measure of success. Self-evaluations on personal
and group participation can be conducted. Rubrics aligned to
language outcomes and program standards can also be used
(clarity of presentation; appropriate register; ability to synthesize
information and use appropriate citations). Did they use language,
numeracy, and cultural understandings to plan, buy food,
supplies, and arrange transportation?

Learners in an integrated English language and civics education class expressed frustration with
not being able to interact with their children’s school staff and teachers. They also felt invisible
in the school community, which resulted in the development of the following project. Their
ultimate goal was to develop a booklet about engaging with schools to share with others in
their community and also to increase their visibility and make their needs known to the power
structure of the school—teachers, leadership, and parents of mainstream learners who led the
parent-teacher organization.

Integrated English Language and Civics Education

Topic/theme: Engaging with our child’s school
Materials and resources needed: online school directory, other parents from school,
representative from parent-teacher organization, literature about the school (translated or
simplified), list of after-school course offerings, phone cameras
Sample activities to support this project:
1. In-class lessons on telephoning or emailing a teacher; making a request to meet teacher
and to organize a school visit.
2. Practice accessing and deciphering online portal with student grades.

Chapter 2 Approaches and Program Options for Adult English Language Learners 43
 3. Guest speaker (other immigrant parent and representative from parent-teacher
organization; prepare for visit by developing questions to ask the guest as well as concerns
they want to share; provide listening tasks at time of visit (this would be a bilingual process
depending on learners’ language backgrounds).
4. School visit: prepare questions to ask guide; role-play questions ahead of time.
5. As feasible, take photos of children and parents at the school to include in final booklet;
practice creating screenshots of online resources that could also be included.
6. Language experience activity: after the visit, group generates a text about the visit; multiple
activities using text.
7. Create a booklet that includes guidelines for making contact with child’s teacher, using the
online parent portal; list of appropriate free/low-cost after-school activities for children.
Figure 2.4 Sample Activities in Project-Based Learning

Project-based learning need not be used as the sole vehicle of

instruction; in fact, projects may be implemented within any teaching
approach, as an element of other ongoing skills and language-building
work. Colleen Crossley, a teacher in Minnesota, collaborated with a
mosaic artist over one term to work with the class to create an “all
are welcome here” mosaic for the school entrance. In an ongoing
unit on the theme of civil rights, learners explored the critical issue of
discrimination many immigrants may face in their communities while
also working on the language of following instructions, asking clarifying
questions, and explaining a process to others. The project outcome,
the mosaic, was shared with other classes and with seniors at an
assisted-living facility.
PBL is ideal for a multilevel class like Rosie’s described at the
beginning of this section, in which learners’ strengths vary. Learners
most comfortable with accessing information online may be Figure 2.5 Learning
tasked with gathering information on the Internet; students with Through Mosaic Project:
stronger verbal abilities may conduct interviews and audio or video Project Outcome
record those as part of the project. Finally, due to the multifaceted
components of projects, PBL is likely to appeal to a variety of learning
styles and multiple intelligences.

Conclusion
A multifaceted approach to teaching means combining elements from different approaches in
ways that are most responsive to a particular group of learners. In completing your chart, you
may have discovered that some approaches promote more active participation by the learners
than others; some may promote development of a wider range of skills. As a teacher, consider
which of the principles behind the approaches are most in keeping with your beliefs about
teaching and learning, as well with the principles of learner-centered teaching explored in
Chapter 1. Now we turn to the program options offered to adult English language learners. As you
read about these options, start thinking about the ways these varied approaches might best serve
students in these different settings, for example, how can project-based learning be used in a pre-
academic Bridge program?

44 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Part II: Program options

2.12 Introduction
Adult ESL programming and curricula can take on many forms, including integrated skills English
language development, intergenerational and family literacy, first language literacy, integrated
English language and civics, citizenship, vocational English as a second language, and career
pathways, or distance learning. All of these options can provide supports for newcomers or for
those who have been in country for some years. In all instances, there will likely be a focus on the
21st-century skills outlined in Chapter 1, including problem-solving in digital-rich environments
and practice with complex texts encountered at home, school, work or community. What
determines the classification of a program largely depends on funding sources, available no/low
cost resources (volunteer programs, donated space/materials), and existing community needs,
such as an increase in citizenship programs after a shift in government policy or career-
contextualized programs based on the employment outlook in a particular community. This
section describes goals and focus areas of different program options.

Getting Started
Task 2.4
With a partner, read the descriptions of four types of classes offering English language support
to adult learners and discuss which type of program you think each exemplifies: Integrated
skills English language development, intergenerational and family literacy, literacy tutoring,
citizenship, Integrated English Literacy/Civics Education, vocational English/workplace/work
readiness, or a pre-academic Bridge program.
Group A: This beginning to intermediate level class consists of ten workers at a large hotel and trade
center in Boston. Six participants are stewards with the utility department, tasked with supplying
clean dishware and supplies for events, and the others work as room attendants in housekeeping.
Many of the units in the multilevel curriculum include reading and using their payroll app, reading
workplace email, communicating with supervisors and coworkers, reading workplace documents,
and using the hotel’s training methods on how to communicate effectively with guests.1
Group B: This class prepares immigrants to enter a Certified Nursing Assistant Program at a
community college in St. Paul. Students work on test-taking strategies and reading skills, as well as
job-specific skills such as completing patient in-take interviews and taking patient food orders, all
of which the students need to know for the practicum they complete in their training.
Group C: Run in partnership with local libraries around Melbourne to increase access to flexible
and needs-based literacy education for community members, tutors in this program work one-to-
one and with small groups in accessible community spaces, such as libraries and neighborhood
houses, to address the immediate literacy and learning needs of adults in their daily lives.2
Group D: This class meets twice a week in a large adult education center in New York City. There
are 30 students from over 18 countries at the high-intermediate/advanced level. Many hold a
credential from their country and are computer literate. Within the framework of a theme-based
curriculum, they are working on developing their reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills to
both feel more confident in an English-speaking community as well as to improve their employment
and educational opportunities. Although the topics they are interested in vary, they all want to
learn about the U.S. culture and improve their communication skills in ways that are culturally
appropriate (i.e., improve their socio-pragmatic skills).3

Chapter 2 Approaches and Program Options for Adult English Language Learners 45
 Follow-up: Compare your answers with another pair in class. What seems to be the dominant
emphasis of each program? Are there any that seem to respond to multiple purposes (e.g., life
skills and vocational)? What teaching approach might be most responsive to each setting?

1
 This course description is from Kathleen O’Connell, Workplace Education Coordinator and Instructor,
World Education, Inc., Boston, MA.
2
 This tutoring program is offered through Carringbush Adult Education, Melbourne, Australia.
3
 This class description is from Ivana Ferguson, ESL teacher in NYC.

2.13 Programming to promote learner persistence and success

Adult English learners come to programs with any number of short and long-range goals and may
often underestimate the time it takes to attain those goals (Comings 2007). Studies indicate (Porter,
Cuban, and Comings 2005; Sticht 1982; Darkenwald 1986) that a minimum of 100-150 hours of
instruction is needed to achieve one grade-level gain in reading for adult learners as a group (this
includes those for whom English is their first language). Programs need to attract learners and
then provide educational opportunities that motivate learners to persist in that process, giving
them the best shot of meeting their goals and transitioning to the new opportunities, either
personal or professional.
Programs often refer to student retention numbers, but Comings, Parrella, and Soricone (1999)
make an important distinction between retention and persistence. Retention tends to focus on
the program and accountability measures (holding onto students, filling chairs), but persistence
refers to the intensity of learner participation as well as to ongoing engagement in learning
outside of the program; its focus is on understanding and supporting learners’ agency and
efficacy. This could occur through use of self-study or distance learning, for example. Ideally,
learners will find a program option where they feel they have some agency and where they are
motivated to persist long enough to attain their goals.
While there’s no question adult immigrants need to attain the language, knowledge, and skills
in areas that have traditionally been known as life skills—things such as shopping, registering
children at school, and opening bank accounts—there is far more one needs to know in order
to thrive in the new country and in a new language (Parrish 2015a). Community-based or adult
education courses for integrated-skills English language development, such as Scenario D above,
are places where those life skills can be addressed while also working on pre-employment and
academic-readiness skills. Most areas serving large numbers of adult English learners will have
leveled integrated-skills English language development4 programs.
In Task 2.4, Scenario A represents a workplace program, that is, one offered at a worksite for
employees. Scenario B reflects a pre-academic Bridge course preparing learners for entry into a
postsecondary credentialing program, and Scenario C presents a literacy tutoring program. How
does a community or adult education site decide what types of courses or programs to offer?
There are a number of factors that determine the types of services provided in any community:
Funding: Most programs rely on government funding, much of which is earmarked for
specific program types. Grantors require that programs adhere to specific guidelines and
outcomes (See Chapter 10 for a discussion of meeting grantor expectations). It is often
the case that the program offerings and outcomes are determined by funding trends and
resources, and policy/regulation.

4
 These programs are sometimes called “General English” and in the U.S. under the Workforce Innovation
and Opportunity Act (WIOA), they are called “English Language Acquisition” programs.
46 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
 Employment trends: Jobs in a particular geographic area are in constant flux (Nash and
Hewett 2017), so those programs offering career-focused courses need to be highly
responsive to those trends.
Resettlement trends: Some communities attract higher numbers of refugees than others
based on international or national refugee resettlement agreements, and often an influx of
refugees or asylum seekers is sudden due to political strife somewhere in the world.
Community size: Large urban areas with multiple adult education centers are able to offer
an array of services, both within large agencies and across entities. Small communities
often have one adult education site that must provide everything from basic literacy
instruction to career-focused ESL.
Community resources: Are there teachers with expertise in adult ESL in the community?
If not, does the state provide training for teachers? Many small, rural communities have
experienced sudden and rapid increases of immigrant populations and are ill-prepared to
respond to their needs. Are there volunteers available?
Opportunities for collaboration: Are there multiple support services in place to assist
learners in entering a particular career pathway (Wrigley 2007)? Are there opportunities
to collaborate with other agencies, employers, or community colleges that allow learners
opportunities to gain specialized certifications (Nash and Hewett 2017)?
Ideally, learners would enter the type of program that best corresponds to their personal and
professional needs: a learner with particular vocational goals chooses an Integrated Education
and Training program; a parent of school-age children attends to a family and intergenerational
literacy program. Regrettably, this is not always the case since not all of these options may be
available where the learner lives. There are a number of factors that determine the type of
program learners choose to enter:
Location of the program/transportation: Programs need to be accessible to learners using
public transportation.
Personal schedule/work schedule: Employed students have time constraints, especially
those living in smaller communities with limited class offerings. If one family member is
working, the other may stay home to take care of children, most often the mother (Vesely,
Goodman, and Scurlock 2014).
Availability of services: Waiting lists may prevent a learner from attending in his/her
neighborhood.
Immigration status: Often state-sponsored programs accept only documented immigrants.
Some community-based programs do not check learners’ immigration status.
Level of literacy: Ideally, adults with limited or no literacy should attend programs offering
“literacy-level” courses. Teaching pre-literate or emergent readers, those without literacy
in their first language or who have limited or interrupted prior formal schooling, requires
teachers who have specialized knowledge and skills.
Childcare: Some programs, particularly family and intergenerational literacy (FIL) programs,
have free on-site childcare. In those places where FIL is offered, parents of small children
may choose this option, even if that is not the best program fit for them.
The fact of the matter is that many learners do not have the luxury of researching numerous
options and choosing the one that best fits their professional and personal goals. It may be that
factors related to location and personal schedule will determine their choice. What does that
mean for you as an ESL teacher? Regardless of the type of program within which you teach, more
often than not, you need to teach to a wide range of purposes and outcomes. What are those
program types and what are the central purposes of each one?
Chapter 2 Approaches and Program Options for Adult English Language Learners 47
 Task 2.5
To help you make connections between teaching approaches and program options, use the
following grid to identify the purposes for learning in each context as well as approaches from
Part I that you think might be particularly suitable within that context.

Program Option Purposes for Learning Suitable Approaches to

Teaching in This Setting
English Language
Acquisition

Integrated English Language

and Civics Education

Citizenship

Family / Intergenerational
Literacy
One-on-One Literacy
Tutoring
Workplace
Career-Contextualized
Bridge
Integrated Education and
Training
Distance Learning

While more and more career-focused programs are available in most communities, and
all program options tend to include content related to employment and further education,
probably the most common type of program for adult English language learners will be English
language acquisition programs.

2.14 English language acquisition programs

Many programs within adult education in a variety of settings around the world can be described
as English language acquisition programs. The language focus may include literacy development,
listening, speaking, functions, and grammar, all in keeping with the needs of the particular group
of students and in keeping with current trends in college and career standards and 21st-century
skills integration. Unlike content-based programs, for example, citizenship or an Integrated
Education and Training culinary arts program where learners have a shared occupational goal
for learning English, students in English language acquisition programs may have more divergent
wants, needs, and goals for learning English. At the lower levels, learners need to acquire basic
skills, or language needed to fulfill basic needs in the community. At the same time, these
learners can also be working on digital literacy skills, strategies for accessing complex texts
(see Chapters 4 and 5), as well as content that goes beyond survival English. At the beginning
levels and particularly with newcomers, instructional themes may revolve around topics such
as education, health, community, school, family, and work, but should always be grounded in
48 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
learners’ expressed needs. In all cases, it is important to consider themes that acknowledge an
adult learner’s intellect (e.g., in a unit about transportation, talk about the benefits of a new light
rail system instead of only learning how to read bus schedules).
In past decades, adult basic education programs often offered a “transitions level” to help students
with skills and strategies needed in higher education settings (e.g., synthesizing information
from multiple sources; listening to lectures and note-taking). Even with those “transitions” levels,
a mismatch between the content and goals of those programs and the expectations of higher
education settings has been shown (Johnson and Parrish 2010). Current thinking is that those
“transition” skills must be embedded throughout instruction and at all levels. For example, a
beginning-level learner can listen to an authentic passage and practice note-taking or can gather
“data” about classmates, analyze the data to practice numeracy and analytical skills, and create a
visual representation of what is learned (a pie chart, graph, or table). English language acquisition
classes often draw on primary textbooks (see Chapter 8), which include practice in all the skills areas.
Within these programs, there is often a “literacy level” where special attention is paid to literacy-
level learners, or reading development for immigrant adult language learners with little or no
native language schooling who may be learning the skills of reading for the first time. The Literacy
Education and Second Language Learning for Adults (LESLLA) professional organization supports
research and provides resources into best practices for this learner population. Principles and
practices for working with these learners are compatible with family and intergenerational literacy
goals outlined below (2.17), with primacy placed on socially-constructed learning. Chapter 5
includes a section on literacy development for learners with interrupted or limited prior schooling.

2.15 Citizenship
Instruction designed to prepare immigrants to pass the citizenship exam has been in existence
for well over a century in the U.S. Clearly, the approach to teaching those courses has not always
been the same, but governments in many countries have had a long-standing commitment
to assisting immigrants in their quest to become citizens. In the U.S., to become a citizen, an
immigrant must demonstrate English literacy and knowledge of U.S. history and government
systems through an application and interview process. In other countries, for example, the United
Kingdom and Australia, learners can meet the language requirements for citizenship through
language certifications. Programs focused on citizenship typically include:
• The benefits of citizenship
• The naturalization process
• Preparation for the oral interview and written tests
Citizenship classes sometimes provide referrals to legal advice as well. In many cases, citizenship
is included in Integrated English Literacy/Civics Education programming.

2.16 Integrated English Literacy and Civics Education

Integrated English Literacy/Civics Education (IEL/CE) programs or courses include instruction in
literacy and English language acquisition along with instruction on the rights of citizenship and
civic participation. The goal is to promote active citizenship and participation in all aspects of the
community including voting and civic involvement, involvement in neighborhood programs, active
participation in children’s schooling, taking full advantage of community services such as libraries,
shelters, or community centers, and job-related skills for pursuing employment. These topics
and themes are not unique to Integrated English Literacy/Civics Education; intergenerational and
family literacy programs share many of the same goals, and many English language acquisition
programs draw on the same themes as well and may shift with changes in particular political
administrations, parties, and policies.

Chapter 2 Approaches and Program Options for Adult English Language Learners 49
 2.17 Family and intergenerational literacy
Data from the Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), a
comprehensive study of educational attainment and employment outcomes globally, indicate
that an individual’s attainment of literacy and numeracy skills is directly correlated to parents’
educational attainment in those areas (Clymer, et al. 2017). Family and intergenerational
literacy (FIL) programs have long recognized this reality and the goal of these programs is to
promote education and prosperity for families. Another central tenet of these programs is to
build connections between homes and schools, acknowledging and drawing on the multiple
perspectives and experiences of immigrant families.
FIL programs work concurrently with at least two generations within a family: parents or
grandparents and children. In the 1970s and 1980s, these programs were primarily focused on
parent-school involvement and literacy development. Typically, programs were designed for
mothers working on developing literacy as well as basic skills in English. The children spent time
playing games, working on art projects, and learning letters, rhymes, and songs. As with other
types of programs, FIL has shifted programming to include explicit education and training leading
to jobs and/or postsecondary education (Clymer, et al. 2017). First language literacy development
is another component found in some FIL programs working with adults who are not literate in
their first language.
Whatever the FIL model, it is crucial that educators avoid a deficit view of adult learners and
their families; programs should not be designed to transmit the school culture and language
to immigrant parents (Auerbach 1995). Learners’ homes are not linguistically impoverished—
parents and children interact and collaborate, they use many forms of literacy, and they educate
one another. The interactions and literacy practices used in homes may be different, but no less
valid, from those used in institutions. Programs may include what Purcell-Gates, et al. (2012)
refer to as “school-only texts” for developing reading and writing skills, but a successful literacy
program must also include “real-life texts” (399) and activities, that is, literacy practiced in ways
that are situated in the learners’ real-world literacy needs and practices (see Chapter 5 for further
discussion). Literacy experiences and practices must move from homes to schools as well as from
schools to homes. It is important to note that these principles should inform any literacy work in
any program model.

2.18 Literacy tutoring

English language instruction for newcomers is often provided through literacy councils, libraries,
faith-based institutions, and other community-based programs with literacy volunteers working
one-on-one or in small groups as in scenario C in the warm-up activity 2.4. This is a context where
a truly participatory curriculum can evolve as the classes are designed to meet the needs of an
individual learner. Volunteers are normally provided with training in literacy skills development
and, one hopes, an understanding of the particular challenges of learning literacy as an adult
and in an additional language. These classes could integrate components of any of the program
types described in this chapter. For example, a tutor may assist the learner with preparing for
citizenship, increasing civic participation, retraining for a particular job, or preparation for a part
course of study. This is a context where technology integration is essential, providing learners
opportunities for additional learning time through self-study and online learning options to
increase the intensity of instruction (Porter, Cuban, and Comings 2005).

2.19 Career pathways/career-focused programming

Career pathways refers to a whole host of program options and services intended to educate
adult learners about career ladders associated with becoming self-sufficient and earning a
family-sustaining wage (Wrigley 2015). This ideally starts with learners identifying their skill sets

50 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

(at times needing support in recognizing their own strengths and abilities as transferable skills
for employment), exploring career options, and eventually enrolling in an occupational training
course or attaining a job. Any of the program types above can and should infuse components of
career readiness into their curricula. In this section, we look at program models that are career-
focused, often leading to a specific certification or job opportunity.

A. Career-contextualized ESL classes

Career-contextualized ESL programs or classes are those that integrate English language skills
development with topics such as career awareness and exploration, goal setting, or the language
needed for applying for a job (Adelson-Goldstein 2016). Many such programs/courses emphasize
general workplace or transferable job skills, such as effective communication with supervisors
and coworkers, or problem-solving at work. Learning outcomes for a career-contextualized ESL
course could look like this:

Intermediate Career Explorations

• Identify personal skills and strengths.
• Map out a career pathway for a field of interest.
• Identify job requirements and responsibilities.
• Create résumés and cover letters for specific job announcements.
• Engage in effective communication with coworkers and employers.
• Identify safety issues at the workplace
• Identify and know your rights as a worker.
• Use a variety of reading strategies to understand technical materials.
• Compose workplace reports and correspondence.

The example above is not focused on one specific career area, however, courses related to high-
demand jobs or industries in a particular geographic area may be offered as well, such as the one
below for those interested in customer service jobs. This course leads to a certificate of completion
and note the information provided on next steps of a learner’s career pathway in this field.

Retail/Customer Service Certificate

Course Description:
This course is designed to prepare students for entry level retail sales positions, concentrating
on customer service through sales and service. The course is intended to help participants
progress from learning about themselves, to learning how to relate to their classmates as their
internal customers, to learning how to relate to actual customers in the workplace. Curriculum
is focused on best practices from the National Retail Foundation, supplemented by written
practice, vocabulary practice and math skills related to the field. Students will practice handling
angry customers, helping customers by describing products benefits and features, phone
etiquette, and understanding store policies.

Next Steps and Additional Career Information:

Successful completion will lead to a certificate for 90 hours of classroom preparation from
the Hubbs Center. Students may also choose to take the National Retail Federation test for
Professional Certification in Customer Service. This exam is offered at multiple sites in the
metro area. The fee for the exam is between $70.00 to $80.00.
Ronald M. Hubbs Center for Lifelong Learning; St. Paul Public Schools Adult Education

Chapter 2 Approaches and Program Options for Adult English Language Learners 51
B. Workplace ESL
Workplace ESL programs are those offered at work sites or with a group of learners from the
same work site, focusing on the very specific needs of the learners’ job. Kathleen’s class for hotel
employees presented in the warm-up activity represents workplace ESL. In her setting, learners
work on the competencies and language needed for their jobs at a hotel. Today’s workplace
classes often focus heavily on industry-specific technologies as well as language, for example, the
app that learners need to use for payroll at the hotel. In a manufacturing company with which I
have collaborated, learning outcomes such as “follow instructions for filling drive-shaft molds” are
common and demand instruction that is highly focused. This is a setting where competency-based
education (2.5) may be particularly suitable.

C. Bridge programs
The primary goal of a Bridge program is to prepare students for entry to a post-secondary
institution, often to a program for obtaining a certificate such as a Certified Nursing Assistant
program as described in Task 2.4. Some of the adult learners in these programs are pursuing
their first degree, while others are retraining in the same or similar profession they held in their
country. In the context of the U.S., many community and technical colleges and universities offer
these pre-academic programs, but they may require students to pay tuition that is beyond their
means. The solution to that is to offer Integrated Basic Education and Skills Training (I-BEST) or
Integrated Education and Training (IET), which are often offered through publicly-funded adult
education systems.

D. Integrated Basic Education and Skills Training /Integrated Education and Training
Integrated Basic Education and Skills Training (I-BEST) or Integrated Education and Training (IET)
are those programs where the occupational instructor and adult education instructor co-teach in
the same classroom or coordinate instruction through concurrent enrollment (i.e., enrollment
in job-specific content classes along with supports or ESL classes that integrate the field-specific
content). IET programs provide basic skills (literacy, math, English language development)
alongside the occupational skills needed for a credential. The original I-BEST programs were
developed for all adult learners, not specifically for English language learners, but more and more
programs are providing integrated options that are targeted to immigrant learners with
English language development needs. As with Bridge programs, some learners are pursuing a
new credential, while others are retraining in the same or similar field. This example from the
Genesis Center in Rhode Island illustrates how an IET program prepares immigrant learners for
high-demand jobs in their community. See how they combine language and reasoning skills with
the work-specific content.

Culinary Arts Program Genesis Center

• 13-week, full-time training preparing participants to enter the food industry
• Curriculum taught by a professional chef and adult education instructor
• Program is hands-on, with participants preparing daily meals for our students and
childcare center.
• Culinary instructor teaches job-specific skills, for example fractions and proportional
reasoning for measuring and scaling recipes.
• Adult education instructors use occupational content to teach contextualized reading,
writing, or math.
• Participants test for the ServSafe Food Safety Manager Certificate and complete an
internship at a local restaurant.
(Nash and Hewett 2017)

52 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Any of these career-focused models can be considered just one component of an on-ramp to a
career and need to be part of a systems approach, as illustrated in Figure 2.6.

Stabilization and Help students gain

support services work experience,
to diminish crises; Integrated education remain connected to
connect individuals and training work and re-engage
with resources and in further education
opportunities. and training.

Figure 2.6 A Systems Approach to Career Pathways (Center for Postsecondary and Economic
Success 2017)

Any ESL teacher involved in work-focused English as a second language programming needs to be
aware of where they are situated in this broader context and must be willing to collaborate with a
variety of players in order to support learner success.

2.20 Distance education

Distance education, often called distance learning, has been available to adult learners for
decades, but with improvements in technology, greater access by learners to high-speed Internet,
and the common use of smartphones, distance learning is an option for just about any adult ESL
learner who lacks transportation, has work commitments, or lives in areas where there is limited
adult education support. It provides learners added flexibility in choosing the time and place of
instruction. Vanek, et al. (2016: 11) define distance education as “all aspects of programming that
allow a learner to continue learning beyond the walls of a classroom,” so this definition includes
programs that are purely distance learning, blended learning (a combination of face-to-face and
distance learning), and classroom technology integration (see Chapter 8 for a full discussion of
classroom technology integration). Distance learning programs may be delivered using any number
of materials and resources, including print, audio or video recordings, computer software, or web-
based programs or technologies such as webinars and virtual meeting spaces; teachers support
learners via telephone, email, or online technologies (U.S. Department of Education 2016a).
Programs may develop their own curricula, use commercially available software, or make use of
Open Educational Resources (OERs) such as U.S.A. Learns, which provides free lessons designed
to teach English to beginning to intermediate level learners via videos and activities. Web-
based software such as LearnerWeb https://www.learnerweb.org/ can aid tremendously in the
implementation of a truly learner-centered, effective distance learning experience. Organized
around learning plans, the system allows learners to identify learning goals and then the system
structures a plan to help the learner achieve those goals. Each step in the plan is matched to freely
accessible online resources and learners can save their work in an e-portfolio (Learner Web 2017).
In the absence of peer support and regular contact with a classroom teacher, learner success in
distance learning is greatest for learners who are able to work independently, are self-motivated,
and have strong organizational skills (Vanek, et al. 2016). Face-to-face orientation to a distance
learning program and ongoing contact are essential for program success. Success will also hinge
on the skill set of the teacher, who must possess a level of comfort with the technologies being
used. In some instances, adult educators work in tandem with tech educators/facilitators to
ensure appropriate and competent content and approach. Distance learning does not necessarily
mean self-study for learners, so teachers must provide regular support, guidance, and feedback
to learners in any distance education program.
Blended programs are those where the face-to-face courses are complemented with distance
learning components. A national model for blended learning in the U.S., English Innovations,

Chapter 2 Approaches and Program Options for Adult English Language Learners 53
provides those with high-beginning literacy levels 100 hours of instruction focused on digital
literacy skills development and community engagement. Rooted in the principles of participatory
and learner-centered instruction, Heide Wrigley, a leader in adult ESL and collaborator on this
project, shares that, “We wanted to create a set of learning experiences for immigrants who
had not yet found their way into the formal ESL system and needed opportunities not just to
navigate ‘technology rich environments’ but to express ideas, share their stories, and speak up
for themselves and others” (Wrigley 2017). Figure 2.7 illustrates how a blended program such
as this one can be used to address the goals of EL civics, family or intergenerational literacy, or
integrated-skills English development programs.
AN INTEGRATED MODEL MEANS
INCLUSIVE, SOCIAL LEARNING FOR ADULTS

ENGLISH INNOVATIONS PROVIDES BLENDED INSTRUCTION MEANS

A CURRICULUM ADAPTABLE TO A ENGLISH MORE FLEXIBLE LEARNING.
BROAD RANGE OF CONTEXTS AND DIGITAL

100
LANGUAGE
INTEGRATES DIGITAL LEARNING TO LITERACY
ADDRESS THE REAL LIFE NEEDS AND
ACQUISITION HOURS
GOALS OF LOW-INCOME, LIMITED NEEDED TO GAIN
ONE LANGUAGE
ENGLISH PROFICIENT ADULTS, LEARNING LEVEL
INCLUDING:
74 HOURS FACE-TO-FACE IN CLASS
-EMPLOYMENT
-FAMILY LITERACY 26 HOURS ARE INDEPENDENT
-ENTREPRENEURSHIP LEARNING OUTSIDE OF CLASS
COMMUNITY
-CIVIC ENGAGEMENT
-TRANSITION TO ENGAGEMENT

12
FURTHER EDUCATION
-CITIZENSHIP WEEKS
FOR STUDENTS TO
VOLUNTEER TUTORS SUPPORT LEARNERS COMPLETE 100 HOURS

WITH A 5:1 STUDENT- VOLUNTEER RATIO. ENGLISH INNOVATIONS

EMPHASIZES PEER-TO-PEER

: & PROJECT-BASED LEARNING.

EACH STUDENT IS LOANED A TABLET
FOR THE DURATION OF THE COURSE

Figure 2.7 English Innovations Blended Learning Model

Any of the program models described in this chapter can be delivered though distance or blended
learning, and the outcomes and standards are the same as those for face-to-face instruction. An
innovative example of distance learning and workplace instruction is a pilot project called MOBILE
UP! which provides industry-specific English instruction leveraging smartphone technologies. The
goal of MOBILE UP! is to provide training and accelerate career advancement of long-term care
workers, hotel workers, and janitors who cannot attend in-person trainings (Wrigley, 2017). In this
model, workers are assigned a coach who provides targeted instruction via text messaging and
phone calls, making it “demand-driven vocational training and personalized career coaching to
workers entirely by phone” (Wrigley, 2017). Many of the resources developed for distance learning
can also be used by students in on-site classrooms, enhancing their educational experience and
contributing to persistence as we see in Chapter 8.

Conclusion
In this chapter, we have looked very broadly at some of the most common approaches to
teaching adult ESL as well as the program options available. It is essential that teachers new to the
field understand that there are many connections between and among all of these approaches
and options. There is no recipe for good teaching. What works successfully in one setting may
not in another. Through thorough needs assessment, ongoing observation, and abundant
opportunities for learners to express their needs and concerns in the classroom, teachers shape
their curricula accordingly, drawing from a variety of approaches, techniques, and materials.
In the chapters that follow, teaching techniques and strategies that help learners develop both
language and social/cultural knowledge are examined and illustrated through sample lesson
plans, activities, and guidelines. The tools and techniques you will learn about can be used within
many of the approaches and program options discussed in this chapter.
54 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
 Key Terms

On your own, or with a partner, provide an example or brief definition for each concept:

Checklist of Key Terms

receptive skills

productive skills

communicatively-based
approaches

participatory education

emergent curriculum

problem pose

civics education

career pathways

distance education

Chapter 2 Approaches and Program Options for Adult English Language Learners 55
 Applying What You’ve Learned

Before doing these activities, revisit your answers to the questions at the beginning of
the chapter.

1 Reflecting on Your Own Learning Experience

At the beginning of the chapter, you briefly discussed a learning experience you’ve had. This
activity allows you to examine in greater depth the ways your own learning may shape or
inform your teaching. If you have studied a second language, reflect on your own experiences
as a language learner as you answer these questions; otherwise, think of a different classroom
experience you’ve had, either for academic or vocational purposes (computer classes,
professional training) or for personal growth (piano, gardening, etc.). Write your answers in your
journal or discuss them with others in your class:
a. What is your overall recollection of the experience? Was it positive or negative and what made
it so? Did you feel you learned something or not?
b. What roles did the students and teacher take in the classroom? Would you describe the class
as learner-centered or teacher-centered? Why?
c. What areas of language did you practice (or for non-language classes, what content or
skills did you learn—reading, writing, listening, speaking, grammar, language functions,
vocabulary?)
d. What was the role of your first language in instruction?
e. What topics and themes were covered? To what extent did you have a say in course content?
f. How do you think your own experiences as a learner can shape and inform the choices you
make about approaches to teaching adult English language learners?
g. Do you recognize any of the elements from the approaches in Part I in the approaches used
by your own teachers and, if so, which ones?

2 Approaches to Teaching Adult English Language Learners

If you are already teaching, choose one of your classes and answer these questions:
• Who are the learners and what are their goals for learning English?
• What experiences have they had with formal and informal education?
• What are their views of teaching and learning and what is your own view of teaching
and learning?
• What program standards are learners expected to meet?
How would you describe the approach you are currently using with this group of learners? How
responsive is it to learner needs? What other approaches would you like to try with this group of
learners?
If you are not teaching, contact an ESL teacher in your community and ask if you can observe his/
her class. Before class: Interview the teacher using the questions above. After you observe,
answer these questions: How would you describe this teacher’s approach to teaching? Is there
an approach described in Part I you think might work well with the group you observed?

56 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

3 Program Options in Your Community

What program options are offered in your community? Go to your local adult education center or
your state Department of Education website to find the following information:
a. Where are services for adult English language learners provided in your area? Community
colleges, public schools, community-based programs, literacy councils, other?
b. What program options are available? Integrated-skills English language development
including emergent literacy, distance learning, Integrated Education and Training (IET),
EL civics, or citizenship, etc.?
c. What are the requirements for teachers of adult English language learners in your state,
province, or country?

Chapter 2 Approaches and Program Options for Adult English Language Learners 57
 Recommended Reading

Adelson-Goldstein, J. (2016) LINCS ESL Pro Preparing English Learners for Work and Career Pathways:
Companion Learning Resource. U.S. Department of Education (OCTAE). This interactive, digital
magazine illustrates current, effective instructional models for integrating career-focused training
with academic instruction. Available at: https://lincs.ed.gov/sites/default/files/LINCS_CLR-1_508_0.pdf

Auerbach, E. (1992) Making Meaning, Making Change: A Participatory Curriculum Development

for Adult ESL Literacy. Washington D.C. and McHenry, IL: Delta Systems and Center for Applied
Linguistics. The book provides ideas for collaborating with learners to develop relevant curricula
that respond to their needs as parents, workers, and community members.

Richards, J. and Rogers, T. (2014) Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, 3rd Edition.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. This classic overview of approaches and methods to
teaching English to speakers of other languages all over the world is now in its third edition
and provides details to the approaches in Part I as a comprehensive and historical overview of
language teaching.

Useful Websites
Ed Tech at World Education and IDEAL Consortium https://edtech.worlded.org/ This site provides
recommendations, research, and resources for quality distance education.

Literacy Education and Second Language Learning for Adults (LESLLA) is an international forum
focused on research on the development of second language skills by adult immigrants with little
or no schooling prior to entering the country of entry. http://www.leslla.org/

New American Horizons (newamericanhorizons.org) Provides authentic classroom videos that

demonstrate many of the communicatively-based approaches covered in the chapter.

58 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

3 Teaching Language for
Meaningful Purposes
To consider before reading this chapter:
• W hat does it mean to take an integrated and contextualized approach to presenting and
practicing new language?
• What kinds of activities promote meaningful practice of functions, forms, and vocabulary
along with higher-order thinking skills?
• How do you decide when and how to give learners corrective feedback?

Part I: Developing integrated and contextualized language lessons

3.1 Introduction
We have looked at a number of approaches to teaching ESL as well as program options offered in
most communities. Each program type has a particular focus, but they share the goal of helping
learners communicate within their communities more effectively, whether for greater community
involvement, to gain or improve employment, to enter a training program, or to engage more fully
in their children’s education. In this chapter, we explore an approach to teaching language that
integrates multiple language skills, is learner-centered, experiential, and that situates learning in
real-world contexts. We explore activities that promote natural use of language so that learners
gain confidence in using English in the safe environment of the classroom. We also consider how
language lessons can be tied to rigorous standards at any level of instruction. As with any type of
lesson, teaching begins with understanding your learners’ strengths, wants, and needs.

Getting Started
Leslie teaches adult English language learners at the intermediate level in a large adult
education center in Tampa, Florida. This integrated-skills English language acquisition class
includes instruction in language functions, grammar, and vocabulary, and the four skills
of reading, writing, listening, and speaking for the purpose of engaging more fully in their
communities and preparing for demands of work or further education. Many of her students
have been in the U.S. for over five years and are comfortable with everyday English needed
to meet their basic needs. This program has adopted rigorous college and career readiness
standards that focus on accessing informational texts, developing critical thinking skills,
and interpreting information presented in a variety of formats. She regularly incorporates
instruction in digital literacy skills, problem-solving, numeracy, and practice with complex texts,
charts, and graphs. She believes that these skills are needed in all areas of life. She wants to
make sure that her instruction meets the needs and interests of her learners, so each term she
gives her students a survey at the beginning of the session. Here are some of the responses
from her students in a recent class:

Chapter 3 Teaching Language for Meaningful Purposes 59

 Talk to my neighbors Find jobs online

Read in English People don’t understand me

Pronunciation Get my high school equivalency here

Get a job related to my profession I want grammar and vocabulary

Understand my child’s schoolwork Get my credentials evaluated

Talk to my landlord about problems Interview for jobs

I can’t understand people Talk to people at my job

I can’t talk to the teachers at my kid’s school Understand when I watch TV

Learn English for college Make appointments online

Talk to doctors and nurses when my kids are sick Give my opinion in English

Leslie is struck by the variety of needs and expectations among learners. Her own experience
as a language learner in high school and college was to practice grammar and vocabulary, but
she knows that her students need much more than that. Some want nothing but grammar,
while others want to learn how to communicate in English with their children’s teachers. Some
have specific college and career goals, and some have needs related to their daily lives. How
can she bring all of this together? Look at the list above and see if any themes emerge.

Task 3.1
Based on the description of the class and the survey results provided, work with a partner to
identify at least three areas of need for this class.

Areas of Need for Leslie’s Class

1. ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
2. ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
3. ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������

3.2 An integrated approach to language learning and teaching

As discussed in Chapter 2, programs within the U.S. are required to adopt rigorous content
standards, which guide program planning and instruction. Communities and jobs across the globe
require those same 21st-century skills, including problem-solving, digital literacy, and the ability to

60 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

access and interpret information presented in a variety of formats. We are still language teachers,
though, and the focus of this section is on how to help learners develop their language abilities
while also developing those 21st-century skills. Let’s start by looking at some possible themes for
Leslie’s class. How does this compare to your list above?
Theme 1: Thriving in communities
Managing medical care
Finding housing
Talking to landlords
Interacting with school staff and teachers
Theme 2: Finding jobs and interacting at work
Accessing online job advertisements
Interviewing
Talking to coworkers
Attaining work in an area of expertise
Theme 3: Accessing and thriving in education
Attaining an equivalent credential
Enrolling in a training program or postsecondary education
Obtaining a high school equivalency
As we look at these needs and the many tasks involved for each, we now consider the language
demands that may be involved in each:
Language competencies: These are real-life skills that enable us to complete the tasks we need to
accomplish in our daily lives or at our jobs.
Examples: Making appointments
Calling or emailing in sick to work
Reporting a problem at work
Social language functions: These represent the ways we use language forms and phrases in
social interactions.
Examples: Greetings and introductions
Making invitations
Making polite requests
Complaints and apologies
Academic language functions: These represent the ways we use language in more formal and
academic settings.
Examples: Asking for and giving opinions; expressing agreement or disagreement
Elaborating on others’ ideas
Synthesizing the opinions of group members
Comparing and contrasting ideas

Chapter 3 Teaching Language for Meaningful Purposes 61

Linguistic competence—grammar, vocabulary, spelling, pronunciation: Learners need to
develop their linguistic competence, but it should be done within meaningful and authentic
contexts that reflect how language is used for particular purposes.
Cultural competence: Learners need to acquire skills to navigate in a new setting where cultural
norms may differ from their own; for example, ways of addressing teachers or supervisors may
be less formal.
Language skills: Lessons also need to take into account the modes of communication that we
use: speaking, listening, reading and writing. We call those modes of communication the four
language skills, and listening and reading are considered the receptive skills, while speaking
and writing are productive skills. It is important to note that all of these can be highly interactive
as well.
Digital literacy skills: The way learners need to complete real-world tasks has drastically changed
over the past decades and will continue to change every year. Many tasks that were traditionally
done through reading and writing, and even listening and speaking, are now done using
technology (Harris 2015b; Leu, et al. 2011).
Examples: Texting in place of many phone calls
Filling out forms online
Email to and from teachers or coworkers
Effective searching for information online
Evaluating the quality of information online
Critical thinking: Lessons also need to support practice with critical thinking skills needed for
success in today’s world (notice that these overlap with the academic language functions above).
Examples: Organizing and categorizing information
Analyzing and evaluating information
Challenging assumptions
Making decisions and problem-solving
This is not to suggest that learners do not already possess highly developed critical thinking
skills. They have made a move to a new country and made their way into your classes and
found housing; they can support their families. However, they may come from societies
where educational systems are primarily transmission based where learners are not expected
to challenge the teacher or ideas presented; where instruction is largely teacher directed
(Chowdhury 2003).
Effective language lessons start with identifying the purposes for which learners need to use
English. Then, we identify the competencies, functions, grammar, vocabulary, and skills needed
to gain confidence and proficiency for those purposes. All of this can come together through
integrated language lessons. Figure 3.1 illustrates the variety of components we need to consider
while creating an integrated language lesson.

62 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Language
functions

Language
Critcial
forms (grammar
thinking
and vocabulary)

Components
of an integrated
lesson

Skills (reading,
Cultural writing,
competencies listening,
speaking)

Digital
literacy
skills

Figure 3.1 Components of an Integrated Lesson

To illustrate what this means, let’s take an example that derives from Leslie’s list of learner needs
at the beginning of the chapter: Reporting a problem to a landlord. The multiple components to the
task of making a complaint to a landlord are shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Components of an Integrated Lesson: Reporting a Problem to a Landlord

Task or Language Reporting a problem to a landlord
Competency
Language Functions Introducing the problem:
I’ve had a problem with . . .
My is broken . . .
The doesn’t work.
Requesting action:
Could you please replace . . .?
Would you mind sending someone to fix the ?
Coming to a resolution to the problem
I assure you that . . .
So, I expect you to . . .
Grammar Modal verbs (can, may, could)
Question forms
Vocabulary for household appliances and items; repair, fix,
replace; rooms of the house

Chapter 3 Teaching Language for Meaningful Purposes 63

 Four Skills Speaking to the landlord on the phone or in person
Listening to the landlord
Reading tenant policies, print or online
Writing a complaint
Digital Literacy Filling in an online form for reporting problems or filing complaints
Accessing information online from the housing agency or complex
Cultural Competencies Using appropriate register, or level of formality based on context
Knowing how to access consumer advocate offices
Knowing whom to contact at the housing agency or complex if
the problem isn’t resolved
Critical Thinking Problem-solving: determining the best course of action

Reporting a problem to a landlord entails everything from knowing how to make requests
appropriately, to knowing the vocabulary for household items. It also involves learning how to
access community organizations such as consumer advocates or housing agencies if a problem is
unresolved. One aspect of language does not stand alone without the others. In this chapter, you
will learn how to bring all of this together by creating integrated and contextualized language lessons.

Integrated and Contextualized Language Lessons

Lessons in which the teacher focuses on a particular language function, grammar point, or a set
of vocabulary used in real-world contexts: while a lesson may have a particular language focus
(e.g., making polite requests or using the simple past tense), many skills and areas of language
are integrated into each lesson.

3.3 Teaching language for meaningful purposes

Teachers and researchers have, through the years, proposed a variety of models and procedures
for language teaching. After the fall in popularity (in most corners) of the Audiolingual, drill-
response approach to teaching, more meaning-based approaches emerged. One such approach
to teaching language lessons was called the PPP model:
Presentation: Show how language is used and formed through a story or dialogue; for example,
highlight the target forms; check for learner understanding through accurate reproduction activities
Practice: Highly-controlled activities, drills, dialogue repetition (while more meaning-based than
the strict mechanical drills, these activities are carry-overs of the Audiolingual approach)
Production: Freer activities that allow learners to try the new language more spontaneously—
information-gap activities, role plays, for example
This approach to teaching ESL has come under criticism for a variety of reasons. It implies that, as
Jeremy Harmer points out, “students learn in ‘straight lines’—that is, starting from no knowledge,
through highly restricted sentence-based utterances and on to immediate production” (Harmer
2015: 66). We know that such a linear approach does not represent the complex processes that
go into learning a second language. A lesson that focuses too narrowly on a particular language
point, and presents and practices it with a set procedure, has the following shortcomings:
• It may not account for the fact that language forms are used in combination with a variety of skills
and other language forms. Lessons need to integrate and combine these various skills and forms.

64 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

• Language forms are used differently in different settings. A narrowly-focused lesson may result
in learners not fully understanding the range of uses a language point might have or how to
use it in different settings, e.g., informal vs. formal settings, personal vs. vocational.
• Language learners bring different knowledge and skills to a lesson. Teaching needs to validate
and draw on that knowledge, allowing learners to shape the direction of the lesson. Lessons that
follow a prescribed set of steps may overlook the role learners can play in shaping the lesson.
• Language use is unpredictable, so highly controlled practice activities won’t necessarily replicate
real-world use when students leave your classroom.
A number of educators have suggested alternatives to the strict PPP progression. Jim Scrivener
(2011) suggests that lessons normally start with restricted exposure to language (i.e., material
created for language teaching purposes) or authentic exposure (i.e., language used naturally or
authentic materials not designed for native English speakers). In lieu of the “presentation” stage of
the PPP model, the teacher leads learners to noticing patterns and clarifying their understanding.
Lessons move towards restricted use and authentic use. Restricted use refers to activities that
focus on accuracy such as drills and repetition activities. Role plays, information gaps, discussions,
or interview tasks are examples of authentic use. Clarification and focus represent those
instances in a lesson when the teacher and learners describe or discover rules and patterns of the
language, or when corrective feedback is given. Scrivener suggests that all of these elements can
exist in a lesson, but that they do not need to happen in a particular order.
Another influential educational model in adult education is the Experiential Learning Cycle (Kolb
1984; Kolb and Kolb 2017), which can also guide the process we take when teaching language. This
model starts with a concrete experience such as a group task, moves participants to reflection and
analysis of that experience, and ends with putting what is learned through the experience into
practice. While not a model for language teaching per se, its central tenet of “experience” in adult
learning is in keeping with the learner-centered principles outlined in Chapter 1. Figure 3.2 shows
how Kolb’s learning cycle can relate to an integrated and contextualized language lesson cycle.

Concrete
experience
(Engage with language
from the start of
a lesson)

Reflective
Active
observation
experimentation
(Elicit language from
(Engage in meaningful
learners; draw learners'
practice activities)
attention to patterns)

Abstract
conceptualization
(Notice patterns and
check understanding)

Figure 3.2 Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle Related to Language Teaching

Chapter 3 Teaching Language for Meaningful Purposes 65
The samples in this chapter apply these experiential learning principles and also represent many of
the principles of communicatively-based teaching discussed in section 2.6. Language is presented
in context and for meaningful purposes; learners engage in interactive tasks to practice language.
Note the focus on noticing patterns, which acknowledges Zoltán Dörnyei’s (2013) recommendations
regarding the need for focus on form and formulaic language within meaning-based contexts.
So, what are the benefits to teaching integrated and contextualized language lessons that
focus on a particular language point (a language function, a grammar point, or a vocabulary set)?
Presenting and practicing a targeted language point can have the following benefits, particularly
for beginning to intermediate level learners:
• T his type of lesson allows the teacher to respond specifically to a language need of a group of
learners.
• Working through small chunks of language with a logical progression can be very reassuring to
beginning level students; there’s a sense of accomplishment in getting it right.
• Many adult learners have had formal instruction in languages and benefit from the opportunity
to “notice” and focus on particular language forms.
As you will discover, the key to effective lessons is that they include a variety of practice activities
that use language for real-life, meaningful purposes. In addition to that, they need to include a
variety of learner options so that, for example, learners with fewer literacy skills can have the
same learning opportunities as more literate learners. These lessons also need to address the
types of outcomes found in rigorous content standards, for example, these College and Career
Readiness Standards for Adult Education (U.S. Department of Education, Office of Vocational and
Adult Education 2013):
• C CR Speaking and Listening Anchor Standard 2: prepare for and participate effectively in a
range of conversations and collaborations with diverse partners, building on others’ ideas and
expressing their own clearly and persuasively
• CCR Reading Anchor Standard 7: integrate and evaluate content presented in diverse media
and formats, including visually and quantitatively, as well as in words
Perhaps the most important factor is that lessons have learners using language in ways that are
as authentic as possible. Authenticity refers to the texts, tasks, and roles learners take on in the
classroom. Whenever possible, learners should take on roles in class that replicate the roles that
they need to take on outside of the classroom. We can draw on authentic materials (e.g., texts,
visuals, videos) in their original form and not simplified for teaching purposes. We have to be
careful when determining what is truly “authentic” in language teaching, however. McKay (2013)
cautions that use of authentic materials does not necessarily lead to authentic learner voice if
they are not used in ways that are authentic for the learner. “By taking a text out of the context for
which it was intended and placing it in an entirely different social context with another purpose,
educators are using texts in an imaginary way” (2). Also, what we as teachers deem “authentic”
may not be for learners in our classes. For example, using menus or labels of foods that learners
would never buy is in no way “authentic.” Reading a brochure on local farmer’s markets might be
more authentic. Barnett (2007) defines authenticity as the way learners find their own voice: “. . .
at the heart of this particular sense of authenticity is the idea of discovering the world in one’s
‘own way,’ unencumbered by other voices and messages” (43).
Finally, lessons need to take into account the social contexts in which language is used. The
language we choose to use is defined by the personal relationships and the social situations of
interactions with others (Young 2011). Lessons need to account for socially-accepted norms of
formality and politeness, or register, which means that we need to include practice of both formal
and informal usage:
• Greeting a government official at a citizenship interview as well as greeting friends and neighbors

66 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

• U
 nderstanding social and cultural norms of communicating on a first-name basis with
co-workers, teachers or supervisors; understanding that using first names is not a sign of
disrespect
The sample lessons that follow are not intended to be prescriptions of how to teach a language
lesson, but rather examples of how experienced teachers each constructed a lesson for a
particular group of learners. Each lesson has a different language focus:
Sample 1: Intermediate. Talking about expenses; making comparisons
Sample 2: High-beginning. Sharing life stories using simple past tense
Sample 3: Beginning. Jobs and job responsibilities
Sample 1 focuses on the functional language and grammar needed to make comparisons when
discussing expenses. Sample 2 focuses on using the simple past tense to describe milestones in
our lives, so it is primarily a grammar lesson. Sample 3 focuses on job vocabulary that could later
be used in a variety of lessons, for example, career explorations, describing job skills, reading job
advertisements, or completing an application.
This integrated and contextualized approach does not require that you create everything in a
lesson from scratch. While none of these sample lessons came out of a textbook, they represent
what is commonly found in many current ESL textbooks, which provide similar contexts, stages,
and activities (see Chapter 8 for a detailed discussion of using textbooks). In fact, in many cases,
teachers have a textbook from which they can develop lessons like these. All three examples
contain a lesson progression that is outlined in Table 3.2. Those lessons that focus on a grammar
feature are what we call inductive grammar lessons, that is, the language is presented in context
first and learners deduce or figure out the rules with the teacher’s guidance.

Table 3.2 Progression of an Integrated and Contextualized Language Lesson

1 E
 ngage with language in • Provide language exposure in a meaningful context.
a real-world context • Activate prior knowledge about the language feature.
• Show how and when the language is used.
2 D
 raw learners’ attention • Get learners to notice patterns and phrases they can use.
to patterns and check • Check for learner understanding through checking questions
learning and activities.
• Focus on form within meaning-based contexts.
3 E
 ngage in practice for • P ractice that may begin with restricted use of the language, for
meaningful purposes example semi-scripted role plays, chain activities, information-
  a. Focus on accuracy gap activities
  b. Focus on fluency • Practice that moves to more authentic, spontaneous language
practice
• Includes extensive student-to-student interaction
• The teacher moves back and forth between less controlled and
more controlled activities depending on learner ability. These
activities will be defined further in Part II of this chapter.
4 O
 ngoing assessment • A
 ctivities and tasks continuously assess achievement of the
and evaluation learning outcomes for the lesson.
• The final task serves as a culminating assessment of learning.
5 Application/extension Application/extension is taking learning out of the classroom and
into the real world—interviewing others, collecting information
from the community, attending an activity at a child’s school.
Chapter 3 Teaching Language for Meaningful Purposes 67
 Task 3.2
As you read the following lesson plans, look for answers to the questions below. Write your
answers in your journal or discuss them with a partner.
1. How does the teacher connect the lesson to learners’ lives?
2. What makes language practice authentic for the learners?
3. When do the teacher and learners focus on language patterns?
4. Which activities help learners to attain accuracy with the target language and which focus
on fluency? Which promote critical thinking?
5. When and how are the four skills (reading, writing, listening, speaking) practiced?
6. Identify the techniques used that are particularly suitable for beginning-level students. How
do the teachers scaffold learning?

Context for Sample Lesson 1

While working with a community-based program in St. Paul, MN, I taught the following lesson to
a group of intermediate-level adult immigrants. This program uses an integrated skills curriculum
much like Leslie’s. The month I was visiting this program, they were working on financial literacy,
for example, managing online banking, using budgeting tools, and learning about Internet fraud.
As many of these students, like Leslie’s, are working towards the goal of gaining a high-school
equivalency, I wanted to work with an informational text—a pie chart on average expenses in the
U.S. They also expressed a desire to work on grammar. While there was a focus on comparative
forms, the primary objective was for them to gain an understanding of the academic language
function of making comparisons. Our state also uses the College and Career Readiness Standards
(CCRS) for Adult Education as our state-adopted content standards, so the CCRS addressed are
included as well in this example.
Sample Lesson 1: Talking about expenses; comparing and contrasting information
Class Description: 12 adult intermediate-level ESL students
Setting: Community-based Integrated English Language and Civics Education program
Time: 90 minutes
CCR Reading 7 Level C: Interpret information presented visually, orally, or quantitatively (e.g.,
in charts, graphs, diagrams, time lines, animations, or interactive elements on Web pages) and
explain how the information contributes to an understanding of the text in which it appears.
CCR Language 3 Level C: Use knowledge of language and its conventions when writing, speaking,
reading, or listening (b. Choose words and phrases to convey ideas precisely).

Lesson Objectives
Learners will be able to:

Functional:
• compare and contrast expenses among residents of the U.S.
• compare and contrast their own spending habits to those presented in a graph

Grammatical:
• make comparisons using “spend more on than ”; “as much on as ”
• use qualifiers to show degree of differences (considerably, somewhat, a little)

68 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Vocabulary: categorize types of expenses
Speaking/pronunciation: use proper word stress on vocabulary (exPENses; contriBUtion)

Critical thinking:
• compare U.S. Labor and Statistics chart to their own expenses
• categorize expenses
• analyze and question the expenses displayed (surprises they note; explanations for expenses)

I. Engage with language in a real-world context.

Purpose: To establish a context for using the target language; to motivate students by showing
real-world use of language; to activate prior knowledge of the target language

Step 1: The teacher briefly shares recent changes with her own expenses using images projected
on screen (an auto repair garage; a home natural gas bill). “I was looking at my bank statements
online last night and noticed I spent a lot on car repairs in the last six months. I also noticed my
gas bill was very high.” Elicit possible reasons from the group (drive an old car, the weather is
getting colder). “What about you? Have you had a similar experience? What do you spend money
on each month?” Elicit examples and write them on board in logical categories (e.g., rent and
home repairs; gas and bus fare). “What do we call all of these things?” Establish the theme of
expenses through shared experiences.
Step 2: “Let’s see how people in the U.S. spend their money. The teacher projects a pie chart on
screen. “Remember I said I spent a lot on my car. What category would that be?” (transportation)
“What about my home natural gas bill? Is that on this chart? What do we call that?” (utilities;
maybe “other expenses.”) Allow students to speculate about categorizations. To check
understanding of categories and personalize instruction: “In pairs, make a list of your expenses
for each category. For example, what can go under “transportation”—gas, car repairs, bus or light
rail fares? (Give one printout of pie chart per group as needed; giving one per group encourages
learners to interact.)

Average Household Expenses in the U.S. 2015

Services
Cash contributions 3% Education
3% 2%
Entertainment
5%
Other expenses Housing
5% 33%

Healthcare
8%

Personal
insurance
11%
Food Transportation
13% 17%
(Pie graph created with information from Bureau of Labor Statistics 2017)

Chapter 3 Teaching Language for Meaningful Purposes 69

With the pie chart projected on a white board, or on a chart on a white board with columns,
learners come to the board to record examples for each category. Use this opportunity to check
understanding of any unfamiliar words.
Step 3: Introduce comparative language, eliciting examples from learners:
T: “So, do people in the U.S. spend more on healthcare or housing?” (housing)
T: Let’s make a sentence—elicits and waits for student responses; reformulates as needed to
create a model:
People in the U.S. spend more on housing than on healthcare.
Repeat the process to generate two to three more samples. “Let’s compare healthcare and
transportation. Do they spend a lot more or a little more?” Elicit:
People spend considerably more on transportation than on healthcare.
How about entertainment compared to apparel and services?
People spend as much on entertainment as on apparel and services.

II. Draw learners’ attention to patterns and check learning.

Purpose: Get learners to notice patterns and phrases they can use. Check for learner
understanding through checking questions and activities.

Step 1: T: “Which sentences show similarity and which show differences? What words show that?
Talk to your partner for one minute.” Then elicit and highlight what they notice.
(Difference) People in the U.S. spend more on housing than on healthcare.
(Difference) People spend considerably more on transportation than on healthcare.
(Similarity) People spend as much on entertainment as on services.
Step 2: In preparation for the practice activities, students now sort the vocabulary words for
expenses by stress patterns (knowing how to say the words clearly is as important as knowing the
meaning of terms). The teacher says the words and pairs collaborate to fill in the chart like this.
The class practices, using clapping or tapping on a stressed syllable.

Pattern 1 Pattern 2 Pattern 3 Pattern 4

Oo Ooo oOo ooOo
healthcare personal expenses transportation
housing services insurance contributions
apparel entertainment
education

III. Engage in practice for meaningful purposes.

Purpose: Provide opportunities for practice, moving from more to less controlled as
appropriate for your learners

Practice activity 1
One-question interview: Each student is given a question slip (there should be two to three
duplicates of each question slip) like these and they mingle to interview everyone in class for ten

70 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

minutes, gathering data about expenses and recording what they find with tally marks. This is
highly controlled for language, yet gets learners using the comparative forms in ways that are
meaningful. Learners are asked to respond by creating sentences like those modeled above:
I spend more on housing than on transportation.

1 D
 o you spend more on housing or transportation each month?

housing transportation

IIII III III

2 D
 o you spend more on entertainment or food each week?

entertainment food
3 D
 o you spend more on your insurance or apparel and services most months?

insurance apparel and services

4 D
 o you spend more on healthcare or transportation each month?

healthcare transportation

Now students are grouped with others with different questions. They analyze their data and make
statements like these:
Two thirds of our class spend more on housing than on transportation.
People in our class spend as much on food as on transportation.

Practice activity 2
Create groups with different data sets from above. Small group discussion:
• H ow do our expenses compare to the expenses shown in the pie chart of average U.S.
expenses?
• What factors affect differing expenses (location of job to home; number of children we have;
if we live alone or with others)?

IV. Assessment
Purpose: Look for evidence that learners are meeting the lesson objectives or learning outcomes.

Individuals write a paragraph summarizing what they learned about class expenses.

V. Application/Extension
Purpose: To provide learners with opportunities to apply what they learn in class outside of the
classroom

Teacher: “If you use online banking, check the expense report and see what they find. Otherwise,
make a list of expenses using the categories from the lesson.
• Any surprises? Any place where you could reduce your spending?”
This will serve as a bridge to a later lesson on budgeting. As this information is personal, it would
be more appropriate to assign this as an extension to in-class activities.

Chapter 3 Teaching Language for Meaningful Purposes 71

 NOTE: In a career-contextualized class, a similar lesson could start with charts of job
numbers in a particular region.

In the lesson above, learners needed to have some degree of literacy in English in order to
complete many of the tasks: reading and interpreting the pie chart, reading the interview slips,
and writing a paragraph. With this integrated approach, learners practiced the function of making
comparisons; they worked on the forms needed to show similarities and differences; they worked
on pronunciation and vocabulary associated with expenses. They applied critical thinking skills
in speculating about reasons for varying expenses. How can this integrated approach work with
beginning-level learners, particularly those with limited literacy skills? In the next section, we turn
to sample lessons for beginning-level learners, including those with limited literacy skills in their
first language and in English.

3.4 Scaffolding lessons for beginners

The next sample lessons show how to help learners with beginning proficiency acquire basic
language skills before moving on to more extensive use of the language. That is not to say
that they should be learning small pieces of language, one at a time. What they do need is
sufficient input and modeling in order to produce extended spoken or written language. We
need to provide scaffolds to make the input accessible to learners and to support language
development, such as sentence frames, collaborative learning, first language use, or additional
visual aids. Beginners can show understanding by pointing to pictures, ordering pictures or
information, or responding with Yes/No cards, all of which demonstrate their accomplishments in
language development.

Context for Sample Lesson 2

This teacher uses the context of sharing life stories to present and practice the simple past
tense. Remember from Chapter 1 that difficulties in the journey and extent of life disruption and
trauma during war need to be considered when working with immigrant and refugee students,
so this lesson was developed for a group the teacher knew well. While the focus in this lesson is
on grammar, you will see that many other areas of language are integrated and the learners also
work on transferring information to a timeline. Notice that the grammar is taught inductively,
that is, the grammar point is presented in context first and the teacher gradually leads learners to
notice the patterns.

Sample Lesson 2: Sharing life stories/simple past tense

Class Description: 16 adult high-beginning ESL students
Setting: Community-based adult education center
Time: 90 minutes

Objectives
Learners will be able to:

Functional
• tell others where they’re from and share key milestones in their lives

Grammatical
• use simple past tense of regular verbs and irregular to get and to have; form questions in the
simple past tense.
72 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
Writing and Speaking
• work together to write short biographical paragraphs or create short videos using
cell phone cameras

Reading
• read or retell their stories

Vocabulary
• practice words about education and family

I. Engage with language in a real-world context.

Purpose: To establish a context for using the target language; to motivate students by showing
real-world use of language; to activate prior knowledge of the target language

Students and teacher around table with photographs (T shares pictures of highlights of her life)

First day of school High school graduation First group of ESL students

Wedding First apartment First home

First child Second child

On table, flashcards with these dates: 1965 1995

Ask students to put pictures in order. Provide nonverbal support with fingers for first, second, etc.;
model by choosing two pictures and ask: Which comes first?
T tapes picture on board; writes dates under pictures
Pairs guess what each picture represents. T confirms guesses and writes phrases by dates:

1965 1978 1983

started school finished high school started teaching

1985 1990 1995

got married returned to the U.S. had second child

moved to France had first child

Chapter 3 Teaching Language for Meaningful Purposes 73

 II. Draw learners’ attention to patterns and check learning.
Purpose: Get learners to notice patterns and phrases they can use. Check for learner
understanding through checking questions and activities.

T asks appropriate questions of learners based on her knowledge of students, for example: When
did you get married? When did you finish high school? When did you move to the U.S.?
T tries to elicit question form by showing a flashcard of a question mark: ?
T writes student answers on the board to use as models for the class and highlights the past
tense forms:
When did you start school?
I started school in 1970.
Group stands in a circle; each learner chooses a question to ask a classmate. T helps students by
reformulating the questions and answers as needed.
When did you start school?
When did you move to the U.S.?
When did you get married?

III. Engage in practice for meaningful purposes.

Purpose: Provide opportunities for practice, moving from more to less controlled as appropriate
for your learners.

Practice activity 1: Pairs work together to create visual timelines for their partners. Each is given a
blank timeline with some dates:

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015

Students ask questions to complete their timelines with key milestones. Non-literate learners can
draw pictures. Provide sample questions:
When did you start school?
When did you move to the U.S.?
When did you get married?
Practice activity 2: Alternative 1—Students help each other write a simple autobiography
choosing from the sentence frames below. Learner can use models from teacher’s story on board
as well. Volunteers or the T can help transcribe the stories.
Alternative 2—Students plan and record a short video autobiography using their phones.
In , I started .
After that, I .
When I was ,I .

Practice activity 3: Pronunciation of –ed endings

Give each student a flashcard with one of the verbs from the lesson and ask the class to move
into three groups according to the way the –ed ending sounds in their word. The teacher allows
the class do try it without her assistance and then says the words aloud that are causing difficulty.
74 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
Teacher elicits: When do we add an extra syllable? Only after /t/ and /d/. (See section 4.13 for a full
explanation of this pronunciation feature.)

IV. Assessment
Purpose: Look for evidence that learners are meeting the lesson objectives or learning
outcomes.

Read or play story for partner; teacher circulates and listens for use of targeted verbs in past
tense. Peers read one another’s stories. Underline all the words that show the story is in the past.

V. Application/Extension
Purpose: To provide learners with opportunities to apply what they learn in class outside of the
classroom

The teacher takes pictures of each student and the group members collate pictures and
autobiographies to create a class book. Students take books home and read (or tell) stories to
other family members.
The last sample lesson focuses on teaching vocabulary. Focus on vocabulary happens in
many different types of lessons and Dutro and Kinsella (2010) propose the following steps for
presenting new vocabulary to English learners:
• Write the word and pronounce it a few times.
• Focus on pronunciation with learners: break long words into syllables and tap or clap out
syllables to emphasize the stressed syllable; lead students in quick pronunciation practice.
• Explain words using student-friendly language (learner dictionaries can be helpful).
• Provide a visual representation or have learners create a picture.
• Give two easy to understand examples.
• Engage learners in structured oral and written tasks.

Context for Sample Lesson 3

In this next sample lesson for beginner learners, we see how Dutro and Kinsella’s steps are
accomplished through the integrated and contextualized lesson model. We also see more ways to
scaffold learning for beginners. As you review this lesson, identify the scaffolds used to support
learning as well as where you see overlaps between Dutro and Kinsella’s recommended steps and
the model presented in this chapter. This is an introduction to jobs and job responsibilities, an
early step in the career exploration process. In this class, many of these students had jobs in their
country and a fair number have jobs now, but they are menial and not where they hope to stay
long term.

Sample Lesson 3: Talking about jobs

Class Description: 22 adult beginning-level learners
Setting: Integrated English Language and Civics Education; adult education center
Time: 90 minutes

Objectives
Learners will be able to:

Chapter 3 Teaching Language for Meaningful Purposes 75

Vocabulary
• Match job titles to visuals
• Match jobs to job responsibilities
• Say job titles with correct word stress
• Categorize types of jobs (e.g., indoor/outdoor; work alone or with others)

Grammar
• Students will be able to use simple present tense to talk about jobs (e.g., a butcher cuts meat)

I. Engage with language in a real-world context.

Purpose: To establish a context for using the target language; to motivate students by showing
real-world use of language; to activate prior knowledge of the target language

Warm-up/review current jobs: “What is my job? Right, I am a teacher. I teach at Open Options.
I plan lessons and teach English. What about you?”
Students mingle in class to gather information from classmates about where they work and what
they now do (this step activates and assesses prior knowledge; there is no expectation of accuracy).

What is your name? Where do you work? What do you do?

Aye Lee at a hotel housekeeper

Teacher (T): Where does Aye Lee work? What do you do there, Aye Lee?
T elicits from class all jobs they currently have: babysitter, housekeeper,
construction work, seamstress.
T shows pictures of other jobs and adds those not already on the
list; affixes picture to board and writes name of person doing the
job and the name of the job under each picture. This would also be
a time where learners could use a picture dictionary1 or use their
smartphones to search for images.
Jobs included: teacher, bus driver, sales clerk, carpenter, florist, nursing
assistant, home health aide, butcher, seamstress (these may be
determined by learner background, interest, and growth industries in a
particular area; we always want to provide instruction that encourages This is Reina.
transitions to new opportunities for learners at any proficiency level). She is a teacher.

II. Draw learners’ attention to patterns and check learning.

Purpose: Get learners to notice patterns and phrases they can use. Check for learner
understanding through checking questions and activities.

Remove pictures from board and give one to each student; T points to and says word on board;
student with that card puts picture next to that word.

 Oxford Picture Dictionary or the picture dictionary pages often provided within textbook units can be used.
1

76 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Learners are given words and pictures on small cue cards in envelopes; in pairs, students match
picture to word and practice making a sentence: She is a ______.
Whole class: Repeats job names after T. T shows syllables with his/her fingers; claps out stress
pattern and students repeat:
TEACH-er
BUS-dri-ver
SALES-clerk
Present question and model response: What does do? is a .
Repetition using chain activity—T points to a job and uses the name under the picture:
T: Angel, what does Reina do?
Angel: She is a teacher.
Now Angel asks another student in class, pointing to another picture on the board.
Angel: Jose, what does Vang do?
Continue until all students have asked and answered a question using the picture prompts on
the board. T introduces a job duty and learners find a matching job title from the picture cards
at their tables or in a picture dictionary:
• This person cuts meat (use miming and additional images projected on screen).
• This person sews clothing.
• This person sells things at a store.
• This person builds houses.
• This person drives a bus.

III. Engage in practice for meaningful purposes.

Purpose: Provide opportunities for practice, moving from more to less controlled as
appropriate for your learners.

With beginning-level learners, especially those emergent readers and writers, we often start with
tightly-controlled tasks before moving on to more communicative practice.

Practice activity 1: Spelling practice

Complete missing letters and then copy the whole word.

us dri
tea er
rist

Now use the technique called Look, Say, Cover, Write, Check as a routine to practice spelling any
new words (Rudling 2012). Learners can use this routine at home as well to practice their spelling.

Chapter 3 Teaching Language for Meaningful Purposes 77

Practice activity 2: Bingo
Students are given blank grid and asked to draw or write the name of jobs in each box.

teacher bus driver construction worker

electrician carpenter sales clerk

butcher seamstress home health aide

In the first round, T calls out job names and the first learner to have three in a row calls Bingo.
Pairs practice using same Bingo grid.
Second round, T calls out clues:
• This person cuts meat (use miming and project additional images).
• This person fixes clothing.
• This person sells things at a store.
• This person builds houses.
• This person drives a bus.
Pairs practice using clues this time.

Practice activity 3: Categorizing

Each learner is given one picture. T gives categories (signs on wall) and students make groups:
Is this job mostly INDOORS or OUTDOORS?
Do you do it mostly ALONE or WITH OTHERS?
Do you like this job? YES, NO, MAYBE
Each time they make a group, tell their partners why they are there.

IV. Assessment
Purpose: Look for evidence that learners are meeting the lesson objectives or learning outcomes.

Individually, learners are given a sheet with pictures (or teacher projects pictures); learners write
the name of the job.
Yes/No Cards: Hold up card as teacher makes statements such as these:
• A butcher cuts meat.
• A seamstress sells things in a store.
• A sales clerk sells things in a store.
• A carpenter drives a bus.
Or create an online poll to provide practice with tasks and tools, for example: PollEverywhere,
Google Forms, Quizlet, or any number of freely accessible online tools for creating quizzes or exit
tickets in class (see more on these assessments in Chapter 9).

V. Application/Extension
Purpose: Provide learners with opportunities to apply what they learn in class outside of the
classroom.

78 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Have students interview three friends or family members. They can do this in English or their
home language. It reviews the vocabulary and leads into the next lesson on job responsibilities.

What is your name? Where do you work now? What do you do at your job?

Conclusion
In this section, we have examined an integrated approach to preparing lessons that focus on
the development of language competencies, functions, grammar, and vocabulary in meaningful
contexts. Learning is made meaningful by:
• P resenting and practicing language that is “real” (authentic information from U.S. Census
Bureau; data analysis; teacher and learners sharing their own stories; jobs that learners have
expressed an interest in or held in their country)
• Student interaction is maximized (one-question interviews, guided discussions, pair work with
timelines, bingo, mingle grids)
• Learning is extended outside of the classroom (investigating their own expenses further,
sharing class stories with family, interviewing others about their jobs)
The approach presented is based on the belief that English language teachers need to view
learners as active participants who contribute to the direction and content of activities. Teachers
still have a prominent role in promoting language acquisition. In fact, many would argue that
learner-centered teaching takes more planning and creativity than traditional teacher-centered
approaches. Our presence is just as important as ever, but that presence is more evident in the
planning stage than in the classroom.
In all of these lessons, the teachers used a variety of practice activities, some which were
fairly controlled (chain activities; one-question interviews), and others that promoted more
spontaneous use of the target language (analyzing and talking about the data, mingling to
interview others, creating a short story). Now we turn to the process of selecting or designing
practice activities that generate use of a particular language point in order to build learner
confidence with language that is new for them.

Chapter 3 Teaching Language for Meaningful Purposes 79

Part II: Meaningful and communicative practice activities

3.5 Introduction
In planning integrated and contextualized lessons, teachers need to make choices about practice
activities that are most suitable for the ability level and needs of students. These activities may
be in an assigned textbook, they may be part of a curriculum that has already been developed by
the school, or teachers may need to create their own. In any lesson, there needs to be a balance
between fairly controlled activities that help learners attain confidence in using new language as
well as authentic, communicative tasks, which allow them to use language spontaneously.

Task 3.3
Before you read on, think about your own experience as a language learner, or as a learner
of any new skill. Talk to a partner for a few minutes about the characteristics of good practice
activities (or write your ideas down if you’re working alone). What helps you remember things?
What engages you as a learner?

3.6 Language practice activities

There are several factors to consider in choosing and developing practice activities.

An Appropriate Practice Activity Is One That . . .

involves genuine Information-gap activities are those where one student has
communication (e.g., certain information that a partner or other class members do
an information gap). not have. In order to complete the task, students need to find
the missing information. This type of activity provides learners
with a genuine reason to communicate.
is meaningful, not Mechanical activities involve the pure manipulation of forms
mechanical. with no attention to meaning. Beginning-level learners benefit
from repetition and controlled practice, but the activities
designed for this purpose need to be meaningful, i.e., allow
production of relevant and truthful statements about the
learners’ lives, the classroom environment, or the world at large.
Repeating set dialogues can become meaningful by including
names of local stores, companies, or attractions. Personal
information about students can be used in place of fictitious
information.
is based on a real-life Activities should, as much as possible, replicate what we actually
task and authentic use say and do in the real world. Students should practice emailing
of language. a teacher or local service, for example, rather than a family
member with whom they normally use their first language.
maximizes student- Activities should be designed in such a way that learners have
student interaction. multiple opportunities to speak, i.e., not just one response and
the activity is finished.

80 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 integrates a variety When possible, choose and design activities that use a variety
of skills. of skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing). In multilevel
classes, there can be multiple options for the activities. Literate
learners can write responses, while pre-literate learners record
information with pictures, for example.
promotes higher-order Activities prompt students to analyze information, organize
or critical thinking. and categorize information, explore alternative solutions, or
synthesize ideas, for example.

A familiar model of higher-order thinking skills is Bloom’s Taxonomy, which originated in the
1950s and was revised by Anderson and Krathwohl in 2001. This model provides a sequence
of learning objectives that move beyond simple recall to include understanding, applying,
analyzing, evaluating, and creating. Figure 3.3 displays those thinking skills along with examples
of corresponding actions. In Sample Lesson 3, learners first showed understanding of information
in the pie chart on expenses, then moved to analyzing and comparing expenses. We explore
this progression of skills more deeply in Chapters 4 and 5. The examples of controlled language
practice activities may be at the lower end of the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy.

Thinking Skills Corresponding Actions

Creating designing, constructing, producing

Evaluating hypothesizing, critiquing, evaluating

Analyzing comparing, organizing, integrating

Applying implementing, executing, using

Understanding interpreting, summarizing, inferring, paraphrasing, classifying

Remembering recognizing, listing, describing, identifying, naming

Figure 3.3 A Progression of Thinking Skills Based on Bloom’s Taxonomy (Anderson and Krathwohl 2001)

Practice activities can fulfill different purposes in language development. The continuum below
illustrates the key differences between more controlled activities and freer (or authentic,
communicative) activities. Activities that fall on the controlled end of the continuum can be
thought of as language-oriented, i.e., working on mastery of a particular language point. There is
a place for both types of activities in your lessons, and you will move back and forth between the
two depending on learner level, needs, and outcomes.

Chapter 3 Teaching Language for Meaningful Purposes 81

 Controlled Free

Focused on use of target language Spontaneous, unpredictable language

Focused more on accuracy Focused on fluency

Feedback and correction is Errors noted and handled after task

often given or in later lessons

Build confidence in using target language Integrate new language with old

Teacher as conductor Teacher as facilitator, monitor

Check how much has been understood Check ability to extend language use
Figure 3.4 Practice Activities Continuum

Task 3.4
The three sample lesson plans in Part I of this chapter included a number of practice activities.
Working with a partner or on your own, review each activity and answer the following
questions:
• What competencies, function(s), grammar point(s) and skill(s) are being practiced?
• Where does it fall on the continuum of Controlled Free?
• To what degree does it promote authentic use of language and promote high-order
thinking skills?
In this section, a sampling of activity types is presented, starting with highly-controlled,
language-oriented activities, followed by communicative activities.

A. Highly-controlled, language-oriented activities

Listen and repeat

At the very beginning of language production, learners need opportunities to say new words and
phrases numerous times. While it may seem tedious to us, it will not to your students. Repetition
can be an excellent confidence builder as the learners tackle new sounds in the language. That is
not to say that repetition activities should be mindless, mechanical drills. Use colorful, interesting
photographs from online sources as prompts https://www.pexels.com/ is a good source for free
stock photos); draw on your learners’ context for content.

Total Physical Response (TPR) activities

The Total Physical Response method has inspired activities that are ideal for initial presentation
and practice of language forms and vocabulary before students have sufficient oral proficiency
to create extended sentences. TPR is based on the belief that second language acquisition can
occur much in the same way that first language acquisition occurs, namely through responding
physically to input the way a child responds to parents at a very young age. In a TPR activity, the
teacher directs learning through a series of commands, which learners perform. The learners,
in turn, take the lead and give commands. TPR is often used to teach grammatical structures,
e.g., imperatives (“Stand up.” “Sit down.” “Point to the window.”), prepositions of place or direction,
and vocabulary. The following classroom exchange illustrates TPR in action:

82 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Samples of TPR in Action:

Teaching body parts with beginners (T performs the action while saying the command)
Point to your nose.
Touch your shoulder.
Shake your head.
Pull your ears.

Real-world communication can be limited with TPR, but it can also be used within lessons to
provide basic listening practice or to introduce a topic.
Introduction to a lesson on asking for directions in the community
T to whole class: Walk to the front of the room (T performs the action as giving the command)
Learners respond by walking to the front of the room.
Walk to the door.
Turn right. Walk to the end of the hall.
Go to the room next to the library.
T asks individual learners to perform various actions.
Students can report where they end up in the building! They could also be asked to
gather information (e.g., books, flyers).

In the second exchange, the learners are getting exposure to imperatives (walk, turn), prepositions
(to, next to), and vocabulary (library). After abundant practice with following the directives of the
teacher, the learners begin to practice the language by taking on the teacher’s role, trying new
combinations of language: Walk to the table next to the window. The physical response appeals
to kinesthetic learners, and as with any classroom aid, may enhance memory. Relying on the
classroom environment, realia, and visual aids make learning familiar and comprehensible to
learners who have had limited exposure to English.

Chain activities
The teacher or student begins a chain by asking a set question (high focus on accuracy). In a
lesson on simple present tense and question forms to talk about job routines, prompts can be
written on the board from which students choose their answers.
corrects homework   helps sick people   repairs cars
T: Raphael, what does a doctor do?
Raphael: A doctor helps sick people. Min, what does a teacher do?
Min: A teacher corrects homework. Yoon, what does a mechanic do?

Discourse chains
In a lesson that involves predictable oral exchanges of information, such as calling in sick, making
an appointment over the phone, or making a request to a supervisor, a semi-scripted discourse
chain can build confidence with the language before a more spontaneous role play.

Chapter 3 Teaching Language for Meaningful Purposes 83

 Reporting a Problem with Equipment at Work

Excuse me, , there’s an issue with this .

Oh really, what seems to be the problem?

The isn’t working properly. It .

Have you tried ?

I’ll give that a try. Thanks for your help.

Let me know if that works.

Using realia—We need to go shopping for . . .?

Many of the themes in basic-level ESL curricula involve learning the vocabulary for everyday
objects found at home, work, or school. Using realia, or the actual item, makes this chain
activity kinesthetic and more meaningful. This activity highlights compound nouns as well as the
pronunciation of those words (stress the first word of the compound). This can be done with
school/office supplies or items found in the house (furnishings or utensils). Students stand in a
circle and each is given an item (see word bank, which is provided on the board).

School Supplies
notebook backpack
pencil case pencil sharpener
hand sanitizer gym shoes
gym shorts book covers
Teacher: “I know some of you received a school supplies list for your kids and had some questions
for me. Let’s look at a list and practice saying these words clearly so you are ready when you
look for these items at the store. We’re going shopping and we need to buy notebooks (T has a
notebook in her hand). Elsa, (tosses light ball or hands a talking stick to Elsa), What do we need?”
Elsa repeats the first item and adds her item, hand sanitizer, to the list. Continue until all students
add to the list (the last one saying all eight items). Ask the class what they notice about these
words (two words and the first one is louder and longer (BOOK cover; GYM shorts).

Bingo
Bingo is an excellent vehicle for reviewing and solidifying understanding of new vocabulary. It
provides opportunities to repeat the words numerous times, but for a communicative purpose,
i.e., playing the game. Bingo can be played with the whole class, with the teacher or a student
as the caller, or in pairs. Students can prepare their own grids by copying words from the board,
which is very useful for learners with basic literacy skills. As shown in Sample Lesson 3, clues can
be called out, not the word itself, which serves to check learning of word meanings.
84 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
B. Communicative activities (These activities can fall anywhere on the continuum from controlled to
free depending upon the amount of language the teacher provides for the students.)

Find someone who . . .

“Find someone who . . .” activities are common in many classroom contexts. In the language
classroom, they can provide learners practice in using the target language in a controlled, yet
purposeful and communicative fashion. Completing the activity is highly repetitive, yet production
is always meaningful provided that the teacher draws on personal information about the students
to design the task. Look at the following example used in a lesson on Talking about past activities
using “used to”:

Find someone who . . .

used to live in Vietnam.
used to ride a bicycle to school every day.
used to work as a teacher.
used to . . .

Interview grids
Interview grid activities are used extensively in English language classes for both controlled and
communicative practice. They have the added benefit of giving students practice with interpreting
information presented in a variety of formats and the important academic skill of filling in
charts and note-taking. The first example shows how beginning-level learners can engage in an
interactive task with very limited language. It is scaffolded with visuals and is on a familiar topic.

Question: Do you like to in your free time?

Answer:
 Yes, I like to .
L No, I don’t like to .

Name swim fish sleep watch TV garden read

Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No

Alex Yes No Yes Yes No Yes

Grid activities can be used at all levels of instruction and are common in adult ESL textbooks, such
as this one from Ventures Student Book Level 3, Third edition (Bitterlin, et al. 2018: 99) for practicing
present perfect continuous with for and since:

Chapter 3 Teaching Language for Meaningful Purposes 85

 3 Communicate
A Talk with your classmates. Find a person who does each activity. Ask how long the person has
been doing it. Complete the chart.

A Do you drive? A How long have you been driving?

B Yes, I do. B For about six years. / Since 2012.

Activity Name How long?

drive Josefina for six years / since 2012

cook for yourself

attend this school

work in this country

speak English

use a computer

B Share information about your classmates.

Grid activity with extensions

In this sample, learners first gather information about their classmates, which gives practice with
a number of language points (simple present to talk about routines, wh- question) but then the
information can be used to practice other language points as students create a summary, orally
or in writing, about the class.
Comparatives: People in Spain stand closer together than people in Vietnam.
Superlatives: Of the countries we represent, the work week in Peru is the shortest.

Comparing Cultures and Customs

Interview at least three people from different countries:

Interview 1 Interview 2 Interview 3

Name: Name: Name:
Country Country Country
1 H
 ow do people greet one another in
your country?
2 H
 ow far apart do people stand when
they’re talking to one another?
3 In your country, how much time do
teenagers spend with their family?
4 W
 here do elderly people usually live?
5 H
 ow many hours do people usually
work a week?
6 How much vacation do they take?

Information-gap activities
Information-gap activities represent those where one student has information that another needs
in order to complete the task. In a lesson comparing geographic features and demographics,
half the class has chart A and half has chart B. This teacher uses information about the learners’
countries of origin. They interview their partner to complete their chart.
86 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
 Find the missing information. Ask your partner questions:
What is the population of ?
How big is ?
What is the highest point in ?
Student A Student B
Population Area Highest Population Area Highest
Point Mountain

Ethiopia 435,200 Ethiopia 86,613,986 4,550 meters

square miles 14,928 feet

Guatemala 16,245,148 4,220 meters Guatemala 42,043

13,845 feet square miles

Mexico 761,600 Mexico 121,736,809 5,636 meters

square miles 18,491 feet

Somalia 10,616,380 2,460 meters Somalia 246,200

8,071 feet square miles

United States 3,806,00 United States 322,583,006 6,190 meters

square miles 20,310 feet
  
Now write three sentences comparing two of the countries on your chart:
Guatemala is more populated than Somalia.

Other types of activities that fall on the free end of the continuum are role plays, surveys and
questionnaires, problem-solving activities, and community tasks. We will look at these kinds of
communicative tasks in more detail in Chapter 4 when we turn to teaching the skills of listening
and speaking.

Communicative writing practice

Practice activities should not be restricted to oral production of the language. In creating writing
activities to practice a particular language point, the same principles of activity choice should
apply. Most importantly, writing activities should represent real-life purposes for using written
language and should present the most realistic mode of communication. The following practice
activity is from a lesson on describing personal skills, qualities, and traits.

Help wanted
(Provide a variety of scenarios from which learners can choose.)
Students are instructed to write a short ad to place on a bulletin board, either asking for help or
offering a service. Pairs work together to plan and write the ad.

Help Wanted
Babysitter

Looking for someone who is

Chapter 3 Teaching Language for Meaningful Purposes 87

 Need your car repaired? Car Mechanic Available

I am an experienced mechanic. I am

Post ads around the classroom and have the students read the ads and choose one that is of
genuine interest to them. Have them respond by role-playing a phone call, text message, or email
to the writer of the ad.
In a lesson on making a complaint to a landlord, writing would most likely be done through an
online form. The teacher can create a form like the one below, email it to class, and collect learner
replies as an assessment of their work.

This is only the beginning of the discussion of practice activities and tasks in this book. In Chapter 4,
we explore listening and speaking activities that can be used within any curriculum for learners
at the beginning, pre-production level, including those with little or no literacy in their first or
second language, all the way up to advanced-level students. In Chapter 5, we cover principles and
practices for teaching reading and writing skills, but before turning to teaching those skill areas,
the place of error correction in these integrated and contextualized lessons is considered.

88 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Part III: Correcting learner language

3.7 Introduction
This chapter has focused on means of presenting and practicing language competencies,
functions, grammar, and vocabulary to learners. Many of the activities in section II are form-
focused, i.e., they promote accuracy in using the new language. What is the place of correction in
these activities? How and when does the teacher intervene? How can the teacher promote self-
correction? These questions are the focus of this final section.

Getting Started
Last week I entered my yoga class and found that I didn’t have my usual teacher. As I was
struggling to move my body into a new pose, this new teacher was calling out my name telling
me how to move my thigh muscles and shoulder blades. I couldn’t seem to get it right in her
class. Had my other teacher been too easy on me? I didn’t think so. She had moved around the
room working with individuals, coaxing their arms into the right positions. I missed her gentle
encouragement. These two teachers had very different styles, and there are undoubtedly many
who would appreciate the direct approach of my second teacher.

Task 3.5
What approach to feedback works best for you? Think of a time you were learning something
new (a language, a craft, a sport). What kind of feedback did you receive? What feedback was
most beneficial to you and motivated you to learn? What discouraged you? Take a few minutes
to talk to a partner or write your answer. Now talk to others in class, or to friends or family, and
identify any similar themes that arise.

Helpful forms of feedback Not so helpful forms of feedback

Follow-up: In discussing your answers, did you find a range of preferences? Did some people
like being corrected immediately when they were doing something wrong? Was encouragement
as important as correction? How did people feel about being spotlighted in class?

Errors are a natural part of language learning. They show us where learners are in their
understanding of language structures; they provide evidence of learning as students over-
generalize a rule or pattern as in the following example:
José cans come at 5:00. (adding third-person singular –s to the modal verb can)
Learners go through developmental stages of language acquisition, and correct forms tend to
emerge over time with increased frequency. Just because learners worked on the past tense over
weeks, and the teacher corrected them numerous times does not necessarily mean they will
produce the past tense consistently. That does not mean learning has not occurred, however.
Over time and with attention to that feature of language, accuracy will most likely increase.

Chapter 3 Teaching Language for Meaningful Purposes 89

 3.8 Considerations in handling learner errors
One of the most important considerations in error correction is learner affect. Constant attention
to errors and over-correction only serve to raise what Krashen (1982) refers to as the affective
filter, or emotional barriers to learning. Imagine the beginning-level learner who can barely
construct a complete sentence. Clearly, you would be very careful not to overcorrect. What about
an advanced-level student practicing a presentation that she will be giving at work the next day
or learners who have expressed a desire to be corrected? In these cases, correction may be
more prevalent. In all cases, it is imperative not to interrupt learners while they are speaking
and formulating their ideas. Table 3.3 provides an overview of the many considerations teachers
should make in deciding how to handle learner errors.

Table 3.3 Considerations in Deciding When to Correct Learner Errors

Who is the • C onsider the learner’s level. A beginner will make mistakes all of the time.
learner? Correcting every utterance that passes through a learner’s lips could be
highly demotivating. Always remember to focus on what those learners
get right.
• Consider the learner’s confidence level. A more confident learner may be
ready for more corrections. A hesitant speaker may become more so if
corrected too frequently.
• Consider learner readiness, or stage in their acquisition of English. All
learners make attempts to create utterances using language that is new
or difficult for them. Make corrections that correspond to what you
believe that student understands about the language.
• Consider cultural issues. Learners from some cultures may lose face
if singled out in class. Find ways to provide feedback individually to
those students who you notice seem embarrassed. Older learners may
not appreciate being overtly corrected in front of younger learners,
particularly those from the same culture.
Might the Most of us who have learned a second language have experienced this
error cause type of error, and would agree that a speedy correction can be greatly
the student appreciated. It could be that a mispronunciation results in a word that is
embarrassment? inappropriate, or a word in one language means something very different
in another (the English-speaker who says embarrassada in Spanish, which
means pregnant, when they mean embarrassed).
Is the learner A learner who says something incorrectly that she or he has used correctly
making a many times before is just making a mistake, the kind of slip of the tongue
mistake or an we all make. When something is said or written incorrectly numerous
error? times, it is more likely an error that could benefit from correction or further
practice.
Does the Errors that result in a breakdown in communication are worth addressing.
error cause a This breakdown can be signaled by misinterpretation by a peer during a
breakdown in paired activity or by the response of the listener. Help learners to recognize
communication? signals that what they have said is not clear.

90 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 What is the At the beginning of a lesson, you are assessing what learners do and don’t
stage of the know. Heavy correction is premature at this point. During activities that
lesson and focus on accuracy (repetition, chain activities, etc.), correction is helpful.
purpose of the During fluency activities such as role plays, mingle activities, discussions,
activity? errors can be noted and responded to after the activity individually or as a
mini-lesson for the class.
What is the If you are teaching a grammar lesson, focus corrections on the structures
focus of in question. If you are working on speaking fluency, listen for and record
instruction? errors that cause breakdowns in communication or are recurrent.

3.9 Providing corrective feedback

Now the question is: How do I correct students in ways that are sensitive and helpful? One answer
to that question is: Don’t do the corrections for them. Far too often teachers supply corrections
immediately after students make a mistake or error, which ends up being a very passive activity
for the students. Students may not even notice that they are being corrected, especially in classes
where the teacher tends to echo learner responses.

Task 3.6
Before reading about strategies for responding to learner errors, look at the exchange between
a teacher and a learner and identify what the teacher does for each of the following correction
strategies:

Strategies Used to Respond to Mira’s Language

Help a learner notice the
error
Trying for the correct form
Let the student know they
have it right (or let it go)
Let the learner repeat the
language

This low-intermediate class is working on the difference between the simple past and present
perfect when talking about the students’ new lives in North America. The exchange below
is between the teacher and Mira. The class has generated a story about one of the other
students, so there are models of the language on the board:
1. T: Mira, how long have you been in Cleveland?
2. Mira: I be here for 6 month.
3. T: Um, Mira, I’ve been (T emphasizes a bit) here for eight years. You….?
4. Mira: I been here for six month.
5. T: Listen: I’ve been here for six months (points to example on the board).
6. Mira: I’ve been here for six month.
7. T: Right. Say that again.

Chapter 3 Teaching Language for Meaningful Purposes 91

 8. Mira: I’ve been here for six month.
9. T: OK, so Mira has been here for six months. Masha, how long have you been here?

Follow-up
In looking back at the considerations in Table 3.3, it seems that the purpose of this activity is
to develop accuracy, so that is one of the considerations that is guiding the teacher’s decision
to help Mira construct an accurate sentence using the present perfect tense. This is what I
identified as the strategies used with Mira. How does this compare to your answers?

Help a learner notice the error

“Um, Mira, I’ve been (T emphasizes a bit) here for eight years. You . . .?” The teacher speaks about
her own personal history and emphasizes the correct form with the hope that Mira notices the
difference between her own language and the teacher’s.

Trying for the correct form

T: “You . . .?” Mira: “I been here for six month.” The teacher invites Mira to try again, which results
in some progress with the form (she uses the past participle been). “Listen: I’ve been here for
six months” (points to example on the board). Now the teacher uses a more overt correction,
pointing to the model already on the board. This results in Mira getting the present perfect
correct: “I have been here for six month.”

Let the student know they have it right (or let it go)
T: “Right.”

Let the learner repeat the language

T: “Say that again.” Mira: “I’ve been here for 6 month.”
Notice in the exchange above that the teacher focused on the correct form of the present perfect
(I have been) and did not spend time at that moment on the other error (or perhaps mistake), six
month. Generally, it is most useful to focus on one language area at a time if accuracy is our goal.
The activity and analysis above represent error correction in accuracy-based activities. During
spontaneous conversation with learners, during fluency-based activities, or when learners are
presenting information to the class, less obvious means of error correction may be used. Even a
raised eyebrow may result in a learner self-correcting. The error correction strategies below move
from fairly subtle to more overt.

Help a learner notice the error

As a teacher makes the decision to respond to a learner error, the first thing she or he generally does
is help a learner notice that an error has been made. Often the learner will immediately self-correct if
the language form is the focus of instruction that day, or if the learner is ready for the correction.
 he least overt and most naturalistic approach is to use reformulation, or restating a learner’s
• T
utterance correctly in as naturalistic a way as possible as in this sample exchange:
S: Yes, on Saturday I go to St. Paul on trip.
T: You’re going to St. Paul. That’ll be nice.

S: Yes, I’m going to St. Paul, and we see Winter Carnival.

T: Have you seen the Winter Carnival before?

92 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 S: No, this is first time.
T: Really, the first time. So, Sonia’s going to the St. Paul Winter Carnival. And what’s everyone
else doing?
This approach involves responding to the content of what learners say by reformulating errors
they have produced in a way that is as natural as possible. Not every learner will notice the
correction (Lyster and Saito 2010), but the technique is ideal for those times when a teacher wants
to encourage fluency. It also provides the affirmation more proficient learners may desire when
they notice their peers’ inaccuracies in the language.
• N onverbal means can be used to help learners notice errors; use a questioning facial
expression; use a gesture, for example a motion behind you to indicate that a verb needs to be
past tense or a lengthening movement of the hands to indicate present continuous instead of
simple present. For word stress errors, clap or tap the correct pattern.
• For recurrent errors, for example the omission of the –s ending on third person singular verbs
or with plural nouns or possessives, have a large S sign on the wall and point to it to indicate
that kind of errors has been made. For verb tenses, have simple timelines on the wall like the
one below for the simple past tense. Point to the time line to indicate an error with that verb
tense has been made.
I     X  I     I
NOW

The choice of signs can be negotiated with or created by the learners, assuring that the
representation being used for correction are understood by all.
• Repeat up to the point where the learner made an error:
Student: People in the States spend more time watching TV from exercising.
Teacher: More time watching TV…
At which point the student often “fills in the blank” as she or he notices the error.
• Say the sentence leaving a blank where the error was made (I often hum through the blank):
Student: People in the U.S. spend more time watching TV from exercising. Teacher: People
in the U.S. spend more time watching TV (hum) exercising.
Or write the same thing on the board leaving a blank.
• If there are samples of the language being practiced on the board or on a chart in room, point
to the correct form, as the teacher above did with Mira.
These are only some of the many strategies you can use to help a learner notice an error. Doing
so engages the student in the process of thinking about the language and trying to self-correct,
which will have a more lasting impact than if the teacher provides the correct form immediately.

Trying for the correct form

In cases where a learner does not notice the error right away and self-corrects, let the student try
more than once. In the exchange above between Mira and her teacher, the teacher tried different
strategies to help Mira self-correct. If a learner continues to struggle, invite another student to
help by asking, for example: Who can help Mira? If all else fails, repeat the correct utterance and
move on in the lesson.

Let the student know they have it right (or let it go)
Once the student gets it right, affirm the response. Also, focus on and affirm one language form
at a time. There are times when a beginning-level learner will not be able to make a correction,

Chapter 3 Teaching Language for Meaningful Purposes 93

which signals that they are probably not ready for it. Let it go at this point and make note of the
fact that this is an area that needs more work for the student.

Let the learner repeat the language

Depending on the circumstances of the class (number of learners, type of activity, time), let the
student say the word, phrase, or sentence again. This can help to solidify the language as well as
build learner confidence with the language.

Some common pitfalls

In general, it is important not to fall into an initiate-respond-evaluate (IRE) pattern where a
teacher immediately evaluates a learner’s response. Instead, a teacher can ask the class, “Is that
right?” In this way, everyone has to think about the answer before the teacher affirms a correct
answer (Finn Miller, personal communication). Learning how to respond appropriately to learner
errors takes time and practice for new teachers and comparing different approaches can help
new teachers avoid some of the pitfalls. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each of
these approaches to providing on-the-spot verbal correction?

Echoing
S: I am born in Mexico City.
T: I am born in Mexico City?
S: Yes, I am born in Mexico.
T: I was born in Mexico.
When echoing is used for error correction, the learner has no way of knowing if the teacher is
confirming what was said, asking for clarification, or making a correction. Also, when a teacher
echoes an entire sentence, there is no indication as to what is wrong with it. Generally speaking,
echoing is a class routine teachers need to use sparingly, if at all. Think of the times you would
echo another English speaker in natural conversation.
Speaker 1: Jan’s moving to Brazil.
Speaker 2: Jan’s moving to Brazil?
In this example, speaker 2 is expressing disbelief or maybe excitement about the prospect of Jan’s
move. Think about the ways you hear teachers echo learners or the way you echo students in
your class. Are you echoing language in ways that represent authentic use of language, or is the
echoing a teacher routine that does not add anything to learners’ understanding of language?

Overt correction (use of grammar terms)

S: I can to go with you.
T: You shouldn’t use the infinitive with “to” after modal verbs. Use the simple form of the verb.
Unless your student is well-versed in grammar terminology, this technique can be lost on many
students. While many students know terms such as infinitive, gerund, and modal verb, you do
not want them worrying about those terms as they work on fluency, as this can lead to hesitant,
stilted speech. If a teacher senses that a learner appreciates overt corrections, it is preferable to
respond this way:
S: I can to go with you.
T: Try “go” after can: I can go.
It is important to observe and identify the types of correction learners in your classes benefit from
most. Do they know the grammar terms, and if not, do they need to know them? Discuss this with
students; find out what their expectations are regarding correction when possible.
94 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
Conclusion
Teaching language in context using an integrated, learner-centered approach takes careful
planning on the part of the teacher. It also requires careful observation of learners in order to be
genuinely responsive to their needs. This is a lot to think about for a new teacher. Whether you
are working from a set curriculum, a textbook, or teacher-generated lessons, consistently ask
yourself the questions that follow about each lesson you teach. If you answer affirmatively to even
some of these questions, you have already come a long way from being the center of attention in
your classroom to putting your learners center stage.
Do my learners have active roles in the classroom?
Do they make choices about content and classroom activities and control the direction of activities?
Is the content of instruction relevant to the students’ needs and interests? Does it draw on their
experiences and knowledge?
Are classroom interactions and tasks authentic?
You will continue to explore more ways to achieve these goals throughout the book.

Chapter 3 Teaching Language for Meaningful Purposes 95

 Key Terms

On your own, or with a partner, provide an example or brief definition for each concept:

Checklist of Key Terms

competencies

language functions

language forms

four language skills

register

authentic language and tasks

inductive approach

integrated and contextualized

language lessons

information-gap activity

critical thinking

96 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Applying What You’ve Learned

Before doing these activities, revisit your answers to the questions at the beginning of the chapter.

1 Understanding the Components of Integrated Language Lessons

Look at the following competencies/tasks in the left-hand column and identify the functions,
forms (grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation), critical thinking, cultural competencies, and likely
digital skills needed to successfully complete the task.

Competency Functions Grammar, Critical Thinking Likely

or Real-World Needed Vocabulary, and Cultural Digital Skills
Task Pronunciation Competencies Needed
Example: Asking for Modal verbs Understanding Reviewing
Returning help/offering (could, would, return policies; return
an item to a help may, can) choosing the policies
clothing store best option online;
Question forms
Stating the when there is verifying
Clothing items more than one; store hours
problem:
Words that recognizing (These tasks
“I’d like to
describe appropriate can happen
return this
problems: register in class
because . . .”
Too small, too as part of
big instruction).
Tear, rip
Reporting an
incident with a
coworker to a
supervisor (this
could be around
harassment,
unfair
treatment,
or any issue
reported by
learners)
Discussing
advantages and
disadvantages
of career
options

Chapter 3 Teaching Language for Meaningful Purposes 97

2 The Contextualized Language Lesson

If you are already teaching . . . Think about a lesson you taught last week that did not engage
your students as much as you might have liked. Evaluate your lesson using these questions:
a. Did I present and have learners practice language that is “real” (e.g., authentic materials,
learners sharing their own stories)? What could I have done differently?
b. What did I do to promote maximum student interaction (e.g., information-gap, role plays, pair
work with timelines)?
c. Where did I encourage any higher-order or critical thinking (categorizing, synthesizing,
problem-solving, decision-making)?
d. Where did I include practice with digital tools as appropriate?
Based on what you discover, rewrite your plan using the recommended stages in Table 3.2
Progression of an Integrated and Contextualized Language Lesson.

If you aren’t teaching yet, choose a language competency, language function, or grammar point
and develop an integrated and contextualized language lesson for a group of your choice.

3 Assessing Practice Activities

If you are already teaching, using the checklist of practice activities from Part II, assess three
activities you used last week in class. Based on your evaluation, is there anything you would do to
make the task more authentic, meaningful, or interactive?

Characteristics of Activity 1 Activity 2 Activity 3

Practice Activities
Involves
communication
(example:
information or
opinion gap)
Is meaningful, not
mechanical

Is based on a real-
life task

Maximizes
student-to-student
interaction

98 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Integrates a variety
of skills

Promotes higher-
order or critical
thinking skills

If you aren’t teaching, choose three activities from an ESL textbook and do the same analysis.
Based on your evaluation, how would you implement each activity to make sure it is authentic,
meaningful, or interactive?

4 Error Correction

If you are already teaching, audio or video record a segment of your class and complete the task
below as you listen to your lesson. If you are not teaching, either observe a class or ask someone
in class if you can use their recorded segment. Collect samples of student errors and record
how the teacher responds to that language. Review the principles in Table 3.3 Considerations in
Deciding When to Correct Learner Errors, as well as the recommended steps for error correction
that follow. Which error correction strategies helped the students self-correct? At which points
in the lesson did the teacher do more error correction? In what other ways did the teacher give
feedback to the students about their performance?

Student’s language Teacher’s response Student’s response

(correction or praise) to correction or praise
Example: “I no have time.” “I no have time?” Student looks puzzled.

“I (indicates blank) have time.” “I don’t have time.”

(Adapted from Reimer 1998)

Chapter 3 Teaching Language for Meaningful Purposes 99

 Recommended Reading

Coxhead, A. (2014) New Ways in Teaching Vocabulary. Alexandria, VA: TESOL Press. Classroom
teachers contributed more than 100 step-by-step activities that fit any context, learner, proficiency
level, or technology.

Thornbury, S. (2005). Uncovering Grammar, New Edition. London: Macmillan Heinemann. This
text provides the tools teachers need to help learner uncover and notice the patterns of English
grammar.

Ur, P. (2009) Grammar Practice Activities, 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. This
book includes principles of grammar teaching and suggestions for designing activities, as well as a
collection of nearly 200 interactive activities for practicing a wide range of grammar points.

Useful Websites
Academic Wordlist website: http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/resources/academicwordlist/sublists and
for ideas about using AWL in teaching and a highlighter tool to identify AWL words in texts, see
http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/alzsh3/acvocab/.

New American Horizon videos (newamericanhorizons.org) connected to the topics in Chapter 3:

Teaching Grammar in Real-life Contexts
Tasks to Promote Critical Thinking and Learning Skills
Tasks to Develop Oral Skills: From Accuracy to Fluency

100 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

4 Developing Listening and
Speaking Skills
To consider before reading this chapter:
• H ow do you approach listening differently in various contexts and for various purposes
(a conversation with a friend, the news, a lecture)?
• What kinds of classroom activities and tasks promote the development of active listening
strategies?
• What kinds of classroom tasks prompt extensive use of language and higher-order
thinking skills?
• What is the place of pronunciation instruction with adult English language learners?

Part I: Listening skills and strategies development

4.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, we examined an integrated approach to teaching language lessons that
was both contextualized and learner-centered. While the integration of all four skills (listening,
speaking, reading, and writing) was part of the approach, the focus of the lessons was on the
acquisition and understanding of specific language competencies, functions, grammar points, and
vocabulary. In this chapter, we take a closer look at the development of listening and speaking
skills. While none of the skills are taught and practiced in isolation, there are many principles to
teaching each one that will shape and guide your practice. We begin by examining the nature of
oral communication and discourse, particularly different types of communication, informal and
formal, that learners may encounter every day.

4.2 The nature of informal and formal communication

Think about it . . .
Hannah receives this voicemail message from her husband:
Hey hon, school called and Marcus is sick. I gotta stay here at work. Think you could pick up?
Hannah sends the following text to her husband: Sure, no prob!
Now Hannah needs to ask her boss if she can leave work early. How does the language in this
exchange differ from the language her husband used in his message?
Hannah: Excuse me, Mary. I just got a call from my husband and my son’s sick at school. Would
it be possible for me to leave early today?
Mary: That should be all right, as long as you get that report in by this evening.
Hannah: Of course, I know that’s critical. I can finish that from home tonight.
Mary: I hope your son feels better soon.
Hannah: Thank you so much. I really appreciate this.

Chapter 4 Developing Listening and Speaking Skills 101

In these two exchanges, spoken language is used in very different ways: everyday English and
more formal English.

Informal/Everyday Language Formal/Academic/Professional Language

• Informal expressions (Hey; no prob!) • Formal expressions (Excuse me . . .)
• Extensive use of slang and colloquial • Longer, complex utterances
expressions (off the top of my head) • More complex vocabulary (appreciate,
• Non-standard utterances: (I gotta stay here critical)
at work.) • More use of polite expressions,
• Reduced speech: wanna, gonna Would it be possible . . .?
• Hesitations and false starts: fillers such as Do you think I could . . .?
well, you see, um . . . • Fewer opportunities to interrupt or interact
• Often in one-on-one interactions with with the speaker (may be a lecture or
opportunities to interrupt and clarify instructional video)

It is essential that learners get practice with both this informal and formal discourse. They need
to be able to decipher the meaning of those reductions (gonna, wanna). They need to know how
to greet a supervisor for the first time. They need to understand and acquire the spoken language
used at work, in academic settings, and in the community, for example, with their children’s
teachers. Acquiring both of these types of language allows learners equal access to opportunities
where more formal language is expected (Scarcella 2003).
In past decades with a focus on life-skills competencies in adult ESL, much of the listening and
speaking practice found in textbooks and curricula consisted of recorded dialogues or short
passages. Today we recognize the need for listening to longer, authentic passages. Speaking was
also focused more on short conversations than on extended discussion, presentations, or debates.
In a study comparing the skills taught in adult basic education programs to what is deemed
essential by community college faculty, gaps were found in the area of listening and note-taking,
participation in group projects, and giving presentations as well as listening and synthesizing
information from other sources (Johnson and Parrish 2010). In this chapter, we explore how to
prepare adult English learners for the communication demands they face in English.
In the first part of this chapter, we look at what goes into teaching listening comprehension
skills and strategies. We identify what learners need to listen to and understand in their new
English-speaking environment as well as the skills and strategies they need in order to access the
meaning of what they hear, both everyday and academic or professional language.
Conducting lessons that focus only on a particular language point will not prepare learners for
the communicative demands of spontaneous interactions outside of the classroom. In the second
part, we will turn to the topic of teaching speaking, specifically, considering how to help ESL
learners become fluent users of the language. Finally, we consider the place of pronunciation in
ESL curricula; most importantly, how can we help learners become intelligible speakers of English?
Let’s start with a look into David’s plans for a listening lesson on the theme of celebrations around
the world.

102 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Getting Started
Task 4.1
Working with a partner or on your own, read the following description of David’s plans for his
lesson and answer the questions that follow:
David is doing a unit on celebrations around the world with a diverse group of immigrants in
his low-intermediate ESL class. He wants to include practice with developing listening skills and
strategies with an authentic listening passage. Learners need to be able to listen for the main
ideas, but he also wants to give them practice with listening for details and inferring underlying
messages. He knows this can be challenging for these low-intermediate level students. He likes
the idea of exploring celebrations since it’s something all of his learners can relate to whether
they are newcomers, are staying at home with family, or already in a job. He’d like to make sure
to include some practice with note-taking, as well as a lot of speaking practice, in particular,
comparing practices around the world. He has recorded an interview with Farid, an immigrant of
French and Iranian descent. David asks Farid about his favorite holidays from the two cultures.
The conversation is not scripted. David asks Farid about the origin of the holidays and the various
customs, foods, and special clothing for the holidays (see transcript in Appendix at the end of
the chapter).
What do you think David could do with this recorded interview in his lesson?
What could students do before they listen to the interview?
What could they do while they’re listening?

4.3 Getting students ready to listen

One of the greatest challenges to teaching a diverse group of learners is that everyone comes to
class with different experiences and expectations. When a teacher prepares students to listen to
a passage, she or he needs to do so in ways that will reach all the students. In David’s lesson, he
needs to prepare students for the theme of celebrations, but where should he start?

Schema theory
Prior knowledge and expectations that we bring to any situation are based on our cultural
background, education, and life experiences. We have “scripts” in our mind about how events in
the world unfold, and these scripts are called “schemata.” Schema theory suggests that prior
knowledge shapes our expectations and understanding of what we hear. The closer our schema
is to the content of what we hear, the easier it will be for us to understand. In David’s lesson, each
learner brings different expectations and perceptions about celebrations. Some may have some
prior knowledge about Iran and France, while others may have none at all. What they all share is
experiences with celebrations, albeit different types. The first thing a language teacher needs to
do is to tap into learners’ prior knowledge about the theme of the lesson through pre-listening
activities. Before examining what David could do to activate his learners’ prior knowledge, however,
we will examine the relationship between schema theory and ESL instruction in more detail.
Much of what learners encounter in a new country may be unfamiliar to them, for example, the
ways we enroll kids in school, the ways we communicate with teachers, or practices at a doctor’s
office. The theme of health and wellness serves as a good example for exploring how prior
knowledge affects learning.

Chapter 4 Developing Listening and Speaking Skills 103

 Task 4.2
What goes through your mind when you hear the phrase “going to the doctor?” What images
and events do you visualize? Write your response in the box below:

Images of Going to the Doctor

Now compare those images with a partner, or with a friend or family member. Do you have the
same images? There is a good chance that if you were raised in the same part of the world and
live in the same area now, your images are quite similar.

When I lived in France, going to the doctor was a very different experience from what I expected it
to be. I walked up to a turn-of-the-century stone apartment building. When I opened the door of
the doctor’s office, I found myself in a room lavishly decorated with rugs and antiques. The doctor
wore a skirt and blouse and sat behind a massive mahogany desk. The examination table was a
converted antique dining table. This unfamiliar setting was unsettling for me as a newcomer to
France, even though I was sufficiently proficient in French to understand the doctor’s questions.
Where was the sterile, white table? Why wasn’t the doctor wearing a white coat? Why wasn’t I
given a gown to wear? My script, or schema, for going to the doctor was very different from what I
was experiencing in this visit to the doctor.
Now imagine how different the experience of going to the doctor is for many immigrants and
refugees as they come to a new country. Here are some of their stories:
In Russia, we go to the clinic and wait. Sometimes we wait for hours to see the doctor.
We sent for the Shaman in Laos, who would rid the house of spirits causing our illness.
The interactions, settings, and routines that we encounter in our daily lives, and at home, work, or
school vary greatly from culture to culture. Identifying these differences and familiarizing students
with these new routines will help their comprehension tremendously. This does not mean that
they need to adopt new practices. If you know what to expect in a given listening situation,
you will understand a great deal more of what you hear. So if you ask students to listen to a
conversation between a patient and receptionist making a doctor appointment, it is quite possible
that they will not share the same perceptions and images of what that conversation will entail.
Or if you are playing an informational video on enrolling for a state healthcare program, learners’
prior knowledge of such systems may be very limited. The first thing you need to do in a listening
lesson is activate your learners’ prior knowledge and provide them with crucial background
information that will aid them in comprehending what they are going to hear. In a lesson on
choosing a healthcare option with intermediate-level learners, for example, the teacher would
start with questions like these:
How do you take care of your healthcare needs? When do you see a doctor? For a simple cold or
only serious illness? Do you prefer home remedies?
In your home country, if you see a doctor, do you pay for the visit right away? Who covers the
costs? You, the government, or someone else?

104 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

In a lesson on making appointments with a doctor in a beginning-level class, the teacher may start
with questions like these:
What do you do when you are sick?
When do you go to the doctor?
In your country, do you need an appointment to see the doctor?
Now thinking back to David’s lesson on celebrations, look at the following pre-listening activity.
How does this compare to the ideas you generated at the beginning of the chapter when asked
how you would prepare learners for the interview with Farid?

Listening Lesson on Celebrations Around the World

Pre-listening:
Teacher: “I interviewed Farid about two holidays his family celebrates. He was raised in Iran, but
his mother is French. He had two different cultural experiences growing up: French and Iranian.
Look at the activities and customs he talks about in the box below and answer these questions
with your partner.”
1. What kind of celebrations do you think Farid will tell us about in the interview?
Which of the customs, activities, or food do you think are French and which are Iranian?
2. Which of the activities (picnics, visiting family) remind you of celebrations in your culture?

Start of spring Fresh fruit White fish

Rice Herbs Visiting family

Going on picnics Jumping over fires New clothes

French Revolution 1789 Marches

Dances Airplanes Eating outside

Wearing red, white and blue

The purpose of this task is to preview the key concepts the learners will encounter in the
interview. It allows students to make some educated guesses about the content of what they are
about to hear as well as to connect that content to their own lives and experiences. This is also a
time to pre-teach any difficult words that are essential to comprehension of the listening passage.
Every time you use a listening passage with students, it is helpful to begin with a pre-listening task.
Now that students are ready to listen, what will they do while they are listening to the interview?

4.4 How do we listen?

Before we think more about David’s listening lesson, take a few minutes to reflect on how you
listen to language differently depending on your purpose for listening. Talk to a partner or write
down your ideas:

Chapter 4 Developing Listening and Speaking Skills 105

 Task 4.3

How Do You Listen to Each of the Following?

Voicemail
A weather report
The news
Advertisements
An announcement at an airport
Directions from a supervisor
A lecture

What did you notice about the way you listen to different types of passages? Do you always listen
attentively to the news? What about at the airport? Missing a boarding call would have more dire
consequences than missing out on an advertisement on television. When do you listen for the
general ideas and when do you listen for more detail? All of this depends on our purposes for
listening. There are innumerable purposes for listening, but here are some that exemplify my
everyday purposes for listening:
• T o seek specific information: In listening to a weather report, I’ll listen for low and high
temperatures; chance of rain or snow so that I can dress appropriately.
• To gain a general idea of the topic: In listening to news reports on the radio when driving to
work, I pay attention to those headlines in the news that interest me or have an impact on my
life. I may ignore detailed information.
• To gain knowledge: In a workshop or training, I listen more attentively for detail because I am
learning something new that is critical for my work.
As we listen for different purposes, we employ a variety of listening strategies, often very
consciously, that help us to comprehend what we hear. These listening strategies along with an
example of each one in practice are outlined in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1. Listening Strategies and Examples in Practice

Listening Strategies Examples of Each in Practice
Anticipate content; We approach a listening situation with expectations. At the start of
preview and predict a talk, we expect the speaker to introduce us to the topic; during
a meeting, we might expect a supervisor to set expectations for
the day or the week. We can anticipate topics based on our past
experiences with that type of listening situation.
Listen to confirm As we listen, we check to see if our predictions are right or wrong.
predictions
Listen for gist In listening to the news, we may filter out many of the details and
just zero in on the key concepts of importance or interest to us.
Listen for specific In listening to our voicemail messages, we may listen only for the
information names and phone numbers and write those down.

106 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Listen for details Listening for detail involves intensive listening, or trying to
understand the listening passage in its entirety. We may listen
intensively to lectures or directions from a supervisor, or to a
favorite TV show or movie.
Make inferences As we listen, we interpret and make inferences about what we hear.
After hearing a politician’s views on a particular issue, we may be
able to make inferences about the way he or she might vote on an
upcoming bill.
Use visual or other We pay attention to nonverbal cues such as facial expressions and
clues body language; we may have other visual supports available while
listening, such as graphics or pictures in a textbook.
Find evidence to We listen for examples and evidence to support claims as well as
support claims the signal words that go along with that information (For example . . .;
Here are three reasons why . . .).
Transfer information In work and school contexts, we often need to use the information
to other contexts we have heard to engage in a follow-up discussion, make a
decision, or complete a task (create a visual, for example). This is
true in our daily lives as well.
Synthesize Particularly in work and school contexts, we draw on information
information we hear from multiple sources, including what we hear in a talk, a lecture,
with information or a meeting. We may do the same when searching the web for
from other sources practical information (how-to-videos, consumer reports).

4.5 Applying listening strategies instruction in the classroom

Most everyone uses the listening strategies above in their first language, whether they are
aware of it or not. If you are already teaching ESL, however, you may have
noticed that English language learners do not necessarily transfer those Top-Down
skills as they listen to passages in English. They may have a tendency to try to Processing
-making educated
understand every word they hear, and when they are unable to understand, guesses
they may become frustrated and overwhelmed. As you will discover, trying -drawing on prior
to understand every word in a listening passage is not the most productive knowledge and
approach, especially for beginning-level language learners. context clues

Bottom-up vs. top-down processing

In listening to passages (or in reading, as we’ll see in Chapter 5), we can
use either bottom-up processing or top-down processing. Bottom-up
processing involves attempts to decode and understand a listening passage
word-for-word, whereas top-down processing involves listening more
globally and trying to understand the overall meaning of what we hear.
Top-down processing also involves making educated guesses about content
based on prior knowledge and visual clues (facial expressions, context, etc.).
Efficient listeners and readers do not rely solely on bottom-up processing in
Bottom-Up
their own language, so why should they in a second language? Many English Processing
language learners may not understand a good number of the words in a -decoding
given text; as a result, they can become overwhelmed by the barrage of new -attempting
words coming their way as they listen to an authentic dialogue, newscast, to understand
every word
or even their teacher’s instructions. A listener who manages to connect key
words to prior knowledge, and make guesses based on extralinguistic cues
Chapter 4 Developing Listening and Speaking Skills 107
(visuals, body language, context), on the other hand, is likely to understand the main ideas or pick
out specific information.
Our job as ESL teachers is to help learners practice top-down processing so that they can begin to
access the wealth of language coming their way day to day, much of which is highly colloquial, full
of reduced speech, and delivered at a rapid pace. In order to do this, we need to develop listening
tasks that allow learners to draw on prior knowledge, make guesses, and listen selectively, i.e.,
focusing on the information they need. In other words, the goal of listening instruction is to
help learners develop effective listening strategies that they can use inside and outside of the
classroom. Now let’s return to David’s lesson on celebrations. He has developed a series of
listening tasks that promote selective listening, as well as opportunities to connect the ideas
generated in the pre-listening portion of the lesson to what they understand from the interview.

Task 4.4
Look at the listening tasks David has created and identify the listening strategies from Table 4.1
that learners practice while completing each task.

Listening tasks for celebrations interview

Listening task A: Listen and check predictions from pre-listening: What holidays does Farid
share? Which of the customs relate to Iran and which to France?
Listening task B: Students are assigned an A grid or a B grid; they complete their grid as they
listen to the interview again.

Complete the table with the missing information.

GROUP A Nowruz in Iran Bastille Day in France
History/origin of holiday Freeing of Bastille Prison
French Revolution 1789
Special food Fresh fruit
White fish
Activities Marches
Military marches
Dances and music
Clothes New clothes

GROUP B Nowruz in Iran Bastille Day in France

History/origin of holiday Celebrates start of spring
Special food Eating outside
Activities Visiting family
Going on picnics
Jumping over fire
Clothes Anything red, white, and
blue

108 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Task C: A’s get together and B’s get together to check their answers. Play the interview again to
fill in or clarify anything they missed. Then students work in A-B pairs and share the information
from their grids (not reading from one another’s grid, but sharing orally what they understood).
Notice that this activity is designed so that peers can provide feedback and correction.
Task D: Listen one more time to answer these final questions:
1. Which of the two holidays has a longer history?
2. Why do you think kids wear brand new clothes for Nowruz?
3. Why is Bastille Day a national holiday? Do you believe that Nowruz is as well? Why or why not?
4. What does Farid mean when he says, “Anything red, white, and blue is in order”?

In completing these listening tasks in David’s lesson, learners make predictions and then listen
to confirm their predictions; they listen for specific information as they fill in their grid. They are
also asked to make inferences with the questions in Task D (spring brings good weather, so new
clothes; “goes back to antiquity” implies that Nowruz is much older; Bastille Day was a military
conquest; red, white, and blue must be the color of the French flag). Finally, they also get practice
with information transfer as they end up with a complete chart representing the information from
the interview, just as we may see in a more academic or work setting. Additionally, students are
working on effective communication skills as they exchange information between their A and B
grids and they practice note-taking skills.
Remember that we generally listen for a particular purpose, which often entails acting on
what we listen to in some way: discussing what we have listened to with a friend; acting on the
request of a supervisor; making a decision or choice based on what we learned. What would be
a logical response to the interview for David’s learners? To complete the listening lesson in the
celebrations unit, David includes follow-up or post-listening activities. The purpose of this stage
in the lesson is to extend learners’ understanding of the content of what they heard, respond to it
in an authentic manner, and apply it to their own lives.

Follow-up tasks for lesson on celebrations around the world

Follow-up/post-listening: Ask students to think of a significant holiday their family celebrates

and write or draw the origin, foods, activities, and clothes for that holiday (students from
the same the country could work together on this stage). The mind maps serve as a tool for
organizing their ideas.

Holiday:

Origin:

Activities Clothing Foods

Chapter 4 Developing Listening and Speaking Skills 109

 Now students mingle and interview at least five other students in class:

Classmate’s name Origin Foods Activities Clothes

and holiday

Finally, students analyze the information they have gathered and, working in teams of three,
identify three common themes that emerge regarding celebrations around the world along
with evidence to support their claims. This last step allows them to synthesize information they
have gathered from their classmates. The teacher can provide sentence frames like these to
help them formulate their ideas:
It seems that . . . because . . .
We found that . . . for example, . . .
It seems that many celebrations are connected to harvests because over half the group talked about their
harvest festivals.

4.6 Summary of listening skills and activities

There were three stages in David’s listening lesson: pre-listening, listening, and follow-up. Each
listening lesson can include a number of different activities, each one practicing a different
listening strategy (confirming predictions, listening for gist, listening for specific information). The
number of listening strategies practiced would depend on the nature of the listening passage, the
level of the learners, and the purposes for listening. Table 4.2 provides a summary of the stages
that can be included in a listening lesson, along with suggested activity types for each stage.
Not every lesson will include all the steps; however, every lesson should begin with pre-listening
activities and end with a follow-up activity.

Table 4.2 Recommended Stages of Listening Lessons and Suggested Tasks

Lesson Stage/Purpose Possible Activities and Tasks
1 P
 re-listening • Questionnaires or one-question interviews
Generate the learners’ • True/False predictive questions
schemata; get the learners • Discussions
thinking about and talking
• Look at words from the passage and guess what it will be about.
about the content of what
they are about to hear. • Pictures that set the scene
• Pre-teach vocabulary

110 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

2 L
 istening to confirm • Match predictions with what is heard.
predictions • Check answers to pre-listening activities.
Enable learners to confirm • Cite evidence from the listening text to support predictions.
predictions made during
pre-listening.
3 L istening for gist (main • L isten and answer True/False, Yes/No, multiple choice or open-
ideas) ended questions about the main ideas of the passage.
Determine the main ideas • Provide a list of statements and check off those that reflect
of a passage; discriminate the main ideas.
the main ideas from • Choose a picture that corresponds to the main idea of the text.
details of a passage.
4 L istening for specific • L isten and point to pictures/words as they appear in the passage.
information • Order information as it appears in the text using pictures or
Pick out specific words.
information in a listening • Choose the correct word, number, etc. (multiple choice).
passage.
• Provide a list of specific information and check off those ideas
that are heard.
• Fill in missing words/numbers in a text or fill in a grid/table
with words or draw pictures.
• Jigsaw tasks: different groups listen for different information;
exchange info in new groups.
• Correct misinformation in a text.
• Listen and fill in a graphic organizer (e.g., a timeline as they
listen to a narrative).
5 L istening for details The types of activities are similar to those listed in Parts 3 and 4
Listen intensively for above. The content of the questions will differ. Listening for
details of the text; move specific information with a short news report might entail
from identifying short, simply identifying the countries mentioned and the event that
factual information, to occurred in each one. A more detailed listening could require
interpreting the meaning learners to identify the players, the time, and exact location of
more deeply. the events. You can use the same news report with a variety of
levels, but simply change the nature of the task you assign.
6 M aking inferences • D iscuss underlying messages, e.g., view advertisements and
Analyze, interpret, and determine the target audience for the advertisement.
evaluate the meaning • Choosing statements that could be inferred from the listening
of a listening passage. passage (this could be with True/False statements or multiple
Beginning-level learners choice).
may be challenged • Cite evidence in the passage to support claims.
enough by determining
the gist and specific
information from a
listening passage, but it is
important to go beyond
the factual information
presented to them.

Chapter 4 Developing Listening and Speaking Skills 111

 7 F
 ollow-up / Post- • Discussion questions
listening • Questionnaires or one-question interviews
Extend learners’ • Role plays
understanding of the
• Writing tasks: reports, summaries, journal entries
content of what they
heard; respond to it in an • Interviews and surveys conducted in or out of class
authentic manner. • Community research and reports back to class
• Problem-solving or decision-making activities

Students completely new to English may do nothing more than listen and point to a picture of
what they have understood or identify how a speaker feels (e.g., happy, angry). All learners,
especially intermediate to advanced, need to practice listening for detail, opinion, and attitude,
making inferences about the meaning of the listening passage, and synthesizing information
from multiple sources. As with everything we have talked about in the book, always remember
the interrelatedness of language skills, particularly listening and speaking. Further ideas for pre-
listening and follow-up activities are presented later in this chapter (see section 4.9).

4.7 Sources of listening passages

For the sample listening lesson in this chapter, David conducted and recorded an interview. There
are many other types of listening passages that you can use.

Task 4.5

Sources for Listening Passages

Work with a partner or on your own and brainstorm sources for listening passages.

Sources for listening passages will generally fall into one of these categories:
Authentic texts: news broadcasts, how-to videos, TED Talks, podcasts, interviews, songs,
advertisements, TV shows, movies, sports broadcasts, or anything that was produced for public
use that is unmodified.

Teacher-generated:
• Recorded conversations/dialogues, preferably unscripted: scripted dialogues are useful when
presenting particular language points. When teaching listening strategies, however, we want to
expose learners to language as actually spoken with false starts and hesitations.
• Story-telling: teachers can use themselves as an invaluable source for listening practice. This
has the benefit of allowing students to pick up on visual clues such as gestures and facial
expressions. Students can also ask for clarification, as they would in real-life interactions.
• Video recorded real-life scenarios: teachers can record everyday interactions at stores, banks,
restaurants, schools, or home and use them as the basis for listening practice. These have the
added benefit of visual support.

112 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

The interview with Farid falls into this last category. There are also online sources produced for
ESL, for example elllo.org, which includes hundreds of short recordings and lessons on an array of
topics for classroom use or self-access.
ESL textbooks: commercially-produced ESL texts are full of listening passages and activities from
which you can draw. Now look at your list above and decide which you would consider teacher-
generated, and which you would consider truly authentic.

Task 4.6

Teacher-Generated Authentic Texts

Integrating various technologies into your lessons, along with choosing and developing classroom
materials are covered in more detail in Chapter 8. For now, we have taken a brief look at the array
of sources from which you can draw when developing listening lessons. We have also examined
the importance of connecting learners’ prior knowledge to the content of the listening passages
we choose. As noted throughout this book, no language point or skill is taught or learned in
isolation. Learners in David’s class interacted with one another throughout, using speaking as well
as some writing skills. Now let’s turn to what you need to consider in order to engage learners in
speaking and fluency development.

Chapter 4 Developing Listening and Speaking Skills 113

Part II: Developing speaking skills

4.8 Fluency as the goal of instruction

In a learner-centered, communicative classroom, just about anything you do, provided the
learners are communicating with one another, serves to develop their speaking skills. There is
much more to teaching speaking than simply getting students to talk, however. As with listening,
we normally have specific purposes for communicating with others, such as asking for help at a
store or describing a problem to a supervisor. These are examples of transactional dialogue, the
purpose for which is to transmit factual information. We also take part in interpersonal dialogue,
for example, making small talk with a coworker or talking to a friend about a concern at home
(Brown and Lee 2015). Finally, we engage in academic conversations (Zwiers and Crawford
2011), where we express opinions, elaborate on others’ ideas, or synthesize ideas as we come to
consensus. The language we encounter can be more or less predictable depending on our shared
knowledge and experience with our interlocutors (Brown and Lee 2015). We need to be fluent
users of language in order to handle the communicative demands of day-to-day interactions
outside of the classroom. What does it mean to become a fluent user of the language?
• The ability to handle unpredictable language
• The ability to pick up on and use visual cues from the environment and other speakers/listeners
• The ability to anticipate the direction a conversation or discussion will take
• The ability to make oneself understood and negotiate meaning (e.g., ask for clarification,
check to assure others understand us, paraphrase what one understands); use compensation
strategies (point to something when you don’t know the word for it, describe an object for
which you don’t know the name)
• The ability to convey meaning and “get things done” with the language, even with limited words
or accuracy
• The ability to engage in and sustain discussions; support our arguments with details
As we looked at language lessons that focused on a particular competency, function, or language
point in Chapter 3, practice activities fell on a continuum from controlled (with more emphasis on
accuracy) to free (with a focus on fluency). All of the activities were designed to generate use of
particular language points. For example, in a lesson on “calling in sick to work,” the teacher would
develop activities that include greetings, stating the problem, asking permission for time off, and
closures. Of course, the goal of such a lesson would be the ability to communicate effectively, and
success with the language would be measured by the ability to complete the task of calling in sick
(even though the learner may make some errors in production). In a grammar lesson, the teacher
would be looking for some degree of accuracy with the language as well as the ability to integrate
grammar use in meaningful, real-world contexts, e.g., using the past tense to talk about work
experience in a job interview. In order for learners to become fluent users of the language, they
need time to develop the traits highlighted above. Lessons need to include activities during which
learners communicate ideas and negotiate meaning as they need to do outside of the classroom.
How can we facilitate that in our classes?

114 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 4.9 Developing interactive speaking activities

Task 4.7
Look at these two speaking activities and discuss the following question with a partner:
Which activity will generate more language production and why?
Activity 1
Talk about your hobbies and interests in small groups. You have 15 minutes.
Activity 2
How do you like to spend your time after work or on the weekend? Circle three things you like to
do. Cross out three that you never do. Write three other things you like to do in your free time.

swim visit family listen to music

go to the library garden cook for friends and family

visit friends sew watch television

take walks exercise read

Three other things you like to do:

Now talk to the other students in class and find the person who has the most things in common
with you. Ask that person the following questions:
How often do you do that activity?
What do you like about that activity?
What are some things you did in your country that you can’t do in the U.S.?

Simply telling students to talk to a partner about a particular topic for 15 minutes will not
necessarily generate much production. With Activity 1, more verbal students are likely to
monopolize the discussion since there are no clear roles assigned to participants. There is no
specific direction or outcome to the task. While Activity 2 might appear quite controlled, the
structure of the task allows all students an equal opportunity to participate. It also has a concrete
outcome, which gives the task a clear purpose or goal. It allows for multiple interactions as the
students mingle around the classroom and talk to everyone, rather than just the two or three
people in the small group.
There can be challenges to dedicating substantial amounts of class time to fluency development.
Some learners will come to class with the expectation that the teacher should be teaching
grammar lessons and leading the class through repetition activities. While providing learners with
extensive opportunities to speak in your classes should be your goal, it is important to make the
outcomes and purpose for doing communicative speaking activities clear to adult learners:
• E
 xplicitly state how the fluency activity will help them outside of the classroom, for example,
that the activity will give them practice in making small talk with neighbors or coworkers, or
build their confidence when talking to their children’s teachers.

Chapter 4 Developing Listening and Speaking Skills 115

• U se content that is generated from students, is connected to their life circumstances and
needs, or is a timely, high-interest topic (e.g., an upcoming election).
• Balance fluency practice with lessons that are more language-oriented and focused on accuracy.
• Include mini-grammar lessons or more controlled practice in preparation for a fluency activity.
For example, in preparation for an interview task, work on question formation as a class.
• Provide language frames needed to engage meaningfully in a task. For example, if learners are
asked to express opinions, agree or disagree, provide supports like these:
Asking
for Opinions Showing Agreement
Disagreeing Exactly, that’s what I think.
What do you think about . . .?
Politely
What’s your opinion of . . .? I couldn’t agree more.
You have a point, but . . .
For example, . . .
I don’t think so. Have you considered . . .?
For example, . . .

For fluency to develop, learners need genuine reasons to communicate with one another. The
activities that follow demonstrate a variety of ways you can promote this kind of purposeful
communication among students. Learners at all levels need practice developing their speaking
fluency, but this can be challenging with learners at the pre-production level. A number of the activity
types that follow can be used even with level 1 learners. As you review these activities, consider the
degree to which the activities foster practice with these characteristics of a fluent speaker:
• M
 ake oneself understood and negotiate meaning (e.g., ask for clarification); use compensation
strategies (e.g., paraphrase what one understands)
• Engage in and sustain discussions; support our arguments with details
Also consider the degree to which the tasks promote higher-order thinking (3.6) as well as the
topics you could use for that type of task in your setting.

A. Picture stories
Picture stories can be used with all students, particularly those with limited literacy skills. Learners
can interpret a story based on a picture sequence. Alternatively, each student is given a picture of
a story sequence. Students work collaboratively to put the story in the correct order and once
they have done so, they stand in a circle and tell the story. Teachers can easily create picture
stories using clip art visuals or photos they have taken themselves.

B. Information-gap activities
As noted in Chapter 3 (3.6), information-gap activities require that students exchange information in
order to complete a task. There are many activities that fall into this category (and many texts with
ideas for activities in the resource section at the end of the Chapters 3
and 4). Information-gap activities are often used to practice specific
language points as we saw in 3.6, and they are also ideal for general fluency
practice. While not all the sample activities that follow are appropriate for all
learners, they serve to illustrate what constitutes an information-gap activity.

Find the other half

Each student is given half of a picture.
Mingle and ask questions:
What is in the middle of your picture? Is it of a place or a person? Does
the person look worried?
116 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
 Once students find the other half, they imagine what happened right before the picture was
taken and then present that to the class. Classmates may offer alternate interpretations. Even
very beginning-level students could use one-word utterances to complete the task.

Find the difference (simple to more complex)

Similar to find the other half, students are given two similar drawings or pictures with several
small differences. They must ask one another questions to find the differences. This sample
could be in a lesson on describing problems to a landlord.
Is there a stain on the carpet?
Is the sink leaking?
This task can be used for general fluency practice and the complexity of the images used
affects the complexity of the language produced.

Calendars/schedules/grids
Give each student a schedule for the week to fill in with all appointments, classes, etc. they
have for that week. Tell the students they need to talk to other students in class to find a
time they would all be free to form a study group before or after class. In a work-readiness
program, you can create scenarios like this one:
Student A: You are calling in sick to work today, but you need to know your schedule for next
week. Ask you supervisor over the phone and fill in the schedule below:

Schedule
Week of
Monday
Tuesday, etc.

Student B: is calling in sick and needs his/her schedule for next week.
(Student B is given the completed schedule)
Prepare two schedules so that students can repeat the task taking on new roles.

C. Groupings
Finding connections among objects, concepts, and ideas is a good way to enhance understanding
and remember new words or concepts in a second language. It also promotes higher-order
thinking skills such as categorizing, comparing, and contrasting, or justifying answers. This activity
can be done around any theme and with any set of words students have been working with. It is
ideal for review or for previewing a theme and can be done with any level.
We’ll use the theme of jobs to illustrate how this works. Give each student a picture depicting a
particular job: carpenter, doctor, nurse, server, mechanic, beautician, etc. Ask students to create
job groups based on different criteria for the picture they are holding, for example:
Indoor vs. outdoor jobs
Jobs traditionally held by men/women
Jobs that require specific training (group by type of training needed)
Have students group based on criteria of their choosing.
In creating groups, learners need to negotiate, justify their choices, and describe the job depicted
in the picture they are holding. The task generates language production of varying degrees
depending on the learners’ oral proficiency, making it ideal for multilevel classes.
Chapter 4 Developing Listening and Speaking Skills 117
This same task can be done with more advanced vocabulary. In a lesson on personality and
birth-order theory where learners have read articles and watched short videos on conflicting
theories, the teacher decides to focus on the personality traits that were included in the lesson,
sorting them according to whether the traits are positive, negative, or either. The learners must
analyze the words and justify their categorization.

   
(New American Horizons 2012)
D. Mingle activities
A mingle activity involves learners milling around and gathering information from other students in
the class on a given topic. Mingle activities have the benefit of maximizing student participation for
learners at all levels. The most proficient students may talk to everyone in class within the assigned
time frame, while the students who are less proficient can be equally engaged through talking to just
a few students. This sample interview grid activity could be used in a lesson on health and wellness.

Home Remedies
Many of us choose NOT to go to the doctor when we have a minor illness. What are some
home remedies in your culture for common illnesses? Talk to the other students in class and
find out what they do in their cultures?

Student/Country Illness Remedy

Mira/El Salvador Cold/fever Hot tea

Mingle activities can be continued outside of class by having students interview family, neighbors,
or friends as homework. They can report their findings during the next class period (see 3.6 for
additional examples).
E. Data collection and analysis with one-question interview
A one-question interview provides opportunities for learners to collect data on a topic, analyze the
data, and engage with a series of tasks that also develop their academic and
work skills. It can be used for virtually any topic (we saw this task type in What
topics would work
Sample Lesson 1 in Chapter 3 on expenses). Here is another example on the well for learners in your
theme of sustainability and our environmental footprint. Students are given classes?
questions such as these:

1. Do you try to buy products that are as environmentally friendly as possible?

All of the time   Some of the time   Not sure   I don’t think about it.
2. Do you bring your own bags to the supermarket?
All of the time   Some of the time   Not sure   I don’t think about it.

118 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 3. Do you take advantage of your city’s recycling program?
All of the time   Some of the time   Not sure   I don’t think about it.
4. Do you choose paper over plastic bags when given the option?
All of the time   Some of the time   Not sure   I don’t think about it.

After mingling and tallying results, students with the same question get together in groups to
analyze their data. As an alternative, to ensure that the data students collect is accurate, students
fill out a data collection sheet with the names of all students present. Pairs are assigned the same
question. After collecting their data, pairs then have to check to make sure their information is the
same; if there are discrepancies, they need to go back and ask again.
Students are provided with useful language to talk about the data, for example:
• Most people in class . . .
• Some people . . .
• Half the class . . .
• Three quarters of the class . . .
Next, learners create a bar graph depicting the results of their question, which they use in
presentations to others in class. For that stage, they can be given more useful language frames
such as:
• We found that . . .
• Our data indicate that . . .

E. Presentations and gallery walks

As the result of an extended inquiry or project-based learning (2.11), learners prepare posters,
presentations, or videos as a culminating product. Students in a class then present their work
through a gallery walk, allowing class colleagues to actively engage with one another as they view
each other’s work. They are expected to ask and respond to questions about the information,
images, and any documents presented. The presenter can prepare questions for the audience to
listen for during the presentation. In a gallery walk with posters, students can add comments and
questions with sticky notes, which can then be used for discussion.

F. Discussion activities
All learners can take part in a discussion, but beginning to low-intermediate level learners may
need more supports and scaffolds to engage in sustained discussions in English. Successful
discussion activities have the following features:
• An identified purpose and outcome
• Clear roles for all participants, for example, facilitator, scribe, time keeper.
• A clear time frame
• A genuine reason to communicate, for example, the group needs to make a decision, reach
consensus, or generate a list.
Discussions can be about current events, cultural issues, education, work, or anything that is of
relevance in your learners’ lives. Zwiers and Crawford (2011, 32–33) emphasize the importance
of teaching learners the language they need to sustain these conversations, highlighting these
language functions:

Chapter 4 Developing Listening and Speaking Skills 119

 Elaborate
Build on Support
and Clarify
a Partner’s Idea Ideas with Examples
How so?
I would add that . . . An example from my life is . . .
What do you mean by . . .?
I want to add to your idea . . . It says in the reading
What makes you think that? that . . .
Challenge a Partner’s Idea
Why is that important?
Well, I think that . . .
Another way to look
at it is . . .

Paraphrase Synthesize
Ideas Conversations

It sounds like . . . We can say that . . .

In other words . . . We all agree that . . .

Teachers can give these language frames to students on small cards, as a poster in the classroom,
or as a handout for a group as they are engaging in a discussion. Notice that this language also
promotes critical thinking skills.
Another scaffold that can be particularly useful for beginners is a discussion planner (Kinsella
2012). Give learners a chart or graphic organizer where they can record ideas for these four steps:
Think: Brainstorm ideas on the topic.
Record: Write ideas before the discussion starts.
Discuss: Interact and engage in the discussion. This is where the discussion language
frames can be particularly helpful for learners.
Report: Be prepared to report the outcome of the discussion. It’s often best that this be in
the form of a summary or synthesis of the group’s ideas.

G. Problem-posing/problem-solving
Problem-posing/problem-solving tasks revolve around particular problems learners have
encountered or may encounter in their lives, for example, a conflict between an immigrant and
her U.S. born in-laws regarding child-rearing, a child who spends too much time on video games,
or issues of harassment at work. Teachers can provide representative scenarios like the one
below, or learners can pose their own.

Last year, Juan gave his teenage son a computer for his birthday. It is in his bedroom. Now
he spends a lot of time in his room playing games online. His grades are not good, and his
teachers report that he doesn’t turn in his homework. What should Juan do?
From Ventures 3rd edition, Student Book 4 (Bitterlin, et al. 2018: 80)

Learners work together to identify the issues and discuss the possible solutions. Magy and Price
(2011) suggest these templates for organizing ideas and looking at the pros and cons of possible
solutions:

120 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Step 1 Step 2
What is the problem? What will happen?
What can Juan do? Good Bad
1. 1. 1.
2. 2. 2.
3. 3. 3.

They also suggest providing possible solutions to get the conversation started as well as these
language frames:
I think Juan should because .
The problem is , so I think that .
What will happen if Juan ? What if he ?
If Juan , then .
Providing scaffolds like these makes problem-solving a task type that can work at all levels of
instruction.

H. Decision-making Think of other topics

In a class exploring entrepreneurship in their community, learners explore you could use.
a variety of options for starting their own businesses. The types of businesses
should reflect what could realistically interest learners in the class.

Task: Look at these three types of businesses and discuss which you have the skills and
expertise to develop.

Restaurant Food truck Small market

Start with online research in teams.

• Create groups based on which type of small business interests you most.
• Choose a targeted neighborhood.
• Research the number of similar businesses in the area.
• Research spaces available for rent or lease, or the cost of purchasing a food truck.
Discuss the pros and cons of starting this type of business for the targeted area based on the
information you gathered. Present findings to the class either at the board, with a PowerPoint
presentation or a poster.

Chapter 4 Developing Listening and Speaking Skills 121

I. Role play
Role plays are used with any level of learner for a variety of purposes. They can be used to
practice particular language points or for general fluency practice. Because learners are taking
on a different persona to a degree, they sometimes are less inhibited than they might be with
other fluency activities. On the other hand, role playing is new for many learners and may appear
frivolous. Therefore, careful planning and implementation are crucial. Here are some tips that will
help make role plays successful:
• Model the role play with a student.
• Provide language support to successfully complete the role play (place samples of language
needed on the board or project them on a screen; use familiar language in role descriptions).
• Include an incentive to communicate (shopkeeper is out of a particular item, so the shopper
has to make another choice when doing an exchange at a store).
• Assign roles that are achievable for students of varying ability levels.
• Use realistic scenarios.
• Incorporate realia and visual aids (e.g., workplace informational charts, items to return to a
grocery store).

Conclusion
This section has included a variety of examples of speaking activities that you can use with
students at different levels with the goal of promoting fluency in English. Keep in mind that the
activities presented in this chapter can also be used in the following ways:
• Pre-listening, pre-reading, or pre-writing activities (the last two are covered in Chapter 5)
• Warm-up or review activities
• Follow-up activities
• Fluency-focused practice activities in integrated and contextualized language lessons like those
explored in Chapter 3
It is important that you keep the following in mind as you choose and develop tasks for your
students:
• Assure that there is a true communicative purpose to the activity.
• Provide clear guidelines and outcomes for the activity.
• Provide language supports needed to sustain conversations.
• Assign roles according to learners’ strengths and abilities. As learners become more familiar
with one another and comfortable with fluency activities, they can self-assign roles.
• Use visuals and realia to provide context and add authenticity (e.g., real menus in a restaurant
role play; real maps for an information-gap activity).
An aspect of speaking that is often of utmost importance to your students is pronunciation. We
complete this chapter with a discussion of the place of pronunciation instruction in ESL classes as
well as techniques for promoting awareness of and intelligibility in pronunciation with students.

122 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Part II: The place of pronunciation in English language instruction

4.10 Making a case for pronunciation in your curriculum

There has been extensive debate over the past decades about the role pronunciation should
play in English language acquisition curricula (Derwing and Munro 2005). Some have argued that
within a communicative approach to teaching, attention to discrete phonemic features of the
language is counter to meaning-based approaches to teaching. Many favor the integration of
pronunciation throughout instruction. What are your own views about pronunciation and adult
ESL instruction?

Task 4.8
Take a few minutes to complete this questionnaire and, if you’re working in a group, discuss
your answers with a partner.
Rate yourself from 5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly disagree):
1. It’s important that adult English language learners attain a “near-native” accent.
2. A pronunciation component should be included in most any curriculum.
3. Heavily accented English can lead to negative judgments about people and to
discrimination.
4. Pronunciation drills are the best way to help learners acquire intelligible pronunciation.

In the 1980s and 1990s, explicit pronunciation instruction took a backseat to other areas of
language with the advent of communicative teaching approaches. One reason for this is that
early approaches to pronunciation instruction focused heavily on mechanical drills and practice
of sounds in isolation, which do not necessarily transfer to accurate production in real-life
communication. Current approaches have thought of pronunciation as only one small piece of
the language puzzle, and one that develops through exposure to language and practice. The fact
is that many adult learners who receive no formal instruction or feedback on pronunciation may
be highly unintelligible, even those who have been in an English-speaking environment for many
years (Derwing and Munro 2014).
Jobs and educational opportunities in today’s world require strong communication skills and a
command of language for engaging meaningfully while sharing opinions, elaborating on others’
ideas, or clarifying to overcome breakdowns in communication (Pimentel 2013). Central to
successful communication is being understood by others, and that means acquiring intelligible
pronunciation, or pronunciation that does not cause frequent breakdowns in communication.
The extent to which pronunciation instruction becomes part of your curriculum, therefore,
depends on the needs and expectations of your students. Does their intelligibility frequently
affect their ability to communicate effectively? If they are working, how important is intelligible
pronunciation? Unintelligible pronunciation can affect one’s ability to thrive or be promoted
professionally, and immigrants and refugees can face discrimination on the job because of native
speakers’ unwillingness to adjust to a variety of accents (Akomolafe 2013). Sadly, some listeners
even ascribe pronunciation issues to non-native speakers that are not even there based on
negative assumptions they hold (Rubin 2012).
Learners themselves often report that native English speakers judge their credibility, intelligence,
and competence based on accent (Derwing 2003), and studies have confirmed this (Munro 2003).
Chapter 4 Developing Listening and Speaking Skills 123
It would be wonderful if, as ESL professionals, we could be sensitize and educate employers,
landlords, and other speakers of English in our learners’ lives. Given the uncertainty of achieving
that goal, we owe it to learners to help them achieve their highest level of intelligibility so that they
can access a whole array of positions.
Some professions have higher linguistic demands than others and an employee who is highly
unintelligible may not have adequate skills to meet those demands. The Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission (EEOC 2016) has published guidelines that are used to determine
whether or not a non-native English-speaking employee has been discriminated against because
of accent. The commission states that:
“An employment decision may legitimately be based on an individual’s accent if the accent
‘interferes materially with job performance.’ To meet this standard, an employer must
provide evidence showing that: (1) effective spoken communication in English is required to
perform job duties; and (2) the individual’s accent materially interferes with his or her ability
to communicate in spoken English” (EEOC Notice 915.005).
Case law has defined communication demands of a particular job in the following ways:
a. the frequency and complexity of oral communication demanded by the job;
b. the relative gravity of an episode of miscommunication;
c. whether speaking is done under high stress circumstances where time is of the essence; and
d. whether communicative encounters typically exist with one-time listeners or, in contrast,
listeners who will have further contact with the employee so as to adjust to listening and
comprehension patterns.
These criteria are useful for ESL teachers because they help us and our learners assess the
language demands of a particular job.

Task 4.9
Using the criteria above, let’s look at the job of nurse. How frequently does a nurse use English?
How complex is the language? Would miscommunication have grave results? Is communication
done under high-stress conditions? Is communication with one-time listeners, or would a
listener have the time to become accustomed to the speaker’s accent? From the answers to
these questions, we can see that being a nurse has very high linguistic demands and one would
need highly comprehensible language skills in order to succeed in that job. Now ask yourself
these same questions for each of the jobs below and see what you notice. Work with a partner
or write down your answers if you are working alone.

Restaurant server Nursing assistant Manufacturing line operator

Supervisor in manufacturing Doctor Nurse

Dental hygienist Dishwasher Housekeeper

Teacher Landscaper Truck driver

Receptionist

124 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Which of the jobs have the highest linguistic demands based on the EEOC criteria? What types
of jobs do many of your students hold? Did you discover that those jobs with the most minimal
linguistic demands are also the least stable and low paying? Helping learners achieve intelligibility
is a way of advocating for them; it’s helping them access the jobs they may very well be trained for
already, or have the potential to attain.

4.11 Factors affecting pronunciation

There are a number of factors that can have an impact on one’s ability to achieve intelligible
pronunciation (Celce-Murcia, et al. 2010).
First language: How phonemically different are the first and second language? For example, there
are several English consonants that do not exist in Korean. While this might seem like the most
obvious factor, it is by no means the most important one. Learners whose first language is more
phonetically similar to English will not necessarily have the most ease in acquiring the sounds of
the new language. Other factors are equally important to consider.
Age: The assumption that the younger you are, the more likely you are to acquire a second
language without an accent has come under increasing question. Studies on the effect of age on
pronunciation in a second language have produced conflicting results (Flege 1981; Jacobs 1988).
Generally speaking, however, learners exposed to English at an early age are more likely to achieve
a native-like accent in a second language than adults who start learning English later in life (Ioup
2008). Adult learners are capable of achieving comprehensible pronunciation, however.
Motivation: Studies indicate that there is a positive correlation between clear professional
goals and attainment of intelligible pronunciation (Bernaus, et al. 2004; Gatbonton, Trofimovich,
and Magid 2005; Moyer 1999). It is often the case that adult English language learners live in
an environment where they can get by with limited English, but as adult ESL curricula more
realistically represent the language demands learners face in today’s world, learners may see the
need for more intelligible speech.
Expectations: Along with motivation comes expectations about how one wants to sound in a
second language, which are sometimes unrealistic (Parrino 2001). Few adults ever attain a native-
like accent in a second language, but some learners hold this as a goal of instruction. As teachers,
we can help learners to manage those expectations, emphasizing their successes with attaining
intelligible speech.
Exposure to English: While adult English language learners may be living in an English-speaking
country, they may not be immersed in English at home or work. It is imperative that teachers
provide abundant exposure of spoken English in ESL classes, and encourage learners to seek
opportunities to listen to spoken language outside of class as well (Celce-Murcia, et al. 2010).
Moyer (2007) found in her study that more experience with the target language community can
lead to more intelligible speech.
Attitude and identity: Accent has a strong impact on our identity as first or second language
speakers. Learners may have a stronger desire to sound like peers than to sound like the native-
speaking population; this can result in a resistance to work on pronunciation in English.
Innate phonetic ability: Some learners may be better than others at discriminating between
sounds or mimicking sounds.
These factors come into play in different ways and to different degrees for each learner.
Recognizing these variables helps us to remember how complex the process of acquiring
language really is. Understanding this complexity can help us to keep the goals of pronunciation
instruction realistic.

Chapter 4 Developing Listening and Speaking Skills 125

 4.12 What should we teach?
It is important to understand that the goal of pronunciation instruction is not accent-free
English—that’s neither realistic nor a necessity. Morley (1991) makes a distinction between
pronunciation production and performance, suggesting that both have a place in ESL curricula,
the latter being more important. Production refers to the understanding of discrete sounds as
well as stress, intonation and rhythm patterns, the traditional view of pronunciation. Performance
refers to overall intelligibility (the ability to make oneself understood) and communicability
(the ability to meet communicative demands). This view gives pronunciation a place within a
communicative approach to teaching.
As English language teachers, you need a basic understanding of the pronunciation features of
English. Pronunciation is broken down into two areas: segmentals, or the sounds of the language,
and suprasegmentals, or the stress, rhythm, and intonation patterns of the language. Segmentals
consist of the phonemes of the language, or its smallest meaningful units. In English, /b/ and /v/
are phonemes because when one replaces the other in a word, the meaning changes:
bat/vat   veil/bail
If two sounds are not phonemic in a learner’s language, they may have difficulty differentiating
between the two sounds in English. If a native Spanish speaker uses English /b/ and /v/
interchangeably, which is possible in Spanish, the results can be problematic (bowel for vowel,
for example).
There is more to English pronunciation than the individual sounds. In fact, various sounds used in
combination, or sounds used in particular environments, are often more problematic for students
learning English. Two examples of learner problems you may encounter in the production of
English are the deletion and insertion of sounds. Many languages do not have consonant clusters
(split, prompt). In attempting to produce the cluster, speakers might delete one of the consonants
to make the cluster more manageable, or, as with many Japanese speakers, they may insert a
vowel (usually a schwa / / sound) between the consonants: action /ǽk ∫ n/1. Spanish and Farsi
words do not begin with /s/ + another consonant, so it’s not uncommon for speakers of those
languages to insert a vowel sound “/ε /-Spanish,” “/ε/-special” (/ε/ represents the vowel sound in
“met”). Learners whose first language does not have final consonants may omit final consonants
in English. This can result in misinterpretations of the causes of particular learner errors, for
example, plural endings and the –s in the third person singular of simple present verbs (She
lives next door). Some learners omit final –s in speaking, but not in writing, which may indicate
that the omission is an issue of pronunciation rather than understanding of a grammar point. A
complete overview of phonetics is beyond the goals and scope of this book. There are a number
of resources to guide you, however (see Recommended Reading). Your job is to identify those
areas that affect intelligibility the most and find ways to integrate practice of those pronunciation
features into your lessons, which we explore in section 4.13.

Stress, intonation, and rhythm

Depending on your learners’ first language, inability to employ English-like stress, intonation, and
rhythm can have an even greater impact on intelligibility than the mispronunciation of sounds
(Hanh 2004). In fact, we can often derive a speaker’s intended meaning from context when
phonemic errors occur. What does the speaker mean in each of these utterances?

1
 The symbols used here are from the International Phonetic Alphabet, or IPA. Each symbol represents the
sound found in the word, regardless of spelling. Met and meant both contain the vowel phoneme represented
as /ε/. It is very helpful for ESL teachers to learn the IPA in order to decipher phonetic transcriptions in
ESL handbooks, articles, and textbooks. Some ESL students have learned the IPA in their country (Korean,
Japanese, and Chinese students, in particular). I am not suggesting that you necessarily teach the IPA to
students, but some teachers do teach certain symbols depending on the focus on instruction.
126 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
 I have “lice” with all meals. (/lays/ in place of /rays/)
This shirt “feets” me well. (/fiyts/ in place of /fIts/)
I “leave” in Gainesville. (/liyv/ in place of /lIv/)
In each of these instances, the speaker is understandable through contextual clues. Now think
of how intelligibility would be affected if a speaker used the wrong word stress on committee or
comedy in these sentences:
What did you think of the comedy?
What did you think of the committee? (Gilbert 2012: 166)
What often affects intelligibility more is a speaker’s inability to stress the right syllable within a
word (word stress), the right words in a sentence (sentence stress), or use intonation (changes in
pitch) appropriately. These features of spoken language can be very difficult for speakers of other
languages to perceive. Below are examples that illustrate some ways in which suprasegmental
features affect meaning:
1. Word stress:
a. Now you need to add cold cream.
What would happen to the meaning of the sentence if you said “cold cream?”
The first word of a compound noun is stressed: bookcase, coffee table. Compound
nouns are those combinations of two words referring to a specific item. “Cold cream” is a
compound noun, whereas “cold cream” is not.
b. The pronunciation of teens/tens 13/30, 14/40, 15/50, etc.: In natural discourse the
prominent difference between each is that the second syllable is stressed on the teens
(thirteen) and the first syllable is stressed on the tens (thirty).
2. Sentence stress:
I lost my red scarf. (not the blue one)
I lost my red scarf. (not my red hat)
3. The following examples illustrate how intonation affects meaning (Levis 1999: 48):

She’s my sister, Marcia. (Marcia is my sister.)

She’s my sister, Marcia. (You’re identifying your sister for someone else named Marcia.)
4. Another important feature of English is the use of thought groups, or semantically related groups
of words within a sentence that are produced as chunks. These examples from Gilbert (2012: 137)
demonstrate the importance of developing an awareness of this feature of English. Were it not
for changes in word groups and pauses, the pairs of sentences would sound the same:
Would you like the Super Salad? Would you like the soup or salad?
They have a house, boat, and trailer. They have a houseboat and trailer.
English is a stress-timed language: that means the time it takes to say an utterance depends on
the number of stresses in that utterance:
I like movies. = 3 beats
I went to the movie with Jane. = 3 beats
Many learners will come from languages that are syllable-timed: the length of the utterance
depends on the number syllables. When speaking English, those learners may have a tendency to
Chapter 4 Developing Listening and Speaking Skills 127
stress every word in a sentence. Helping learners to recognize what kinds of words are stressed in
English can improve their intelligibility (it also aids in their ability to understand key words when
listening since those are the ones that are stressed). Table 4.3 illustrates those words that tend to
be stressed in a sentence (called content words), and those that are unstressed (called function
words). Of course, we can choose to stress any word for emphasis, contrast, or clarification: Are
you coming to the party? No, I’m going to the movies.

Table 4.3 Content vs. Function Words

Content Words Function Words
These are the words that carry the most These are the small words that are the glue
meaning in the sentence. We tend to stress of the sentences. We tend not to stress
these in natural discourse. these words.
Nouns Articles
Verbs Prepositions
Adjectives Short conjunctions (and, but, so)
Adverbs Auxiliary verbs
Conjunctions (however, therefore) Pronouns

4.13 Approaches to teaching pronunciation

As the tide has turned back to including pronunciation instruction within learner-centered,
communicative approaches to teaching, emphasis has been put on making that instruction
meaningful, i.e., teaching features of pronunciation in context and for communicative purposes.
In the past, a good deal of instruction relied on repetition of minimal pairs (words with only one
phonemic difference). So, a student who had difficulty differentiating between the sounds /l/
and /r/ would practice pairs like the following: lice/rice; long/wrong; late/rate. Limericks, tongue
twisters, and other texts that included multiple instances of the target sounds were also common.
Anyone who spent time learning a foreign language in a language lab undoubtedly recalls hours
of listen-and-repeat drills. While there is still a place for this focus on pronunciation production,
and these kinds of exercises might give some immediate accuracy of sounds, that accuracy in
these kinds of activities rarely transfers to extended, spontaneous speech produced outside of
the classroom. That’s where the need for a focus on pronunciation performance comes into play.
Celce-Murcia, et al. (2010: 45) recommend the following progression in a pronunciation
lesson: Description and Analysis, Listening Discrimination, Controlled Practice, Guided Practice,
Communicative Practice.
1. Description and Analysis/Discrimination 
The goal of these steps is to raise learners’ awareness of segmental and suprasegmental features
through the use of visual charts, drawings, hand gestures, whatever means are within your
learners’ language abilities. Learners then need to take part in listening discrimination activities
that allow them to demonstrate their ability to perceive sounds or patterns of the language. If
learners are unable to hear sounds or patterns of stress, intonation and rhythm, they will have
tremendous difficulty producing them. In the sample discrimination activities that follow, learners
need to listen to the teacher or fellow student and make choices about what they have heard.
Completion of the task demonstrates their ability (or possible inability) to differentiate between
sounds or among pronunciation patterns.
a. Discriminating between /l/ and /r/: word search
In this activity, only student A is given the word search handout below. Student B is given the list
of words to call out to student A. Instruct both students not to look at the other’s sheet.
128 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
Student A: Circle the words that you hear from your partner. Words can go across or up and down.

R I C K

O L I C K

C F

L A C K R L O W I

L I G H T R L

G P A I L E

R A C K H P I

O T L A P N

W W O A K

R I N K N I F

O G R I D E

F N R

A G L I E D E

I L O C K

L F A I R

Student B: Your partner needs to find these words. Do not show your list to your partner. Read
each word aloud clearly so that your partner can find it on the Word Search sheet:
light rack lick low file wrong
ride rink pail fair lap rock
b. Connecting vowel sounds to color
The Color Vowel Approach (Taylor and Thompson 1999), which associates colors to the vowel
phonemes of English, is widely used in English as a second and foreign language teaching. Each
vowel phoneme is associated with a color, for example:
GREEN is the high front vowel /iy/ (as in “me,” “three”).
BLUE represents the high back vowel /uw/ (as in “you,” “through,” “news”).
For discrimination practice, learners can point to or call out the correct color on the chart as
they hear a new word (see the Color Vowel Chart link in Resources). The color chart is also a
powerful means of helping learners make sense of the sound-spelling correspondences of
English, for example, consider all the ways the first vowel sound in “silver” /I/ can be spelled: hit,
women, pretty, build, symbol. Words with a confusing spelling pattern can be written using the
corresponding color sound.
c. Recognizing word stress
Learning the word stress patterns of new words begins with perceiving the patterns. In a lesson
on jobs and places of work, learners listen to a list of words spoken by the teacher and sort them
into the correct stress pattern.
Chapter 4 Developing Listening and Speaking Skills 129
 Listen to these words and place them under the correct pattern below:

beautician carpenter plumber

line worker teacher server

mechanic doctor

Ooo oOo Oo
beautician

2. Controlled Practice
Once learners begin to perceive patterns, your instruction can turn to activities that provide
opportunity to say the target sounds repeatedly, but in a meaningful context. The table below
includes sample activities that provide this kind of practice.

Table 4.4 Sample Controlled Practice Pronunciation Activities

Strip stories: Write a story or dialogue that contains numerous instances of the target sound
or stress, intonation, or rhythmic pattern. Each learner receives a line of the story, which is
practiced and recited for the group. As a class, students put the story in the correct order
without looking at one another’s strips. The stories can be generated by the class using
picture prompts or realia, and they can be related to any theme. For example, in an Integrated
Education and Training class, a dialogue between a home health aide and patient could be
used, or a conversation between a head chef and a sous-chef.
Picture stories: Collect pictures of places and items that include the target sound(s). Tell the
class the story and them have them recall the order and tell the story, shuffle the cards, and
change the story. Have learners use online photos or clip art that use the sound and make up a
new story to tell a partner.
Semi-scripted skits/role plays: In working on sentence stress and intonation, use semi-scripted
skits or role plays (learners have to fill in some of the words). The context for these should
relate to the content of the overall curriculum you are teaching: a job interview for work-
readiness program; a mock interview with a government agent for a citizenship class.
Chain activities: For sounds or word-stress patterns, collect a set of words or pictures around
a theme. S1: We’re going to garage sales and we need . Choose another student, who
repeats the first item and their own. Compound nouns: bookcase, coffee table, ironing board,
light fixture, area rug. This provides practice of stressing the first word of the compound noun.
Word search: The word search above done in pairs provides controlled practice of the sounds.
Different Word Search grids can be created for different learners in the same class. Minimal
pairs are included in the activity, but because of the interactive format of the task, learners
work on other communication strategies:
Did you say light (pointing to the light on the ceiling)?
Did you say wrong, as in incorrect?
130 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
 Reader’s theater: This involves reading and rehearsing poetry, excerpts from plays, or scripts
with expression. This is an ideal controlled practice activity for working on features such as
prominence on key words in thought groups, intonation, or contrastive sentence stress (Daly
2009). Learners can also apply different emotions as they read (excited, angry) and reflect on
how these suprasegmental features may need to be adjusted.

3. Guided Practice/Communicative Practice

Finally, it is important that learners practice pronunciation patterns in unplanned, extended
speech (much like “authentic use” activities mentioned in Chapter 3). The activities will not be
completely spontaneous because you are guiding the students to use particular pronunciation
patterns. The table below includes samples that move from guided to communicative practice.

Table 4.5 From Guided to Communicative Pronunciation Practice

Information-gap activities: To work on the stress difference with the tens and teens, thirTEEN
vs. THIRty, students have to ask each other questions to complete a chart as in this example:

Student A Student B
Flight # Leaves Arrives in Flight # Leaves New Arrives in
New York Miami York Miami
790 790 4:50 p.m.
380 7:13 a.m. 380 10:30 a.m.
618 1:50 p.m. 618 1:40 a.m.
413 11:14 a.m. 413

Celce-Murcia, et al. (2010: 205)

Word association: Write a set of words that represent the pattern being taught. One student
gives clues for the word and the rest of the class guesses which word it is. For example, a class
working on a word stress rule for words ending with suffixes: tion/sion: stress the syllable
before the suffix.
Sample words:   education   tradition   decision
Student might say: “All the things my family has done for years. Different practices from my culture.”
(tradition)
Discussions or problem-solving activities: Create a task that includes the targeted feature, but
also has a clear communicative outcome. Here is an example that you might use in a career/job
exploration class: small groups of learners discuss (with one acting as a scribe with this sheet)
the pros, cons, and training needed for these jobs. They share which jobs they would consider
and write their names in the final column. Groups report on their top three job choices and
why. This example is targeting the /b/ vs. /v/ sounds in English, but the same task could be used
to practice word stress on multisyllable words or for contrastive stress: I’d rather be a SERver
than a BANker.

Chapter 4 Developing Listening and Speaking Skills 131

 Pros of this job Cons of this job Training needed Why I might
or might not
consider this job
Banker
Server in a
restaurant
Customer service
representative
Bus driver
Executive
Veterinarian
Postal service
worker
Bartender
Police detective
Civil engineer

Making pronunciation a routine

In all lessons, it is essential to integrate pronunciation instruction along with other skills and areas
of language. In a lesson on the simple past tense (I moved here in 2009) or present perfect (I have
lived here for 10 years), you could use the following task for recognizing –ed ending variations with
regular simple past tense (or regular past participles). This activity helps learners discriminate
among the three different pronunciations of –ed endings in the past tense as well as recognize
the rules that govern those variations:
Give each student a flashcard with one of these words on it and ask the class to move into
three groups according to the way the –ed ending sounds in their word. The teacher allows
the class to try it without her assistance and then says the words aloud that are causing
difficulty:
studied graduated worked lived learned
helped decided completed stayed hoped
Students tape their cards to the board in the three categories they have chosen and the
teacher elicits what they notice: endings /t/, /d/, /Id/. When do we add an extra syllable?
Only after /t/ and /d/.2 (Depending on the learners’ interest in or knowledge of phonetics,
you can help them notice that we say /t/ after voiceless consonants and /d/ after vowels and
voiced consonants).
Sample Lesson 1 on comparing expenses in Chapter 3 included a segment on categorizing the
vocabulary according to the word stress patterns. These examples show the importance of
routinely integrating pronunciation into any type of lesson.

2
 The three groupings are: /t/: helped, worked; /d/: studied, lived, learned; /Id/: graduated, decided. /p/ and /k/
are voiceless sounds and are followed by voiceless /t/. Voiceless which means that there is no vibration of the
vocal chords as the sounds are produced. /iy/, /v/ and /n/ are all voiced and are followed by voiced /d/. Only
those words ending in /t/ or /d/ add the extra /Id/ or / d/.
132 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
Conclusion
This chapter has explored the areas of listening, speaking, and pronunciation within meaning-
based, communicatively-based approaches to teaching. Competent users of English employ a
variety of skills and strategies to access spoken texts, interact with others, and make themselves
understood. It takes time and practice to acquire these skills, and it is our job as English language
teachers to provide ample time and opportunities for these skills to develop.

Chapter 4 Developing Listening and Speaking Skills 133

 Key Terms

On your own, or with a partner, provide an example or brief definition for each concept:

Checklist of Key Terms

schema theory

bottom-up processing

top-down processing

pre-listening

follow-up

listening for different purposes

fluency

information-gap activity

intelligibility

communicability

phoneme

discrimination task

minimal pair

word stress

sentence stress

134 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Apply What You’ve Learned

Before doing these activities, revisit your answers to the questions at the beginning of the chapter.

1 Listening skills development

If you are already teaching, choose an up-coming unit for which you haven’t yet planned any
authentic listening practice. Select an authentic audio segment related to the theme of your unit:
• news report, how-to video, or check elllo.org
• record a brief interview of someone on that theme of your lesson
Using this listening passage, design a listening lesson. Include a pre-listening activity, two listening
activities (these could be listening for gist, specific information, etc.), and one follow-up activity.

Classroom application
Now implement the lesson and answer the following questions:
How successful were students at achieving the tasks you prepared?
How well did your pre-listening activity prepare them for the listening activities?
How did you know?
Is there anything you would do differently the next time you teach this lesson?
If you are not teaching, choose a theme (e.g., health, accessing community resources, getting
ready for job interviews) and prepare a lesson as described in 1. Show it to a partner and discuss
these questions:
How well will the pre-listening activity activate prior knowledge about the content of the lesson?
What listening skills do your activities enable students to practice?

2 Evaluating fluency activities

Choose three texts that your program uses for developing speaking skills, or integrated-skills
texts (if you are not teaching, find three texts to evaluate). Identify the activities that you think are
designed to develop speaking fluency and evaluate those activities using this checklist.

Yes/No
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Activity
Is there a true communicative purpose
to the activity?
Are there clear guidelines and
outcomes for the activity?
Does the activity allow for different
learner strengths and abilities?
Are there visuals that provide context
and add authenticity?

Chapter 4 Developing Listening and Speaking Skills 135

 Does the activity allow for sustained
interaction among students?
Are there other things you’re looking
for in a fluency activity?

3a Your views about pronunciation

Respond to the questionnaire from Task 4.8 again and discuss, with specific examples, how your
views have changed after reading Part III of this chapter.
1. It’s important that adult English language learners attain a “near-native” accent.
2. A pronunciation component should be included in most any curriculum.
3. Heavily accented English can lead to negative judgments about people and to discrimination.
4. Pronunciation drills are the best way to help learners acquire intelligible pronunciation.

3b Developing an awareness of intelligibility

The purpose of this activity is to raise your own awareness of what has the greatest impact on
intelligibility.
If you are teaching . . . For one week, complete the following learner pronunciation log for one
of your classes. Listen for errors in the production of sounds, as well as stress, intonation, and
rhythm that you believe cause breakdowns in communication (intelligibility). Also notice any
compensation strategies your learners use (e.g., paraphrasing when they know they haven’t been
understood, using gestures, etc.).

Learner Pronunciation Log

Sounds (individual sounds, clusters (spl),

insertions, deletions)

Word stress (syllable stressed in a word)

Sentence stress (words stressed in

sentences)

Intonation (rising and falling pitch)

Rhythm (natural thought groups)

After that week, prioritize the pronunciation problems affecting intelligibility that seem most
prevalent for this group of students. This will help guide the choices you make about what are
areas of pronunciation to include in your curriculum.
If you are not teaching, use the pronunciation log as you observe a class and as you interact with
those for whom English is not their first language. What areas of pronunciation seem to have
the greatest impact on intelligibility? From what you’ve observed, choose two to three areas you
would most likely include in any ESL curriculum.

136 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Recommended Reading

Listening

Nation, I. and Newton, J. (2009) Teaching ESL/EFL Listening and Speaking. New York, NY: Routledge.
An in-depth overview of principles and practices for teaching listening and speaking to ELLs.

Speaking

Klippel, F. (1985) Keep Talking. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. A collection of highly
interactive and personalized speaking activities including surveys, discussions, and games.

Lewis, M. and Reinders, H. (Eds.) (2015) New Ways in Teaching Adults. Alexandria, VA: TESOL. A
collection of activities compiled from practicing ESL/EFL teachers for all stages of the learning
process. They encourage discovery learning, provide practice, and extend students’ learning
beyond the classroom.

Wright, A., Betteridge, D. and Buckby, M. (2006) Games for Language Teaching.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. This book contains enjoyable games to practice language
at any stage of the learning process, ideal for practicing particular language points, as ice breakers
or warm-ups, or for supplementing a course book.

Pronunciation

Brown, J. (2012) New Ways in Teaching Connected Speech. Alexandria, VA: TESOL Press. This book has
ideas that lead learners to recognize rules of and get practice with connected speech in English.

Celce-Murcia, M., Brinton, D. and Goodwin, J. (2010). Teaching Pronunciation. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press. This comprehensive overview of English pronunciation is highly
accessible to new teachers and contains myriad suggestions for classroom application.

Grant, L. (2014) Pronunciation Myths. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. The book
provides a review of the last four decades of pronunciation teaching, the differences between
accent and intelligibility, the rudiments of the English sound system, and other factors related to
the ways that pronunciation is learned and taught.

Hewings, M. (2004) Pronunciation Practice Activities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. This
resource book for teachers provides ideas on how they can make pronunciation teaching more
interesting. It contains a collection of pronunciation practice activities for a wide range of levels,
using a variety of methods.

Levis, J. (2018) Intelligibility, Oral Communication, and the Teaching of Pronunciation. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. The book shows teachers how intelligibility research can be
practically used in the classroom.

Chapter 4 Developing Listening and Speaking Skills 137

These texts are for learners, but are great resources for guiding pronunciation instruction with
adult learners:

Gilbert, J. (2012). Clear Speech: Pronunciation and Listening Comprehension in North American
English, 4th edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Grant, L. (2017). Well Said: Pronunciation for Clear Communication 4th ed. and Well Said, introduction
2nd edition. (2016). Boston, MA: National Geographic/Cengage Learning

Recommended Web Resources:

Elllo provides over 25000 free listening lessons with audio or video. http://www.elllo.org/

Rachel’s English provides a large number of videos targeting specific aspects of the English sound
system http://rachelsenglish.com/

Sounds of Speech, University of Iowa (http://soundsofspeech.uiowa.edu/index.html#english)

Sounds of Speech™ demonstrates how each of the speech sounds of American English is formed.
It includes animations, videos, and audio samples that describe the essential features of each of
the consonants and vowels of American English. Sounds of Speech is useful for students studying
English as a second language.

Appendix
Transcript of interview

David: Hi Farid. I wanted to ask you about the holidays you celebrate from France and Iran. I know
you grew up in Iran, but I know your mother’s French. What’s your favorite holiday in Iran?
Farid: My favorite holiday in Iran is called Nowruz, which is…celebrates the Persian New Year.
David: Uh huh. What’s the history of that holiday?
Farid: It’s an old holiday that dates back to antiquity and…uh...it’s the official start of spring. It’s
exactly at the equinox of spring.
David: What are some of the foods you eat at Nowruz?
Farid: A variety of food. Fresh fruits that celebrate spring. But in particular a dish that is made of
rice, herbs, and white fish.
David: What are some of the activities you do that day?
Farid: Typical activities that you do on New Years…visiting families, eating out, and going on picnics.
David: Isn’t there a special holiday a few days before Nowruz, where you jump over a fire?
Farid: Ah, yeah, it’s called the Holiday of Fire Wednesday and in that holiday, people make fires
and jump over the fire. They say they would like to get good health from the fire and give their
bad health to the fire.

138 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

David: What about clothing? Are there any special clothes for Nowruz?
Farid: Nothing in particular except all the kids wear their brand new clothes.
David: OK, what about France? What’s your favorite holiday in France?
Farid: One of my favorite holidays is the 14th of July, which is Bastille Day.
David: What’s the history of that holiday?
Farid: That holiday celebrates the freeing of the prisoners of the Bastille prison, on the occasion
of the French revolution in 1789.
David: What are the special activities for that day?
Farid: It’s a national holiday and there are some official celebrations…marches on the Champs
Elysee, airplanes, and military marches. At night there’s music and dances in the street.
David: Are there any special foods?
Farid: You know, I don’t know in particular, but I think people just like to eat outside because it’s
during the summer and people enjoy being outside.
David: Are there special clothes?
Farid: Not really. I’d just say anything red, white, and blue might be in order.

Chapter 4 Developing Listening and Speaking Skills 139

5 Developing Reading and
Writing Skills
To consider before reading this chapter:
• How are reading and writing situated in our daily lives?
• What strategies do readers employ with different types of texts? How do you approach
writing for different purposes?
• How can we address the literacy needs of learners with limited prior formal schooling and
limited literacy skills in their first language and in English?

Part I: Situated reading and writing skills development

5.1 Introduction
Consider how much written material (print and digital) comes your way every day: bills, junk mail,
school materials, or work instructions. Print is everywhere in signage, advertisements, phones,
ATM machines, and packaging. As a reader, you scan through some things quickly, while taking
the time to digest others more carefully. As a writer, you employ different practices as well,
depending on your purpose for writing and your audience. In this chapter, we turn to the issue of
literacy development. We explore how literacy is situated in our lives. We look at varying purposes
for reading and writing, the needs of learners with little or no literacy in their first language, and
common approaches to teaching reading and writing to adult learners.
Literacy levels are closely linked to the ability to attain gainful employment, to participation
in ongoing learning, and to improved health outcomes (Batalova and Fix 2015). In a print
dense society, literacy enables adults to gain access to information and opportunities in their
communities. Research also suggests that the ability to read and understand complex texts is
linked to success in college and careers (Pimentel 2013). Whether you are working with learners
with print literacy in their first language or a learner who is learning to read for the first time,
literacy development matters!

Higher literacy
levels

Greater likelihood
Higher income Better health
to participate in
levels reported
ongoing learning

(Batalova and Fix 2015)

How do we define literacy? As we see in this chapter, literacy entails far more than a set of
discrete skills and strategies to develop and hone. Literacy is socially constructed and dimensions
Chapter 5 Developing Reading and Writing Skills 141
of personal background, power, and identity are all at play in the process of deriving meaning
from print (Street 1995).
This means that knowledge of the learner and the sociocultural context in which literacy
is practiced is just as crucial to successful literacy instruction as is knowledge of tools and
techniques grounded in empirical research about best practices (Belzer and Pickard 2015: 252).
Let’s start by thinking about what we read and what is involved in reading for different purposes.

Getting Started
Task 5.1
Working with a partner or on your own, think of everything you read in a given day. Write your
answers in this box:

Daily Reading

Now look at your list of items and put them into one of these two categories: everyday reading
texts or extended reading texts. I’ve included some examples to get you started.

Types of Reading Material

Everyday reading texts Extended reading texts
menus novels
text messages poetry
online forms articles (print or online)
billboards
packaging

1. What types of reading texts do you encounter most often?

2. Which texts do you tend to read digitally and which in print?
3. How are those texts connected to your daily activities?
4. How do we approach reading these types of texts differently?

Follow-up: As you read about reading principles and practices in the chapter, reflect on how
learners in your classes might complete the chart. What are their reading needs and abilities
and what kinds of texts should you incorporate into your classes? What prior knowledge,
understanding, and experience do students bring to these different types of texts? What
reading skills and strategies does a reader employ when reading these different types of texts?

5.2 Literacy is socially constructed

Literacy is situated in different contexts or domains in our lives, for example home, work, or
school (Dyck, et al. 1996; Purcell-Gates, et al. 2002, 2012), and the skills we use to access print in
these different contexts vary. Also, activities that involve literacy do not occur in isolation. Look at
the following daily tasks in the domains of home, work, and school that learners may encounter
along with the literacy skills that may be used for each one:
142 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
 Daily Tasks Literacy Activities
Preparing meals Reading packaging; measurement/numeracy
Food shopping Making lists; reading labels and pricing; searching for online
coupons; reading signs in the store
Getting to work Reading bus schedules and street signs; using a phone app for
planning bus routes; refilling a bus card online or at a kiosk
Interacting with Writing emails; contributing to shared documents
coworkers or classmates
Enrolling in a class in the Reading course offerings (print or online); filling in registration
community forms

With this task analysis, we can see the ways in which literacy is situated in everyday tasks, and
how its uses combine with other language and life skills, including digital literacy skills. Educators
need to look beyond reading and writing as a skill set taught in a classroom to the actual
contextualized uses of the varied forms of literacy used in learners’ lives.
Teachers need to have a view of literacy that encompasses multiple purposes for reading and
writing; there are reasons other than survival and work that motivate adult English language
learners to attain literacy in English or in their first language. Parents want to understand and
help their children with homework, and correspond with school administrators and teachers.
Literacy is also a vehicle for recording and passing on culture and traditions from one generation
to the next (UNESCO 2005).

5.3 Types of literacy

A variety of terms describe the different types of texts we encounter and the ways we read them.
Everyday reading includes environmental print: billboards, signs, packaging, menus, etc. It also
includes functional texts (forms, applications, bills, etc.) that we access in print, online, or with
phone apps. We look a number up online or in a phonebook when we need to call a store; we
read a menu in order to make a choice at a restaurant.
In academic and work settings, we may encounter these kinds of functional texts (class
registration forms; work schedules), but we also encounter more extensive texts, such as
textbooks, articles, or instructional manuals, where we employ a more intensive approach to
reading. Reading functional texts often involves reading very selectively, for example, when we
receive a phone bill, we likely look directly at the amount due and due date; we scan the text, or
read for specific information; we probably do not read all of the fine print. On the other hand,
when approaching an article, we may preview the headings, take notes in the margins, read
and interpret tables and charts included in the text; we employ a variety of complex reading
strategies. We also take part in extensive reading for pleasure, not necessarily for a functional or
academic purpose.
In competency-based literacy instruction in the 1980s and 1990s, four types of reading were
identified as critical for success for newcomers in English language programs (Savage 1993)
and these still characterize literacy needs of adults learning English. Survival literacy revolves
around learners’ immediate day-to-day needs, e.g., recognizing prices, forms of identification.
Document literacy is needed to decipher charts and tables, labels, bills, and advertisements.
Quantitative literacy is needed to use and understand texts with numeric information, e.g., pay
slips, schedules. Prose literacy represents an ability to understand more extensive texts, e.g.,
manuals, rental agreements, textbooks, articles, novels, etc. This classification aligns well with a

Chapter 5 Developing Reading and Writing Skills 143

competency-based approach, especially in curricula focused more on functional texts. To this list,
we need to add:
Digital literacy: This represents using current technologies (which are ever-evolving) to evaluate,
organize, communicate, solve problems, and create information in our technology-rich world (Leu,
Kinzer, et al. 2013; U.S. Department of Education 2015).
Visual/graphic literacy: This represents the ability to process and represent knowledge through
images. Visual literacy will often represent a literacy strength for learners who don’t have print
literacy. Consider the literacy skills a Hmong learner brings to “reading” this Pandau:

(Photo by Mark Eifert. Reproduction courtesy of Michigan State University Museum.)

What story does this tell? (See the story in the Appendix.) Considering learners’ varied backgrounds
with various literacies is a way to draw on their strengths. Visual literacy is also concerned with
the relationships between information presented visually (e.g., in a flow chart, bar graph, or as a
timeline) and the same information represented orally or in writing.
Financial literacy: More than just understanding and using texts with numerical information,
learners need to navigate financial systems, learn about online phishing and identify theft, and
acquire skills for meeting their financial needs and goals.
These descriptions of various literacies illustrate the enormous range of text types learners need
to access. In the process of conducting a needs assessment at a company concerned about cross-
cultural issues, I noticed that many of the concerns supervisors cited were related to issues of
literacy. The examples below illustrate the different types of literacy identified above:
1. Some of our workers don’t punch out on the new computer system we use for that, even though
we’ve shown it to them again and again. (document, quantitative, and digital)
2. I requested a schedule (verbal request), and the schedule was provided, but not in the format I
expected. (document, quantitative, and visual)
3. Sometimes a worker won’t mark down that a defective part was thrown out. We have an online
form to use, but sometimes they won’t even know where to mark it down. (document, visual,
and digital)
In these workplace examples, literacy involved reading and writing schedules, knowing the
conventions of a particular workplace, reading and using online time cards, and reading and
completing forms. Literacy involved the ability to perform these tasks as well as the ability to use
technologies to complete the tasks.

144 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 5.4 How do we read?
Reading and listening have many parallels and are referred to as the receptive skills (writing
and speaking the productive skills). There are, of course, many differences as well, one being
the permanence of written text, allowing the reader time to go back to reread as needed. In
real-world listening situations (i.e. the teacher is not replaying a recording), the listener has one
opportunity to access the information or seek clarification. One of the key similarities between
reading and listening is the important role prior knowledge plays in order to understand and use
written or oral texts, or what is called schema theory (for a complete discussion, see 4.3). As with
listening, an efficient reader is one who can draw the information they need from the whole text,
using top-down processing. Task 5.2 illustrates the powerful role prior knowledge plays in helping
us access the meaning of written and visual texts.

Task 5.2
Look at the following text and images below and answer these questions:
What is the purpose of this text?
How would you use this text?
What information is given?

旅行计划员
 

从 (地址,交叉口) 
 

自 (地址,交叉口) 
 

离开在  到达的 

10     ˅  05    ˅  a.m.˅  10/12/2018

轮椅可访问 

提交

Even if you do not know how to read Chinese, what could you decipher from this text? Could
you determine that this is a trip planner for a light-rail system? Could you “read” the words?
No, but if you have used a planner like this one in your own language, you could probably gain
a preliminary understanding of what the text was about, what it would be used for, and the
places in the text where you would find certain types of information, for example, start and end
points or arrival and departure times. Top-down approaches to teaching literacy are based on
the premise that any reader brings knowledge and life experiences to a text and that is where
literacy development needs to begin. Had I asked you to decipher individual characters in the
Chapter 5 Developing Reading and Writing Skills 145
text, you would have gotten nowhere in your understanding. Starting with a bottom-up approach
to reading, or attempting to decode each word, with adult English learners may have the same
effect. That is not to say that working on letter/sounds, word and sentence level decoding is not a
large part of what we do as readers; it is just one part of the picture.
Reading, like listening and speaking, is interactive in nature and open to various interpretations.
A text does not just transmit information, as shown in Figure 5.1. It involves information going
from the text to the reader and back; it may be used collaboratively with others. A text means
something different to each of us because of what we bring to it. The ways we read a text depend
on prior knowledge, our needs, expectations, and the context in which we are reading, as well as
our own interpretations, experiences, and culture, which is depicted in Figure 5.2.

text reader

Figure 5.1 A One-Way View of Reading

culture

prior knowledge context

Text

needs and
interpretations
purposes

experiences expectations

Figure 5.2 An Interactive View of Reading

Bottom-up approaches that rely heavily on decoding letters, words and sentences are one-way
approaches to reading. Holistic, top-down approaches allow for these multiple interpretations
and experiences that a reader brings to a reading text.

5.5 Teaching literacy skills: working with learners with limited literacy
Read the following vignette and consider these questions:
1. What are Choua’s literacy needs?
2. What unique challenges does she face?

Paseng goes to a university in Eau Clare, WI, about a five-hour drive from his mother Choua’s
home in Milwaukee. He returns to his mother’s home every weekend. Aside from his desire
to see his mother, his primary reason for returning home each week is to help her go through
all of the mail she received the previous week. Choua is not literate in English or in her first
language. She can’t tell the difference between the Publisher’s Clearinghouse ad and a request
to visit the Social Security office to go over her benefits. When Paseng speaks to her on the
phone before each week’s visit, he can hear the panic in her voice.

146 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

This is a common scenario for many immigrant families. Choua recently enrolled in a literacy-
level English class, but it will take some time for her to acquire the literacy needed to maneuver
independently through the barrage of text coming her way. Approaches to working with learners
like Choua look quite different from those we use with learners who have already acquired print
literacy in their first language. You learn to read once, and reading skills and strategies learned in
the first language transfer to reading in a second language (Ediger 2014). Classes that focus on the
needs of these emergent readers are often called literacy-level classes1 and serve different types
of emergent readers, as depicted in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 Types of Emergent Readers

1. Preliterate: Students speak a language that does not have a written form, or has a form
that is rare or has developed very recently.
2. Nonliterate: Students who never went to school and cannot read or write in the first
language, the standard language of the country of origin, or the second language.
3. Low-literate: An adult who has attended school, but who has a reading level below the
average primary school level.
4. Low-educated: Adult learners who have at most ten years of education in the country of
origin. For many adult immigrants and refugees, this means at most primary education.
(2., 3., and 4. from Van de Craats, Kurvers, and Young-Scholten 2006: 8)

In this section, we explore approaches for working with emergent readers, starting with the
Language Experience Approach (LEA) which begins with language that the learners are able to
produce orally, and uses that language as the basis for creating written texts.

A. Language Experience Approach

The Language Experience Approach (LEA) has been used for decades in elementary schools for
first-language literacy development. Because the texts used in this approach are student-generated,
it is ideal for any age learner and is highly useful as an approach for adult emergent readers and
writers. LEA is based on the assumption that if the words we generate describe our experiences,
we are far more likely to be able to read and understand them. Far too often, the reading texts
found in even beginning-level ESL materials are beyond the level of the learner audience; often the
content is disconnected from their life experiences and is outside their frame of reference.
So how does LEA work? A teacher who uses LEA can begin by having the class take part in a
group experience; this may be a field trip or a hands-on activity such as cooking, planting, etc.
Many times a field trip or other joint activity is impractical, so teachers commonly have students
describe something they’ve done over the weekend or before school, retell an event from their
lives, or describe a sequence of events using a picture sequence. In all of these cases, an oral
account is generated as the starting point for creating a core text. The teacher elicits orally from
the class what happened during the experience and transcribes the story on the board, or types
and projects it for the group.
There are divergent views on what the teacher transcribes. Many educators transcribe the text
verbatim, with all of the learners’ errors. This is based on the idea that in order for learners to
make meaning of the written word, it needs to be connected to what we know they can already
say and understand orally. Teachers can make corrections offered by other classmates as

1
 With the establishment of the international organization dedicated to working with adults and adolescents
with interrupted or limited prior formal schooling and limited literacy (LESLLA), more and more programs are
referring to these as LESLLA learners or programs.
Chapter 5 Developing Reading and Writing Skills 147
they are recording the story on the board, but other corrections to the text become part of an
extension activity in a later lesson. Some educators are hesitant to send an imperfect text home
with students. The other approach is to make corrections to the text as it is being written, but
those corrections need to be accessible to the students in class, i.e., no changes in vocabulary
or addition of complex grammar forms. The teacher taking this approach would add a plural –s,
perhaps, or –ed verb endings, for example. Once the class has created the text, the students can
take part in any number of activities, many of which are used in any reading lesson.

Table 5.2 Language Experience Activities

• Give the story a title.
• Copy the story for writing practice (handwritten or typed and printed on the spot to take home).
• Illustrate the story or match lines from the story with a visual representation.
• Cut words in sentences up and have student reorder them; cut the sentences up and have
student reorder them.
• Generate comprehension questions to ask a partner.
• Make a cloze text (leave out all the verbs, or every fifth word, for example, which learners fill in).
• Collect stories and create a class text for other groups at school to use as their reading text.
• Do phonics work (see 5.4 C).

The Language Experience Approach by no means needs to be used as a stand-alone approach to

teaching literacy. The principles of LEA have become standard practice as part of many English
language classrooms. This may take the form of learners with limited literacy reporting to a fellow
student what they did over the weekend, and having the more capable writer transcribe the story.
In project-based learning (2.10), a language experience may be part of a project, for example a
book of folktales told by students in class and transcribed by the teacher, students with more
literacy skills, or volunteers.

B. Whole Language
Whole Language is an overall philosophy to learning, which views language as something that
should be taught in its entirety—not broken up into small pieces to be decoded. It is often
thought of as an approach to literacy development, particularly because it replaced phonics-
based, bottom-up approaches in many school systems. Whole Language principles related to
literacy development are the following:
• It is a top-down approach and works with whole, authentic texts (not adapted, simplified books).
• It encourages the use of inventive spelling so that learners can begin to write without worrying
about mechanics at first.
• It is process oriented; learners create texts in steps including pre-writing and multiple drafts.
Whole Language represents much of what we know to be “best practice” with adult learners,
namely, a focus on meaningful and relevant material, a valuing of prior knowledge and
experience, and an emphasis on using reading and writing skills and strategies to understand
texts (predicting, using contextual clues, etc.). What it may not fully address are the needs of
learners who are learning to decode print for the first time.

C. The place of phonics

Phonics instruction is the direct teaching of alphabetic skills such as phonological awareness,
or the ability to notice individual sounds in spoken words, and decoding, for example,
recognizing sound/letter (or sound/symbol) correspondences. On its own, phonics instruction
represents a linear process whereby learners first acquire sound/letter correspondences,

148 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

with which they create words and then sentences. It is based on the assumption that the
learner has acquired oral language, which is the case for children learning to read in their
first language. This is not necessarily the case for adult English language learners, however.
In cases where adults have minimal or no oral skills in English, this bottom-up approach can
be problematic for ESL literacy development. Phonics by itself does not encourage readers
to make meaning of what they are reading, or to use contextual clues, predicting, or other
top-down, holistic processes that are all used by efficient readers. There is no question that
we use both top-down and bottom-up processing as we read, but the two are best used in
combination, and always with the goal of creating meaning out of what we read (Anderson
2014; Grabe and Stoller 2014). Proponents of Whole Language principles have proposed an
approach to working with emergent readers that combines elements of LEA and bottom-up
decoding skills needed when learning to read for the first time called the whole-part-whole
approach (Trupke-Bastidas and Poulos 2007).

D. Whole-part-whole: a balanced literacy approach

This approach encompasses Whole Language principles while acknowledging the need for
developing phonological decoding and phonemic awareness, or with some adult learners, the
ability to hold a pencil or write the alphabet. Proposed by Trupke-Bastidas and Poulos (2007),
which they adapted from Moustafa and Maldonado-Colon (1999), the approach begins with a
whole text that learners understand and then moves on to phonics instruction.

Return to the
Whole text: e.g.,
Phonics work whole text—
class-generated
based on words relate to own
text; simple
from the text(s) life—extension
story; an image
activities

Figure 5.3 The Whole-Part-Whole Approach

The “whole” text may be generated using LEA as described above, or it may come sources such as
these:
• Responses to a photograph or visual, picture stories, or photo books
• Transcribed recorded conversations
• Journal entries
• An instructional unit from your curriculum, for example, family relationships or job
explorations
(Liden, Poulos, and Vinogradov 2008; Vinogradov 2008)
Andrea Echelberger’s whole curriculum is based on learner-generated texts and the whole-part-
whole approach using topics related to learners’ personal needs. For this example, learners in
her literacy-level class were experiencing problems with pests in their building. Andrea wanted
to empower learners to acquire the language they needed to talk to their landlord about the
problems and she wanted to provide them with practical tools and language needed for buying
products they needed to control pests. This example showcases the steps that could be applied to
any whole-part-whole lesson. By the end of a one-week instructional cycle, the emergent readers
in her class can retell their story fluently in English.2

 A video of this lesson can be viewed at New American Horizons (newamericanhorizons.org)

2

Chapter 5 Developing Reading and Writing Skills 149

 The Whole
• The class takes a field trip to a hardware store; pictures are taken during the field trip.
• Next class, show the pictures—“What do you see? What did we do?”
• Teacher records what learners say to create a story about the field trip.
• Learners copy the story in their notebooks.
• Learners read and follow along as Andrea reads; helps connect oral language to print, then
read chorally to reinforce the connections between spoken language and written word.

The Parts
• Focus on individual words in the story: pronunciation of more difficult sounds.
• Work on onset/rime (different from rhyme); onset refers to the initial phonological unit
of any word (e.g., /w/ is will) and the term “rime” refers to the string of letters that follow,
usually a vowel and final consonants (e.g., “ill”). 
• What other words do you know with that same sound? Knowing one word in a set (or word
family) helps to spell other words (in this lesson, will/bill/kill/).
• Sentence ordering: each learner is given a word from the story. Andrea reads a sentence and
students stand in order. Do they recognize their words and where they go in the sentences
in the story? Class recites sentences, placing emphasis on the key words to practice sentence
stress. This process also addresses word order, upper and lower case letters, and punctuation.
• Sight words: a fluent reader can recognize sight words without sounding them out. Learners
do a flyswatter game to identify words quickly.
• Spelling with letter tiles: focused on words with diagraphs -ch (change; cockroach); th/ (with);
sh (dish soap)—she says a word from their story and learners spell the words collaboratively.
Returning to the Whole
• Making a complaint to the landlord: interview activity that draws from the whole text as well
as earlier lessons.
• Co-constructed dialogue: “What is your name? My name is . What is your address?
What is the problem? My is (broken, leaking, etc.). I have in my apartment.”
Choral practice of dialogue
• Mingle activity with grid: name, address, phone number, problem

5.6 Other strategies and techniques for emergent readers and writers
In addition to the approaches outlined so far in this chapter, there are other practices and
techniques for working with literacy-level learners that can be incorporated into any type of lesson.
Lisa Gonzalvez shared these recommendations from her practice with literacy-level learners:

For literacy level learners, I consider what other language elements I can sprinkle into the lesson to
foster metalinguistic understanding. For example, in a lesson focused on building a new vocabulary
set, aside from simply concentrating on the new words and their meaning, I can also focus on
orthographic and phonemic level structures as well—for example, taking the time to spell out the
words letter by letter to reinforce letter-graph correspondences, calling attention to how many letters
and syllables a word has to highlight “parts” of a word, having students identify the first sound of
words and brainstorm other words with the same initial sound to emphasize phonemic awareness,
etc. In other words, I try to get a lot of mileage out of a seemingly simple activity, hitting on many
skills at once!

150 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Table 5.3 outlines considerations and practices that make instruction responsive to the needs of
literacy-level learners with limited prior formal schooling.

Table 5.3 Working with Low-Literacy, Non-Formally Educated Learners

Principles Examples
Teach within a context; • F
 ind out about learners’ families, homes, hobbies, interests,
focus on meaning and prior work experiences, and teach language skills around a
communication central theme.
Draw on learners’ funds • If you have a former farmer or mechanic in class, build units
of knowledge, creating about gardening or cars; consider cooking, sewing, and other
lessons that leverage their skills learners have.
prior knowledge and skills • Extend textbook readings by having students talk and write
about their own similar experiences.
Teach to a variety of • U se graphics, pictures, and realia (i.e., real objects such as
learning strengths and tools, food items or real texts such as flyers, junk mail)
backgrounds • Use hands-on activities; get students moving around the
room; use music, rhythms, and chants.
Make the connection • Focus on oral language before moving to print.
between oral and written • Make sure that students understand a word before they read it.
language meaningful
Integrate instruction in • Practice tracing shapes, letters, and numbers.
basic alphabetics as well • Display alphabet in room; practice copying the alphabet; play
as numerical literacy and concentration with letter flash cards.
numeracy3
• Work on alphabetization, e.g., learners stand in alphabetical
order by first letter of name and gradually go to second and
third letters of names.
• Listen and respond to simple addition facts, e.g., “How many
children do you have? How many does Elena have? How many
do you have all together?”
Use learners’ first • Allow learners to attend to the task at hand.
language for clarification • Learners clarify among themselves.
Build in frequent breaks • Learning to read can be exhausting.
and don’t be afraid of • Learners need to see, say, and read words multiple times and
repetition in multiple ways.

(Bigelow and Vinogradov 2011; Vinogradov 2009; Tarone and Bigelow 2005; Condelli and Wrigley 2004)

3
 Visit the Project TIAN (Teachers Investigating Adult Numeracy) website for ideas and resources for
addressing numeracy in adult English language classrooms— https://external-wiki.terc.edu/pages/viewpage.
action?pageId=39846228.

Chapter 5 Developing Reading and Writing Skills 151

Conclusion
This section has focused on approaches that integrate reading and writing instruction for those
students with very limited literacy or who may be learning to read for the first time. Next, we turn
to activities and lessons for working with longer texts, focusing on the development of reading
strategies that help learners access the print they encounter at school, work, home, and in their
communities.

152 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Part II: Accessing a variety of text types

5.7 Preparing students for functional reading texts

Learners new to a country often need practice in understanding environmental print (labels,
signs) and functional texts (forms, applications, IDs), which typically follow set conventions. The
nutritional value of a food item is displayed in a format that is consistent from one product to the
next; medication labels are presented in consistent formats as well. These conventions are not
universal, however, so teaching functional reading goes beyond reading words; it includes helping
learners know where to find information, knowing which information is helpful and necessary to
the reader, and is driven by the assumption and understanding that information can be gleaned
from text in particular ways. Within an integrated curriculum, functional reading tasks are
commonly incorporated within thematic units, or situated in contexts that relate to what learners
need to do outside of the classroom, and they include both print and digital texts.
The theme of health and wellness is found in many adult ESL curricula. In the following example
from an intermediate-level integrated-skills English class, the teacher brings in over-the-counter
medications students may need to use, which are distributed to each class member. The purpose
of this task is to give learners practice in finding key information on medicine labels. Each student
has the grid below and mingles to gather information from classmates to fill in the instructions for
each product.

Gathering Information About Medicine

Product Directions: Helps the Following Warnings:

Frequency and Symptoms:
Amount of Dose
Aspirin
Antacid
Cough syrup
Decongestant
Non-aspirin pain relief

Functional reading tasks can be developed for any type of functional reading text (e.g., washing
instructions in clothing labels, directions for assembling a piece of furniture) or environmental
print (e.g., advertisements, signs). If you are in a career-contextualized or Integrated Education and
Training program, look for the functional reading tasks associated with that type of job or career.
It is important that you identify the types of texts that follow set conventions within a particular
society or career context so that learners gain the skill of reading selectively to find the information
they need within a text (print or digital). Here are some examples of those types of texts. Can you
think of any others? Look back to your list of reading texts that you generated in task 5.1 for ideas.
• Unit pricing at the grocery store
• Product quantity and measurements
• Online forms from child’s school, e.g., grading portal
• Work schedules
• Warning signs

Chapter 5 Developing Reading and Writing Skills 153

• Work forms for reporting task completion
• Pay slips, print or electronic
• Classified ads, print or online
•
•
Learning about learners’ daily activities and analyzing the reading tasks associated with those
daily activities can help identify learners’ literacy needs and should inform the content you choose
and lessons you develop.

5.8 Lessons to promote strategies development

Learners at every level encounter extended texts, for example, articles, short stories, or work
manuals in their daily lives (remember the list generated in column 2 of Task 5.1). In this section,
we turn to the strategies learners can employ to access more complex texts, print or digital, and
prose or visual.

Think about it . . .
Take a moment to go back to the ideas you generated in task 5.1, particularly the extended texts.
What strategies do you employ as you read those types of texts? For example, do you anticipate
content and make predictions? When do you skim for the general idea or scan for specific
information? As with listening, we employ a variety of reading strategies depending on our
purpose for reading and the type of text we need to comprehend. Table 5.4 provides an overview
of reading strategies along with the purpose and some practices of each.

Table 5.4 Reading Strategies, Purposes, and Practices

Reading Strategy Purpose and Practices
Readers . . .
Anticipate content; preview approach a reading text with expectations; they look at
and predict pictures, the title, subheadings, and captions and make
guesses about what the text will tell us.
Read to confirm check to see if predictions are right or wrong.
predictions
Skim read quickly to get a general idea (gist) of a text.
Scan read only for the information they need, for example, the
total amount due and the due date on a bill; our name and
assigned hours on a work schedule posted in a break room.
Read for details employ intensive reading, or try to understand the text in its
entirety.
Make inferences interpret and make inferences about what they have read;
“read between the lines.”
Recognize the structure recognize how specific sentences, paragraphs, and larger
of a text portions of the text relate to each other and the whole. Does
the text represent a narrative, a process, or a chronology?
Find evidence to support identify the main points and claims made in a text and then
claims identify evidence that supports those claims.

154 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Transfer information to recognize the connections between what is presented in a
other contexts text with an accompanying visual (chart of graph); transfer
information from the text to a visual representation.
Interpret information recognize what informational charts, tables, or graphs
presented in variety of represent. Is it showing comparisons, cause-effect
forms relationships, or categorization?
Summarize text and determine central ideas or themes of a text and analyze
synthesize information from their development; summarize the key supporting details
multiple texts and ideas.
Analyze relationships within analyze how and why individuals, events, and ideas develop
a text and interact during the course of a text.

A reading lesson unfolds in a series of stages, similar to those described for listening lessons in
Chapter 4 (see Table 4.1), beginning with pre-reading to activate learners’ schema. This is followed
by during-reading tasks to promote practice with a range of reading strategies. The lesson ends
with follow-up/post-reading activities that allow learners to make use of the knowledge gained
from the reading text and apply it to their own lives or to a new situation. While lessons should
always begin with pre-reading and end with follow-up, the number of activities in between will
vary depending on the level of the learners and type of text used. Let’s see what kinds of reading
tasks will provide practice with some of the strategies in Table 5.4 using a short biographical
passage about President Barack Obama in a class for high-beginning English learners.

Sample Reading Lesson 1

Class description: 20 high-beginning adult ELs from a variety of backgrounds
Reading objectives:
• make and confirm predictions about a text
• scan for specific information; transfer key facts to a graphic representation
• find evidence to support claims
Assumptions: The students have print literacy in their L1 and need continued practice
developing strategies for comprehending texts in English.

Pre-reading anticipate content; preview and predict:

Students look at a photo of President Barack Obama and work with a partner in small groups
to complete a KWL chart.

K W L
What do you know about What do you want to learn? What did you learn?
President Barack Obama?

• Using a KWL chart allows students to explore their prior knowledge about a topic.
• The accompanying visual provides a prompt for sharing what they already know and would
like to learn.

Chapter 5 Developing Reading and Writing Skills 155

 Reading Task 1: Read to confirm predictions
Next, learners read the passage one time to check their predictions (K) and to see if they can
find answers to any of their questions (W).

Barack Hussein Obama was born on August 4, 1961. He finished high school in 1979. He
earned his bachelor’s degree in 1983 and went to law school from 1988 to 1991. He met
Michelle in 1989. He married Michelle in 1992. He became a state senator in Illinois in 1996.
His first daughter, Malia, was born in 1998, and Sasha was born in 2001. He became a United
States senator in 2004 and became the 44th president of the United States in 2008, the first
African American to hold that office, and served two terms until January 2016.

• The K column directs student reading; students may read more selectively, looking only for
information to confirm predictions.
• The W column helps personalize the reading task, which can lead to higher levels of
engagement.
Reading Task 2: Scan for specific information
Learners read the text again and fill in this graphic organizer:

1961 1979 1983 1988 1991 1992 1996 2004 2008 2016

finished married
his BA Michelle

In doing so, learners now practice these reading strategies:

Recognize the structure of a text: The timeline signals to the reader that this is a chronology.
Transfer information to other contexts: Reading and filling in the timeline demonstrates that
there is a connection between the text and a visual representation.
Interpret information presented in variety of forms: Transferring information from a text to a
visual representation gives direct practice in interpreting information in a variety of forms.
Reading Task 3: Close reading
Learners read again and answer these questions:
1. True or False: President Obama started a family right after getting married.
Why:
2. True or False: He met Michelle when he was still a student.
Why:
3. True or False: He and Michelle started a family before he worked in state politics.
Why:
4. True or False: President Obama’s election made history in the United States.
Why:

156 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 These questions give learners practice with finding evidence to support claims:
• A reader must analyze the meaning of “right after.” He married in 1992 and started a family
in 1998, which is not “right after.”
• These questions prompt students to analyze the information, not simply repeat facts as they
are presented (e.g., When did he meet Michelle?). If he was in law school from 1988 to 1991,
he had to be a student when he met Michelle in 1989. The reading doesn’t state directly
that he made history, but the reader can recognize the significance of being the first African
American elected president of the U.S.
Follow-up/post-reading: Learners identify an important figure they would like to learn more
about or share about with others in class. They may do web research, visit their local library,
or interview (and audio record) someone they consider knowledgeable on the subject. For
the next class, they write or audio record a short biography and a partner listens or reads and
completes a timeline graphic organizer.

5.9 Reading and the development of academic language skills

The following sample lesson demonstrates a variety of ways to work with longer texts that reflect
what a learner may encounter in an academic setting. Here we see how to use a jigsaw approach,
which is where groups are assigned to work with one portion of a reading and then they present
what they have learned in new groups to bring the pieces of the reading together. When sharing
what they have read, there is a genuine information gap among students since each group
member has read something different and everyone has something new to learn. In Sample
Reading Lesson 2, we also see how to weave in practice with a variety skills deemed essential in
academic settings (Bunch and Kibler 2015):
• Using graphic organizers to help learners organize ideas and recognize text structure
• Highlighting academic language frames to talk about the reading
• Interviewing others, collecting and analyzing data, and developing a visual representation
(bar graphs)
• Synthesizing information from multiple sources (the reading and their class research)
As you review this sample lesson, note which reading strategies from Table 5.4 are promoted
through the reading activities in this lesson. The topic, the science of happiness, was chosen to
represent what learners might encounter in an introductory psychology course and is also a topic
that could have universal appeal. It also opens up the opportunity to reflect critically on what
might be considered a “first-world” concern.

Sample Reading Lesson 2: The Science of Happiness (see reading text in appendix)
Class Description: 22 high-intermediate/advanced level learners from a variety of countries in a
pre-academic Bridge program

Objectives
Reading:
• Read for specific information to define terms and identify research findings in an article
• Transfer information from a reading to a visual representation
Speaking:
• Report on the findings of one study
• Interview others and summarize findings

Chapter 5 Developing Reading and Writing Skills 157

 Academic language:
• Use language for reporting: e.g., it was found that, the study showed that . . .
• Use language for defining terms in academic writing: e.g., it is, which is, means . . .
• Use language to describe results: e.g., the majority of the class, two thirds of the class, etc.
Critical thinking:
• Compare and contrast views on happiness
• Analyze results
Assumptions/anticipated problems: Although students have an advanced level of reading and
writing, there is a wide range of oral language skills represented in the class. Anticipate that
some students may need additional scaffolding. Students may struggle with interacting/sharing
openly about this topic.
Stage I (pre-reading): Talk to a partner, someone from a different culture, if possible, and compare
your definitions of happiness. Write anything that is similar in the center of this Venn diagram. Write
what is unique for each of you on either side.

    My definition      Both of us      My partner’s definition

Discussion
Now, consider what makes you genuinely happy. Does the society we live in affect our measures of
happiness? Take a few minutes to note some of your ideas and then discuss these questions in small
groups:
1. Are those living in a developed society with everything they need to meet their daily needs
happier than someone living with very little in a rural area of a developing country?
2. In what ways do the following factors affect our sense of well-being or happiness: age,
wealth, political climate, marital status?
Jigsaw reading part 1 T: Psychologists have conducted research on a variety of tools to help us
enhance our feelings of happiness. Complete your assigned section of this chart. Write a definition of
your assigned technique in the left-hand column and the effect of the technique on the right. Notice
the underlined words help you find the definitions and the bold words direct you to the results, or
effect of each technique in the studies.
(Make four groups and assign each group one technique to learn about: A, B, C, or D.)

158 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 The Science of Happiness

Technique        Results
Technique A: Gratitude
Journal

Technique B: Acts of
Kindness

Technique C: Gratitude
Visit

Technique D: Three
Blessings

Jigsaw reading part 2 T: Now mingle to complete your chart. Find classmates who have read
the other sections and learn about the happiness enhancers and the results of the studies. As you
present to your classmates, notice words that you can use to describe the results.
It was found that…
The study showed that…
The researcher found that…
When people tried , they
Close reading: notice that these are what are called text-dependent questions, that is, the
learner needs to go back to the text and read carefully to find the information. This gives them
valuable practice in finding evidence in a reading to support claims.
Now look at the entire reading. Answer these questions and then compare your answers with a partner.
1. What changes have there been regarding the types of psychological research conducted?
2. What approach to using the gratitude journal has the greatest impact?
3. Why might “three blessings” be a more promising technique to use for boosting happiness?
4. What does it mean to have a “control group” in these studies? Why is having a control group
important?
5. Why might these studies not be generalizable to other populations?

Post-reading/follow-up T: Let’s do our own research. Which of the happiness enhancers are people in
class most likely to try? Interview everyone in class with your assigned question and tally your results.

1. How likely are you to try the Gratitude Journal?

Very Likely to Try It Likely to Try It Somewhat Likely to Not at All Likely to
Try It Try It

Chapter 5 Developing Reading and Writing Skills 159

 2. How likely are you to try Performing Acts of Kindness?
Very Likely to Try It Likely to Try It Somewhat Likely to Not at All Likely to
Try It Try It

3. How likely are you to try the Gratitude Visits?

Very Likely to Try It Likely to Try It Somewhat Likely to Not at All Likely to
Try It Try It

4. How likely are you to try the Three Blessings?

Very Likely to Try It Likely to Try It Somewhat Likely to Not at All Likely to
Try It Try It

Once the students have interviewed everyone, place those students with the same question
together to analyze their data. Give useful language frames to talk about the data:
Most people . . . Some people . . .
Two-thirds of the class . . . Half the class . . .
More people ______ than ____________. A considerable number of people . . .
The vast majority of the class . . .
Students now create bar graphs for their question and present their findings to others in class.
Summarizing the results T: Working in groups, compare your results. Be ready to report at least two
generalizations you can make about this group and their likelihood to try the different techniques.

5.10 Paired reading

Similar to jigsaw reading, paired reading involves working with two texts on the same topic.
Pairs of learners read one of two assigned texts and then work with another pair of learners to
combine the key concepts from their texts. They then use their shared knowledge to complete
a team task, for example, a Venn diagram comparing and contrasting the information that was
presented on the same topic but from two different perspectives (Adelson Goldstein 2016). Jayme
Adelson Goldstein enumerates the myriad skills this approach generates:
While relating the key points of their texts, learners are employing the language skills of
summarizing and paraphrasing and working on communicating clearly and checking their listeners’
understanding. Likewise, learners listening to their peers are listening for key details by using active
listening skills and self-monitoring to ensure they get the information they need (2016: 25).
Working with two or more readings on one topic allows learners to explore multiple perspectives
on a topic and promotes an authentic purpose for a reader to engage with others. Also, working
in teams and drawing on a variety of sources represents what we might do while collaborating
with others in work, community, or school settings.

160 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 5.11 Using learner-produced texts
Students who publish their writings within and beyond the classroom experience many benefits.
They discover that the realities of their own lives are worth thinking about, getting down on
paper, and sharing with others. When they see their thoughts and concerns and those of others
like them in print, they find they have a powerful voice and play a vital role in their new culture
(Peyton 1993: 60).
Joy Peyton, a specialist in adult literacy for English learners, makes a strong case for using student-
generated texts in the ESL classroom. Doing so has many advantages:
• The texts are simply written and easy to understand.
• The content is relevant to new immigrants as the themes are those chosen by other new
immigrants.
• Using stories written by other immigrants, especially those that have been published, is very
motivating for English language learners.
In her family literacy program, Laura Lenz used project-based learning to create a world travel
book. Students from the same country took responsibility for writing about different topics. Three
different students from Liberia wrote these excerpts from the world travel book.

Liberia

People
In Liberia people don’t have money, clothes, food, or good water. People make farms before
they eat and sell some food at market. They buy clothes at market. In Monrovia our people
have businesses and electricity and rent refrigerators. There are different languages like Mano,
Gio, Bassa, Kpelle, Vai, Kru, Grebo, Kissi, Loma, and English.
History
Liberia is in west Africa near the Atlantic Ocean. Guinea, Ivory Coast, and Sierra Leone are
next to Liberia. Liberia was named by slaves from America who returned to Liberia in 1816.
Monrovia is the capitol of Liberia. Monrovia is a city on the west coast of Liberia.
Food
In Liberia in the morning we eat potatoes, cassava with gravy, or doughnuts. Cassava grows on
the ground and is big and long. You take off the peeling and boil it or eat it raw. For lunch or
dinner we eat rice with meat. We eat goat, chicken or beef. We also eat fufu with palm butter.
Fufu is made out of cassava.
Some types of food that grow in Liberia are plantains, potatoes, eddoes, plums, oranges,
coffee, and cocoa. Many people grow their own gardens. They plant potatoes, greens, cabbage,
bananas, eggplants, rice, and cassava. When the food is grown, people eat it or sell it.

In producing these texts, Laura took learners through multiple activities and learners created
numerous drafts before publishing their work (See sections 5.14 and 5.15 for more ideas on
developing written texts like these). The results show the care students take in completing their
work as well as the rich content of learner-generated texts; they are authentic, yet the level of
language in the stories is accessible for other learners with beginning-level literacy skills. Now
these texts can be used as the basis for a reading lesson like the one that follows.

Chapter 5 Developing Reading and Writing Skills 161

Sample Reading Lesson with Learner-Generated Texts
I. Pre-reading
Task 1 Teacher asks class these questions: Where is Liberia? Who can find it on this map? Do you
know anyone from Liberia?
Task 2 Teacher: Let’s see how much you know about Liberia. Don’t worry if you are not sure. You will
read what other students wrote about this country later in the lesson.

Are these sentences true or false? Circle True or False.

True False Most people in Liberia have electricity.
True False People speak many languages in Liberia.
True False Liberia is on the East coast of Africa.
True False Many people buy and sell food at the market.
True False Liberia was named by slaves who returned to Africa.

Compare your answers with a partner.

II. Reading Activities

The reading on Liberia with the multiple sections makes it ideal for jigsaw reading.
Teacher: Now you can learn more about Liberia. Some of you will learn about food, some about
people, and some about the history.
• T hree groups (A, B, and C) are created and each one is given only one section of the reading
about Liberia (A: People, B: History, C: Food).
• Each group (A group, B group, C group) is given the worksheet below and must work together
to find answers to only their questions.

Work with your group to find answers to these questions.

Group A How do people make money?
People Where do they get clothing?
What languages do they speak?
How is life in Monrovia?
Group B Where is Liberia?
History How was it named?
What is the capital?
Group C What do people eat in the morning?
Food What do people eat for lunch and dinner?
What foods grow in Liberia?

• O nce each group has answered the questions for their section, the teacher creates new groups
made up of one member from each of the original groups (ABC, ABC, etc.).
• Students in the new groups present the information found in their section on people, history,
or food.
As students listen to their classmates, they write answers to the questions for the sections they
did not read.
162 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
Teacher: Now go back to the true and false questions and see if your responses were correct.
Follow-up/post-reading: Now interview your classmates to learn some things about the history,
people, and foods from their countries. Use the same questions you used for the reading activity.

People History Food

Name
Country
Name
Country
Name
Country

This lesson contained the same stages as the advanced-level reading lesson using a longer
informational text. The activities for beginning-level reading lessons serve the same purposes:
activate prior knowledge, read for a purpose (any number of strategies outlined in the chapter),
and apply the knowledge gained in other contexts.
An excellent source for learner-generated texts is the World Education publication, The Change
Agent, which has as its mission to “to promote social action as an important part of the adult
learning experience” (The Change Agent web page). The magazine is comprised of articles written and
submitted for publication by adult learners. Each issue revolves around a theme, making it ideal for
developing paired reading lessons. The accompanying web page provides sample lessons for some
of the articles along with audio, alignment to standards, and the opportunity for readers to respond
to the articles. This example below focuses on the steps toward a career pathway, which could be
highly relevant in a career-contextualized English class or an integrated skills class. Reading about
other learners’ career paths can be highly motivating for adult English language learners.
Career Pathways

Becoming a Paramedic
Chrishana Burton
I’ve always wanted to explore the medical field,
but I wasn’t sure where to start. I’ve done some
research and decided I’d like to start out as an
Emergency Medical Technician (EMT) and then
work my way up to paramedic.
There are many reasons I am excited about
becoming a paramedic. I will be able to read heart
monitoring machines, run IVs, and give medica-
tion. To me, this is very exciting. I like being in a are, where they like to hang out, and what hobbies
fast-paced environment, she is interested in.
and this has “me” written However, what matters most to me is being
The opportunity all over it. Also, the op- able to provide a childhood for my daughter that
to save some- portunity to save some- is better than the one I had. I want her to be proud
one’s life: what’s one’s life: what’s better of me. So I am will-
better than that? than that? ing to take on this very
Despite all this career demanding career. I will I cannot see my-
excitement, I’ve also have to prepare myself self staying in the
discovered some cons to this field: like possibly mentally and physically. dead-end retail
being exposed to contagious diseases and viruses. I really cannot see myself
There is also the risk of being injured by combative staying in the dead-end world that I’m
patients, as paramedics often arrive at the scene retail world that I’m currently in.
before the police. Also, being a paramedic, you are currently in. I demand
always on call. Some paramedics work more than to make a difference in this world by doing some-
40 hours a week. This leads to less family time thing that’s beneficial to both my family and me.
which is very important to me. I want to be there
for my daughter while she is growing up. I don’t Chrishana Burton is a student at the Mid-Manhattan Learning
want to miss the little things, like who her friends Center in New York City.

Emergency Responder Pathway

Title Work Credential
EMTs take care of patients at the scene of an incident and
transport them to the hospital. They can assess a patient’s Certification, which takes about 6
EMT Basic
condition and manage respiratory, cardiac, and trauma months of part-time classes.
emergencies.
In addition to the above, Advanced EMTs can administer Certification as an EMT plus 188
Advanced EMT
intravenous fluids and give some medications. additonal hours of training.
In addition to the above, Paramedics can give more
Technical certificate or Associate’s
Paramedic medications, perform endotracheal intubation, interpret
Degree, which takes 1-2 years.
EKGs, and use other monitors and complex equipment.

The Change Agent — September 2017 9

Chapter 5 Developing Reading and Writing Skills 163

 5.12 Extensive reading: book groups and reading circles
A final consideration in this section is the benefits of reading extensively and for pleasure. As
William Grabe notes: “There is no escaping the simple fact that one learns to read by reading (and
by reading a lot)” (Grabe 2009: 28). Providing time for extensive reading in class and promoting
practice for extensive reading outside of class (e.g., reading logs) have shown to increase adult
learner interest, motivation, and confidence in reading (Ewert 2013, Garvey 2018). Texts used for
this purpose need to be highly accessible (95-98% of words are known) and on topics that are of
interest to learners (Nation 2007). Teachers can do any of the following to promote practice with
extensive reading:
• Establish book clubs within a class or at the program level.
• Create a leveled reading library with a range of texts (fiction, non-fiction, informational)4.
• Provide class time for sustained silent reading.
• Assign reading logs and reading journals; use that information as the basis for in-class
discussions.

Conclusion
Whether a teacher is working with preliterate students or learners with highly developed literacy
skills, all instruction should have some key elements in common. Activities need to reflect the
ways in which literacy is situated in learners’ lives and teachers need to draw on learners’ prior
knowledge about the content of the lesson. Learners should be given opportunities to go beyond
the information provided in the text and interpret it through their unique experiences, knowledge,
and interests. They should also be afforded the opportunity to work on higher-order reading and
thinking skills such as interpreting information presented in multiple formats (tables, graphs) or
extracting evidence to support claims in a reading.

4
 Grass Roots Press and Peppercorn provide extensive lists of easy-to-read biographies http://www.
grassrootsbooks.net/us/biographies; http://www.peppercornbooks.com/catalog/
164 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
Part III: Teaching writing to English language learners

5.13 Introduction
The Language Experience Approach as well as Whole Language and Balanced Literacy Approaches
outlined in Part I of this chapter all integrate reading and writing instruction. Regardless of
learners’ level, literacy development is, ideally, always integrated with other language skills
and taught in rich, meaningful contexts. That said, there are specific instructional strategies for
teaching writing that are the focus of this section. We explore practices for developing writing
skills for both everyday and academic purposes. We also need to remember that we compose
with pen and paper as well as with computers or other digital tools. Consider how the examples
we explore would apply using either one.
While life-skills, product-oriented approaches common in adult ESL classes (e.g., writing to meet
basic functional needs such as filling in forms) may still have a place for newcomers, they do not
adequately prepare learners for the demands of work or further education (Fernandez, Peyton,
and Schaetzel 2017; Johnson and Parrish 2010). In this section, we look at the types of writing we
encounter in our daily lives, at work, and post-secondary settings.

Getting Started
Task 5.3
Take a few minutes to brainstorm what you have written in the past two days. Work with a
partner or on your own.

What have you written in the past two days?

an email to a friend
a report for work
a grocery list
a paper for school

Now place the items from your list in one of these two categories: everyday/functional writing
or extensive writing and answer the questions that follow.

Everyday/functional writing Extensive writing

1. Which type of writing follows set conventions?

2. Are the writing processes different? In what ways?

5.14 Product-oriented vs. extensive writing tasks

Writing takes on many forms in our lives, everything from jotting down phone messages to writing
research papers, and the processes we use to write vary greatly depending on the purpose of
the writing task. As you saw in Task 5.3, some of what we write is highly instrumental, writing for
Chapter 5 Developing Reading and Writing Skills 165
an immediate, functional need such as filling out a credit card application. Extensive writing, for
example, a letter to the editor or an argumentative essay for a class, entails attention to genre,
audience, and the academic language that goes with each of those. Extensive writing also requires
more planning and revising than short functional writing products. Table 5.5 provides examples
of both functional and extensive writing tasks that may be common in different areas of learners’
lives. How does this compare to your own list in Task 5.3?
Table 5.5 Types of Writing Tasks
Functional Writing Tasks Extensive Writing Tasks
Work-related: Work-related:
filling in forms to report defects of parts or thank you letter or email after a job
accident reports interview
writing résumés responding to email requests
Academic: Academic:
completing registration forms lab journals
filling in an online request for a book or an essays
article at the library research papers
Personal: Personal:
addressing letters letters to the editor
filling in a calendar letters of complaint to a landlord

The first thing you may notice is that functional writing tasks have set conventions while extensive
writing tasks entail attention to genre, audience, and academic language specific to that genre, as
depicted in Figure 5.4.

Genre:
narrative
expository
descriptive
persuasive

Elements of
Extensive
Writing

Language
Audience:
Conventions:
the general public
text structure
other students in
(tied to genre)
class the teacher
academic language
experts/non-
academic
experts
vocabulary

Figure 5.4 Elements of Extensive Writing

166 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Students aspiring to attain a high-school equivalency, to retrain or get re-credentialed in their field,
or pursue postsecondary training or education, need to work on these elements of extensive writing;
they need to access a variety of sources and then cite them appropriately in their writing. Writing
conventions themselves are socially constructed and the academic genres common in one society
may not be present in another. Starting an essay with a thesis statement is not a universal rhetorical
practice and acceptable topics in academic writing differ across cultures as well (Hinkel 2014).
In their survey study of over 270 teachers’ practices for teaching writing to adult English language
learners, Fernandez, Peyton, and Schaetzel (2017) found that there was limited instruction on writing
genres other than narratives, little attention paid to audience (i.e., writing for a truly communicative
purpose), or the academic language needed to express ideas clearly. Teachers in the study cited
working on the types of functional writing tasks outlined above (e.g., résumés) but the following
writing tasks were found to be the most prevalent, with 50 or more teachers responding that they
often or sometimes include this as part of writing practice: grammar and punctuation exercises;
class notes; short answers to essay questions, and biographical or personal writing. Johnson and
Parrish (2010) found only five percent of adult educators assign research papers while nearly half
of community college faculty in two-year programs assigned them in their classes. They, too, found
that the most common text genre in both reading and writing instruction was narratives. It’s a
misconception that extensive writing tasks should be reserved for intermediate to advanced level
learners and in this section, we will look at ways to lead all learners to writing for a variety of purposes.
Writing tasks that follow set conventions and for which the reader has specific expectations, for
example, an online form for reporting an absence at school or work, may merit a more product-
oriented approach to teaching. These types of functional tasks are not open to interpretation
by the writer and often follow conventions that are specific to a particular task. Extensive writing
tasks, on the other hand, can benefit from the stages of brainstorming, drafting, editing, and
rewriting in a process-oriented approach.

5.15 Writing from the beginning: product-oriented tasks

As part of an emergent-literacy curriculum (see 5.4) or with learners who have print literacy in their
L1 but are beginners in English, learners need practice in handwriting, spelling, basic grammar
structures (tense, word order, subject-verb agreement), and punctuation, among other things.
These skills can be integrated throughout instruction and in any type of lesson with beginning
learners. This section contains an array of writing activities that can be characterized as form-
focused and primarily product-oriented. Since many daily, product-oriented writing tasks are
completed in an online environment, this is an ideal way to integrate practice with digital literacy
skills as well (e.g., emailing a teacher about an absence, filling forms in online) (Harris 2015a; 2015b).

Vanishing Letters
Copying words, making lists, or labeling objects have great benefit for emergent writers, provided
that practice is motivating and helps learners to strengthen their writing skills. Vanishing letters
(Brod 1999) helps learners to build confidence in writing words on their own. Learners begin by
copying a complete word, and then the teacher removes one letter at a time until the students
write the word on their own. This example could be in a lesson on writing addresses (note the
upper case S and A when the word is part of an address):
Street Avenue
S__ r e e t A__enue
S __ r __ e t A__e__ue
S __ __ __ e t A__ __ __ue
__ __ __ __ e t __ __ __ __ue
__ __ __ __ __ t __ __ __ __ __ e
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
Chapter 5 Developing Reading and Writing Skills 167
This technique works equally well with sentences or short paragraphs using vanishing words. This
can be included as one of the activities in a whole-part-whole lesson (5.4 D) using words that are
familiar to students.
Many of the everyday writing tasks that involve simple prose, for example, writing notes to school or
leaving a message for a coworker, can be developed through scaffolded writing (Brod 1999; Gibbons
2015). With this technique, the teacher provides a sample text with key information left out. In this
day and age, reporting a child’s absence at school is normally done by phone or online, but a common
reason to write a note is when a child needs to leave school early or when filling in permission slips for
a school field trip. The tasks we assign should replicate real-world purposes for writing.

Dear ,
needs to leave school early today for . I will pick her up at .
Thank you.
Yours truly,

Similar to scaffolded writing is the use of sentence frames, which provide a framework for
developing short prose pieces. In the student-produced World Travel Book (see 5.10), the teacher
provided students with sentence frames such as these:

I come from .
is in .
In my country, people .
We eat .
The capital is .

The sentences generated through this task were then combined to develop simple paragraphs.
Each piece of work was reviewed by the teacher or a volunteer and then the students typed the
final drafts.

Dictation
Dictations have been used throughout the ages in language teaching. Provided that the content
of sentences or passages that are used is meaningful and related to the content of instruction,
dictation is an excellent way to help learners build confidence in their writing, and to check their
ability to transfer what they understand orally to writing. Dictation is commonly done in pairs,
making it an interactive task as well, as students check for understanding and ask for clarification.
Here are just a few ways to make dictation meaningful (note that learners can write, type, or even
compose a text message of what they hear):
• In a lesson on making appointments by phone, dictate name and phone numbers to a
partner. To practice pronunciation of number pairs 13/30, 14/40, etc., dictate phone numbers,
addresses, or simple equations that use those numbers. Have students practice on their own
phones, or seated, back-to-back to rehearse using the numbers.
• Dictate short passages or class-generated texts that, once checked for accuracy, are used for
reading or further writing practice (parallel writing, vanishing words).
• Dictate vocabulary words that have been covered in class for review and to practice spelling.
Teachers can also set up a running dictation where the text is placed in one part of the room and
one learner must go from the text to a partner to recall as much of the text as they can at a time.
168 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
This task promotes additional skills related to peer-peer clarifications. Text content can draw on
class discussions, vocabulary, or other content of use and interest at a given time.

Dictocomp/Dictogloss
An alternative to strict dictation is a guided writing technique called dictocomp or dictogloss. The
teacher reads a short text, for example, a paragraph, story, or even a short article depending on the
level of the learners. After reading the text aloud two or three times at normal speed, the teacher
writes key words on the board and has the students write what they can recall from the text. The story
and key words provide learners with content while giving them practice at writing in their own words.
Any of these form-focused activities can be used within any teaching approach or type of lesson,
for example, as one of the practice activities in a contextualized language lesson (3.6).

5.16 Extensive writing

In addition to gaps between the types of writing tasks found in many adult education classes as
compared to those required for careers and further education is the amount of writing students
do in these two settings (Fernandez, Peyton, and Schaetzel 2017; Johnson and Parrish 2010).
Fernandez, Peyton, and Schaetzel (2017) found that teachers of beginning to low-intermediate
adult ELs had learners, on average, write no more than a paragraph a week. We start this section
with an example of how we can build academic writing skills that attend to genre, audience, and
academic language with learners at virtually any level, provided we give them the right supports.
In this sample for an intermediate-level class, we begin with pre-writing by generating ideas on
the topic of caring for the elderly using an interview task and graphic organizer to record ideas.
This approach allows us to first develop academic language through conversation (Egan and
Parrish 2019; Zwiers and Crawford 2011), which can then serve as a bridge to more academic
writing. Learners gather information from class members about different ways people care for
the elderly. Then they use a paragraph frame, or academic writing scaffold, a technique that
supports learners’ development of academic discourse (Graff and Birkenstein 2014) to write a
two-paragraph essay about the class’s practices.

Sample Writing Lesson 1

Step 1: Mingle Interview with Graphic Organizer
Interview others in class to find out how people care for the elderly in different families and
communities.
T: Let’s learn about different ways of caring for the elderly.
Our class
In your family or community . . .

Where do the Who has the responsibility of Who makes medical

elderly usually live? caring for aging parents? decisions for sick parents?

Step 2: Now have learners analyze the information they have gathered. One possibility would
be to explore similarities and differences between two learners, two countries represented in
class, or between the country where learners currently reside to the countries where they are
from. Provide a new graphic organizer such as a Venn diagram for each question:

Chapter 5 Developing Reading and Writing Skills 169

 T: Who has the responsibility of caring for aging parents?
In the UK/U.S./Canada      In my country of origin

Step 3: Using Paragraph Frames

Now students use the information they gathered to write their essay with the support of
paragraph frames.

Now Let’s Write About Our Class

The ways families in our class treat the elderly are similar in several ways. They often
 .
They also  .
Furthermore, many people report that  .
Because of these similarities, it seems that
 .

However, families in our class differ in some key areas. First,

, whereas

 . In addition, . In contrast,
. These differences suggest that
.

Notice that this approach to developing a short essay includes practice in valuable skills beyond
writing:
• Communicate ideas clearly when speaking
• Categorize information
• Challenge assumptions
The paragraph frame provides academic language forms that correspond to the text genre:
transition words to show similarities and contrasts, and simple present tense with adverbs of
frequency to talk about routines. Learners can then explore a new topic for comparisons and use
the class-generated sample for parallel writing, and then move on to more independent work.

Parallel writing
Writing from models, or parallel writing, is another way to scaffold academic writing for learners.
Parallel writing begins by providing students with a written model focused on a particular text
type or genre or specific writing conventions, for example, writing a paragraph with a topic
sentence and supporting ideas. Learners begin with activities to draw their attention to text
features as in this example:

170 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 3 StuDy AcADemic WRiting

In Section 1, you saw how the writer of the Student Model reflected on her topic. In this
section, you will analyze the final draft of her paragraph. You will learn how to develop ideas for
your own paragraph.

A Student Model
Read the prompt and answer the questions.
WRITING PROMPT: People are increasingly using technology to socialize. How do people of
your generation use technology to socialize? Include at least three examples.
1 What are some ways people use technology to socialize?
2 What ways do you think the writer – a young adult – will mention?

Read the paragraph twice. The first time, think about your answers to the questions above.
The second time, answer the questions in the Analyze Writing Skills boxes. This will help
you notice the key features of a paragraph.

How College Students Use Technology to Socialize

1 Analyze Writing Skills
People of my generation use technology to socialize in different ways. Find a sentence that
contains the names of
Nearly everyone I know has a digital device such as a cell phone, tablet, or three devices. What
laptop. College students have several options for how they socialize. For punctuation (a period?
a comma? a dash?) does
many students, texting is the best option for contacting friends. People the writer use to separate
them? Circle them.
like texting since it’s fast and easy. College students are also big users of Underline any capital
social media, and this is a great way to socialize with a larger group of letters in the sentence.

people. Interestingly, some students also use social media to communicate 2 Analyze Writing Skills
with classmates outside of class. They often start discussions about Find and circle a word
that signals a reason.
interesting topics that come up in class. Teachers sometimes join in, too. Underline the reason.
They use these to inform students of class updates, such as reminders
3 Analyze Writing Skills
about homework and quizzes. Finally, video-chatting is also very popular
Find and circle an
for communicating with families. This is because some people do not live example of two complete
sentences joined by and.
near their families. For example, my family lives eight hours away, so we
video-chat every Saturday. Using cell phones, tablets, and laptops is clearly 4 Analyze Writing Skills

essential for socializing for my generation. Find and circle a phrase

that signals a personal
example. Underline the
example.

20 unit 1

From Bohlke, Lockwood, and Hartman (2016) Final Draft 1

From there, learners outline this paragraph and eventually write their own following the model
provided but with their own ideas and content. Activities to prepare them to write on their own
could include conversations with a partner, brainstorming, and organizing their ideas with graphic
organizers. After-writing activities could include sharing the essay with a partner, giving and
getting feedback, and rewriting. Parallel writing is used at all levels of instruction; models simply
become more complex and varied as learner level increases.
Extensive writing tasks generally benefit from a process-oriented approach, which entails pre-writing,
planning, drafting and revising. Table 5.6 outlines stages common to a process-oriented approach.

Table 5.6 A Process-Oriented Approach to Writing

1 I dentify the purpose Relay information to a friend in a letter
for writing Academic purposes (essays, research papers, scientific reports)
2 I dentify the An office worker reading a form
intended audience A friend reading a letter
An employer reading a report
A class colleague interested in learning something new
3 P
 repare for writing Brainstorm key ideas alone or with a partner
4 O
 rganize ideas Organize ideas using graphic organizers, word webs
Start with an interactive, oral task to generate content for the writing
Make outlines
5 T
 each the academic The academic language functions and forms needed to write in
language needed this genre

Chapter 5 Developing Reading and Writing Skills 171

 6 Write multiple drafts Write ideas first, worry about mechanics later
Write multiple drafts
Share drafts with a peer
Self/peer edit
7 Revising Revise and write final draft

The next sample lesson demonstrates how a teacher can employ a process-oriented approach in
a lesson on writing résumés with a group of low-intermediate level students in a work-readiness
program.

Sample Writing Lesson 2

1. Pre-writing: T: Did you work in your country? What work did you do? Were you paid or was your
work unpaid? If you worked outside your home, how did you find that job? What did you need to
send to the employer? What do you need to do here? (Send in an application or write a résumé).
Class brainstorms information to be included (pairs first; and then one student invited to write
information on board). All ideas are accepted and then learners can look for overlaps between
what they brainstormed or what is expected in their countries and what is typically included in
a résumé in their new country of residence.

Items to include on a résumé

work experience hobbies age family situation
education sports training languages

Learners look at three sample résumés written by former students who have found jobs and
identify the categories and the types of information included in each. Teacher elicits similarities
and differences between what the class predicted and what they found on the samples (e.g.,
age and family status not included North America).
2. Organizing information: Creating word webs
With a partner, students write what they have done in each category and create a word web for
each one: personal information, education, jobs, etc.

teacher's
aid

midwife server
Jobs
(in Peru) (U.S.)

nanny
(in Peru)

172 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Next, learners transfer information from the word webs to a timeline to organize the
information chronologically.
3. Writing first draft: Create first draft of résumé
4. Peer-reading: Classmate Revision Checklist

Classmate Revision Checklist

Writer’s name: Checker’s name:
1. Are all categories included on the résumé? Do all apply? YES NO
(If you circled no, note what is missing.)
2. Can you understand everything your classmate wrote? YES NO
(If you circled no, underline unclear parts of the résumé. Ask your
partner to revise the unclear part.)
3. Are the verbs in the correct tense? YES NO
(If you circled no, circle the missed verbs and help the writer correct them.)

5. Revision: Revise draft using feedback from peers

There has been a long-standing tradition of using a process-oriented approach in academic ESL
courses as it leads to a clearer and more accurate product. Adult learners with limited experience
with academic writing need very clear guidance, scaffolds, and supports throughout this process
(Weigle 2014). Even at advanced levels, there are many learners who appreciate the opportunity
to see examples of what a particular type of writing should look like, for example, a lab report or
literature review (Kim Koffolt—personal communication).

5.17 Graphic organizers as a scaffold to learning academic skills

Part of understanding genres includes recognizing the organization of a text, both as a reader and
as a writer, which is why many of the sample lessons in this chapter include graphic organizers
(timelines, Venn diagrams, cause-effect charts, flow charts). Including graphic organizers in
reading and writing lessons gives valuable practice in organizing knowledge, seeing the text
structure, and note-taking, skills shown to have a positive impact on learner performance in
academic settings (Di Tommaso 2005). Using graphic organizers in reading lessons to analyze text
has been shown to increase reading comprehension as well (Jiang and Grabe 2007). It takes time
to acquire effective organization and note-taking skills, though, so explicit techniques should be
introduced early and often (Parrish and Johnson 2010). Table 5.7 provides suggestions on the best
match between some text types/genres and the type of graphic organizer best suited for working
with that text type.5 Consider all the graphic organizers included in Part I of this chapter (and
throughout the book) and note the connections between the text types and graphic organizers
that were chosen, e.g., the timeline for the story of Obama’s life, the chart for the science of
happiness reading.

5
 A search for any of these types of common graphic organizers will lead teachers to many websites with
free and downloadable templates.

Chapter 5 Developing Reading and Writing Skills 173

Table 5.7 Graphic Organizers and Reading/Writing Genres
Reading/Writing tasks/Genres Possible Graphic Organizer
Short narrative; time lines, tree diagram, linear string
personal stories
Description KWL charts, tree diagrams, main idea web, circle diagram
Write a résumé word webs, time lines
Biographies KWL; time lines
Process linear string; flow chart
Division and classification hierarchy diagram
Compare and contrast Venn diagram, compare/contrast charts, T-charts
comparison matrix
Cause effect flow charts, cause/effect charts

5.18 Using dialogue journals with adult English learners

Developing fluency in writing is just as important as developing oral fluency, and dialogue
journals are an ideal way of promoting written fluency. A dialogue journal is regular and ongoing
written conversation between teachers and learners (or among learners) without the constraints
of controlled, product-oriented tasks and it can be done with pen or paper, via email, or with a
shared document depending on learners’ digital literacy skills and access to technology. Learners
read and write for a genuinely communicative purpose—the content is real; the teacher response
is authentic. Teachers may get a glimpse of what a learner is facing at home or with family, as the
following exchange between a teacher and learner illustrates (Isserlis 1996a: 46):
Oct. 2
. . . (my son) is better because He take medice. Thank you for you answer. I and my family are
well. And we had a good weekend. Thank my dear teacher . . .
Oct. 23
. . . How old is (your son) now? Does he sometimes watch TV in English? I think he’s lucky, because
he is growing up hearing 2 languages-he’ll be able to know Spanish and English. Do your other
kids speak both languages, too?
Oct. 23
. . . (my son) have 2 ½ year old. When He Born he weingh 2 Pounds now he have 27 pounds. he
Barn from only sixth month. Some times he watch cartoons But he liked played with her toys. He
Can said some words in English. Yes my other Kids speak English and Spanish.
In later exchanges, the student shares problems she is having with high blood pressure. Janet
and her student are communicating about topics that may not come out in the more “public”
classroom setting. Isserlis (1996a), Peyton (1993), and others have highlighted many of the
benefits of dialogue journals:
• A
 focus on communicating personal ideas, thoughts, and feelings can free learners from the
fear of making mistakes.
• Learners are writing for an interested and attentive audience.
• Rapport and, hopefully, trust is built between/among learners and teachers.
174 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
• L earners can recognize the progress they are making as their entries become longer and
more complex.
• Common learner issues emerge in a safe, private manner which can then shape /inform
curriculum. (Note: if an issue is particular to one student e.g., a disclosure of abuse, a theft or
other personal matter, it is important to ask that learner’s permission to discuss the topic and
to give the learner an option to disclose her/his issue to other students or not).
Reading and responding to dialogue journals is very time-consuming for the teacher and learners.
There are a number of ways to make this valuable learning tool manageable for everyone.
• Provide designated class time for journal writing.
• Have well-prepared and trained volunteers respond to journals every other week as long as the
volunteers have been in the classroom regularly and have built some trust with learners. The
dialogue should not be with someone seen as a stranger to the learners.
• In large classes, have half the class hand in journals one week, and the other half the next.
Teachers need to realize that dialogue journals are not intended to be a form-focused endeavor,
and the response should be first and foremost about the content of what learners have written.
This is not a time to correct learner errors, but rather an opportunity to recognize areas for
growth in learners’ written language, which can then become the focus of later lessons. For
those teachers who want to make corrections or give feedback about learner language, limit the
corrections to one or two areas, for example, verb tenses or verb agreement. Another option is
to let learners know that for one entry a week, you will respond to their grammar. Additionally,
you may wish to compile common sorts of errors (without identifying the writers) and share
several of them as part of a grammar mini-lesson within class time, as appropriate to focus of the
class. As learners become more proficient, they may ask that the teacher make more corrections.
When teachers get a glimpse of learners’ lives and concerns, teaching may become more learner-
centered, and dialogue journals are an ideal vehicle through which this can happen.

5.19 Technology and writing

Many of the technological tools available to adult education programs provide excellent vehicles
for developing writing skills (see full discussion of uses of technology in Chapter 8) and they also
provide an opportunity for learners to write for a broader audience (Harris 2015a). Here are just
some of the many ways to embed meaningful use of technologies with writing skills development.
• In project-based learning, learners create a web page, a newsletter, or a class-generated blog as
the final product.
• The Change Agent readings provide a place for reader comments. Do the same with student
writings in a blog or wiki with a space for reader comments.
• Use shared documents and wikis to allow learners to collaborate on their writing, a skill valued
in academic settings.
• Create simple forms yourself that replicate online forms in learners’ lives, for example, online
health forms, applications, product registrations, or ticket orders. Learners submit the form to
the teacher to assess for clarity (Harris 2015b).
• Have learners create PowerPoint presentations, and if using a tool such as VoiceThread, they
can solicit reader/viewer comments and contributions.
• Use online graphic organizers for pre-writing (or for reading tasks as well).
• Determine with students what word processing features you will use when giving feedback or
having them do peer feedback on word-processed writing (comments, highlighting, underlining,
boldface).

Chapter 5 Developing Reading and Writing Skills 175

• S
 how students how to use grammar checkers, synonym checkers, or a free program like Ginger
that provides alternate phrases. Adult education specialists at EdTech (2013) suggest these
activities with a “rephraser” software:
• Demonstrate with the class using a text projected for the class. Before using the rephraser,
ask students if they can suggest alternatives; generate the new phrases and discuss the
different forms and their functions; discuss which are appropriate in what context.
• Ask students to come up to the computer and type some of their own phrases; have students
form groups and see which group can come up with the most or best alternative phrases.
• Go over student writing in class. (Be careful to keep the writing anonymous or ask the
student’s permission.) Have students download the software and show them how to use
the software. 
• Connect with other programs by establishing ePals to practice writing fluency.
• Email can be used for conducting peer reviews and providing feedback of written drafts.

5.20 Responding to learner writing

An initial response to writing normally focuses on the content of what has been written rather
than the form. From there, a teacher needs to ask him or herself: What is the purpose of the
writing task? In the case of emergent writers, getting words down on paper is a great achievement
in and of itself, as with the following sample:

This learner came to class with basic literacy skills in his first language and emergent skills in
English. The teacher, Janet, shares her ideas about the new hands-free driving law that outlaws
the use of hand-held phones while driving and solicits the learner’s opinion as well, but she does
not correct any errors. The journal is a vehicle for learners to express opinions about current
events as well as more personal reflections, as in the second entry. Janet focuses on form in
176 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
writing through other types of activities in her class such as sentence frames, LEA, and parallel
writing.
If a learner were writing a résumé, a cover letter, or an essay, the approach to feedback would be
different given the audience for the writing. Many of the considerations in Chapter 3 (Table 3.3)
apply here as well, particularly who the learner is and what the purpose of the task is. After a
response on overall content, feedback to writing begins in the same way oral feedback is given:
indicate where the errors are, but don’t correct them for the student. The following are some
guidelines for teachers to keep in mind:
• A lways begin with a response to the content of what learners have written. Provide feedback on
what is clear in their writing: I enjoyed learning all of these details about your family members, or
You supported your argument with evidence from the reading we did in class.
• When responding to longer pieces of writing, develop rubrics or assessment checklists that
include the categories of content, organization, discourse (e.g., overall organization, topic
sentences, transitions), syntax, vocabulary, and mechanics (e.g., spelling, punctuation) (Brown
and Lee 2015).
• Develop consistent conventions that your learners can understand: sp for spelling, T for tense,
underlining for wrong word choice. There are many editing conventions, but it is often best to
develop a set of editing marks with your students so you know they are understood.
• Provide opportunities for peer review and revision through conferences or group time.
• Develop a realistic sense of what a given learner is capable of producing and do not expect
perfection or try to rewrite their work. Do remember what learners have done and chart their
progress by photocopying completed journals, noticing errors that persist or diminish as part of
ongoing planning and instruction.
Like so many teaching processes and routines, responding appropriately to learner errors takes
practice. Teachers need to have a clear idea of what a learner is capable of, and then provide
encouragement and feedback that is accessible to that learner. Patience should prevail . . .
language isn’t learned overnight!

Conclusion
Attaining literacy in a second language means far more than learning to decode and write
words. Literacy involves activities that are conducted in rich social contexts between and among
individuals. Attaining literacy in English broadens learners’ opportunities; it allows them to attain
certain jobs, help their children with schoolwork, and correspond with teachers and others in the
community. English language educators have the task of determining their learners’ literacy needs
and selecting approaches and contexts for teaching reading and writing that are the most suitable
for them.

Chapter 5 Developing Reading and Writing Skills 177

 Key Terms

On your own, or with a partner, provide an example or brief definition for each concept:

Checklist of Key Terms

environmental print

functional texts

schema theory

receptive skills

digital literacy

visual literacy

top-down processing

bottom-up processing

pre-literate, non-literate, low-

literate, low-educated

language experience approach

whole-part-whole approach

phonics

jigsaw reading

text-dependent questions

process-oriented approach

product-oriented approach

scaffolded writing

graphic organizers

dialogue journals

178 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Applying What You’ve Learned

Before doing these activities, revisit your answers to the questions at the beginning of the
chapter.

1 Reading Skills Development

If you are already teaching and work with pre- or non-literate learners, conduct a whole-part-
whole lesson beginning with a language experience (see LEA) with your students. Implement
activities suggested in Section 5.5 and reflect on the benefits the approach has for your learners.
Reflect on any difficulties learners experience and think of alternatives that you might try the next
time you use this approach. Also notice any variations you implemented in order to meet your
students’ needs and strengths.
If you are working with learners with more developed literacy, choose an authentic text (a short
reading, learner-written materials, an article) that relates to an upcoming unit you are teaching,
but for which you haven’t integrated reading practice before. Using this text, develop and
implement a reading lesson including pre-reading, two reading activities that provide practice with
reading strategies in Table 5.4, and a follow-up activity. After you teach the lesson, reflect on the
successes learners had as well as any difficulties they experienced. What would you do differently
the next time you teach a lesson like this?
If you are not teaching, collect one sample functional reading text and one longer informational
text (a book review, an article). Then, analyze the reading strategies and skills needed to
understand the texts you choose, for example, reading nutritional information requires
understanding of numeracy and charts. Create two different activities that would give learners
practice with reading these texts.

2 Helping Learners with Writing

If you are already teaching . . . reflect on and discuss (or write about) these questions:
What are your learners’ writing needs?
How much of the writing you teach is functional and form-focused? How much of the time do you
work with learners on more extensive writing tasks?
Choose one writing need and develop and implement a writing lesson that addresses it.
If you aren’t teaching, look at integrated-skills ESL textbooks for three different levels of
instruction.
1. What reading and writing practice is provided?
2. Is the focus on functional reading and writing or intensive reading and extensive writing?
3. What approach is used to teaching writing: product oriented, process oriented, or a
combination of the two?

Chapter 5 Developing Reading and Writing Skills 179

 Recommended Reading

Cardiff, P., Newman, K. and Pearce, E. (N.D.) Reflect for ESOL, London: Action Aid. Available at http://
www.skillsforlifenetwork.com/?atk=964. Developed for teaching or working with refugees, asylum
seekers, or long-term immigrant groups in the UK. Using an empowering participatory process, it
links language learning to the analysis of broader issues in learners’ lives. Literacy and language
development are based on rich visual materials related to learners’ immediate experiences.

Grabe, W. (2009). Reading in a Second Language: Moving from Theory to Practice. New York, NY:
Cambridge University Press. This book provides a thorough overview and analysis of important
theories of reading and their implications for reading instruction.

Schaetzel, K., Kreeft Peyton, J. and Fernandez, R. (Eds). (2019) Teaching Academic Writing to Adults
Learning English. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. This new volume contains chapters
on teaching academic writing to adult English language learners from literacy-level to advanced.

Wrigley, H. and Guth, G. (1992) Bringing Literacy to Life: Issues and Options in Adult ESL Literacy. San
Mateo, CA: Aguirre International. The authors provide information on methods and approaches,
assessment, technology, teacher development as well as promising practices from literacy
programs. Available at http://www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/BringingLiteracytoLife.pdf

Sources for Literacy-Level Texts:

Bow Valley College. ESL Literacy Readers. Calgary, Canada: Bow Valley College https://globalaccess.
bowvalleycollege.ca/learners/readers.php
abeEnglish http://www.teachabcenglish.com/

Sources for readings/reading lessons on current events:

NewsELA https://newsela.com/
ReadWorks https://www.readworks.org/
Commonlit https://www.commonlit.org

180 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Appendix

Story of Pandau (5.3): In the upper half of this cloth there are scenes of harvesting corn, pounding
rice, and feeding animals. The third tier of images shows shamanistic ceremonies and the bottom
tier shows traditional courting customs. The mother of the bride is furious when she learns from
a messenger that her daughter has been seduced by her would-be husband and threatens the
messenger with a stick.

Text for Sample Reading Lesson 2 (written by the author)

The Science of Happiness
In the past, psychological research focused primarily on disorders rather than on what
characterizes “happy” people. More recently, researchers are exploring the connections
between feelings of gratitude and levels of happiness, and many suggest that there are
different kinds of happiness enhancers (Mangels 2008).
One of those happiness enhancers is called the gratitude journal, which is when people keep
track of things they are grateful for in a diary. In one study, it was found that subjects who took
time to consciously count their blessings in a gratitude journal on a weekly basis significantly
increased their overall satisfaction with life over a period of six weeks, whereas a control group
that did not keep journals had no such gain (Lyubomirsky, Tkach, and Sheldon 2004).
Another way to boost happiness is to perform acts of altruism or kindness, for example,
playing music at a nursing home, helping a friend with childcare, doing yard work for an aging
neighbor, or perhaps writing a letter to an aging relative. Lyubomirsky, Tkach, and Sheldon
(2004) found that, as with the gratitude journal, doing five kind acts a week, especially when
they were all completed in a single day, gave subjects in the study a measurable boost in
satisfaction as compared to those in the control group.
Martin Seligman, considered the founder of this line of research, has experimented with similar
techniques in controlled trials in large experiments conducted over the Internet. He found
that the single most effective way to boost your feeling of joy is to make a “gratitude visit.” A
gratitude visit means writing a testimonial thanking a relative, teacher, mentor, friend—anyone
to whom you owe a debt of gratitude—and then visiting that person to read him or her the
letter of appreciation. The long-term effects of this practice were not as long-lasting as some of
the others, though (Seligman, et al. 2005).
The last technique, which Seligman says is less powerful but more lasting than a gratitude visit
is an exercise that he calls “three blessings.” For this technique, an individual should write down
three things that went well that day and why. He found that people who do that each day are less
depressed three months later and continued to be six months later as well (Seligman, et al. 2005).
It’s important to note that these studies have been conducted in Western, individualistic
cultures where striving for self-satisfaction may be an acceptable practice. In more collectivist
cultures, this focus on self-improvement may be at odds with beliefs about the good of the
group as opposed to the individual. Also, definitions of happiness are culturally bound, so
finding suitable measures for purposes of doing research can be problematic (Mangels 2008).
Lyubomirsky, S., Tkach, C., and Sheldon, K. M. (2004). Pursuing Sustained Happiness through
Random Acts of Kindness and Counting One’s Blessings: Tests of Two Six-Week Interventions.
Unpublished raw data. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.111
Mangels, D. (2009). The Science of Happiness. Berkeley Scientific Journal, 12(2). Retrieved from
https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9c00g8js
Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., and Peterson, C. (2005). Positive Psychology Progress:
Empirical Validation of Interventions. American Psychologist, 60, 410–421.
Chapter 5 Developing Reading and Writing Skills 181
6 Planning for Teaching and
Learning
To consider before reading this chapter:
• What considerations should come into play when planning lessons?
• What are some ways to build continuity from one lesson to the next?
• How can the level and amount of teacher language affect learning?
• How can we check learner understanding throughout lessons?

Part I: Lesson planning

6.1 Introduction
Planning for teaching and learning is a complex process that needs to take numerous variables
into account. This chapter focuses on the decisions teachers make within their courses and from
one lesson to the next: What is the overarching purpose of the lesson? How does it connect to the
broader curriculum? What are the objectives of the lesson and what final tasks will assess achievement
of those objectives? How can I connect the lesson to learners’ lives? What materials will I need? What do
I need to review from previous lessons? What standards am I accountable to in my program?
This chapter covers three important areas of planning for teaching and learning. First, we
explore the processes teachers use in day-to-day lesson planning as well as the ways careful
planning can help promote learner success in a lesson. Then we turn to the importance of
planning for some of the key interactions that take place in all lessons, including introductions,
directions to activities, transitions, questioning techniques, and comprehension checks. You will
learn that those are not elements of a lesson to be left to chance, especially for those new to
teaching English. Finally, we explore the importance of developing learner autonomy through the
development of learning strategies so that students can continue to progress in their language
development outside of the classroom.

Getting Started
Planning takes on many forms for different teachers: some carefully script their lessons, while
others keep key questions in mind as they choose activities and materials, simply writing
reminders for themselves. From my own experience, all teachers benefit from detailed lesson
plans with objectives that are clearly articulated, a list of materials, descriptions of activities
and interactions, assessments, and prepared questions to be used in introductions to a topic,
directions, transitions, and comprehension checks. This is not to imply that the plan should
dictate every twist and turn the lesson takes—a good teacher is one who takes the learners’
lead. From my observations, however, it is clear that learners who feel that there is purpose and
direction in a lesson are more likely to participate in class and contribute to discussions. Careful
planning also builds teacher confidence, which in turn inspires confidence in the learners.

Chapter 6 Planning for Teaching and Learning 183

 Task 6.1
I asked several teachers to describe how they plan for their classes for adult English language
learners. Some of the teachers responded in terms of long-range planning, and others talked
about what they do day-to-day to plan each lesson. Read excerpts from their responses below
and write examples of what these teachers consider related to each of the areas listed in the
the chart below. Add some of your own ideas to the chart as well.

Lesson Planning Considerations

1. Learner needs

2. Outcomes/Objectives

3. Standards

4. Review

5. Learner involvement

6. Materials

7. Tasks/Activities

8. Assessment/Evaluation

Colleen (Integrated-Skills ESL program)

I consider lesson objectives in terms of both language and content/skill standards, modalities
involved, and how they might naturally intertwine, and how I’m going to assess whether or not
the students have met those objectives. I think about how I will connect this lesson to the previous
lesson, and to students’ prior knowledge and overall unit and personal goals. I think about the
order and complexity of activities and tasks. In this day and age, I also think about how I can
scaffold/integrate digital literacy tasks into instruction. Finally, I figure out how I will help students
notice their progress before they leave and how I will preview and connect our learning to the next
lesson. And, if I remember, I try to find ways to imbue intrigue and humor to help keep a relaxed
atmosphere, though that is often spontaneous.

George (Integrated Education and Training: Construction)

When working with students with occupational learning goals, I begin by hashing out what they
will need to be able to do in the workplace. I then try to make a project or task that simulates a
relevant workplace task. For example, for my construction class, I had students design, bid, and
construct a model shed for a backyard based on the needs of a volunteer homeowner. Then I
think of all the tasks and skills needed to complete the project and design lessons to lead up to
the building of the shed, the project’s outcome. I also try to incorporate academic skills that will
serve the students’ progress to other career and life goals through modules that are relevant to
the needs of successful completion of the project, a well-built shed. So, these may include math
lessons on measurement and area, readings on shed building and design, and presentation
lessons for sales and marketing.

184 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Nikki (Advanced ESL and College and Career Preparation)
When planning lessons, I base each unit on a theme. I am guided by three questions: “What
academic vocabulary do my learners need to understand, discuss, and contribute to this theme?”
“What structures do my learners need to understand and construct in order to discuss and
contribute to this theme?” and “What reading skills do my learners need to enhance in order to
be better close readers or in order to navigate the literature of this unit?” These guiding questions
help me set content and language objectives and to start thinking about what my learners need
to be able to do. Once I have set objectives, I plan ways to assess learner outcomes and activities
that will get them there. I try to provide balanced activities that allow learners to meet objectives
independently, in pairs, and in small groups.

Dan (Large Adult Education Center Literacy-Level Class)

Planning for me always starts with the thematic unit; the over-arching theme or line of inquiry
of the coming weeks or months. Then I look at the individual parts that make up that theme and
what I can address in the allotted time. These are the main content and skill goals for the students
in my class. Then I get to the fun part of planning the techniques and materials I think are going to
help us get towards those goals, hopefully in a sequential way that builds upon previous lessons
and cycles back for review. As I’m doing that, I look to see which standards I think I am addressing
and see if there are any more opportunities to adjust the lesson to include more standards work.
This last part is newer to me so it takes some thinking, but it also keep things fresh trying to teach
familiar topics in new ways.

Follow-up: These excerpts illustrate the range of considerations that go into planning lessons.
While each of these teachers answered the question “What goes into planning the ESL classes
you teach?” differently, there are some common themes and considerations in their responses,
particularly in regard to determining learning objectives, identifying themes and major
outcomes, and organizing the lesson in relation to learners’ needs and previous learning.

In her work on course design, Kathleen Graves (2001) suggests that the process teachers use
to plan for learning is best represented as a system of interconnected variables, which includes
assessing needs, formulating goals and objectives, defining the context for learning, articulating
beliefs, conceptualizing content, developing materials, and designing an assessment plan. While
her work focuses on the larger process of designing whole courses, her emphasis on planning
as a cycle, not only a set of steps to follow, is echoed in many of the teachers’ thoughts on lesson
planning above. In the discussion that follows, we examine these key areas of lesson planning:
• Identifying expected outcomes and clear learning objectives
• Determining learner strengths, needs, and expectations
• Connecting lessons to learners’ lives and needs
• Aligning instruction to program standards as required
• Choosing materials that are relevant to the learners
• Balancing activities and content in a lesson
• Connecting one lesson to the next
• Gathering evidence of learning to assess learner achievement of objectives
We will see that all of these factors come together as a system for planning that can be flexible
and responsive to learner backgrounds and needs.

Chapter 6 Planning for Teaching and Learning 185

 6.2 Identifying learner needs
In the current landscape of adult education, many programs have adopted content standards that
are focused on college and career readiness for adult learners (Chapter 10 includes an in-depth
discussion of standards alignment). As discussed in Chapter 2, even intergenerational literacy
and English language civics programs are placing more emphasis on work preparation than they
did in the past. Even in a standards-driven environment, learners still need to have a voice in our
planning and we always need to situate language acquisition in contexts that reflect learners’ life
circumstances and the purposes for which they are using English. Many learners come to classes
to gain language skills to achieve personal goals, e.g., to communicate with grandchildren and/or
go to the doctor by themselves, along with more academic and career-focused goals.
More often than not, a program has determined learning outcomes for each level (these may
be based on state or national standards or benchmarks). If there is an assigned textbook, that,
too, may shape the curriculum. In order to ensure instruction meets the needs of learners whose
motivations and expectations vary greatly, a teacher needs to collaborate with learners to identify
the goals for instruction within any program model.
There are a number of ways students can have a voice in shaping instruction and the teacher’s job
is to develop tools and techniques for eliciting learner input that are manageable for the learners.
For students with developed literacy skills, brainstorming, writing down, and ranking their wants and
needs are manageable tasks. Low-literacy learners can articulate and prioritize their wants and needs
as well by using pictures and drawings that represent their ideas. At a family literacy program I visited,
a teacher asked mothers to articulate parenting and language goals, and then had them create visuals
using photographs and drawings, which were posted throughout the room. Another teacher had
learners create collages of their goals and aspirations, which they presented to others in class.
Learners can complete can-do surveys based on the outcomes that have been determined in a
particular curriculum or for a particular lesson. Imagine you are starting a unit on filling in job
applications online. Create a simple pre-assessment with the major outcomes of the unit and a
simple can-do rating scale.

I can do This is a little This is very No way,

this. difficult for me. I difficult for me. I I can’t do
can do it with some need a lot of help this. It’s too
help from others. from others. difficult.
Find the company
website.
Link to the application.
Fill in the application on
a computer.
List my experience.
What else do you need to
learn? Tell me here.
Can-do descriptors adapted from CAELA Network (N.D.) Assessing Learner Needs in the Adult ESL
Classroom

The results of a survey like this allow a teacher to prioritize instruction, focusing on those areas
of most concern for a group as a whole. Many programs use individual learning plans and goal
setting as part of the intake process, but these processes should not be one-time events that
occur only at the beginning of a course. Learners should revisit and rearticulate their needs on
an ongoing basis, which means that needs assessment becomes an integral part of day-to-day
planning (more on ongoing assessment and self- assessments are covered in Chapter 9).
186 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
 6.3 Lesson planning approaches
Avoiding the “fun” activities-driven approach: backward design
I have found that many teachers new to ESL put too much emphasis on activities before
considering learner needs, final outcomes and standards, objectives, context, and connections to
previous learning. I always remember the time when a student teacher in our Certificate Program
came to my office for advice about her upcoming lesson in the practicum. Our conversation went
something like this:
Betsy: So what theme or language area do you have in mind?
Chris: I really want to do a find-someone-who mingle about personal interests.
Betsy: Well, that might be an activity you could use at some point, but it all depends on the
objectives you have for the lesson. What have you noticed the students need more work on as
you’ve observed the class these past weeks?
Chris: Well, I know that a lot of them want to talk about jobs, but I really thought that activity you
demonstrated on personal interests was fun.
What is guiding Chris’s decisions about what to teach in the lesson? Like Chris, many teachers
think of teaching as a series of activities when, in fact, the activities may be among the last things
to consider in planning. As the conversation continued, I urged Chris to determine some kind
of culminating outcome related to the theme of jobs, and then to identify the skills and language
around that outcome that might be useful for these students. She ended up doing a lesson on
reading job announcements, which led to mock interviews the next day. She included a personal
and professional interests survey as one of her pre-reading activities.
Starting lesson planning by first determining what the desired results are for a lesson is called
backward design (Wiggins and McTigue 2005). From there, teachers need to determine the
evidence of learning they plan to gather (final activities, products), and only then do they choose
or develop the lesson activities, tasks and materials, as depicted in Figure 6.1.

Determining the
Determining what activities, tasks, and
Determining
constitutes suitable materials best suited
desired
evidence of learning for the lesson
outcomes
in relation to (considering the
of a lesson.
lesson objectives. learners and context
for learning).

Figure 6.1 Using a Backward Design Approach to Lesson Planning

Jamie teaches pre-beginning ESL and English for childcare center jobs. See how she applies the
backward design approach in her setting, a large community-based program that serves large
numbers of refugees who have settled in Minneapolis.

I use backward design in the lesson planning process. The instructional objectives (or desired
outcomes) frame the entire lesson. These instructional objectives are derived from content standards
(CCRS, TIF, and Northstar1), as well as any career-specific standards. I then consider when and
how assessment will occur during the lesson, and these assessments can be either formative or
summative. The instructional objectives are then written in student-friendly language, so students will
understand what they will be learning and why they will be learning it. All lessons have the same

1
 These represent the College and Career Readiness Standards for Adult Education, the Transitions
Integration Framework, and Northstar Digital Literacy Standards
Chapter 6 Planning for Teaching and Learning 187
 routines, so learners can focus on content instead of trying to figure out what they are supposed
to do. I use the same learning task formats—but the content changes from week to week. Finally,
I consider how I might scaffold up for my more advanced learners.

When we might apply “central” design

In this standards and outcomes-driven approach to backward design planning, where do
approaches such as the Language Experience Approach, project-based learning, or a fully
participatory approach as outlined in 2.10—where the outcomes emerge collaboratively with the
learners and as a lesson progresses—fit in? This is where we may draw on a more central design
(Richards 2013) approach, where a teacher begins with class materials and activities, then builds
the lesson from there. In the case of LEA where a class generates its own text or in a lesson where
a problem in learners’ lives is the basis for instruction, central design may make more sense than
backwards design. What is essential is that our planning be purposeful and in keeping with the
needs of learners in our classes. Even with more participatory approaches, we can have a very
clear road map for the direction of the lesson; the outcomes will be related to the final products
created collaboratively by learners with the assistance of the teacher.

Additional considerations
Equally important in the planning process is ensuring that your lessons have a balance of
interactions, language skills, and learning modes. McKay and Tom (2000) compare a balanced
lesson to a balanced meal, where a lack of balance will make the lesson less than satisfactory for
many of the learners. They suggest that teachers evaluate their choices of activities in a lesson in
terms of groupings, skills, difficulty, and learning modes; there should be a variety of interactions
and learning modes and a logical progression of difficulty as learners move to a culminating task in
the lesson. Tarone and Parrish (1994) found that learners may exhibit variation in accuracy across
different language tasks; learners may do extremely well on a discrete-point, fill-in-the blank activity,
yet show minimal accuracy when using the language in an open-ended task; the communicative
demands of a task may affect performance. These findings underscore the importance of providing
an array of activity types to practice particular language points within each lesson.
Planning should also account for the level of critical thinking, overall challenge, and rigor that the
tasks, topics, and teacher questions generate in a lesson. In evaluating a lesson, teachers can ask
themselves the following questions:
• D o the activities challenge learners to create extended and meaningful responses, rather than
one-word utterances?
• Does the lesson move learners beyond gathering factual information to analyzing and
interpreting information?
• Have I included questions and tasks that elicit deep analysis of material, even with beginning-
level learners?
The topics we choose also have an impact on learning. If you were enrolled in a language class,
would you rather learn about celebrations and holidays or differences regarding deep cultural
values and beliefs? In programs and curricula for newcomers, the topics themselves are often
quite basic and represent tasks learners may have figured out on their own and/or with the
support of family members (e.g., reading bus schedules). We can include topics that engage the
intellect of learners; those can derive from interests they have expressed to you through needs
assessment or informal conversations. Table 6.1 provides examples of the topics that could
supplement what you might find in a curriculum with more of a life-skills orientation.

188 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Table 6.1 Engaging Topics in a Life-Skills Curriculum
Topics Found in Many Adult ESL Curricula Content That Could Be Added
Getting around the community Local, national, or world geography;
demographics (population, languages
spoken, religions)
Talking about life experiences History; current events; immigration trends
Foods and healthy eating Causes of common diseases; mental health
issues; access to medical services
Celebrations and holidays Cultural traditions; sociology and
anthropology
School Educational systems and practices; accessing
educational opportunities; benefits of first-
language maintenance (using the L1 with
kids at home)
(Adapted from Parrish 2015b)

Finally, we always need to consider the learner-centered principles outlined in Section 1.3. Those can
and must be enacted in our lessons, even when external standards might be guiding our planning.
Ignoring those principles can lead to a lack of motivation and agency on the part of learners.

6.4 Sitting down to plan

As was evident in the teacher accounts at the beginning of the chapter, lesson planning varies
depending on the teaching context, program curriculum, and even the approach or philosophy
to teaching. While program standards and outcomes are there to guide your planning, each
class develops its own road map to meet its destination; lesson plans become the teacher’s road
map. If you are using a textbook, sometimes the themes and activities in the book determine the
objectives for the day. In a class using the Language Experience Approach, the class-generated
text becomes the focus of many of the teacher’s decisions about what areas of language to
practice. Some components of lesson planning logically precede others, for example, researching
a grammar rule and patterns before designing an activity that practices that grammar point, or
choosing the context or theme before collecting visuals and realia. Table 6.2 outlines the areas a
teacher needs to consider in planning.

Table 6.2 Lesson Planning Components

1 W
 hat is the expected Will students create a poster, write a report, make a presentation,
outcome for the or build something as in George’s occupational class?
lesson (or unit)?
2 W
 hat standards does In a lesson where learners gather information from peers on
the lesson seek to a topic and then write a report, are they working towards a
address? standard like this?
CCR Writing Anchor 1
Write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics
or texts, using valid reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence.
Regardless of program standards, how can you layer the lesson
with rigorous academic and career readiness skills needed in
today’s world (e.g., using graphic organizers in reading lessons to
practice note-taking)?

Chapter 6 Planning for Teaching and Learning 189

 3 W
 hat will the Identifying and articulating clear learning objectives for the day
students accomplish helps to guide learning. These should reflect what learners will
in this lesson? The accomplish through the lesson, not on what the teacher does
answers to this in the lesson, and they represent the necessary components
question become the needed to accomplish the broader lesson/unit goal or outcome.
learning objectives If the lesson outcome is to have a class debate on a topic, these
for the lesson. may be some of the learning objectives:
• Students will present opinions on a topic.
• Students will present evidence from course readings to
support claims.
In a literacy-level class working on word families with vocabulary
from a class-generated text, an objective may be:
• Students will be able to sort words from a story in sets
according to the initial consonant sounds regardless of
spelling (e.g., fish/photo).
In multilevel classes (which is the norm in adult ESL), be aware
that you may need to have varying expectations of learners.
4 W
 hat specific You need to identify the language students need in order to
targeted language accomplish the real-world tasks that you assign. The targeted
do I want the language is the linguistic focus for the day. If you want to end
students to produce? your lesson with small group discussions where learners take a
What are the position about a reading, is one objective for students to produce
language functions phrases for elaborating on others’ ideas in a discussion? Are
and language they learning phrases for interrupting others politely? If you are
forms (grammar working on making claims with evidence, do you want them to
and vocabulary) use phrases such as, According to the reading . . .? In a lesson on
they will need to be writing résumés, you may want to focus on simple past tense.
successful with the
tasks I assign?
5 If I am teaching If students are talking about life circumstances and creating a
grammar or short autobiography, you may need to work on the present perfect
an academic tense: Subject + have/has + past participle (I have lived here for
language function seven years). Do you know what a past participle is? Do you know
(e.g., making when to use for or since with this structure? Do you know when we
comparisons), what use this tense in English instead of the simple past (I moved here
do I need to know in 2012)? Even if you don’t teach explicit grammar rules or use the
about the form grammar terms with students, you need to do your homework
and meaning of the about the forms (see suggested grammar resources).
grammar? In a lesson on making comparisons, what language forms do we
use to show differences and what do we use to show similarities?
What about phonological considerations? Consider the various
pronunciations of the –ed endings or ways we place emphasis on
certain words in a polite request.

190 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

6 If this is a reading, In a reading lesson, students may need to read for the main idea
writing, listening or and then for details. How will I get them to do a close reading for
speaking lesson, details and to make inferences about the text?
what skills and In an LEA lesson, students may use the class-generated text to
strategies will practice sequencing or recognizing sound-spelling correspondences.
learners practice?
In listening to a short, authentic video, students may be asked to
listen for details and practice note taking.
Note: We should strive to have a balance of reading, writing, listening,
and speaking throughout units, so keep that in mind when planning.
7 W
 hat contexts or Many times your program has identified learning outcomes for
themes could I use the level you are teaching. Contexts or themes you choose to
that are relevant meet these outcomes can vary depending on your students.
to students, the If there is a unit on transportation, what forms of public
objectives, and the transportation do they use? Perhaps they already know how
targeted language? to manage the systems in their community, so you can choose
more challenging content such as exploring the benefits to the
community of a new light-rail system. Use their life circumstances
as the context for presenting and practicing language.
8 W
 hat materials Evaluate how well the materials that have been provided (the
have been provided program curriculum or a textbook) meet the learning outcomes
and what are some of the lesson. In a basic skills class for newcomers, you may add
authentic materials, circulars or online ads for lessons on shopping. In a lesson on
visuals, realia, choosing a school for their children, local school websites could
etc. that I could be used. Bring in authentic informational charts and graphs
use related to the related to lesson themes to give learners practice managing a
context? variety of text representations.
9 W
 hat are the In a lesson on issuing a complaint to a landlord, learners will most
digital literacy skills likely do this with an online form; create a semi-authentic form
associated with the that learners can fill in on their phones. In an advanced writing
learning outcomes? class, using shared documents to give learners practice with
collaborative writing and with using word processing tools would
match real-world digital literacy practices.
10 H
 ow does this Constantly review and recycle language and themes from one
lesson relate to lesson to the next. We do not learn something after one try. Also
previous lessons? consider logical sequencing, for example, a lesson on identifying
What do students personal skills should precede a lesson on writing résumés. Good
already know? textbooks usually do the sequencing for you, or can provide
What can I recycle? models to consider/adapt.
11 W
 hat activities Choose and develop tasks and activities that naturally generate
best serve to move the targeted language that is the focus for the day. If a learning
learners towards objective is “Learners will make suggestions using correct modals
meeting the lesson (you could, you should, you might),” create a situation where
objectives? there is a genuine need to use this language, for example, having
students give advice to one another on how to access resources
in the community based on personal experience.
Choose and create activities that allow learners to use the
language they need to know in their lives.

Chapter 6 Planning for Teaching and Learning 191

 12 H
 ow will I evaluate Always end the lesson (or a series of lessons) with an activity or
learning outcomes? task that allows learners to demonstrate their level of comfort and
ability with learning objectives for the lesson. Observe and take
careful note of areas that are most difficult for them so that you
can review and recycle in later lessons. Ask learners to reflect on
what they learned each day. In lessons with a concrete artifact
(written piece, poster, small group presentations), use a rubric or
checklist to assess learning.

Task 6.2
Examine the following lessons from Chapter 3 in Section 3.3 using the questions below. Sample
Lesson 1: Talking about expenses; Sample Lesson 2: Sharing life stories/simple past tense
1. What is the final outcome, culminating product or task that will provide evidence of
learning?
2. What are the learning objectives and how are they articulated?
3. Is there a balance between whole group, small group, and individual work? Is the grouping
appropriate for the task at hand? How would you describe the progressions of learning
activities?
4. What language skills has the teacher integrated? Is there a balance of reading, writing,
listening, and speaking?
5. Where is there attention to critical thinking or digital literacy?
6. Does the teacher promote a variety of learning modes (tactile, kinesthetic, visual)? Will this
lesson appeal to a variety of learning preferences?
7. In what ways are the activities and materials connected to the learners’ lives?
8. How successfully do you believe the activities might move learners towards meeting the
objectives of the lesson and what tasks serve to assess that learning?
Follow-up: Compare your answers with others in your class. Are there any things that you
would do differently in the lessons you evaluated? You can use this checklist to reflect on and
evaluate your own lessons and those that you observe.

This section has examined the many considerations teachers need to take into account as
they plan lessons from one day to the next. How does all of this relate to the lesson planning
requirements of a school? What does the final lesson plan look like? Is there a set convention for
lesson plans? Many districts provide teachers with templates for lesson plans. The problem with
that is that no one template could possibly account for every type of lesson; that is why I have
presented lesson planning as a process that brings multiple considerations together. Both Jamie
and Colleen shared a general sequence to their lessons as follows:
Jamie: To address these objectives, activities are planned in the following sequence: introduction,
explanation and modeling, guided practice, independent practice, and extension. For my pre-
beginning learners, this looks like the “I do, We do, You do” approach in which new concepts are
scaffolded and there is gradual release of control to students. 
Colleen: Additional considerations include how to make the lesson as student-centered as
possible (including strategic groupings, individual or team tasks, and ratio of student to teacher

192 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 talk time), as well how to scaffold academic language and tasks, including explicit instruction and
gradual release of responsibility, controlled practice to more communicative practice. 
Many adult education programs apply the stages that Jamie referred to above: introduction,
explanation and modeling, guided practice, independent practice, and extension. Colleen also
refers to moving from more controlled to more communicative tasks in her planning process. See
how the following example templates mirror those general stages; these lesson plan templates
in Table 6.3 illustrate a range of lesson types and designs. Remember that there are samples in
Chapters 3, 4, and 5.

Table 6.3 Sample Lesson Plan Templates

Reading lesson (see Final lesson outcome: Lesson stages:
Chapter 5 for sample Standards addressed (as appropriate): Pre-reading:
lesson plans)
Reading activities:
Class description:
Objectives: Follow-up/
Setting: post-reading:
Learners will:
Time:
(These objectives will be related to
Materials: reading strategies:
Assumptions: anticipate content, read to confirm
prediction, make inferences, make
claims based on evidence in the
text, etc.
Depending on the pre- and post-
activities, there may be listening,
speaking, writing, or vocabulary
objectives as well.)
Integrated and Final lesson outcome: Lesson stages:
contextualized Standards addressed (as appropriate): Engage with language
language lesson (see in a real-world context:
Chapter 3 for sample
Objectives: Draw learners’
lesson plans)
attention to patterns
Class description: Learners will:
and check learning:
Setting: (These will be related to the
Engage in practice for
competencies and functions
Time: meaningful purposes:
presented and practiced in the lesson
Materials: as well as linguistic competence: • Focus on accuracy
Assumptions: grammar, vocabulary, spelling, and • Focus on fluency
pronunciation) Application/extension:
Assessment/
evaluation:

Chapter 6 Planning for Teaching and Learning 193

 LEA lesson / Whole- Final lesson outcome: Lesson stages:
part-whole approach Standards addressed (as appropriate): Conduct experience
(See Chapter 5 for and generate story or
lesson guidelines with provide simple text:
Objectives:
these approaches) Engage learners with
Learners will:
Class description: the story; relate to
(These will start with completing the own lives:
Setting:
experience and the other objectives
Time: Provide multiple
will relate to developing basic literacy:
language activities that
Materials: copying the text, identifying sounds/
revolve around the
Assumptions: letters, categorizing words starting
text:
with same sounds, etc.)
Engage with the
theme of the text and
connect to their own
lives (application/
extension)

Find out what the expectations of your program are and design lessons that are in keeping with
those expectations while at the same acknowledging that there is no “one size fits all” plan.

6.5 Building continuity from day to day

Teachers need to think beyond day-to-day planning in the choices and decisions they make about
their lessons. Dan refers to planning at the unit level and then he looks at the individual parts that
make up that theme. Andrea uses a whole-part-whole language experience approach in her class
with emergent readers (see 5.4. D). See in Table 6.4 how planning in her context is done in one-
week blocks.

Table 6.4 A One-Week Plan for a Literacy-Level Class

Each class period: three hours
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

Preview Recount the Read aloud and Multiple tasks Co-construct

vocabulary experience at silently. on sight words, dialogue for calling
(pests, product the hardware Sentence word families. landlord.
names). Make store. Use this scramble Cloze activity Role-play calling
predictions to generate LEA (reorder words with text (leave landlord to report
about story. Write in sentences out all verbs). issue in apartment.
experiences story together. from LEA story).
class will have at Copy story; give Sequence
hardware store. story a title. sentences from
Field trip to story.
the hardware
store to buy
pest-control
products.

194 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

At this level, learners take part in only one or two activities a day, so a teacher needs to think of
balancing learning not only within a lesson, but also across lessons over an extended period of
time. If we look at only one class session in the one-week plan above, there may not be a lot of
variation of skills, modes of learning, or interactions. But if we look at the whole week, we see a
very balanced plan that includes reading, writing, listening, and speaking as well as the language
for making a complaint to a landlord.
Another way to build continuity in ESL classes is to establish curricular routines. When I asked
Kristin about her lesson planning process, she started by talking about routines:

Kristin (literacy-level class for emergent readers)

My lesson planning process really starts with routines, for example, the writing out of dates,
describing the weather, recounting their previous day’s activities, or a letter of the day. I know that
my learners spend less time struggling to understand directions when I reuse familiar routines and
formats so each day’s content has a routine tailored to it. I can focus on differentiating the content
for the specific learners I’m serving that day.

Early in her career, my colleague Celeste shared with me that planning for 15 hours a week with
the same group of intermediate-level learners was a daunting task. She decided to build some
routines into her weekly plan: a listening lesson every Wednesday after the break, a reading
lesson on Thursday, Fridays for the computer lab, all related to the overarching theme for the
week. Here is an outline of the reading routine she used every Thursday:
1. At the beginning of class, each table was given one word used in the context of the reading
and had to create a simple definition and picture for their word (Celeste chose words that
build schema for the reading).
2. Each group sent a member from their table to the board to present their word.
3. Based on these key words, Celeste elicited predictions about the story and wrote them on the
board. Learners then read to confirm those predictions.
4. Learners read for more detail with specific questions that were assigned as homework.
Celeste chose short readings that related to themes she was covering that week. I observed her
class on two separate Thursdays and was struck by how quickly the groups engaged in these pre-
reading activities. No time was lost in trying to explain the tasks and the learners took control of
the entire process.
A final example for building continuity in lesson planning is to develop units or a series of lessons
around a line of inquiry (Vinogradov 2016). The figure below shows how a series of lessons
revolve around the question: What are the benefits of early childhood education? Notice the ways
that digital literacy, reading strategies, writing, vocabulary, and grammar are woven together as
learners work towards creating the culminating product: a poster on the benefits of preschool
and the options available to them in the community.

Chapter 6 Planning for Teaching and Learning 195

 Exploring Preschool in the U.S.: High-Beginning/Low-Intermediate

Day 2:
Reading with Graphic
Organizer
Read non-fiction (preschool
in the U.S.) and complete a
chart with the main points
of the reading. Answer
Day 1: questions about the Day 3:
Pre-Reading reading. Jigsaw Reading: Preschool
Discuss knowledge and Options
opinions about education Read a scenario
for young children. Match and choose an appropriate
educational vocabulary preschool option. Discuss
with definitions. why it is a good fit.

Section Product:
Poster
In small groups, students
create a poster about
the benefits of early Day 4
Day 7 childhood education and Grammar
Writing local options available.
Identify parts of speech.
Write short report Find pronouns from the
about early childhood reading and their referents.
education options. Complete sentences with
appropriate PNs.

Day 5
Day 6
Speaking
Web Resources
Survey the class about
Browse a local school
education for young
district’s website for
children. Talk about the
preschool options.
data collected.

St. Paul Public Schools, R. M. Hubbs Center for Lifelong Learning

Conclusion
Planning lessons is a complex process that needs to take into account learner strengths, needs,
and expectations. When using backward design, we start by identifying final outcomes and
our assessments before mapping out the lesson activities or tasks and procedures. Teachers
identify learning objectives that are achievable and related to what the learners will do in the
lesson, not what the teacher will do. Those objectives should promote higher order thinking
skills and challenge the learners to go beyond basic skills development. Using themes, projects,
routines, lines of inquiry, and review all help to establish continuity and build learner confidence.
Regardless of the approach you use to lesson planning, lessons need to be flexible and responsive
to what happens on any given day, while at the same time guiding the learners and teachers
on the best path possible to meeting the learning objectives. In the next section, we turn to the
importance of planning for interactions that occur within every lesson so that teacher language,
directions for activities, or checking questions enhance rather than get in the way of learning.
196 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
Part II: Teacher and learner interactions

6.6 Teacher language

The language that teachers use in class, or teacher talk, can have a tremendous impact on
learner success with a lesson. This teacher talk falls into several categories:

Directions for activities

Direct instruction   Warm-up chats
Transitions   Feedback   Questioning
Comprehension checks

Teacher talk is appropriate in an ESL class provided that it is conveyed using language that is
accessible to students. Which of these teacher instructions in French can you understand?
a. Écoutez et répétez, s’il vous plait.
b. Ouvrez vos livres à la page 76.
c. J’aimerez que vous m’écoutiez et que vous répétiez les phrases suivantes après moi.
d. Si vous voulez, vous pouvez ouvrir vos livres à la page 76.
I am guessing that many of you could ascertain the meaning of items a. (Listen and repeat, please)
and b. (Open your books to page 76); they are direct and to the point, and within the reach of
most learners, especially when combined with gestures. But what about c. (I’d like you to listen
and to repeat the following sentences after me.) and d. (If you would like, you can open your books
to page 76.)? Unless you’ve studied French, I imagine that many of the words were out of your
reach. Items c. and d. include extraneous teacher talk, i.e., the majority of the words are not
needed to convey the intended message. Not only that, but the language used is indirect and
grammatically complex. It may seem that no teacher would use language like samples c.and d.
with learners new to English, but as you read the examples below, you may be able to imagine
yourself saying these things:
e. Would you mind moving over there next to Alexis?
f. Who can tell me what is happening in this picture?
g. What kind of weekend did you have?
h. The first thing we’re going to do today is a paired reading.
In fact, many teachers new to teaching English fear that by simplifying their language too much,
they will talk down to students, which is a valid concern. Minimizing teacher talk does not mean
dummying down language to the point of using incomplete, unnatural utterances.
On the other hand, using indirect, polite language can make the directions ineffectual to the
learner who hasn’t acquired polite modals or indirect questions. “What did you do this weekend?”
is much easier to understand than the question: “What kind of weekend did you have?” Giving a
step-by-step account of each stage in your lesson (The first thing . . . , Now I’ll give you a handout . . .)
adds no value to the instruction. All of the items above represent the way we naturally interact
with other highly proficient English speakers; in an ESL class, excessive words can clutter the air,
making it difficult for the beginning-level learner to pull out what is truly important.

Chapter 6 Planning for Teaching and Learning 197

 6.7 Maximizing learner involvement
Connecting instruction to learners’ lives, using project-based and participatory approaches, and
including ongoing classroom-based assessments (see Chapter 9) are all ways to maximize learner
involvement (Finn Miller 2010). Learner involvement is also about the roles students take on
during the lesson. With every decision you make about a lesson, you need to think about the roles
and responsibilities learners take on so that they are doing most of the work and taking the lead.
When teachers in our program reflect on their lessons, I ask them a question that I learned from
Jack Richards at a TESOL Convention session on teacher reflection: What did I do in this lesson that
my learners could have done? This question has become something of a mantra for me because far
too often I see teachers doing all of the work for the learners.

Task 6.3
Read each of these excerpts from adult ESL lesson plans and answer these questions:
What are the roles of the students and teacher in each one?
What does the teacher do that the students could be doing?
How can you change the scenario so that the students take on more of a teaching role?
Sample 1: Review of sequence words and imperatives (workplace English class)
T gives each student an item from a kit for building a small bookshelf.
T gives each step of the instructions: First, place the top of the table face-down on a
flat surface. Learners come to the front of the room and complete their step when
called out.
Sample 2: Correcting a listening activity after viewing an authentic how-to video online
After completing a listening activity, T displays a graphic organizer that learners
filled in while listening and elicits correct answers from the whole class, typing in
responses she hears.
Sample 3: Practice of numeracy using grocery ads
T calls out the names of two items in a newspaper circular. Students scan to find
items and tell teacher which item is a better deal, taking into consideration the
number of ounces, price per pound, etc.
Follow-up: The instructional choices the teachers made in these lessons are sound in terms of
the content they have chosen and the activities they have prepared, but what is lacking is an
awareness of learner responsibility and involvement in these segments. If these teachers asked
themselves the question: “What did I do in this lesson that my learners could have done?,” they
may have come up with some of the solutions you found in the task above. How could Sample
1 be constructed so that the learners are conveying the instructions for building the bookcase?
How could learners give one another feedback after a listening task in Sample 2? As you plan
your lessons, critically evaluate the roles and responsibilities you’ve given learners before you
walk into class. The more learners take responsibility for activities, the better; the more you are
talking and leading, the more they are only listening and following.

198 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 6.8 Giving directions
One of the most important (and most difficult) things for new teachers is learning how to give
clear directions. If the students don’t know what they are supposed to be doing, they won’t get
very far. My mottos have always been “Just do it!” and “Less is more.”
“Just do it!” represents the need for teachers to demonstrate, or do an activity, rather than
explain it. Once having demonstrated the activity with a student, have two students try to
demonstrate one example before handing the activity off to the whole class.
“Less is more”: the fewer words used, the better. Lengthy or multistep explanations
are difficult for beginning-level learners to follow. Identify the steps to the activity, and
demonstrate each step, one at a time, as it is needed to complete the task at hand.

Task 6.4
Look at the sample activity.

Talking About Interests and Hobbies

1. How do you like to spend your time after work or on the weekend? Circle three things
you like to do. Cross out three that you never do. Write three other things you like to do
in your free time.

swim visit family listen to music

go to the library garden cook for friends and family

visit friends sew watch television

take walks exercise read

Three other things you like to do:

2. Now talk to the other students in class and find the person who has the most things in
common with you. Ask that person the following questions:
How often do you do that activity? What do you like about that activity?
What are some things you did in your country that you can’t do in the U.S.?

Now read two versions of directions for completing the activity. Which directions are more
effective and why? Talk to your partner or write your answers in your journal.

Sample Directions for Activity: Talking About Interests and Hobbies

Version A
Teacher distributes handout to class.
Teacher: Now you are going to talk about things you like to do after work or on the
weekend. I want you to circle three things you like to do, cross out three you don’t like to
do, and add three more of your own. After you finish, talk to people in class and find the
person who has the most in common with you. Ask them the questions at the bottom of
your handout.

Chapter 6 Planning for Teaching and Learning 199

 Version B
Teacher: Mai, what do you like to do on the weekends?
Mai: I like to read.
Teacher: So do I. (T projects sample handout on white board and circles “read.”) Do you
ever sew?
Mai: No.
Teacher: Neither do I. (T crosses off “sew.”)
(T distributes handout to class.) “Marco, what do you do on the weekend?”
Marco: Play soccer. (T uses questioning look.)
Teacher: Do you see soccer on the list? (points to overhead)
Class: No. (T asks Marco to write it in on the blank. T and class now read instructions together.)
Teacher: What do you circle?
Class: Things we do on the weekend.
Teacher: What do you cross out?
Class: Things we don’t do.
Class completes Part 1 individually and then T gives instructions for Part 2 through a similar
demonstration.

Follow-up: What is the key difference between the two versions? In Version A, the teacher
describes the activity, but doesn’t demonstrate what learners need to do. She doesn’t check for
understanding or have learners interact with her. While Version B might seem longer, there are
no lengthy explanations. The teacher is having a meaningful conversation with the students as
she demonstrates the activity. The teacher and students walk through a sample of the activity
together; she asks checking questions that allow learners to demonstrate their understanding,
and most importantly, she models what they need to do.

6.9 Checking learner understanding

A literacy instructor who was new to working with immigrant families shared the following
incident with me:
We organized a special after-school meeting with families in our program. I told my students that
we would be meeting from 2:30 until 4:30 in the school cafeteria. I arrived at 2:20 to set things
up and waited for the families to arrive. Two of the families came at 2:30, but the others arrived
between 3:00 and 4:00. One family came right before we were finishing up the meeting. I was so
surprised and quite disappointed. I asked the families why they came so late and they appeared
confused, saying they came between 2:30 and 4:30 as instructed.
As someone who has worked with language learners for over 30 years, this story did not surprise
me at all. For one thing, in many cultures, coming between 2:30 and 4:30 means arriving any
time between 2:30 and 4:30. I also know that many people who have not had experience working
with immigrants do not check for understanding when they give instructions, or if they do, they
often ask, Do you understand? or Is that clear?, to which the students say yes or nod their heads.
In this case, what the learners understood was quite different from what the teacher intended.
Understanding can be about:
• Language: The learners misunderstand the words used by the teacher.
• Culture: The students’ cultural concepts may be different, e.g., the use of from_ to _ to denote a
time frame.
200 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
• B
 ackground: The learners’ understanding and interpretations of events are shaped by their
own life experiences, which are different from the teacher’s and from their classmates’. This
means that everyone in the same room can have different interpretations of the same events.
 hy do people say they understand when in fact they may not? There are a number of reasons,
W
many of which are true for all of us:
• The learners believe they have understood.
• They want to show respect for the speaker; in some cultures, saying, “I don’t understand”
means, You weren’t clear so I couldn’t understand you.
• They may want to save face (as we all do).
Given these factors, teachers need to check for understanding in ways other than asking, “Do you
understand?” Had the literacy teacher used checking questions like the following, there may not
have been confusion about the start time of the meeting:
Teacher: The meeting is from 2:30 to 4:30. So, what time do you need be in the cafeteria?
Class: 2:30. (If they reply that they can arrive between 2:30 and 4:30, you can clarify
and check again. The checking question reveals the holes in comprehension without
intimidating the students.)
Teacher: How long is the meeting? Class: Two hours.
This same approach can be used when teaching language points.
Grammar: You have been working on the present perfect (I have lived here for 12 years),
which the students confuse with the simple past (I lived there for 12 years).
Teacher: I have lived here for 12 years. When I did I move here? Do I still live here?
Vocabulary: Teacher: I need to hire a babysitter for my kids. I want someone who is prompt.
Does a prompt person come late or on time? My kids get off the bus at 3:00. What time
does the babysitter need to be at my house?
Notice that these checking questions allow the learner to demonstrate their understanding.
This kind of checking can be done in nonverbal ways as well, for example, Yes/No cards that are
held up in response to a question. Asking students to complete simple tasks can serve to check
understanding as well, for example, placing words on a continuum to show degrees:
Least to most frequent: never, rarely, sometimes, often, always
Strength of likes/dislikes: hate, don’t like, like a little, like a lot, really like, love

Task 6.5
The following phrases were used in a beginning level, intergenerational family literacy class. The
italicized word in each example seemed to be new for many learners. With a partner or on your
own, choose the question(s) that would best check a beginning learner’s understanding of the
word in italics, or write a checking question of your own. Number one has been done for you.
1. You’ll need to bring a record of your child’s vaccinations.
a. Who gives vaccinations?
b. Do you understand vaccinations?
c. What do vaccinations stop?
In number 1, a. and c. allow the learner to demonstrate that they understand that a doctor or
nurse gives vaccinations and that vaccinations stop diseases. Question b. could elicit a “yes”
with no guarantee of actual understanding.

Chapter 6 Planning for Teaching and Learning 201

 2. They encourage the schools to provide nutritious meals.
a. What does nutritious mean?
b. Give some examples of nutritious foods.
c. Which of these foods are nutritious? candy, an apple, whole grain bread, cheese,
potato chips
d.
3. Transitions can be difficult for young children.
a. When do transitions happen?
b. What is a transition?
c. Do you know what transition means?
d.

Follow-up: There may be some variation in your responses, but what is important is that the
questions you chose or wrote allow learners to demonstrate their understanding of a concept.
The questions themselves need to be comprehensible to learners as well, and taking the time
to plan and script these questions in advance benefits everyone.

6.10 Questions to promote critical thinking

In Chapter 3, we explored how using Bloom’s Taxonomy of higher-order thinking can guide the
development of classroom tasks to promote critical thinking in adult ESL classrooms. It can also
guide the questioning techniques we use, posing questions that move beyond recall and up to
analysis or application. Imagine you were to encounter a reading and accompanying questions
like these in the curriculum you are using:

Where does Josephina work?

What are her hours?
How many brothers and sisters does she have?
How does she help her mother?

Read the story about Josephina’s daily activities and answer the questions.

Josephina’s New Job

Josephina has a new job. She now works at Family Mart. She works part time from 7:00 in the
morning to noon. Now she can be with her two younger sisters and brother in the afternoon
and then go to school to work on her English in the evening.
Josephina usually helps her sister with homework in the afternoon. Sometimes they go to the
playground near their house. They often help their mother. They wash clothes and help clean
the house. Josephina enjoys her new schedule.
(Adapted from Parrish 2015b)
Notice that all of the questions are display questions that require no analysis or interpretation of
the text. Learners could scan the text to answer the questions without necessarily understanding
much of what they have read. While we may start with questions like those, what happens if we
ask learners questions like these?
202 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
• W
 hen does Josephina take her brother and sister to the playground? Do you think they go every
day? How do you know?
• What do they do more often: help their mom or go to the playground? How do you know?
• How is Josephina’s life different? How do we know?
• Why do you think she likes her new schedule?
Now learners need to look at the text closely to answer the questions. They need to interpret the
meaning of sometimes, usually, and often, so they are getting practice with some basic academic
language. They need to interpret that her new job reflects a positive change based on the word
“enjoy” and analyze how time to work, help family, and continue to go to school could be affecting
her satisfaction. This example demonstrates how the questions we ask lead to differing levels of
thinking.
In many classrooms, we see a traditional teacher-led question-and-answer routine called Initiate-
Response-Evaluate (I-R-E) (TEAL 2013). This routine may check for factual information but it does
not always encourage higher-order thinking. In an I-R-E sequence, the teacher initiates a question
that normally has one right answer. This is followed by teacher feedback and involves the teacher
working with one student at a time. One improvement over this is to wait for a number of replies
and ask the whole class to weigh in on which is correct. Let’s see how we can create questions
that prompt higher levels of thinking. In their book Making Thinking Visible, Ritchart, Church,
and Morrison (2011) encourage questioning techniques that serve to reveal a learners’ thinking
process. They propose three ways of accomplishing this:
• M odeling an interest in ideas: By asking genuine questions of learners, those for which the
teacher doesn’t already know the answers, we encourage a climate of reciprocal learning.
• Constructing understanding: These are questions that serve to advance learners’ understanding
by connecting and extending ideas, or by making interpretations.
• Facilitating and clarifying thinking: The key question here is, “What makes you say that?” (34).
The authors suggest that this question reflects a high level of genuine interest on the part of
the teacher.
Ritchart, Church, and Morrison (2011: 31–36)
In addition to these teacher questioning techniques is the need to provide English language
learners with the actual language frames they will need to make that thinking visible (Zwiers and
Crawford 2011), for example, It would seem to me; As I consider all the evidence . . .

Prompting learner questions

It is not only the teacher who should be asking questions that really matter. Rothstein and
Santana (2011) suggest a technique called the Question Formulation Technique (QFT) for turning
questioning in the classroom over to students. They argue that learners haven’t always been
encouraged to ask the questions in school but that by doing so, they deepen their engagement
and understanding of content. Learners need a process for generating questions that can be used
for any number of purposes in the classroom: in response to a reading, to explore a new topic, in
preparation for a project. QFT entails these steps:
• G enerating questions: Generate as many as possible without judgment and without trying to
answer them right away.
• Categorizing questions into closed- and open-ended questions: What are the pros and cons of
each? What happens if we turn closed questions into open-ended questions?
• Prioritizing and using the questions: Teachers and learners together decide on how to use
the questions. Which will best lead to creative thinking with the task at hand? How can the
questions bring multiple perspectives together?  

Chapter 6 Planning for Teaching and Learning 203

Consider how you could use QFT in a jigsaw reading lesson (see 5.8), in project-based learning,
in a problem-solving task (see 4.9 G), or even for analysis of grammar point in a contextualized
language lesson (see 3.3). 

Some important reminders

Whether you are giving directions, organizing activities, eliciting language, asking checking questions,
or giving feedback, here are some important reminders for working with those new to English.
• U se plenty of wait time during whole class instructional time. Tsui (2001) notes that this is
a time when learners may feel particularly vulnerable as others are awaiting a reply. Early
research on wait time (Rowe 1986) suggests that even increasing wait time to three to four
seconds results in greater student output. My own observations (of myself and others) have
shown me that most teachers are guilty of giving far too little wait time after asking students a
question.
• Provide alternatives to teacher-whole group questioning. Oftentimes the most confident
students are the ones who volunteer answers right away. Give learners some thinking time,
time to record some ideas, and then opportunity to engage in partner practice before reporting
to the whole group.
• Students may come from cultures where students do not question teachers (Chowdhury 2003).
Let them know that requests for clarification, simplification, or repetition are welcomed and
expected. Teach the phrases they’ll need to ask for clarification, e.g., Could you please repeat
that? Provide learners with language frames that represent other common interactions or
routines in your classes.
• Frequently check for understanding. Do not assume that a nod or “Yes, I understand” means
the student has understood.

204 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Part III: Promoting learning beyond the classroom

6.11 Learning strategies development

Learning shouldn’t stop when students walk out of the classroom.
While this statement might seem obvious, helping learners to recognize and use learning
strategies to learn outside of class takes conscious effort on the part of both teachers and
learners. What are language learning strategies?

Task 6.6
Suppose you are in another country and you need to buy a fingernail clipper. You speak some
of the local language, but you have no idea what the words are for fingernail clipper. How could
you ask for this item without using the name for it? Talk to a partner or write your ideas below:

Follow-up: In order to make yourself understood, you probably used one of the following
compensation strategies:
• Using mime or gesture
• Defining the word or explaining its function
• Using a synonym
• Getting help from someone who speaks the native language and your language

All of these represent ways of being resourceful and getting what you need in another language,
rather than giving up and leaving the store. Compensation strategies are just one type of
language learning strategy that can be taught within any type of ESL curriculum. Doing so
empowers learners to progress and actively learn on their own. These strategies are any tools
or tactics that learners employ to learn more effectively and more autonomously. Different
strategies serve different purposes, but they can be used in any combination. Rebecca Oxford
(1990) proposes two classes of strategies: direct strategies and indirect strategies as shown in
Table 6.5.

Table 6.5 Direct and Indirect Learning Strategies

Direct Strategies Indirect Strategies
Memory Strategies Organizational Strategies*
Those that help you to remember language, Those that help you plan for and organize
for example: learning, for example:
• Sorting words into logical categories • Setting goals and objectives
• Using sounds and images to remember • Seeking opportunities for practice
words • Connecting new information with known
information

Chapter 6 Planning for Teaching and Learning 205

 Cognitive Strategies Affective Strategies
Those that enhance understanding, for Those that improve your emotional state for
example: learning, for example:
• Recognizing and using phrases • Using relaxation techniques
• Repeating new language • Rewarding yourself
• Summarizing • Keeping a language learning diary
Compensation Strategies Social Strategies
Those that help you overcome limitations, Those that promote learning cooperatively,
for example: for example:
• Guessing through visual or other clues • Asking for clarification
• Asking for help • Asking for correction
• Using mime or gesture • Interacting with proficient users of the
language

*Oxford calls these metacognitive strategies. For a full description and discussion of Language Learning
Strategies, see Rebecca Oxford (1990) Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know, Heinle
and Heinle.

While much research is still underway to determine which strategies work best for given learners
and under various conditions (Cohen and Griffiths 2015), good language learners employ strategies
that make them more conscious about how they learn, that allow them to monitor the success
of learning, and to manage their time, affect, and effort, leading to greater self-efficacy overall
(Oxford 2016). Developing effective language learning strategies is a goal that merits attention in
any English language class, regardless of the focus of instruction and regardless of learner level
(Reimer 2008). That is what prompted the developers of the Transition Integration Framework
(TIF) (ATLAS 2016) to include the category of Learning Strategies among the essential skills needed
for transitioning to new opportunities at school or work and in the community. The framework
includes broad skills related to learning strategies (LS), each with numerous subskills, for example:

LS Skill 2: SWBAT . . . Apply appropriate strategies to organize, retain, and review materials in
order to aid in understanding and recall

Subskills:
a. Employ a variety of strategies for categorizing information (sorting words logically,
alphabetizing, pros and cons)
b. Select and use graphic organizers appropriate for a task (T-chart for pros and cons, Venn
diagram for compare/contrast)
c. Choose and apply preferred note-taking strategies based on personal preference or task
(lists, outlines, word maps, highlighting, two-column notes)
d. Choose and use strategies for reviewing, evaluating, and summarizing information (oral
retell, flashcards, outline, highlight main points)

LS Skill 3: SWBAT . . . Apply appropriate strategies to compensate for and fill in gaps in knowledge

Subskills:
a. Ask for repetition and clarification of unknown language and concepts

206 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 b. Compensate for unknown language using paraphrase or circumlocution (using other
words to describe or work around an unknown word)
c. Use context and what you know to figure out or guess meaning of language
d. Identify appropriate resources and/or means to fill in gaps in knowledge (ask a teacher,
consult a dictionary, online search)
(ATLAS 2016)

Within the TIF, there are examples of how learners at various levels and in various contexts can
practice each subskill, as depicted for LS Skill 2-Subskill b. in Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2 Example of How to Teach LS Skill 2 Subskill b. of the Transitions Integration Framework
(ATLAS 2016: 19) Reprinted with permission.

Making strategies explicit throughout instruction

In a listening lesson
In a class where the students do regular listening activities, both from the textbook and from
authentic sources such as news reports, podcasts, and interviews, the teacher always begins with
pre-listening activities. Each time she does that, she makes it explicit to her students that this strategy
allows them to anticipate content and check their predictions as they listen. The teacher then shares
how she uses that same strategy at home to practice listening to the news in German online:
Just as you need to improve your English, I am working on my German because my family and I
are going to Germany this summer. Luckily, I can find news in German online each night. I don’t
know much German yet, but before I listen, I write down all the events I heard about that day,
either in conversations with people, on the radio or in the newspaper in my language. Then when
I listen in German, I try to hear some of those key words. I can always understand some names of
countries and people, and some other words that sound like English. I want you to try doing that
with the news in English every day.

Chapter 6 Planning for Teaching and Learning 207

In a vocabulary lesson
In Section 4.9 C, we saw a categorizing task where students sort descriptive words for personality
traits (e.g., reliable, emotional, manipulative) into these three categories:
Positive   Either Positive or Negative   Negative
By creating logical groupings of the vocabulary, the learners engage with the words by discussing
them in groups; they analyze possible connotations; they repeat the words multiple times
verbally; they reason as they justify their choices. The teacher now shares:
This is a good way to organize new words that you learn. It helps you to remember them better if
you put them in groups like the ones we made on the board. Each week, keep a list of new words
you learn and hear. At the end of the week, see what categories you may be able to create and
justify your choices.
Integrating learning strategies development into your lessons is one more way that learning and
teaching can promote successes and accomplishment for your students. Just as with teacher-
student interactions, the teaching of learning strategies should not be left to chance or taught
haphazardly. Strategies should be presented, practiced, and made explicit throughout instruction
as an integral part of your lessons. In fact, research indicates that more positive results are shown
if strategy training is taught in connection with specific content (O’Malley and Chamot 1990).
As noted in Section 3.3, a systematic approach to vocabulary acquisition (Dutro and Kinsella
2010) includes writing and pronouncing a new word a few times; breaking down long words
into syllables and identifying the word stress; explanations in student-friendly language; visual
representations; and structured oral and written tasks. Susan Finn Miller’s vocabulary workouts
provide these supports and if used systematically in class, can be used for independent practice
and review.

Vocabulary Workout
New Word or Phrase Explanation Examples
approach To do Students often have a specific way or approach
/ap-PROACH/ something in a to studying new vocabulary. Students also
(verb) specific way or usually have a certain approach for solving a
manner math problem.

approach A way of doing Teachers use different approaches when

/ap-PROACH/ something or a teaching. For example, some teachers
way of solving approach their teaching by using technology in
(noun)
problem their class. Other teachers don’t use technology
in their approach.
Conversation Practice:
Q: What is a healthy approach to dieting?
A: A healthy to dieting includes eating a lot of
(noun) and only a little (noun).
Writing Practice: When taking a test, reading the questions first can be a(n)
(adjective) .
My Sentence:

208 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Jessica Jones (personal communication) provides language frames learners need to talk to their
classmates about their word attack skills. In doing so, she promotes skills for learning new words
independently.

What does ________ mean?

I think means . Can you show me the meaning of the
For example, . word or sentence?

My dictionary says I’ll try to draw it.

means . Here’s a good picture on my phone.
Maybe I can act it out.
I don’t think I can show this.

Conclusion
In this chapter, the discussion of planning for teaching and learning has included far more than
writing a lesson plan before walking into an English language class. Teachers need to prepare for
classroom interactions and integrate learning strategies instruction into lessons. They need to
find ways to build continuity from one lesson to the next. While many of these teaching routines
become second nature for experienced ESL teachers, those new to the profession need to be
mindful of the importance of all of these elements to assure that learners have an optimal
learning experience.

Chapter 6 Planning for Teaching and Learning 209

 Key Terms

On your own, or with a partner, provide an example or brief definition for each concept:

Checklist of Key Terms

course goals/outcomes

objectives

targeted language

curricular routines

display questions

teacher talk/extraneous
teacher talk

checking questions

Question Formulation
Technique (QFT)

wait time

language learning strategies

210 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Applying What You’ve Learned

Before doing these activities, revisit your answers to the questions at the beginning of the
chapter.

1 Lesson Planning

If you are already teaching, use the lesson-planning guidelines in Table 6.2 as you plan an
upcoming lesson. Afterwards, reflect on the ways that using these guidelines helped your
planning. What areas had you overlooked before? In what ways did using the guidelines affect the
outcomes for learners in that lesson?
If you are not teaching, talk to an ESL teacher about the class she or he teaches and write a class
description based on the information she or he gives you. Choose a unit from the textbook that
the class is currently using and prepare a lesson plan using the lesson-planning guidelines in
Table 6.2. If possible, ask the teacher for feedback about your plan.

2 Giving Instructions

If you are already teaching, audio or video record a portion of your lesson when you are giving
instructions to your students. Transcribe your instructions and answer these questions:
a. Do I demonstrate or describe the activity?
b. What modeling do I provide? Do I break the activity down into logical steps and give learners
only the information they need to complete each step?
c. How do I check for learner understanding? Do I have students try the activity before the
whole class undertakes it?
How did you do? Are you satisfied with your instructions, or did you discover some areas where
you might improve? Rewrite the instructions to reflect any changes you would like to make the
next time you use this activity.
If you are not teaching, choose an activity in an ESL textbook and script the instructions you
would give for the activity. Think of how you would demonstrate the activity as well as the
techniques you would use to check that learners understand what they need to do. Practice
giving the instructions to a classmate, friend, or family member and ask for feedback about your
instructions using the questions above.

3 Checking Understanding and Questioning Techniques

If you are already teaching, identify key vocabulary and grammatical or functional language in an
upcoming lesson and prepare checking questions to use with your learners. Remember that good
checking questions allow learners to demonstrate their understanding. Avoid: Do you know . . .? Do
you understand . . .? What does ____ mean? After the lesson, reflect on how successful you were at
checking learner understanding. Is there anything you would do differently if you were teaching
this lesson again?
If you are not teaching, choose a unit in a textbook and do the same exercise. Practice your
checking questions with a partner in class.

Chapter 6 Planning for Teaching and Learning 211

 Recommended Reading and Resources

Grammar References for Teachers

Azar, B. (2017). Chartbook, 5th Edition. White Plains, NY: Prentice Hall. The Chartbook draws on
the classic Azar grammar series with concise explanations, timelines, and examples of grammar
points, particularly the tense/aspect system of English.

Swan, M. (2017) Practical English Usage, 4th Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. This grammar
reference answers questions that teachers and learners ask about English grammar and
vocabulary with clear explanations and examples.

Thornbury, S. (2017) About Language, 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. This
book asks: “What is it that a teacher needs to know about English in order to teach it effectively?”
It develops teachers’ language awareness through a wide range of tasks, which involve them in
analyzing English to discover its underlying systems. 

Lesson Planning

Michaud, C. and Reed, M. (2010) Goal-Driven Lesson Planning for Teaching English to Speakers of
Other Languages. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. This text shows teachers how to
take any piece from English language materials―an assigned text, a newspaper article, an ESL
activity from a website, etc.―and use it to teach students something about language.

Wiggins, G. and McTigue, J. (2005) Understanding by Design, Expanded 2nd Edition. Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development. For those particularly interested in backward design,
this text guides educators in the design of curriculum, assessment, and instruction with templates
and tools for planning.

Learning Strategies

Nation, P. (2014). What Do You Need to Know to Learn a Foreign Language? School of Linguistics and
Applied Language Studies. Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. https://www.victoria.
ac.nz/lals/about/staff/publications/paul-nation/foreign-language_1125.pdf. This free, online text is
designed for learners of foreign languages. It gives teachers ideas on how to highlight strategies
with their learners.

Oxford, R. (2016) Teaching and Researching Language Learning Strategies: Self-Regulation in Context,
2nd Edition. New York, NY: Routledge. This text provides discussion of self-regulation and agency.
It shows applications of learning strategies in all language skill areas and in grammar and
vocabulary.

212 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

7 Managing Learning in Adult
English Language Classes
To consider before reading this chapter:
• What are the characteristics of a multilevel class?
• How can teachers differentiate instruction to meet a wide range of needs, backgrounds,
and levels in an adult English language classroom?
• What would an optimal learning environment for adult English learners look like?

Part I: Creating optimal learning environments

7.1 Introduction
Multiple elements of a lesson, which are often less tangible than the written plan, textbook, or
materials the teacher has prepared, contribute to the relative success of that particular lesson.
Identifying those factors and accounting for them in the planning stages can have a tremendous
impact on learning. In the first part of this chapter, we examine the impact factors such as
multilevel classes, the classroom environment, variable attendance, or pairing/grouping of
students can have on learning, with a focus on turning challenges into opportunities for learning.
In the second part of the chapter, we turn to suggestions for working with learners with particular
needs, for example, students with learning disabilities, physical disabilities, or those who have
experienced trauma. Let’s start by looking at Valentina’s class.

Getting Started
Task 7.1
Read the description of Valentina’s class and answer the questions with a partner or in your
journal:
Valentina teaches a low-intermediate/intermediate class of 35 adults enrolled from a variety
of countries, including Liberia, Vietnam, Mexico, Ecuador, China, the Ukraine, and Bosnia.
She works at a community-based program that offers only three levels. Some learners have
advanced degrees from their country and others have limited or interrupted prior formal
schooling. Their backgrounds with technology and digital literacy skills range broadly from an
engineer who has worked with sophisticated computer programs to someone who has hardly
used a computer. Her program has an open-enrollment policy, which means that students
are joining the class weekly. Many of the students have jobs and attend class sporadically
so attendance varies from 12 to 35 students. Some students seem mostly interested in long
grammar explanations and written activities; others seem eager to engage in discussions. The
classroom is used by other programs at her school, so she hasn’t been able to make use of
the space as she’d like. She can’t keep posters, resources, or learning supports on the walls.
She knows her students would benefit from more interaction with one another, but she’s not
sure how to organize pair and group activities in her small space. Valentina has always been
very forthcoming in helping her students with personal issues (calls to landlords, rides to

Chapter 7 Managing Learning in Adult English Language Classes 213

 appointments), but lately this has made her feel uncomfortable because a few students seem
to be placing too many demands on her personal time or aren’t making the effort she feels
they could to resolve issues on their own.
1. Identify issues that could have an impact on learning and teaching.
2. What could Valentina do to turn some of these challenges around? Think in terms of learner
roles and responsibilities, course content, tasks, teaching and learning strategies, and the
classroom environment.

Issues/Challenges Opportunities

Follow-up: Valentina is working with a multilevel class, managing varying experiences and
expectations, and managing open enrollment. These are among the topics we will look at in the
chapter. As you read, look for possible solutions to the challenges you identified above.

7.2 Working with multilevel classes

Teachers like Valentina may feel ill-prepared for accommodating the multiple levels, expectations,
and needs of the learners in class. These variables affect learners’ feelings about classes as well.
In studies on learner attrition and attendance, learners have noted mixed literacy skills, minimal
peer support, and irrelevant materials as reasons for leaving programs (Brod 1990). Learners
can feel that course content is at odds with their perceptions of what they should be learning, for
example, academic readiness instead of a lesson on cooking without any focus on skills related to
numeracy or measurement (Schalge and Soga 2008).
The fact is, multilevel classes are a reality of just about every ESL program and should not be seen
as a deterrent to learning. Many would argue that multilevel classes allow for richer interaction
among students, promoting multiple perspectives, peer teaching, and multifaceted learning. The
question is: What are some effective ways to make multilevel classes rich and productive learning
environments for all students? This discussion needs to begin with an understanding of what
multilevel actually means. Is it only a question of language proficiency?

Task 7.2
Take a few minutes to brainstorm as many characteristics of a multilevel class as you can.

What are the characteristics of a multilevel class?

variation in proficiency levels         different school experiences

Follow-up: The simplest view of multilevel classes is that some learners are very proficient and
participate all the time, and others are non-communicative, leading the teacher to think they
lack skills in English. In reality, it can be difficult to gauge learner ability across language skills;
“Sometimes . . . we assume that the silent student doesn’t understand when in fact [his] listening
skills may be quite strong. Similarly, confident speech may mask very limited literacy skills”
214 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
(Bell 2012: 88). Reticence to participate should not be attributed to willingness to learn or to
levels of competence; the outward behaviors students exhibit in class have as much to do with
experiential and affective factors as they do with language proficiency (Carter and Henrichsen
2015). Bell (2004), Isserlis (2009), and Tomlinson (2014) propose a multitude of factors that
contribute to an individual’s learning profile. Central to Tomlinson’s work in differentiation is to
avoid viewing any of these differences as deficits. Table 7.1 presents four broad categories of
variables that can affect learning along with some of the factors teachers need to consider when
planning for instruction.

Table 7.1 What Does Multilevel Mean?

1 E
 xperiences with Education Factors to Consider
Prior formal and/or informal • Number of years of schooling (formal or informal)
education • Experience learning other languages
• Comfort with sitting in a classroom
Expectations about learning/ • Content, e.g., work readiness, citizenship
teaching • Language focus, e.g., grammar, reading, writing,
listening, speaking
• Approaches to teaching; group/pair work
• Willingness, comfort, and ability to speak up in class
• Views of teacher as expert
• Student-teacher roles; differing norms of student-
teacher interactions, inside and outside of class
Literacy skills • First and second language literacy
• Preliterate, nonliterate, or low-literate (Table 5.1)
• Ease with digital literacy
2 C
 ultural Background Factors to Consider
Classroom behaviors and • View of teacher as expert
expectations • Differing norms regarding pair/group work
• Differing norms of student-teacher interactions, inside
and outside of class
• Roles related to gender and age
Tensions among groups in • Political unrest between students’ countries of origin
the class • Tension between different clans from the same culture
• Status within country of origin
First/primary language • S
 imilarities or differences with English or other first
languages in class, e.g., Spanish has far more in
common with English than does Chinese
3 I ndividual Factors Factors to Consider
Identity and investment • D
 egree of sense of belonging in the new country,
community, and in the class

Chapter 7 Managing Learning in Adult English Language Classes 215

 Obstacles to learning • (Dis)abilites
Another box for presence, • Health and mental health
ability to attend to learning • Un/employment status
• Experiences of trauma, violence or abuse
• Worries, concerns, stressors beyond classroom
Motivation • Reasons for learning English: personal, professional or
academic
• Voluntary learning vs. compulsory learning
• Vision learners have for themselves; self-concept as
learners
Personality/ways of being in • Introverted vs. extroverted
the world • Analytical vs. intuitive
• Degree of flexibility with trying new ways of learning
Age • Effects on attention span, eye sight, hearing
• Physical stamina: ability to sit, stand, move about
Preferred approach to • Preference for:
learning - saying and doing things
- writing everything down
- observing demonstrations
- individual vs. group work
4 S
 ituational Factors Factors to Consider
Situation in the new country • Length of time in the country
• Workload, family demands
• Part-time or full-time student
• Socioeconomic condition
• Housing conditions and food security
• Racism, xenophobia
• Discrimination based on sexual orientation
Access to English outside • Time and effort devoted and available to learning
of class English outside of class
• Amount of input in English from online sources,
television, radio, family, friends, or coworkers
• Opportunities for meaningful interaction in English
outside of class
• Facility with and availability of technologies for learning
(e.g., high-speed Internet for accessing learning tools
or videos)

216 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Given the tremendous number of variables at play in all adult education classes, creating lessons
that account for so many diverse needs may seem impossible. The fact is, we can never meet
everyone’s needs all of the time; what we can do is be aware of these variables and differentiate
instruction accordingly. According to Tomlinson and Imbeau (2010), differentiation represents a
view that classrooms should be places that maximize each learner’s capabilities. What do educators
of adult ELs need to take into consideration as they create this optimal learning environment?

7.3 Establishing goals in multilevel classes

There is a direct connection between adult learner persistence and learners’ perception that their
goals are being met (Comings 2007; Comings, Parrella, and Soricone 1999). In a study on adult
ESL learner absenteeism (Schalge and Soga 2008), adult ESL learners expressed frustration about
the mismatch between their goals and teacher expectations of them. While teachers in this study
attributed absenteeism to issues such as transportation and childcare, the learner participants
reported a mismatch between their goals and instructional decisions regarding content and
pacing (too slow) in the class. Learners were not able to identify any clear assessments of
their learning and reported feeling bored in the class when the teacher covered topics such as
organizing one’s home or cooking rather than teaching academic skills they felt they needed. They
also desired more direct instruction from their teacher. Learner expectations may be in direct
conflict with the teacher’s view of herself as a facilitator of learning.
Even when learners are gaining self-confidence in English and feeling less marginalized in their
communities, they still express frustration with unmet personal and professional goals (Cooke
2006). It is through a careful assessment of learner needs and an open conversation about
learner goals that mismatches like these may be addressed. One way to bridge the gap between
learners’ diverse needs is to identify and negotiate shared goals, which results in more realistic
expectations for the whole group (Balliro 1997).

Group goal-setting tasks

A. Four corners
Four corners is a technique used widely in language classrooms for a variety of purposes, one of
which can be group goal setting and needs assessment. The teacher posts signs that represent
learning content, outcomes, or even processes for learning in the four corners of the room.
These can be proposed by the teacher or they can be brainstormed by the learners themselves.
Learners move to the corner of the room that represents their greatest need or interest. Learners
could repeat the process for their second choice. Once in their groups, learners can share why
they chose that corner. Possible categories for group goal setting could be:
Learning preferences: Starting with a prompt such as “When learning new information . . .” or
“When learning a new skill . . .”, the four corner signs are: I learn best when talking. I learn best by
doing activities with others. I learn best by listening and taking notes. I learn best working alone.
Language skills: Greatest need/or strengths in listening, speaking, reading, writing
Digital literacy skills: Use email to communicate. Find information online. Apply for jobs online.
Pay bills online.
Learning outcomes: In a unit on job explorations: Describe my work history. Describe my skills.
Search for jobs online. Apply for jobs online.
Primary focus (topics or content) of learning: Environmental issues. Technological advances.
Educational systems. History.
In literacy-level classes where learners have minimal print literacy, pictures of situations and
themes can be used instead of words; learners can work collaboratively to choose those that are
the most important to them, then tally the group results (Shank and Terrill 1997).
Chapter 7 Managing Learning in Adult English Language Classes 217
B. Polling
Electronic polling can be used as a digital alternative to four corners. If the teacher projects the
results to an online poll, the learners see in real time what is important to the group as a whole.
Polls can be implemented using any number of free tools (e.g., PollEveryhere, Socrative, Google
Forms) to create a short needs assessment at the start of a term, unit of instruction, or lesson.
Learners use their phones or devices to enter choices. If not all learners have a device in class,
teams can be assigned and one learner enters responses that reflect the group’s consensus.
Polling can also be done by a show of hands, post-it notes, or other non-digital means.

C. Can-do statements
Learning outcomes expressed as “can-do” statements can make goal setting accessible for
learners at any proficiency level. To establish content goals in a literacy-level class, a teacher can
post these statements across the front of the classroom.

I can do that in English

I can’t do that in English I want to learn that in English

I do that in my home language

Including the category, “I do that in my home language” acknowledges that many activities in
learners’ lives are conducted in their first language. Call out the following literacy practices and
have learners stand next to the appropriate can-do statement:
• Read to a child
• Read emails from school
• Help a child with homework
• Read the mail
• Read email from friends or family
• Write email to friends and family
• Write letters to friends or family
• Read a newspaper, print or online
Alternatively, first have students brainstorm literacy practices in their lives and use those for
the basis of this task. This task allows learners to see that there are varying needs and abilities
in class. It can be used at the beginning a unit of instruction and repeated at the end of a unit,
adding the question, “What can you say/do/write/read now?”

D. Generating and prioritizing group needs

Working in teams, learners generate lists of the language/skills/knowledge they need to develop
in various areas of their lives, for example, at home, for education, at work, or in the community.
Each team creates a poster for one assigned area (home, work, school, community) to share
with the group and to post in the classroom. Students circulate to each poster and put a check
mark next to common needs in order to start prioritizing group needs. Needs can be added to
the posters and revisited to identify progress, and priorities can be reorganized each month
(or more often).

E. Defining group expectations about learning/establishing ground rules

Balliro (1997) highlights the importance of students taking responsibility for their own learning in
the multilevel class. Establishing class ground rules promotes an inclusive classroom environment

218 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

where learners express their expectations from the start of a class. At the lower-proficiency levels,
learners can take part in a discussion using sentence starters like these:

A good teacher . A good student .

We (the students) will . The teacher will .

The responses become the ground rules for the class, which are written and displayed in the
classroom. In a more advanced level class, learners can explore their expectations regarding
forms of address, interaction styles, ways of giving and receiving feedback, or ways of operating in
group tasks, which could result in ground rules like these:
• Respect all class colleagues, even when you do not agree with their point of view.
• Listen carefully; do not interrupt.
• Keep an open mind.
• Be open to being challenged.
(The Teaching Center 2009)
Learners in Ivana Ferguson’s class create posters and during a gallery walk, the other learners
indicate agreement by adding check marks to suggestions proposed by classmates as in Figure 7.1.

Figure 7.1 Class Expectation Poster

Making these expectations public allows learners to recognize the variation in expectations of
the group.
The techniques in this section give all learners a voice in the needs assessment process, and they
build cohesion and cooperation among the group members from the very start of the class. These
tasks make public the varying needs that exist within the group, which may help to minimize
frustration around unmet needs or perceptions that the teacher is not aware of individual needs.
This also provides teachers with insights about learners’ needs and expectations as they plan for
differentiation in adult English language classrooms.

Chapter 7 Managing Learning in Adult English Language Classes 219

 7.4 Differentiation in English language classes
Differentiation consists of tailoring instruction to account for and address varying learner
profiles, interests, and readiness. Keeping overall learning outcomes in mind, the content,
process, and products of a lesson or unit are adjusted so that all learners can make gains in their
language development that are in keeping with their abilities and needs (Tomlinson and Imbeau
2010). Considering overall desired learning outcomes of a lesson or unit, we modify instruction
as follows:

What we need to modify . . . Based on learner . . .

Content: What do learners need Readiness: How well prepared are learners for the
to know and understand? This can content, skills, and language demands of classroom
include content knowledge such as tasks? 
economics or numeracy, as well as Interest: What content, knowledge, and skills will
the language learners need to be be of most interest to learners and, by extension,
successful in a lesson/unit. motivate them?
Process: What approach allows Affect: How might learner attitudes, emotions, or
learners to make sense of the feelings affect learning?
content?
Learning profile: How do learners approach
Product: How do learners learning? How might learning preferences or cultural
demonstrate what they have expectations about teaching and learning roles vary
learned? among learners?

(Tomlinson and Imbeau 2010: 15–17)

Let’s use the high-intermediate decision-making task presented in Chapter 4 to consider how
these elements of differentiation come together. In a class exploring entrepreneurship in their
community, learners consider a variety of options for starting a small business.

Learning Outcome:
Present the pros and cons of starting a particular small business in your community based on
evidence.
Task: Look at these three types of businesses and discuss which you have the skills and
expertise to develop.

Restaurant Food truck Small market
Start with online research in teams.
• Create groups based on which type of small business interests you most.
• Choose a targeted neighborhood.
• Research the number of similar businesses in the area.
• Research spaces available for rent or lease, or the cost of purchasing a food truck.
Discuss the pros and cons of starting their type of business for the targeted area based on
the information gathered. Present findings to the class either at the board, with a PowerPoint
presentation or a poster.

220 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

In order to determine the ways in which the teacher needs to differentiate instruction, we start by
examining the content, process, and product for this task. What language, skills, and knowledge
do learners need in order to be successful with this task? How will learners go about meeting the
outcomes? What will the teacher assess (the process, product, or both)? By doing this analysis of
the task demands, as shown in Figure 7.2, the teacher can determine the kinds of adjustments
she may need to provide so that all learners can contribute meaningfully to the task.

Decision-Making Task: Starting a Small Business

Content Process Product
Concepts: entrepreneurship, • Determine personal • A poster or PowerPoint
small business skills/interests to present findings
Language functions: • Create like-interest • In-class presentations
• Ask for and give opinions groups done as a gallery
• Conduct a web search walk or whole-
• Make suggestions
group presentations
• Describe options • Discuss pros/cons of
depending on class size
options
• State preferences
• Present findings to others
Language forms:
• Listen to presentations
• Modals of possibility (we can/
and ask questions of
could) and advisability (we
classmates
should)
• “Wh- question” forms (e.g., How
many…?)
Vocabulary: renting vs. leasing,
competition, availability, benefits,
drawbacks
Critical thinking skills:
• Evaluate the reliability of a web
page
• Analyze options
• Identify and evaluate pros/cons
of each option
Figure 7.2 An Analysis of Task Demands

Tomlinson and Imbeau (2010) provide a framework for differentiation that aligns the instructional
components to be considered (content, process, product) and learner variables (readiness,
interest, and learning profile). Figure 7.3 illustrates how to apply that process to the decision-
making classroom task and shows the differentiation the teacher could make based on learner
variables. Note that these examples illustrate the types of differentiation one could make; these
would be based on the needs of a given group of learners.

Chapter 7 Managing Learning in Adult English Language Classes 221

 Learner Readiness Learner Interest Learning Profile
Content • D irect learners to a • C hoose professions that • P rovide links to
variety of web sources you know are of interest videos as well as
that have level- to the learners (i.e., readings to appeal
appropriate language. not necessarily those to varying strengths
• Pre-teach the presented in the task). and learning
vocabulary and work • Start by having students preferences.
on pronunciation (word generate a list of possible • Provide
stress). small businesses. differentiated
• Provide language • Elicit prior experiences questions, some that
frames for the language with small businesses gather basic factual
functions, e.g., stating in students’ countries information and
preferences: I’d rather of origin. some that require
____ because I know a lot more analysis
• Start with readings
about . . . based on learners’
about immigrants who
reading or listening
If you ask me . . .; I think have started their own
comprehension
the best option is . . . businesses.
levels.
Process • H ave class generate • D iscussion of pros and • P rovide time for
a list of questions to cons of starting your own independent work
use while doing web business. and reflection.
searches. • Learner-created groups • Provide options for
• Model a web search as based on interest. developing products:
a class. shared electronic
• Use a jigsaw approach files; marker and
to lighten the load, paper; photos taken
learners choosing what with phones.
questions to address • Provide graphic
(see 5.9). organizers to
• Encourage organize ideas:
translanguaging, using T-chart for pros/
the L1 as a resource, cons discussions;
when exploring sources mind map for
and in discussions; for organizing sections
note-taking (see 7.5 J). of the final product.

Product • A llow for varying • D raw on student interests • A llow for varying
outcomes (e.g., poster in developing final formats for the
or PowerPoint with product, for example, final product (e.g.,
extensive script vs. a someone more interested poster, PowerPoint,
video or podcast for in numbers and data video, skit, podcast,
those with stronger works on numerical a short manual,
oral skills). displays. FAQs, tip sheets).
• Use an assessment • Have students generate • Encourage learners
rubric that allows for questions to use during to use images, video
information presented gallery walk. or sound clips in the
in words (written or presentations.
oral) or images.

Figure 7.3 Model of Differentiation for Classroom Tasks

222 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
 7.5 Additional practices for working with multilevel classes
As we have seen, teaching multilevel classes does not mean preparing multiple lesson plans each
day; rather, it’s a question of providing multiple options within the same lesson or unit. What
follows are some practical suggestions for adapting lessons, including ways to vary tasks and
learner roles, multiple options for activities, and using self-access materials, all in keeping with the
ideas of differentiation outlined above.

A. Allow for learner choice and use open-ended tasks

Classroom activities that have one set outcome can be frustrating for learners who are unable,
for whatever reason, to complete the task in the allotted time frame. One way to avoid this is
to provide learners with a choice of items to complete within a given time frame, allowing for
variation from one student to the next. The following example illustrates this strategy, which can
be used when learners are practicing any language function or workplace competency. Assume
that the instructor has already presented the language needed for making requests and asking
permission at the workplace. The following scenarios are cut up and passed out to students,
with extra copies left on a table in the room. Students mingle and make polite requests or ask
permission of others in class; students can choose to grant or refuse the request. When a student
is finished with one scenario, he or she chooses another one on the table and continues the task.
This activity gives all learners a chance to practice at their own pace. Students are also given the
choice of scenarios allowing them to choose those for which they feel most prepared. Whether
students complete one or eight scenarios, they can feel the accomplishment of completing the
piece(s) of the activity they select. In order to motivate learners to take on a greater challenge,
suggest that they complete at least one more item than they did during the previous class.

Sample Scenario Strips:

You are in the lunchroom and want to look at someone’s newspaper.
You forgot your wallet at home and need to borrow money for a soft drink.
You don’t feel well and want to leave work early.
You need time off for a doctor’s appointment.
You want a coworker to help you understand an employee announcement.

B. Assign different tasks to different ability level students

Creating a variety of task types with the same outcome for one lesson can be an obstacle for
part-time teachers who have limited paid preparation time, so consider developing materials like
those below cooperatively with other teachers. A file of multilevel tasks can be created and shared
by all the teachers at your site. Varying task complexity and providing a simpler version of task
for lower-proficiency level learners have been shown to promote increased output of targeted
language features (Kim 2009).
In a vocabulary lesson on jobs, different groups are given one of the following tasks:
Option A: Prepare a set of visuals on cue cards like these:

Chapter 7 Managing Learning in Adult English Language Classes 223

 Have learners sort the jobs according to whether they are typically done indoors/outdoors/
either; typically held by men/women in your country; require special training/no special
training.
Option B: Prepare a set of cue cards with names of professions written on them and do the
same as Option A. Sort words into these categories as well: jobs people in the group have
done; jobs they’d like to try.
Option C: Small group discussion with these questions (name of profession written along
the side of page):
What jobs do people do outdoors/indoors?
Which are typically held by men/women in your culture? What about in this country?
Which of the jobs would you be interested in and why?
What experiences have you had in your daily life with any of these workers or occupations?
Option D: Learners identify the jobs they do at home and in their community and then
consider the skills associated with each one. See how many of these are transferable skills
for jobs outside of the home.

Tasks I Do at Home Skills Required

and in My Community
Helping my kids with Reading, math, organizing, planning
homework
Managing my Reading labels, advertisements,
household Looking up deals online
Making to-do lists, planning, organizing
Making decisions
Sharing childcare with Making arrangements by phone and email
neighbors Planning activities for kids

All four options allow learners to practice vocabulary associated with jobs in ways that are
accessible to them. In Option A, learners with limited literacy skills can rely on the visual
representations of the jobs. The categories for sorting the words do not require extensive
analysis and completing the task does not require extension use of language. However, successful
completion of the task demonstrates that the learners understand something more than the
definition of the job title. Option B requires that learners can read the names of the jobs and
sorting the words into categories requires more discussion and critical thinking than in Option
A. Option C allows more advanced learners to discuss the jobs in more depth, bringing personal
experiences and interpretations to the discussion by sharing, communicating, and presenting

224 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

across groups. Option D represents what might work well with a group of learners who haven’t
worked outside of the home and who may not see themselves in the jobs presented in the
curriculum. This approach acknowledges and expands on skills developed through jobs at
home. Consider how these same modifications could be used with other content (e.g., housing,
transportation, educational options).

C. Multilevel listening tasks

Any time you use a listening passage in a lesson, there are a variety of ways you can have learners
work with the same passage. One routine I have often used in my English language classes is
to play the daily news headlines to expose learners to authentic language. News broadcasts
are delivered very quickly, as are most truly authentic listening passages, so the challenge is to
prepare tasks that are accessible to varying ability levels. The alternative tasks below serve to
illustrate the types of activities you could do with any passage, one from an assigned textbook, an
interview, or an online video clip.
Using the morning news headlines (video or audio):
Option A: Give a visual cutout card of the country and have the students hold up their card
if their country is mentioned. If there is a large map in the room, students can stand by the
map and point to countries they hear mentioned. This could be done on a local or national
scale as well.
Option B: Hand out pictures of things mentioned in the news. Students hold up their
picture as the item or person is mentioned (you often find corresponding photos in the
online or print newspaper for the same day).
Option C: Give a list of countries (or cities and states), key words, or names that are covered
in the news. Students check off the words as they hear them.
Option D: Elicit from learners the stories they have heard in the news that week. Invite
a learner to write those on the board and have the other students write that list in their
notebooks. As they listen, they check off those stories that were mentioned.
Option E: List news topics on a handout and have students circle the topics that are covered
in the news as they listen.

weather     crime       sports
national     international   local
government   people      business

One recording can be used to accomplish all of these activities, with different learners taking part
in different activities. The tasks require minimal preparation and the places and names would
likely appear in later broadcasts, allowing the teacher to recycle the tasks in later lessons.
Teachers can vary the degree of difficulty of listening and reading activities in textbooks by
assigning only half of the items to some students, who then share their answers with students
who completed the other items. Different pre-reading/listening and post-reading/listening
activities can be assigned depending on ability level. When I taught a listening lesson based on a
video clip about a controversial language teaching method used in China, I provided two options
for follow-up, the first for the learners who had very high oral proficiency and had expressed their
desire to have more discussions in class. The second option was designed for learners at the low-
intermediate level, who sometimes struggled with tasks that were too open-ended.

Chapter 7 Managing Learning in Adult English Language Classes 225

 Option A:
Learners worked through a set of discussion questions about language learning and
teaching preferences, followed by a ranking activity whereby students rated the degree of
importance of different elements, e.g., pair/group activity; use of visual aids. They prepared
a list of what they agreed they wanted in a language class, which they presented to the
whole class.
Option B:

What are the best ways to learn a language? Write words or draw pictures for each of
these things:
The classroom The teacher The students The activities

The categories provided in Option B made the task more concrete than an open-ended
discussion; those who had limited literacy skills could use pictures or symbols, while others
in the group simply transcribed their contributions. The final outcome was to create a poster
representing the ideal language class. This alternative to a discussion activity proved very
successful for the low-intermediate level learners. Providing two options allowed for multiple
outcomes (each group chose the language to include and the ways to present information), and
the options appealed to a much greater array of learning preferences.

D. Jigsaw activities
The jigsaw activities explored in Chapters 4 and 5 are ideal for multilevel classes as they allow for
differentiation of the texts and the tasks assigned. Jigsaw involves assigning different readings or
listening passages or different tasks to different groups of learners. (readworks.org is an excellent
source for informational texts on current issues, as it provides multiple levels of the texts on the
same topic; elllo.org provides the same option for short listening passages on a variety of topics).

E. Assign varying roles

One of the core principles of cooperative learning is that each member of a group needs to have
a clear role and purpose in order for the cooperative learning task to be successful. In a multilevel
class, more advanced students can quickly dominate, leaving little room for participation by less
advanced or quieter students. Here are some possible roles that can be assigned to students with
particular strengths:
• S tudents with stronger literacy skills can be scribes during group activities, particularly for those
tasks that have an outcome to report to the whole class. They can be given sentence starters
such as: If I understand, you said . Is that correct? Such sentence starters can help learners
understand their roles in the group and the expectations/responsibilities of their role.
• Learners who are hesitant to speak can be timekeepers and be given cue cards with sentences
like these: We have 10 more minutes. We need to finish in 5 minutes.
• Students who tend to dominate discussions could act as facilitators with some set ground rules;
their job is to make sure everyone participates a set number of times. This allows the more
verbal and perhaps more advanced students to participate while making them aware of the

226 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 need for others to have a chance to speak. They could be given language frames like these:
 , we haven’t heard from you yet.  , did you want to add anything?
These roles are interchangeable, i.e., everyone can be the timekeeper or facilitator. The idea is
that each person knows what his or her role and purpose is as a group member, in addition to the
responsibility of completing the activity itself.

F. Use different versions of the same dialogue or text: scripted; semi-scripted; discourse chains
Many textbooks have dialogues designed to present or provide opportunities to practice
language; teachers and learners can also create dialogues collaboratively. The following variations
demonstrate what you could do with one dialogue on calling a landlord about an issue in an
apartment for learners with varying ability levels. Some learners may feel safest simply practicing
a written dialogue, while others are ready to move on to something far more challenging.
Learners with limited literacy will have difficulty reading a dialogue, but may be ready to practice
based on visual cues.
Version A: Scripted Dialogue (First brainstorm a list of problems and create a word/phrase bank:
I have bedbugs. The trash wasn’t collected. The heat isn’t working.)
Tenant: I have a problem in my apartment.
Landlord: What’s the problem?
Tenant: (Choose from problems brainstormed)
Landlord: How long have you had this problem?
Tenant: It started ago.
Landlord: What unit are you in?
Tenant: I’m in .
Landlord: Please fill in the repair request online to set up an appointment.
Version B: Semi-Scripted Dialogue
Tenant: I have in my apartment.
Landlord: What’s ?
Tenant: (Choose from problems brainstormed.)
Landlord: How long this problem?
Tenant: It started ago.
Landlord: What are you?
Tenant: I’m in .
Landlord: Please the repair request online to set up .
Version C (for students with limited literacy skills):
Show a picture of the problem (leaking sink; water on the floor)
Students create their dialogue based on those visual cues.

Chapter 7 Managing Learning in Adult English Language Classes 227

Version D: Discourse Chain
TENANT LANDLORD
Report problem
Find out what the problem is
Explain problem
Find out when it started
Tell when it started
Find out what unit
Give name and unit number
Tell tenant about online form

G. Use role plays with very complex to minimal roles; use picture prompts with no words
Role plays can be used successfully with learners at all levels provided that the students
understand directions and role descriptions. In a multilevel class, there may be students for
whom written role descriptions are too complex and incomprehensible. An alternative to role
plays with prescribed roles is to provide a picture of a scene and allow learners to choose who
they want to be and what they want to say (Ladousse 1987). A scene on video with the sound off
can also be used, played through one time and then freeze-framed for reference by the students
as they prepare their role play. Upon showing the scene, let each group work together to choose
their parts and prepare and practice their role play. Find pictures, take photographs, or record
scenes of:
• A visit to the doctor
• A tenant showing a problem to a landlord
• A student meeting with an advisor
• Coworkers discussing a problem at work
• An accident scene
• A parent-teacher conference

H. Language Experience Approach

The Language Experience Approach (for full discussion, see 5.4 A) is generally viewed as an
approach for working with emergent readers and writers, but it can be used very effectively in
a multilevel class as well, even with high-level reader/writers. As the teacher elicits stories orally
from the group, the advanced learners can make suggestions, corrections and/or spell words
for the class, sharing the teacher’s role. Another option is to pair mixed-ability students to create
texts, using these steps:
• S tart with a shared event, an important event in their lives in the last (week, month, year),
something they’ve done before class, or provide a written or visual prompt to elicit a story related
to the themes in your curriculum. These texts can begin at the sentence level with beginners.
• Students practice telling the story silently to themselves; ask students to think through the
beginning, middle, ending, as well as key points in the story. A simple graphic organizer could
be provided for those students who want to take notes. When ready, students tell the story to
their partner.
• Pair more literate learners to transcribe stories of a partner with more limited literacy skills.
• To practice keyboarding skills, one student can tell a story as the other types the story.

228 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

• T
 hose with limited literacy skills can draw pictures or verbally recount stories. These verbal
accounts could be audio recorded and used for other class activities such as generating and
answering questions, developing dictations, word lists, or practice with basic typing skills.
Any of these student-generated texts are then used by the whole class for other practice activities.

I. Self-access materials and computer labs

Self-access options can range from thematic classroom stations with activities that can be
completed individually or in small groups, to self-access centers, use of phone apps for additional
practice, and computer labs. Providing such additional learning options can increase self-directed
learning beyond the course curriculum (Nash and Kallenbach 2009). The choices a program
makes depend on its size and resources. In this section, the focus is on classroom self-access
materials (computer software and distance learning materials are discussed in more detail in
Chapter 8).
In preparing self-access materials, clear instructions and answer keys are crucial in order for the
work to be done autonomously. Activities and tasks should be ones that are familiar to learners
so that they can get started without teacher assistance. Some of Valentina’s students (discussed
at the beginning of the chapter) expressed a desire to have more grammar practice. By providing
grammar activities in self-access centers, she could meet their needs while continuing to work
on other areas of language with the class. Some students may desire additional practice with
listening or reading. Bell (2004) suggests that learners keep a log or portfolio of independent work
they have completed. The following list of sample options are easy to develop and can be used
over and over by different groups of learners:

Table 7.2 Classroom Self-Access Options

• P repare sets of vocabulary words that have been covered in class and have learners sort
words into logical categories; create a story using the words.
• Have learners create and/or learn to access digital flashcards on their phone using a free
program such as Studystack https://www.studystack.com/ or Quizlet https://quizlet.com/.
• Create sentence strips using language taught in class, class-generated stories, or functional
dialogues that students need to put in a logical order. Provide all possible orders in the
answer key.
• Provide book/stories and recordings (commercially produced, or ones you’ve recorded).
Short stories or high-interest articles that can be completed in one or two class periods are
ideal. Have a color-coded leveling system so learners can choose texts that are appropriate
for their level (Bell 2004).
• Have students record stories using their phones to share with family or others in class.
• Provide grammar review activities with answer keys (from published materials or at websites
such as Anglo-link https://anglo-link.com/ or English with Jennifer http://englishwithjennifer.com/.
• Develop listening lessons using listening passages from commercial ESL textbooks, news
broadcasts, podcasts, elllo.org, or YouTube. Provide students with preview questions,
comprehension questions to answer while listening, and follow-up questions that can be
answered in a journal.
• Create an in-class reading corner with graded readers, high-interest articles, and short
stories. Have students keep a reading log (stories read, record of main ideas/summary, and
reactions).
• If doing project-based learning, have a permanent station where learners can complete
portions of the project the class is currently working on.

Chapter 7 Managing Learning in Adult English Language Classes 229

In situations where the ESL teacher shares the classroom with other programs, these self-access
materials can be stored in small crates and brought in and out of classrooms.

J. Encourage translanguaging
Translanguaging describes a learner’s use of their entire linguistic repertoire across all languages
they know (Velasco and García 2014), which for many adult learners may be two, three or more.
When students, families, and teachers draw on translanguaging, they are applying “flexible
language practices that contradict monolingual language policies and ideologies . . .” (p. 264). In
other words, translanguaging views the learner’s other language(s) as a resource with equal value
to the additional language being learned, not as something that is a deterrent to learning a new
language. García (2013) views translanguaging as a democratic endeavor that promotes social
justice by giving equal voice to all learners, both inside and outside of classrooms. Consider the
benefits of translanguaging in the scenarios below:
• A pair of students question one another in their first language as they work on a paired reading
task using texts written in English.
• Learners in a class doing project-based learning on issues of dire concern to them (reporting
sexual harassment at work, enrolling a child in a bilingual program, what to do when
approached by an immigration officer) conduct research using complex texts in their L1. The
final products (posters for a gallery walk) are in English (Van Dyke-Kao and Yanuaria 2017).
• Learners first talk among themselves in their L1 when the teacher poses a question to the
whole group.
In these scenarios, translanguaging allows learners to affirm their understandings of content that
they may have read or listened to in English. It allows them to access a broader range of sources and
information they need in order to complete a complex task (creating a poster on a critical issue).
Van Dyke-Kao and Yanuaria (2017) report enhanced outcomes in their adult education program
when making translanguaging strategies explicit to adult ELs. Learners in their program are
encouraged to:
• Use home language for note-taking while listening to/reading in target language 

• Repeat and review content in home language while studying
• Talk to peers in their home language when discussing assignments 

• Brainstorm for assignments in the home language 

• Draft writing assignments in the home language 

• Think in home language while speaking or listening in the target language 

• Compare languages to develop metalinguistic awareness (How are linguistic features similar or
different?)

(Van Dyke-Kao and Yanuaria 2017)
Translanguaging also involves knowing about and making explicit the differing features of the
target language and the L1, for example, word order differences: red shoes, zapatos rojos; verb
choice: I am 13 years old, Yo tengo 13 años (I have 13 years). These translanguaging practices
counter a tendency found in some educational circles of dichotomizing academic English and the
home language, often situating home language practices as less valued (Rosa and Nelson 2017).

K. Leverage classroom volunteers

Many programs have volunteers or college students completing service learning in adult ESL
classrooms and having assistants like this in the class is an asset in a multilevel classroom.
Volunteers with more training in working with ELs can provide mini-lessons to specific groups of
learners. They can circulate and monitor group work, assist with responding to student work, or

230 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

conduct assessments. They can take charge of stations set up around the room or lead discussion
groups. It is important that volunteers be instructed on effective group facilitation so that they do
not dominate groups.

7.6 The classroom environment

Getting started: Take a few minutes to visualize what you would want to see when you walk into
a language classroom. What do you see on the walls, what objects are in the room, how are the
seats arranged? All of these features have an impact on learning, particularly for learners new to
English and/or to adult learning contexts. Everything from wall charts with the alphabet, common
phrases, and vocabulary to student-produced work displayed on the walls can enhance learning.
Unfortunately, sharing classroom space in large institutions can make covering the walls with visual
aids impractical. Many of the items below could be moved in and out of a classroom if necessary.
• C reate bulletin boards with language experience stories, student writings, drawings,
photographs; in sites with shared classrooms, display these in school entrances or hallways.
• Display projects completed by previous classes and the current class.
• Display helpful phrases around the room that represent class interactions and routines:
What does mean? Can you repeat that, please?
• Display helpful phrases for sustaining group discussions, e.g., discussion starters, opinion
phrases, clarification phrases.
• Label objects around the room: chalkboard, door, window, table, chair, and any other visual
aids, especially in literacy-level classes.
It is important that classes be as inviting and comfortable as possible. Create seating arrangements
before students arrive, or ask students who arrive early to class to help you. Make sure the
seating arrangement is appropriate for the mode of instruction you will be using. It may be that a
horseshoe with seats facing the front is best for a teacher-led presentation. Perhaps the class starts
with small groups checking homework together, which would require seats arranged in clusters.
The classroom arrangement should be part of your planning process and not left to chance.

7.7 Managing large classes

The participatory and learner-centered practices described in this book include extensive learner
interaction and input, which some teachers find daunting with a class of 30 to 40 students (not
to mention classes of 50 to 200, common in many settings around the world). Some teachers shy
away from communicative activities all together because they are concerned that it will be too
chaotic or unmanageable. Pairing students and using cooperative learning, however, are among
the ways you can assure that learners get ample opportunities to practice language and receive
feedback and support from peers. A class based primarily on teacher presentation or lectures
would mean almost no practice time for students.
Another common concern for teachers with large classes is difficulty keeping up with individual
student progress as well as lack of time to correct student work or respond to dialogue journals
in meaningful ways. All of this points to the need to promote learner autonomy so that students
do not rely solely on the teacher for guidance throughout the lessons, and to build peer feedback
and support into instruction.
• C
 reate activities with built-in peer feedback and/or correction. For written tasks, provide Student
A with half of the answers to a particular set of questions and Student B the other half. Ideally,
make copies on different colors to make the distinction between the two versions of the activity
more obvious. After completing their items, learners read their responses and receive feedback
from their peers. For speaking practice, use information-gap activities, which allow for immediate
feedback from peers. Provide answer keys for homework (a shared online document on the
Chapter 7 Managing Learning in Adult English Language Classes 231
 class web page, projected at the start of class, or on handouts that you collect for later use) that
pairs or small groups can work through together. Some weeks, have peers read and respond
to dialogue journals, once you’ve modeled ways of responding—perhaps giving them small
opportunities to respond to short writing from classmates before responding to journal entries.
• Give answer keys to selected students around the room and have them become the experts
who provide feedback to others in class. This role can be assigned to students at any level.
• Model and thoroughly check for understanding of activities before students begin to work in
pairs or groups; otherwise you will find yourself with multiple groups or pairs in need of help
once the class has started an activity.
• Make yourself available to the pairs or groups in class; monitor progress, take notes for
individual students or small groups that can be distributed or emailed to students after an
activity. There may not be time to give everyone feedback at the end of the class.
• Learners may be more reluctant to speak up in front of a large group of peers. When practicing
language points, provide ample models and then let students practice in pairs before calling on
individuals. This gives them time to “rehearse” their responses.
• Use think-pair-share-square or stand and talk (VanDerWerf 2017) as a class routine. For
“think-pair-share-square,” pose a question and let students think about it; then pair up and talk
about it to a partner. Finally, have students share answers with another pair of students before
reporting to the whole class. With “stand and talk,” learners think about their answer to a
question and then stand to talk to someone not at their table. Both of these techniques can be
used anytime in class: when brainstorming vocabulary, answering pre-reading or pre-listening
questions, working on math problems in a numeracy class, or practicing a particular language
point. It allows all students the opportunity to participate and use language, even if they do not
volunteer to speak in front of the whole class.
• Establish class routines for starting and stopping activities—switching lights on and off, ringing
a bell or chimes, raise of a hand from the teacher—or decide as a class what that signal will be.
Avoid shouting over the students to get their attention.
• Establishing rapport in a large class takes time. Teachers can create base groups or cohorts
who spend time together each class period to check homework, answer questions, or complete
particular activities. Designating base groups of learners who enter the program at the
same time can provide learners with a support system and sense of community (Nash and
Kallenbach 2009). In classes that include a significant amount of discussion and debate, or
where project-based learning is common, try creating groups who stay together over a set time
period (three to four weeks).
• Students in large classes complete their work at different times, so it is important to promote
learner autonomy. Provide reading corners with books, newspapers or magazines, self-access
materials, or ongoing dialogue journal assignments or links to online materials that learners
can access on their phones. Have multiple options ready or extension activities focused on the
same materials.
• Assign student mentors to new students to help them feel that they are a part of the class.
The suggestions above are useful for any class, large or small, but serve to enhance student
interaction in those situations where the teacher cannot be accessible to all of the students all of
the time.

7.8 Open enrollment

Many ESL programs have an open-enrollment policy, which means that learners are allowed
to enter a program at any time throughout the duration of a course rather than only at the
beginning of a term, or at regularly determined intervals. There are many legitimate reasons for
using open enrollment:
232 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
• Immigrants and refugees arrive in communities throughout the year and need to be able to
enter a program right away.
• Adult learners’ life circumstances can change dramatically, requiring that they step in and out of
programs.
• It is thought that due to high attrition rates, classes would be far too small by the end of a term
if managed enrollment were used. Keeping classes full may fulfill state or national funding
requirements.
• Programs seek to support as many learners as possible with limited funding (Chisman and
Crandall 2007) and open enrollment allows for greater flexibility for working adults.
The result for teachers in some programs is that students come in and out of classes on a daily, or
even hourly basis. This presents the teacher and the class with a number of challenges (Comings
2007; Condelli and Zaidi 2003; Scogins, Thompson, and Reabe 2008):
• Goal-setting with individuals when there are no volunteers or intake personnel available
• Keeping track of learner progress
• Knowing for whom and how many learners to plan for each day
• Building a sense of community and cohesiveness
• Making sure new learners don’t feel left out when entering a group
• Helping learners catch up to the rest of the class
• Providing lessons that build upon one another
• Limiting gains on program assessments and accountability measures
While the challenges are great, there are a number of things that teachers can do to improve
learner involvement in an open-enrollment program:
• U se peers as tutors. Learners at a higher proficiency level benefit from teaching others. As with
volunteer teachers, instruct them on how to give a brief orientation to incoming students and
assign them to the new arrivals.
• Invite existing learners to welcome in new arrivals; develop routines in classrooms where
students gain confidence to welcome visitors, new students, and others coming into the
classroom and to explain classroom processes and routines.
• Take full advantage of volunteers. Instruct them on how to give a brief orientation to incoming
students and assign them to the new arrivals.
• Develop a simple introductory task that learners can complete if they arrive in the middle
of a class: a simple goal-setting task (In this class I want to . . .); a simple survey of needs and
interests; a set of visuals depicting needs and interests that they can choose from.
• In large classes, understand that you can’t and shouldn’t interrupt the lesson each time new
students arrive. Greet them and have them introduce themselves to the class, and assure them
that you will talk to them during the next break.
• Provide independent learning tools that review missed material or give learners further
practice through self-access materials (see 7.4 I).
These practices can help to minimize disruptions caused by open enrollment.

7.9 Managed enrollment

While there are a number of strategies and techniques that a teacher can employ for making
open enrollment classes more manageable, many programs are implementing a policy of
managed enrollment. In using managed enrollment, a program determines a set time period
during which learners can enroll in classes, most often at the beginning of each term. There are

Chapter 7 Managing Learning in Adult English Language Classes 233

programs that allow enrollment only one day or evening per week, which is an improvement
over those that have students entering every day, or even throughout a given class period. The
program described below permits students to enroll at the beginning of short terms (8-9 weeks),
ensuring that those students who are on waiting lists will not need to wait an indeterminate
amount of time to enter classes.
When MiraCosta College’s non-credit ESL program had an open-enrollment policy, there were as
many as 300 students on a waiting list each term. Their records showed that only 25% of students
attended regularly for a complete semester, which is representative of many programs. Changes
in grant requirements for federal funds used learner gains on standardized tests as the basis for
funding rather than student attendance (Ramirez 2001). All of these factors led MiraCosta to pilot
a managed-enrollment program, which proved to have tremendous success.
MiraCosta changed to five nine-week sessions per year, with enrollment allowed only during
the first two weeks of class. Those not admitted are placed on a waiting list for the next session.
Students who miss more than three to five classes are dropped and put on the waiting list for the
next session. These changes to programming led to the following outcomes:
• A rise in retention from less than half to over 80%
• Promotion to the next level at the end of each session rose from 3% to 25%–30%.
• All students on waiting lists were admitted to the following session.
Another study found that there was a positive impact on learner gains when adult education
programs offered high-intensity, managed enrollment classes (Chisman and Crandall 2007). When
learners were given the option between enrolling in low-intensity/open enrollment classes (those
that meet three to six hours per week) or high-intensity/managed enrollment classes (those that
meet as many as 25 hours a week), a higher percentage of students chose the latter. Of course,
such high-intensity instruction may not be feasible for some working adults, and high-intensity
courses are also much costlier to run. With a move to more career contextualized Integrated
Education and Training programs in adult ESL, these high-intensity/managed enrollment courses
are becoming more and more prevalent (Nash and Hewett 2017).

7.10 Pairing/grouping students

Task 7.3
Most of us are likely to have had experience working in pairs or groups at work, in classes, or at
conferences with varying degrees of satisfaction and success. Think of a pair or group activity
you recently took part in and reflect on what made the activity successful (or not successful)
for you. What was engaging and what was unhelpful? Think about the assignment of group
members, roles of members, the purpose of the task, and anything else that had an impact on
the success (or lack of success) of the activity and write your answers in your journal or talk to a
partner in class.

Pair/group activity:
Assignment of group members
Roles of members
Purpose of the task
Other factors?

234 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Follow-up: What do you think had the most impact on the success or failure of the pair/group
activity in which you took part? How purposefully do you believe the facilitator or teacher
planned the groupings and the activity? As we turn to the discussion of pairing and grouping
students, try to relate your experience to the recommendations provided in this section, while
remaining mindful of the similarities and differences you might share with adult learners’
preferences in your setting.

There are many factors to consider when creating pairs and groups in a lesson, and the advice I
give new teachers is not to leave it to chance. Ability level may seem like the most obvious factor,
but there are others as well, including gender, family relationships, learner expectations, and the
purpose of the pair/group activity.
Ability level: There are benefits to both like-ability and cross-ability pairs and groups, but a teacher
needs to make choices about activities and learner roles to make the most of these different
groupings. In the case of beginning-level learners, it can be intimidating to work with someone
who is far more advanced in their language proficiency. I have observed beginning level students
participating more openly and productively with students at a similar level as they complete a task
at a comfortable pace and level of complexity. Sometimes learners with more advanced proficiency
levels appear to be more challenged if working with others at an advanced level as well.
There are, however, some advantages to cross-ability groupings. For one thing, mixed-ability
groups mirror more authentically what learners will encounter outside of class in work meetings
or interactions in the community. More proficient students can provide beginning-level students
with valuable language input. Helping others and acting as a peer tutor has value as well, but
it is important that the learners perceive that there is a benefit to taking on this leadership
role. Remind students that one of the best ways to learn is to teach others. Here are just a few
examples of roles and activities for cross-ability groups:
• In paired activities where one student is the information holder and one is the information
receiver (e.g., in an information-gap task), give lower-proficiency-level learners the role of
information holder. This approach has been shown to promote greater output from the
lower-proficiency level learners than when placed in the role of information receiver (Dao and
McDonough 2017).
• Have more literate students transcribe stories of emergent reader/writers or let them be the
note-takers in mixed-ability group tasks.
• To practice listening and following instructions, have more advanced students give verbal
instructions to beginning-level students, who arrange pictures, fill in an information grid, etc.
The input from a peer is likely to be comprehensible to the beginner.
• In jigsaw activities, give the higher-level learners more demanding questions to answer.
• When using a computer and projector to review particular content, invite computer-savvy
students to the keyboard to click forward/backward as the class participates in answering/
responding to onscreen cues, quizzes, and prompts.
Gender: In a class I recently observed, when one of the women was assigned a male partner
for a pair activity, she turned her chair so as not to face him. While she completed the task as
assigned, I had to ask myself how she felt, and wondered whether the teacher had given any
thought to the groupings she chose. In fact, she had not; she simply asked students to work with
the person sitting next to them. In this particular instance, it was clear that the learner would have
been much more comfortable with a female partner. Learners from many cultures may be more
comfortable with same-gender partners, at least until they get to know their classmates well, in
some instances, but possibly not at all in others.

Chapter 7 Managing Learning in Adult English Language Classes 235

Family relationship: In a class I observed over a ten-week period, a married couple came to class
together, sat together, and moved into groups together. Once in their groups, the husband
dominated, interrupting his wife whenever she tried to participate. In conversations with her
before and after class, it was clear to me that she was actually more advanced than her husband.
The teachers I was observing were uncomfortable separating them—they thought it could be
disrespectful and also very conspicuous if they asked the husband to move to another group.
The teachers hadn’t thought to employ less obvious ways to separate them, for example, having
learners number off one, two, three and having all the ones together, the twos together, and the
threes together (other grouping strategies are below). Once they tried this, the couple worked
separately with no complaints at all.
Learner expectation: If it is clear that learners are unaccustomed to doing pair and group work, it is
the teacher’s job to explain the benefits of student-student interactions in class. As adults, students
appreciate knowing why their teachers are using particular techniques and are often open to trying
new things if they know what the benefits to them are. Relating what you do in the classroom to
what the learners need to do in the real world is one way to present pair and group work. If you
ask the students to observe how and when they need to use English outside of the classroom, it
will quickly become apparent that interactions outside of the classroom are not between them
and a teacher figure. It is also important to reassure learners that you are listening and monitoring
their English during pair and group activities. Take notes as you listen and give learners feedback,
either individually or as a whole group wrap-up. Consider asking learners for feedback after
completing particular activities or at the end of each class (see exit ticket ideas in 9.5 e.), and/or
asking them to rate their own participation and engagement on a scale of one to ten.
Purpose of task: Teachers who embrace learner-centered, communicatively-based approaches to
teaching often assume that pair and group work is always better than individual or whole group
work. When a teacher asks pairs of learners to complete a matching or a fill-in-the blank activity,
there is often silence in the classroom. Why is that? The purpose of the activity does not lend itself
to pair work; it is easier, and, from the learners’ standpoint, more efficient to complete the activity
on their own. If you want learners to communicate with one another, it is essential to provide
tasks that promote a genuine reason to communicate with a partner (e.g., interviews, jigsaw). In
planning pair and group work, ask yourself: Would this activity best be done alone or with a partner?
There are times when copying sentences, filling in sentences, and writing stories are useful, and
best done individually. Consider too, as suggested above, authentic ways in which adults do and
don’t work together in contexts beyond classrooms.

Strategies for creating pairs and groups

From the discussion above, it is clear that it is often necessary to plan grouping arrangements
in order for learners to engage fully with an activity. There are times, however, when pairs
and groups can be created randomly. In fact, in classes where multiple pair or group activities
are done each day, it will be important to vary the groupings. Creating groups can become a
communicative activity of its own by having students gather together based on certain criteria,
perhaps reviewing vocabulary or language from a recent lesson:
1. Type of work they want to pursue
2. Type of job they held in their country
3. Month they were born
4. Number of people in their immediate family
Think of two more possibilities:

236 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Learners need to communicate with one another in order to form groups. Groupings can also
relate to the content of the lesson. In a reading lesson exploring the topic of personality and birth-
order theory, the teacher can start by having learners create groups according to their birth order,
including an “only child” group. Once those groups are established, the teacher then proceeds
with the lesson. It is important not to overuse this technique; regrouping many times in a lesson
with different criteria would be confusing.
As an alternative to numbering students off (as suggested above), the teacher can review
vocabulary the class has worked on recently (e.g., the names of seasons, academic subjects, job
titles) by assigning a word to each student and having students form like-word groups:
Teacher (walking around the room): Spring, summer, fall, winter, spring, summer, fall, winter,
around the room until all students have a season. (The teacher can start the sequence and
have the students continue it around the room.)
Teacher: The spring group will work over here (pointing to one part of the room), the summer
group here, and so on.
Students benefit from repetition of words and phrases that they are learning. In lieu of partner
or group tasks, line activities, concentric circles, or four corners (see 7.3) can be used to maximize
practice, while maintaining interest through interactions with several class members.
Line activities: One line of students stands in the same spot for the activity; a second line of
students faces the first. For a warm-up activity, pairs can respond to set prompts: What do you do
on the weekend? Tell me about your job. After a few minutes, one row moves down one student so
that a new pair is formed. This technique can be used for pre-reading or pre-listening questions
as well, allowing the students to hear and consider multiple perspectives on a topic. Zwiers
and Crawford (2011) recommend providing language prompts for elaborating and building on
others’ ideas each time students move to a new partner (I just heard from that . . .; Had you
considered . . .?) so that each exchange becomes richer and more in-depth.
Concentric circles: Similar to line activities, form two concentric circles with equal numbers of
students (if there is an odd number of students, the teacher can join one circle). The students interact
with the person facing them, then the outer circle rotates one student to form new partners.

7.11 Establishing appropriate boundaries

ESL teachers are often students’ only liaison to mainstream communities and they may rely
on teachers for assistance in areas that go beyond learning English. I think many ESL teachers
appreciate the advocacy roles that they take on, and are willing to provide far more than language
support for students. But when does it go too far? When does a teacher’s involvement become
either excessive or inappropriate? Many teachers and program staff have questions and concerns
about the following issues:
1. Invitations:
• Entire class to teacher’s home for party during or outside of class time
• Entire class to park/restaurant or other neutral location for party during or outside of
class time
• Invitation from student to go for coffee or dinner at student’s home
2. Gifts
3. Hiring of students
4. Transportation of students (appointments, shopping, job interviews)

Chapter 7 Managing Learning in Adult English Language Classes 237

5. Advocacy:
• Making non-emergency phone calls for housing/medical/police
• Teaching students to drive
• Writing letters for students (other than for verification of attendance, job references, etc.)
• Helping students find jobs
What follows are a list of questions teachers can ask themselves to determine the appropriateness
or potential for misunderstanding, legal repercussions, or problems of a given situation. There
are so many variables that are unique to any situation, so a “yes” answer to these questions does
not necessarily mean that your interactions are inappropriate. Answering “yes” to many of the
questions, however, should signal the potential for problems.

Table 7.3 Establishing Boundaries: Questions to Consider

1 H
 ave I considered safety and You need to consider what the liability issue would
liability issues—for staff and be if you had a car accident with your student during
for students? class time. You also need to consider program/agency
regulations and rules regarding employees’ liability.
2 W
 ill this activity put the ability If the situation doesn’t go well, the student may feel
of the student to participate in uncomfortable about returning to class.
class and meet their goals at
risk?
3 Is there any sense of obligation A student may feel they need to return a favor to a
for either the student or the teacher, which may affect their participation in the
teacher? program.
4 Is this activity something that Anything you do that appears to give only some
you would consider doing with students preferential treatment (hiring them to do
any or all of the students in the work, driving them to appointments) could make others
class (i.e., non-exclusive)? feel excluded.
5 W
 ould I be able to read about If there’s the risk that your interaction with a student
this in the paper? could appear the slightest bit inappropriate, you
probably shouldn’t take part in it.
6 H
 ave I made appropriate Students often come to us for legal advice, concerns
referrals, as needed? about landlords, etc. If you are not an expert, your
assistance may do more damage than good. Refer the
student to the appropriate assistance agency.
7 H
 ave I been transparent with The norms between teachers and students in ESL
students about the limitations classes are often less formal than what learners
of my role? have encountered in their countries. This is a time
to be direct and transparent about your role and
responsibilities to them as a teacher.

238 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Task 7.4
Let’s look at a scenario a teacher may encounter. Read the situation and ask yourself the
questions in Table 7.3. Should Barbara have accepted her student’s offer? Why or why not?
Barbara has an ESL student who was an auto mechanic in his country. He has started
repairing cars at his home and has offered to do a minor repair for Barbara. Thinking it would
be helpful to give him the business, she decides to have him do the work. A couple of weeks
later, she realizes the problem hasn’t been solved, and in fact is a bit worse. She takes her car
into the garage she normally uses and has the repairs completed. The student didn’t do any
damage to her car, and she was in no danger driving it, but she feels funny about telling him
the problem wasn’t corrected.
Follow-up: The key questions in this situation revolve around liability and jeopardizing the
student’s ability to continue in the program. What if Barbara had an accident after the repair
was made? Even if the student’s work had absolutely no influence on the accident, how might
it appear to the student? Does the student have a license to do the kind of work he did? Could
he get in legal trouble? Are there contexts in which giving work to a student might also have
bearing on the perceived power differential between teachers and learners?

Conclusion
In this section, we have looked at the impact different learner and classroom variables have on
learning. Given that any class is comprised of individuals with varying backgrounds and needs,
all adult ESL classes can be characterized as multilevel. ESL teachers have no choice but to
accommodate an array of learner strengths and needs in every class they teach. Teachers need
to make careful decisions about group assignments, learner roles, the classroom environment,
appropriate boundaries, and more. The overarching goal should be to provide a context for
learning that is as welcoming and as accessible as possible to a wide range of learners.

Chapter 7 Managing Learning in Adult English Language Classes 239

Part II: Serving learners with particular needs

7.12 Learners with learning disabilities

One of the most difficult assessments to make in working with English language learners, children
or adults, is whether or not a student has a learning disability (LD). This term refers to any
number of disorders affecting one’s ability to acquire language, mathematical or reasoning skills.
While not learning disabilities, behavioral and social interaction issues may accompany some
learning disabilities. These disabilities may stay with individuals throughout their lives (National
Joint Commission on Learning Disabilities 2016).
Many of the classic signs of learning disabilities that experts look for in native English-speaking
learners do not necessarily signal a learning disability in English language learners. ELs and
learners with an LD may exhibit challenges in following directions, phonological awareness,
understanding sound-symbol correspondences, recognizing sight words, or retelling a story in
sequence. Both groups may have poor memory, problems with concentration, and get frustrated
easily (Klingner 2015). The difference with ELs is that these behaviors will normally change over
time and the underlying reasons for the behaviors are different; the behaviors could be attributed
to lack of experience with formal education, lack of literacy in the first language, or limited
exposure to English outside of the classroom (Schwarz 2009). Traumatic events (emotional and
physical) can also contribute to challenges faced by both groups; those with learning disabilities,
however, are “hardwired”—their brains function in ways that make learning difficult and require
educators to find alternative and multiple ways of helping these learners learn.
Of course, there are adult ELs with learning disabilities; the question is How to know if there is a
problem? Many of the LD characteristics are present with beginning-level ELs (Hamayan, et al.
2013; Simons Loustalet 1999), and all learners may exhibit some of these problems. However, if a
learner has many of these problems on an ongoing basis, there could be cause to consider ways
of addressing these difficulties over time (with or without a diagnosis of a learning disability). The
following are some persistent signs of a learning disability with adult ELs (Simons Loustalet 1999)
Difficulties with:
• decoding, rate, and fluency when reading
• handwriting and spelling
• organizing thoughts in writing and speaking
• processing information and following instructions
• attention and concentration
• distinguishing between similar sounding words in listening and speaking
• visual processing, such as reversing letters or tracking lines on a page
Few of us are experts in the field of learning disabilities, so ESL professionals need to learn
how and where to access appropriate referrals within the school system and the community at
large, and assist learners to make the contacts they need. Learners have the right to a formal
diagnosis if it is merited. A diagnosis of a learning disability gives a learner access to certain
accommodations that remove any barriers to completing a task in school or in the workplace,
for example, allowing additional time for test taking or text-to-speech tools for learners who have
difficulty decoding print (Byrnes 2000).
Formal diagnoses of adult second language learners can be difficult to obtain. Tests used in
the public schools have been designed for the K-12 audience, and most have been normed
with native English speakers. A valid assessment needs to be conducted in the home language;
240 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
however, test administrators may not be familiar with the adult learner’s language or culture
(Schwarz 2009). Many assessments ask learners to report learning disabilities, which can be highly
problematic with immigrant or refugee learners. The term “learning disabilities” may not exist
in their language and the concept may be highly stigmatized in their culture (U.S. Committee
for Refugees and Immigrants 2007). With or without a formal diagnosis, educators can gain
knowledge about the following with the aid of an interpreter if needed:
• the learner’s background and history
• the learner’s prior academic experiences (formal vs. informal; literacy levels in L1)
• whether problems acquiring or using the home language were present
• whether the issue of concern has persisted over time
• patterns of significant strengths and weaknesses
• characteristics of the home language vs. the target language (PANDA N.D.; Schwarz 2009)

7.13 Universal Design for Learning

Universal Design for Learning (UDL)1 is a framework for designing inclusive and effective
curriculum, assessments, and materials (CAST 2018). When applied in the adult ESL classroom,
learners are given multiple options for expressing themselves, for engaging with materials and
with one another, and information is presented in multiple ways. The goal is to eliminate any
unintended barriers to learning that may be found in curricula. A variety of means and methods
would be used to present information to learners along with necessary scaffolds. Learners
have a variety of options for demonstrating their understanding, which may include assistive
technologies; learners are encouraged to provide responses that are oral, written, or visual
(CAST 2018). This framework is compatible with the learner-oriented approaches for teaching
English to adult learners outlined in Chapter 2, particularly project-based learning, participatory
learning, and cooperative learning (TEAL 2010) and in keeping with the model for differentiation
outlined in Section 7.4, where the content, process, and products are adjusted according to
learners’ profiles and readiness.
Horton and Hall (2005) and PANDA (N.D.) recommend many techniques, strategies, and
accommodations for working with adults with learning disabilities that are in keeping with UDL.
Many of these techniques are intended to provide additional structure and predictability to
instruction.

Table 7.4 Supporting Adult ELs with Learning Disabilities/Recognized Challenges

Classroom Strategies
• Determine learners’ strengths and build on those strengths.
• Structure lessons and activities; provide information in clear, sequenced steps.
• Provide and articulate timeframes for completing activities.
• Provide checklists of tasks completed.
• Reinforce learning using visual and other sensory aids; have learners handle materials; use
color-coding when possible/appropriate.
• Use demonstration more than explanation.
• Give frequent positive feedback and help learners recognize success.
• Use memory aids such as mnemonics or graphic organizers.
• Teach ideas concretely; make directions specific, concrete, and understandable.

 For a complete overview and UDL guidelines, visit http://udlguidelines.cast.org/

1

Chapter 7 Managing Learning in Adult English Language Classes 241

 Accommodations: while accommodations is generally a term used to seek extra time or other
supports for formal testing or alternative ways of functioning in a workplace, the term is used
here to remind teachers of ways of assisting learners in ongoing ways within ESL classroom
settings and beyond.
• Allow extra time on tasks.
• Provide access to materials in a combined audio and print format; use text-to-speech or
speech-to-text technologies.
• Provide well-trained tutors to read material aloud or assign a peer coach.
• Have shorter work periods and frequent breaks; allow adequate time for transitions.
• Allow alternative methods to demonstrate learning (e.g., oral instead of written response;
underlining a correct answer instead of writing it out).
(For an extensive list of accommodations, see Accommodating Adults with Disabilities in Adult
Education, 2nd edition (2005). University of Kansas Center for Research on Learning http://das.kucrl.
org/projects/accommodating-adults-with-disabilities-in-adult-education-programs and the PANDA
Minnesota Adult Basic Education Disability Specialists website http://mn.abedisabilities.org/)

The area of learning disabilities and adult ESL merits far more attention than can be provided in
this section. Online resources providing comprehensive information, resources, and further links
are provided in the resources list at the end of this chapter.

7.14 Learners with physical disabilities

A number of years ago, I walked into the first evening of an adult ESL class that was to be
taught by student teachers in the certificate program I coordinate. I always teach the first
class while the student teachers observe, and on this evening, we were expecting a group of
12 high-beginning Russian students. I had prepared a lesson on making introductions, talking
about jobs held before coming to the U.S., personal interests, and wants and needs for the
English class they were starting. I included practice with basic wh- questions for interviewing
one another about their personal histories, wants, and needs. I relied heavily on visual aids to
depict professions; I planned to use the flip chart and PowerPoint for model sentences and
prompts for practice. As the class was about to begin, two young blind men from Poland joined
the group.
These two students had heard about the class from a community agency and took a 50-minute
bus ride to get there. I had to make some major adjustments to my lesson plan, many of
which I believe enhanced learner participation by all of the students as the sighted students
described pictures and activities, and read instructions to the blind students. The learners
expressed enthusiasm about the opportunity to return every Tuesday and Thursday evening in
the dead of winter. My concern was whether or not the student teachers in the program had
been given adequate tools and strategies for dealing with the new makeup of the class. Much
of what they had read and learned about in the months before the practicum relied on using
visual representations (pictures, written models, labels around the rooms) and written texts
and activities.
My story illustrates the unpredictability of every teaching situation and the need for teachers to
be resourceful and flexible. For teachers in a large district, the first step is to inquire about and
locate appropriate resources available through their school or community. Does their school
disabilities service provide tutoring support? Are special materials and adaptive tools available,
for example, large print readers or text-to-speech tools? To my delight, the four student teachers
in our program immediately started brainstorming adjustments they would need to make in
upcoming lessons. They proved to be extremely resourceful teachers and highly sensitive to their

242 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

students’ strengths and needs. Here are just two examples of how they incorporated a variety of
instructional means and learning modes into lessons that followed that term.
In a lesson on getting around the neighborhood, asking for and giving directions, and names
of common services (restaurant, bank, grocery store, etc.) one teacher prepared a tactile
information-gap using specially designed maps. Masking tape marked the roads, a coffee bean
represented the coffee shop, a penny represented the bank, and a piece of fabric presented the
laundromat. Students worked in pairs and, each one with a different map, gave directions to
their partner on how to get around their assigned neighborhood.
In a lesson on clothing and colors in the assigned textbook, the color swatches and pictures in
the book were going to be of little help in making the language meaningful to the blind students,
so the teacher added the dimension of fabric types and texture to the lesson. For one of the
practice activities, learners stood in a circle and were given an article of clothing. The teacher
put on music and had the students pass the articles to the left until the music stopped, at which
point the learners described what they had in their hands in terms of fabric type and texture. This
continued until everyone had chance to describe several items. The activity elicited words such as
these: corduroy, wool, fur, soft, rough, furry, bumpy, smooth.
If you have learners with physical disabilities or limitations, you need to plan lessons following the
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) principles outlined above and, when possible, consult with
deaf and blind resource workers. Also consider the following:
• A re there multiple representations of materials used and are multiple modes of learning encouraged
(visual, oral/aural, kinesthetic, tactile)? Do classroom aids enhance learning (visual aids, audio/video
recordings)? The teachers I worked with used an incorporated hands-on, physical activity that helped
to make language practice equally effective for both blind and sighted students. A learner with
hearing problems would benefit from visual reinforcement, both pictorial representations and
words written on the board. In the example above, using varied and interesting textures made the
lesson much more relevant to blind students, i.e., that is how they would probably describe a piece
of clothing. Older students with impaired vision struggle with small visuals or small print, so it is
important to use large, vivid photographs, drawings, and print. Also, make sure lighting is adequate
in the room. For learners with hearing problems, providing closed captioning may be helpful when
using videos or transcripts from the teacher’s book when doing in-class listening tasks.
• Are there multiple means of expression and flexible options for demonstrating learning provided in
the lesson? In one lesson, some learners could voice record answers to a task on their phone and
email a sound file to the teacher while others complete written responses. For a class project,
some learners can write a paper while others create a video or give an oral presentation.
• Do you provide multiple means of engagement? Do the instructional techniques accommodate all the
learners? The teacher who uses mingles and multiple groupings in most lessons needs to think
of ways to accommodate a learner with mobility problems, making the lesson equally rich for
all learners. The tactile information gap accommodated the needs of the blind students.
Not all students will necessarily indicate that they have a disability, so it is up to the teacher to
be observant and to ask the questions above, regardless of whether or not you are aware of
students with physical disabilities or limitations. Build the habit of checking in with students who
you know do have particular needs. As noted in the section on learning disabilities above, an in-
depth exploration of working with learners with physical disabilities is beyond the scope of this
text. Additional resources are provided at the end of this chapter.

7.15 Victims of torture or abuse

A potential obstacle to learning is past experiences with torture, or past or present experiences
of domestic abuse or other forms of trauma. The Canadian Center for Victims of Tortures (CCVT,
2018: website) states: “Torture is a cruel epidemic that touches every part of the world. In the past
Chapter 7 Managing Learning in Adult English Language Classes 243
five years, Amnesty International has documented its use in 141 countries.” The consequences of
torture are long-lasting, and students in your classes may be living with the effects for years, if not
a lifetime. Those effects include an inability to concentrate, feelings of disorientation, disrupted
sleep patterns, post-traumatic stress, depression, or side effects of prescribed medication.
As ESL professionals, our primary responsibility is to provide language instruction. Trying to
counsel learners in any way will cause more harm than good, so referring learners to appropriate
counseling services is key. However, there are means of making students who have experienced
torture or trauma more comfortable while they are in our classrooms. The CCVT offers these
suggestions for teachers working with victims of torture:
For learners who exhibit difficulties with concentration:
• Keep lessons short and provide frequent breaks.
• Give brief instructions followed by demonstrations.
• Include physical activity when feasible for the students; hands-on tasks are easier to complete
than those that require sitting passively listening.
To minimize the possibility of activating painful memories:
• A void discussions that deal with politics and religion in a controversial way, i.e., the merits of
one leader or form of government over others.
• Avoid using pictures and situations that are violent in nature, for example those involving
robberies, imprisonment, fires, and arrests. Photos depicting doctors and doctors’ offices can be
troubling because of the involvement physicians may have had in the torture they experienced.
• Discuss the content of presentations with guest speakers before they come into your class.
• Avoid unconscious racist behaviors; be aware of your own assumptions and biases; similarly,
don’t assume that everyone shares your views. (See Awareness of Implicit Biases at the Yale
Center for Teaching and Learning https://ctl.yale.edu/ImplicitBiasAwareness.)
• Be aware of teaching practices that involve too much stimuli. Survivors have increased
sensitivity to external stimuli and too much frantic movement, for example TPR activities, could
be a reminder of violent experiences.
• Avoid loud sudden noises. If calling the group to attention, find ways that are minimally invasive
to hearing or sight (e.g., a small bell, a raised hand).
Finally, the CCVT recommends that doors, blinds, and curtains be kept open as much as possible
and, if the weather permits, at least one window. Assure learners that if they need a break at
any time during the lesson, they are free to step outside for a few moments. Have the learners
organize the room the way they would like it to look.
Immigrants who are experiencing the trauma of abusive relationships within a new culture, living
with the effects of surviving political persecution, or witnessing violence in their homelands, may
be hesitant to seek help, nor even know where to go or whom they can trust. Cultural norms
and support systems may be very different from what they knew in their own country. A social
worker working with undocumented migrant workers shared with me the fear of deportation
many victims face. Even documented immigrants and citizens are often wary of government
involvement in their lives. Again, locating local counseling services that specialize in the area
of trauma and abuse is the first step to take. Janet Isserlis (2000; 2009) makes the following
recommendations for working with students who are or have been victims of trauma or abuse:
• B
 uild connections with community resources. As educators, we can ease potentially tense
relationships between students and service providers. Find out what happens when one calls
an emergency hotline so that learners will know exactly what to expect when they call: What
questions will be asked and is language assistance available? What assurances of confidentiality
are there? Consider providing instruction in the language they’ll need to make these calls (CCVT,

244 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 2018: website). Victims of violence hotlines are available to men and women; avoid framing issues
of violence against women, per se, especially if so doing might call unwanted attention to any one
learner’s situation. The overarching rationale is to make learning safer for all students in the group.
• Provide safe avenues through which concerns about violence can surface, for example,
conversation circles, readings, or dialogue journals.
• Allow learners to share as much or as little information about themselves as they want,
particularly when they are just beginning to study together. Let learners know that while they
are invited to share information about their lives, they are not obliged to do so (Isserlis 1996b).
Avoid asking directly about childhood experiences. Frame questions so that learners can reply
with “I’d rather not say.” (Isserlis 2009: 46).2
• Allow learners to determine their own level of participation in classroom activities.
• Accommodate for learners who may need to absent themselves from class for long periods
of time; for example, offer distance learning as an option, and make sure they know they are
welcome to return at any time.
• Validate learners’ strengths. This is crucial for adults who have received negative messages
about themselves or their learning abilities.
• Encourage translanguaging to build community and foster contributions to class.
Informed by trauma-informed theory (Mollica 2006) and approaches in multimodal expressive
therapies (Murray, et al. 2010), the New England Literacy Resource Center initiated the Managing
Stress to Improve Learning project. In this project, teachers introduced a variety of stress
management and self-regulation strategies as part of the daily routine of the classroom, such as
stretching and breathing exercises, guided meditations, and daily check-ins. The project also includes
the integration of expressive arts activities as part of the learning process and one of those is the
Altered Shoes project, inspired by the movement to transform everyday options into pieces of art.
“We thought an altered shoe project would allow students to reflect on their life journeys
—where they have walked, where they are walking now, where they want to walk—by
using imagery, color, and collage. The project allowed for a range of entry points and
engagement —from sensory engagement to written reflections.” (New English Literacy
Resource Center N.D.)
Colleen Crossley works with learners who have experienced extreme
trauma before coming to the U.S. as refugees. The Altered Shoes
project provided an outlet for self-expression while also teaching about
metaphors, symbolism, sequencing, and idioms. Students read the
Langston Hughes poem, “Mother to Son,” and listened to the song “Walk
a Mile in My Shoes.” The photo of one learner’s altered shoes and the
significance of the project for that learner are portrayed below.

This learner’s shoe design was inspired by a Langston Hughes poem,

“Mother to Son.” She used popsicle sticks to create a stairway, and
placed crystals above the stairs to represent a line in the poem: “Life
for me ain’t been no crystal stair.” Two clothespins on the tongue of
the shoes represent the learner and her brother. “Life has never been
(Photo and learner good to me. Every time it starts good, it will go right back. That’s the
account from the meaning of my shoes: my life has been building from the day I was
SunPost) born. My life is crystals that I never get to reach at the end,” she said.

2
 Teachers can use the classic Jazz Chant (Graham 2000), Personal Questions and, “I’d rather not say,” to
reinforce responses to personal questions.
Chapter 7 Managing Learning in Adult English Language Classes 245
Conclusion
Not all ESL teachers are experts in working with students who have particular needs, so they must
be aware of their own limitations in regard to helping students who may have learning disabilities,
physical or developmental disabilities, mental health issues, or post-traumatic stress disorders.
ESL professionals need to learn how and where to access appropriate referrals within the school
system and the community at large, and assist learners to make the contacts they need. Teachers
need to be active listeners and observers at all times and challenge themselves to create lessons
that are inclusive and responsive to all students.

246 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Key Terms

On your own, or with a partner, provide an example or brief definition for each concept:

Checklist of Key Terms

differentiation

discourse chain

think-pair-share-square

open enrollment

managed enrollment

line activities

concentric circles

learning disability

Universal Design for Learning (UDL)

accommodations

Chapter 7 Managing Learning in Adult English Language Classes 247

 Applying What You’ve Learned

Before doing these activities, revisit your answers to the questions at the beginning of the
chapter.

1 Adapting Activities for Multilevel Classes

If you are already teaching, choose a lesson you recently taught, but that was difficult for
some learners to complete (perhaps those whose literacy skills are less developed than others’,
quiet students, students unaccustomed to working in groups). Consider the content, process
and product of the lesson. Then think about the learners in that lesson with regard to learner
readiness, interests, and learning profiles. Develop two variations for activities in that lesson that
would differentiate instruction and make the lesson more accessible for learners who struggled in
the lesson.
If you are not teaching, select a lesson from an ESL textbook. What problems would learners
with minimal literacy skills have completing this lesson? Choose one activity and develop an
alternative task that meets the same language objectives, yet is more accessible to learners with
limited literacy.
Choose a listening or reading passage in an ESL textbook and create multiple options (e.g.,
assigning different roles, creating different comprehension questions, designing different follow-
up activities) for working with the passage.

2 Learning from Others

One of the best ways to develop a repertoire for managing ESL classes is to talk to other teachers
about what has worked best for them. If you are already teaching, make notes of something
you’ve tried with success for the areas listed in the chart below. Then, ask at least two other
teachers at your school for suggestions of ways they have responded to these areas with success.
If you are not teaching, visit a school and interview teachers and/or observe classes and gather
ideas that you may be able to use in the future: This is a good opportunity to join one of the LINCS
online communities of practice https://community.lincs.ed.gov/.

Ways of Managing Adult ESL Classes

Adapting an activity for multilevels

in class

Handling open enrollment

Working with learners with disabilities

Managing large classes

Setting up the classroom

Managing pair and group work

248 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Recommended Reading

Differentiation and Multilevel Activities

Bell, J. (2004). Teaching Multilevel Classes in ESL, 2nd edition. Toronto, Ontario: Pippon Publishing
and Dominie Press. This is an excellent text on the challenges and suggested practices for
managing multilevel adult ESL classes.

Hess, N. (2001). Teaching Large Multilevel Classes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. This text
is rich with ideas for managing large, multilevel classes, including ideas for motivating students
and establishing class routines.

Tomlinson, C. and Imbeau, M. (2010). Leading and Managing a Differentiated Classroom.

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. While focused on K-12 education, this
text provides a model for differentiation that is appropriate for any level or setting.

Working with Learners with Particular Needs

Bridges to Practice/Success for Adults with Learning Disabilities is a series of guidebooks to help
educators and counselors recognize, screen for, and address diagnosed learning disabilities.
While not developed for ESL professionals, anyone concerned about learning disabilities and
adult learners will find this site very helpful. The series is online through Literacy and Learning
Disabilities Special Collection at http://ldlink.coe.utk.edu/home.htm.

The U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants (USCRI), Assisting Refugees with Disabilities Program:
Resource Guide for Serving Refugees with Disabilities guide includes information about resources
for serving adults and children with disabilities, assistive technology, benefits for refugees with
disabilities and more. Available at https://refugees.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Serving-Refugees-
with-Disabilities.pdf.

Taymans, J. (2010). Learning to Achieve: A Professional’s Guide to Educating Adults with Learning
Disabilities, Washington, D.C.: National Institute for Literacy. May be downloaded in PDF or HTML
at http://lincs.ed.gov.

Chapter 7 Managing Learning in Adult English Language Classes 249

8 Selecting Instructional
­Materials and Resources
To consider before reading this chapter:
• How do you decide what materials to use in your classes?
• What digital learning and technologies do you integrate into your instruction?
• How can you supplement a textbook or curriculum that has been assigned to a class you
teach to better meet the needs of learners?

Part I: Evaluate, select, and supplement textbooks and materials

8.1 Introduction
Among the many decisions teachers need to make is the selection of appropriate instructional
materials. With myriad textbooks, online curricula, learning apps, online learning tools, computer
software, videos, and classroom aids available, how can an ESL teacher make the right decisions?
In the first part of this chapter, we consider criteria for evaluating and selecting textbooks or
published materials and curricula. We then look at ways to supplement and adapt materials in
order to meet the needs of a particular group of students. We also consider the importance of
taking learning outside of the classroom through activities such as field trips, scavenger hunts,
interviews, or surveys. While earlier chapters have addressed distance learning and digital literacy
skills, the second part of this chapter takes a much closer look at digital learning and technology
integration in adult ESL curriculum and instruction.
Adult ESL programs take a variety of approaches when it comes to selecting and adopting
materials. The assumption that all students will purchase and have a textbook in hand, as is
common in many instructional settings, is not necessarily the case in adult education. In some
instances, a program purchases class sets of textbooks for classroom use only, and these sets are
used with different classes from one term to the next. The books are not given to the students
to keep but may be available for purchase at the school bookstore for those who want their own
copies. Some programs have developed their own curricula that teachers are either required
or encouraged to use. In some cases, a program maps out a curriculum that draws on available
online materials or published textbooks, or open educational resources (OERs) where teachers
can find teacher-made materials around a variety of core themes.

Getting Started
Task 8.1
What do you look for in class materials (textbooks, online curricula, supplementary materials)?
Brainstorm all of the considerations you make and then identify the five criteria that are the
most important to you. For those of you already teaching, draw on experiences from your
program. Those of you new to teaching can draw on the skills and knowledge you have gained
through your training and this text.

Chapter 8 Selecting Instructional Materials and Resources 251

 Considerations in Selecting Textbooks and Course Materials

Five most important criteria:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

I asked several practicing teachers what they look for when choosing course materials. Here
are the responses from two veteran ESL teachers. Do you see any similarities between their
responses and your own? Read what Renada and Lyle have to say and identify factors that
you and your classmates or colleagues had not considered, and then add them to the box in
Task 8.1. You will revisit and use this list at the end of this chapter in the application tasks.

Renada
With the new state and federal requirements that ESL courses are standards aligned, one of
the first things I look for when selecting Adult ESL course materials is whether the materials
are aligned. Beyond that, I also look for materials that have been designed with adults in
mind, meaning that the content is relevant and respectful of the language needs that are
most pressing for adult learners. I would also look to see whether the materials offer an
opportunity for students to develop critical thinking skills. Finally, a newer consideration
would be whether there is an online component to the materials. It is becoming more
and more important to have materials that can be accessed electronically, both inside the
classroom and independently by the student on their own time. 

When it comes to published materials, Renada adds considerations such as the usefulness of
the teacher’s manual and whether or not there are masters that can be photocopied for some
activities.

Lyle
The material and exercises need to be relevant and engaging, but not overwhelming or
intimidating. I look for materials which learners could comfortably use independently as well.
There are a variety of relevant, timely topics addressed in fairly concise units which are
more broadly appealing and considered generally important to ELL adults. I also look for a
balanced approach to both functional skills and academic development. Texts or curricula
should integrate all the communication skills and offer a wide variety of ideas and support
related to teaching and learning these skills. A very important part of this is the critical
thinking component. I look for material which fosters further development of higher order
thinking skills.
I look for material that is multicultural in nature—that takes into account the lifestyles,
approaches, perspectives, and experiences of people living in other cultures as well as of

252 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 those who are adjusting to life in the United States. I think it’s crucial to use sound
educational materials to not only facilitate the development of literacy skills (including
digital), but also to assist in the successful transition into a new culture and society. I also
like materials that have a problem-solving component in order to help learners feel/become
more empowered in their lives.

Follow-up: Every program is unique and learner variables, program expectations, fiscal restraints,
and technological resources, among other things, will have an enormous impact on the decisions
that are made about the selection of appropriate curricula, textbooks, software, and other
materials. This chapter focuses on the following decisions that classroom teachers need to make:
• When given different books to choose from, how will I know which is best for students?
• How can I adapt and supplement the text or curriculum I’m using?
• What other resources can I draw on, both inside and outside of the classroom?
• What technologies will enhance learning?
We begin with a process for selecting and evaluating textbooks.

8.2 Types of textbooks

In a discussion of textbooks, it is important to make distinctions among the types of materials
available to teachers. There are many different types of textbooks to choose from, and while not
each one fits cleanly into a category, there are some key categories worth noting.
a. Core series consist of a sequence of books for beginning through high-intermediate or
advanced-level learners. All skill areas are integrated and grammar points, functions of
language and vocabulary are normally presented in each unit. Ideally, these texts have
intentional integration of critical thinking skills as well as the 21st-century skills such as team
work, collaboration, and problem-solving. Most core series written with an adult ESL audience
in mind have correlations to current standards or assessments.1 Core series normally consist
of a multimedia package, including an accompanying website with web-based activities,
audio/video, pre- and post-assessments, and teacher texts with suggestions for lesson
planning and implementation.
Like core series, integrated-skills texts provide practice in all skills areas, but are not part of a
multiple-level, multi-media series. They function as stand-alone resources to which teachers
may add other elements.
b. Grammar texts come in many forms. There are core grammar series, ranging from
beginning to advanced, that include grammar presentations and practice, both written
and oral. They may be accompanied by audio/video support and websites for learners
and teachers. Reference grammars are those texts that list the rules of form and usage
of grammar structures. They do not contain activities for learners and would not normally
be used as the textbook for an ESL class. Many teachers keep a reference grammar in
the classroom for learners to check or clarify a grammar point, or for the teacher’s own
reference as questions arise.

1
 In the U.S., College and Career Readiness Standards, English Language Proficiency Standards, CASAS,
BEST; in Canada, the Canadian Language Benchmarks; Skills for Life in the UK; the Australian Core Skills
Framework).
Chapter 8 Selecting Instructional Materials and Resources 253
c. Skill-specific texts provide learners with a focus on the development of a particular skill area
(reading, writing, listening, speaking, or vocabulary). A good text will provide learners with
practice in all skill areas; however, the emphasis is on development of strategies to become,
for example, a more effective reader (e.g., predict, read for gist, find meaning of new words
in context), writer (e.g., pre-write, organize ideas), listener (listen for specific information), or
speaker (e.g., ask for clarification, speak with intelligible pronunciation).
d. Literacy texts are intended for learners with limited literacy skills. The texts often include
passages written by ESL learners, and include practice in both top-down skills such as
predicting, reading for gist, as well as bottom-up skills such as copying, filling in letters, and
recognizing sound/spelling correspondences.
e. There are content-based texts for particular subject areas (citizenship) and career-focused
texts for learners preparing for specific jobs and industries (nursing, retail, culinary arts).
Texts for those seeking a high school equivalency focus on subject areas such as math,
language arts, or social studies.
f. Also worth considering in this section are the multitude of teacher resource books that
provide teaching suggestions and activities for skill areas, grammar, functions, competencies,
and vocabulary. These books can provide teachers with a wealth of information for
supplementing and adapting core texts.

8.3 Evaluating and selecting textbooks

No textbook can provide everything needed in a class; it is just one of many resources from
which programs develop their curriculum. The process of choosing materials starts by asking
these questions:
• W
 ill I use an assigned text and follow it throughout the class? How will I supplement it with
other activities as well as authentic materials?
• Will I follow a curriculum developed by my program or state?
• Will I create all of the materials myself?
• Will I work with colleagues to create units that we can share?
Unless you have unlimited time on your hands and you are also an expert materials writer, the
last two options are often not realistic or even desirable. Writers and publishers spend a lot of
time and energy assessing the needs of programs and are constantly producing new materials
(some better than others) from which teachers can choose. For those teaching 20 or more hours a
week with little or no paid preparation time, having a textbook as a backbone to a curriculum can
have many advantages. There are also a few potential pitfalls of which teachers, particularly those
new to the profession, need to be aware. Table 8.1 outlines both the benefits of using a textbook
as well as some cautionary notes that need to be considered.

Table 8.1 Benefits and Drawbacks of Using Textbooks

Benefits of Using a Textbook Potential Drawbacks of Using a Textbook
• It assures a measure of structure, • N ot all of the content corresponds to the
consistency, and logical progression in needs of learners and it may require a
a class. Textbook writers have taken a substantial amount of supplementing and
considerable amount of time and effort adaptation.
to produce material that is logically • It may not allow for the degree of learner
sequenced and is as comprehensive as input desired by both the class and
possible. teacher.

254 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 • It minimizes preparation time for teachers • Inexperienced teachers may rely too
with heavy teaching loads and little time heavily on a textbook, following it in
to prepare. lockstep sequence regardless of learner
• It allows learners to review the material strengths, wants, and needs.
and preview other lessons. • Textbooks can be costly for small
• It meets a learner need/expectation of community-based programs that have
having something concrete to work from limited funding; learners may not have
and take home for further study. the means to purchase books themselves.
• It provides those new to teaching with
guidance in course and activity design
as well as grammar and other aspects of
English.
• It may provide multiple resources: online
activities for self-study, audio/video, pre-
and post-assessments.

In weighing in on the benefits and drawbacks to using assigned textbooks, the most promising
practice is to select a text that corresponds as closely as possible to the needs of the learners, the
program, and the teacher, and supplement it with activities from teacher resource books, digital
learning tools, authentic materials, or learner-generated texts as needed. Selecting the text that has
the best fit for learners becomes essential, which means that selection committees and teachers
need to take the selection process seriously, taking into consideration a number of variables.
Central to both Renada and Lyle’s considerations for materials selection is a focus on the fit
between the materials and the learner, which is in keeping with the principles of learner-centered
teaching introduced in Chapter 1 (1.3). Remember that learner-centered teaching doesn’t suggest
that the teacher no longer has a role in the classroom. In fact, a truly learner-centered class takes
considerable teacher direction and one of the ways that a teacher directs learning is through
the choice of suitable materials. In assessing the extent to which a text would be responsive to
learners, a teacher needs to consider the questions in Table 8.2.

Table 8.2 Textbooks and Principles of Learner-Centered Teaching

Learner-Centered Principles Questions to Consider When Selecting Texts
All learners bring to class rich Does the text include activities that activate learners’
knowledge and experiences that prior knowledge about the context or theme of the
must be validated. unit? Are there warm-up and previewing tasks?
The content of instruction is Are the contexts and themes in the chapter relevant
relevant to the students’ needs to learners’ lives? Who are the people represented in
and interests and draws on their the text? In what ways are they represented? Are they
experiences and knowledge. depicted in roles to which learners could relate and
that are respectful to adult learners?
Learners have active roles in Are there interactive tasks? Do the activities allow
the classroom and control the learners to take direction of activities, or is everything
direction of activities. written with a teacher-led mode of learning in mind?
Classroom interactions and tasks Does the language produced through the activities in
are authentic, representing how the text represent authentic use of language?
language is used in the real world.

Chapter 8 Selecting Instructional Materials and Resources 255

 Learners acquire strategies that Are learners presented with and given practice with
help them learn inside and outside learning strategies that they can use outside of class
of the classroom without the help (e.g., predicting, guessing)?
of a teacher.
Classroom tasks challenge learners Do tasks require learners to employ higher-order
and promote higher-order thinking thinking skills—to analyze, evaluate, or synthesize
skills. information? Do questions move beyond display
questions, those which ask only for factual information?

Byrd and Schuemann (2014) suggest that the fit between the text and the program as well as the
fit between the text and teacher need to be considered as well. Does the text adequately address
the core program outcomes? Does the text correspond to standardized tests and standards
that are used to assess students? Are there means of assessing learning within the text? Are the
supporting materials going to help me in my day-to-day planning? If it is a career-focused text,
does it represent the latest trends and career pathways in your area? Ronna Magy shared that not
only did she use government employment data in choosing topics for her textbook on choosing a
career pathway (Magy 2017), she interviewed employers in those fields to determine the job and
language demands of those careers (Magy—personal communication). All of these considerations
can come together to create a checklist for evaluating textbooks. The textbook evaluation
checklist below incorporates questions about the learner, the program, and the teacher.

Table 8.3 A Textbook Evaluation Checklist

1 Disagree 2 Agree 3 Strongly agree
1 T
 he textbook and the learner 1 2 3 Strengths and weaknesses
a. Learner knowledge and experiences are
validated and activated through schema
building activities.
b. Contexts for presentation and practice
relate to learners’ life circumstances.
c. People in the book are depicted in non-
stereotypical roles, and roles to which
learners can relate.
d. The material challenges students and
promotes higher-order thinking skills.
e. Language practice represents real-life use
of language. Examples of realia (application
forms, etc.) are authentic. Online practice
presents authentic applications of digital
skills.
f. The text provides learners with a wide
variety of activities and modalities for
learning as well as communication using
appropriate technologies.

256 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 2 The textbook and the curriculum 1 2 3 Strengths and weaknesses
a. The text adequately responds to the
outcomes of the program.
b. The book contains assessment tools that 1 2 3
can be used to measure progress in our
program.
c. The language and content corresponds to
the core standards and assessments used
by the program/state.
3 The textbook and the teacher 1 2 3 Strengths and weaknesses
a. The approach used in the text corresponds
to my beliefs about teaching and learning
and represents current knowledge and
research about teaching and learning.
b. The supplements, resources, and
teacher aids are adequate. The teacher’s
edition provides helpful suggestions and
guidelines, especially for new teachers.

8.4 Selecting and evaluating online curricula

In reviewing online curricula, many of the questions in the textbook evaluation checklist can
guide you, but there will be some additional considerations to make. What is the source and
who developed the materials? Is it an open educational resource (OER) and is it connected to
a reputable organization? If not, the resource is more likely to disappear in time. If it is from a
commercial site, there may be hidden costs or restrictions placed on teachers or learners. Have
the materials been vetted by educational experts (for example, curriculum and materials added
to the LINCS website have been reviewed by experts)? Does the online curriculum provide a
comprehensive scope and sequence with clear learning outcomes?

8.5 Choosing literacy-level materials

Many literacy-level programs use learner-generated texts through the Language Experience
Approach or the whole-part-whole approach discussed in Section 5.4. Emergent readers need
materials with limited print on the page, clear visuals, and relatable topics, which is why learner-
generated texts are ideal. If using textbooks or online curricula for literacy-level learners, the
teacher needs to add some key questions to the textbook evaluation checklist:
Does the material build on learners’ knowledge of spoken language and build literacy from there?
Does the material provide practice in basic literacy development (copying letters and words, phonemic
awareness, spelling) while at the same time presenting and practicing other areas of language? Is the
vocabulary supported with clear, unambiguous visual support?
Is the material age-appropriate? (Some programs choose phonics materials that have been
developed for children.)

Chapter 8 Selecting Instructional Materials and Resources 257

 Task 8.2
Look at this excerpt from a unit in a phonics-based series for emergent readers, What’s Next?,
and consider the questions on the previous page.

Lesson Topic Phonics Sight Words

1: Introducing Introductions short a are, her, his, is,
Samsam and d, m, n, s, f she, the, they, this,
Adam sh, th what name

1:
LESSON
Washington

Introducing
Samsam and Adam
Short a

They live in the United States now. Adam is glad.

This is Samsam. That man is her dad. Samsam is not glad. She is sad.

No English!

NCED DRIV ER LICENSE

WASHING TON ENHA 04-0 1-20 14

A302 AE EXP
MOH AME
LIC #
ADAM
MOH AMED , T
123 MAIN STREE99499
WA
FAME CITY RES
CDL END EYES
HT WT BRN
SEX 185
75630123C5743

M 6-0
© New Readers Press. All rights reserved.

© New Readers Press. All rights reserved.

01-26- 2010
ISSUE DATE
04-0 1-19 46
ed
Adam Moham
DOB

His name is Adam. Samsam and Adam are from Africa. She cannot speak English. What can she do to learn English?

From Conklin (2011) What’s Next? Book 1 New Readers Press

The teacher’s guide provides suggestions for previewing the text; learners start by talking about
what they see in the pictures. They work through a series of tasks to practice the targeted
sounds and sight words, for example, listen and write missing letters ( am; ad;
th  ) or listen and circle the word they hear (Sam/sat/sad). Comprehension questions are
supported with visuals and require only a Yes/No response:

Reading Comprehension: Circle Yes or No.

1. Samsam is a man. Yes No

2. Adam is a man. Yes No

Follow-up: The characters and theme of this literacy-level textbook could be highly relatable
for adult newcomers. There is extensive literacy skills practice based on the story. Previewing
activities would meet the need of starting with oral language and building from there. The
drawings are clear and could be supplemented with online images projected on the screen in
the classroom (a larger map of the U.S., a picture of the school learners attend).
258 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
There are a number of other series for emergent readers, for example, Easy English Readers from
abc English, with visual supports and topics that are relatable to adult learners. Materials with
clear photographs have been shown to be more accessible and less ambiguous for those learners
with limited prior formal schooling (Bruski 2012).2

(From abc English Easy English Readers: www.teachabcenglish.com)

8.6 Adapting and supplementing textbooks

Even after careful selection of a textbook, a teacher often needs to adapt and supplement with
material that is more relevant or accessible to learners, to challenge them, to provide additional
practice, or to appeal to a greater range of learning styles. It is important to maintain the overall
theme, sequence, and flow of a curriculum when making modifications. Here are just a few
recommendations:
1. Adapting units and activities to meet broader needs:
a. Evaluate a chapter ahead of time in terms of relevance to learners’ lives and interests, and
prepare visuals and realia that will make the material more meaningful to students.
b. Evaluate the lesson ahead of time in terms of difficulty. Could the vocabulary, grammar,
or functional language be more challenging? If so, brainstorm other words, forms or
phrases around the same theme that you want to present and practice. Are there many
words that you anticipate will be particularly difficult in this lesson? If so, be prepared to
demonstrate those words through multiple means, both visual and aural/oral.
c. Some texts may favor a particular learning style. Think of ways to enhance the lesson to
appeal to many learning style preferences. For learners who have difficulty understanding
written or verbal explanations of verb tenses, use simple timelines to illustrate the
meaning of the grammar (Azar 2017). Incorporate tactile and kinesthetic learning by using
manipulatives—realia, flashcards, or pictures.
d. Before working with a dialogue or story in the book, co-construct a similar dialogue or
story with the class. This allows for learner input and assures that the language used is
within the learners’ reach. Learner-generated texts will have a stronger connection to the
learners’ lives. The students can compare their text to the one in the book, providing them
with more than one way to express themselves and communicate with others.

2
 An online series from Bow Valley College, ESL Literacy Readers (https://globalaccess.bowvalleycollege.ca/
tools/esl-literacy-readers), aims to authentically represent events and issues that a typical newcomer may
experience, for example, using public transportation, enrolling a child at school, or looking for a job. Clear
photos and simple language make these highly accessible and they are accompanied by audio and a
teacher’s guide.
Chapter 8 Selecting Instructional Materials and Resources 259
2. Activities and materials for supplementing a textbook:
a. Incorporate a video clip or short authentic reading text related to the theme of the unit.
In a grammar lesson on the simple future and making predictions, show the morning
weather forecast. Give learners a simple listening task to complete:

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday

High High High High
Low Low Low Low

In reporting their findings, students use the simple future tense: The high will be 70° on
Tuesday. This allows learners to see how the grammar is used in real-world contexts. The
same can be done by sending the learners to a weather app on their phones.
b. Supplement activities in the book with easy-to-prepare information gaps or grid activities
like the following example. In working on the simple present and routines, have learners
copy a grid like this from the board:

Name When you get up On weekends In the evening

Learners mingle and gather information about their classmates by asking and then report
their findings:
  What do you usually do when you get up?
  What do you do on weekends?
c. Add data collection and analysis with a one-question interview.
This technique (see 4.9 E for a detailed description and example with academic language
frames and a graph-creation step) adds practice with academic language, critical thinking,
graphic literacy, teamwork, and effective communication, and can be used with any topic
and at any proficiency level. Many textbooks include a series of questions to practice with
a partner, but you can use those for a one-question interview instead. You can use this
task to build on a theme in a unit, as in this example:
1 People Have Different Views About Cell Phones
People Have Different Views About When It Is OK Or Not OK To Use Their Cellphones
% of adults who believe it is OK or not to use a cellphone in these situations

Usually not OK Usually OK

While walking down the street 23 77
On public transportation 25 75
While waiting in line 26 74
At a restaurant 62 38
At a family dinner 88 12
During a meeting 94 5
At the movie theater or other places where
95 5
others are usually quiet
At church or worship service 96 4

Source: Pew Research Center American Trends Panel survey, May 30–June 30, 2014.

Ventures Student Book 2, 3rd edition (Bitterlin, et al. 2018)

260 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
 Use interview strips like these:

1. How often do you use a cell phone when walking down the street?
Very often Often Not very often Never

2. How often do you use a cell phone during a family dinner?

Very often Often Not very often Never

3. How often do you use a cell phone while waiting in line?

Very often Often Not very often Never

d. Select additional practice activities from any of the multitude of teacher resource books
available, for example Grammar Practice Activities (Ur 2009) (see resource list at the end
of the chapter). Most of these books contain a listing of activities by topic, grammar point
or language function, making them easy to cross-reference with more theme-based
textbooks or curricula. Any of the interactive speaking activities outlined in Section 4.9
can be used to supplement a textbook or curriculum as well.
e. Teachers can add news clips, scenes from television programs, short how-to videos or
public service announcements to supplement their lessons. Video viewing should be
anything but a passive endeavor for the learners. A video is simply another form of text
(like a listening or reading passage) that needs to be accessed through pre-viewing/pre-
listening, viewing and listening activities, and follow-up activities.
Videos have an advantage over audio in that learners can look for visual clues, facial
expressions, gestures and body language to aid in their understanding. Video provides
learners with more vivid representations of language use in a variety of contexts, e.g., in
countries around the world, or in various work settings. Learners can view a segment with
the sound off and then identify nonverbals and discuss how the people in the scene are
feeling. They can predict what people are talking about or watch a scene and co-construct
a dialogue that corresponds to the scene. The teacher can stop a scene and have the class
predict what will happen next.
Another way to use video is to record learners as they role-play interactions, give
presentations, or enact a skit. This can provide learners with immediate and powerful
feedback on their performance, and keeping a collection of videos throughout a term can
demonstrate for learners the progress they have made.

Chapter 8 Selecting Instructional Materials and Resources 261

 8.7 Making use of teacher editions
Whenever I conduct workshops or teach classes on textbook selection with teachers new to ESL,
I get the same reaction to beginning-level and literacy-level ESL textbooks: How could I possibly
spend more than five minutes on this activity? How could this unit take up an entire class period? Good
beginning-level ESL texts are those that make use of large, clear visuals, minimal clutter, and
simple instructions. For those new to teaching, it is understandable that they may have difficulty
knowing how to fully exploit a page like the one below.

Task 8.3
How would you exploit this page with a group of beginning-level English learners? Take a few
minutes to brainstorm ideas with a partner or write ideas if you are on your own.

UNIT 9 DAILY LIVING

Lesson A Listening
1 Before you listen
A Look at the picture. What do you see?
B Listen and point: ■ doing homework ■ doing the laundry
CD2, Track 36
■ drying the dishes ■ making lunch
■ making the bed ■ washing the dishes

Ping

Tao
Quan

Mei Li

Huan

110 UNIT 9

From Ventures Basic, 3rd edition (Bitterlin, et al. 2018)

Follow-up: What makes a text complete for the teacher is a clear, comprehensive teacher’s
edition that provides guidelines on materials, previewing tasks, activities implementation, and
extension. Now look at the suggestions for this lesson from the teacher’s edition of Ventures
Basic, 3rd Edition. It includes ideas for warm-up, practice, and extension. It includes teaching tips
for working with literacy-level learners. Those who are more experienced will not necessarily
follow these recommendations to the letter, but for the new teacher, this teacher support is
invaluable. Compare these recommendations to the ideas you brainstormed above.

262 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 UNIT 9
Teaching objectives
• Introduce Ss to the topic PRACTICE
• Find out what Ss know about the topic
• Preview the unit by talking about the picture
• Provide practice of key vocabulary • Direct Ss’ attention to the key vocabulary in Exercise 1B.
• Provide practice that develops listening skills Say: These are some daily activities or chores. Read each
phrase aloud while pointing to the corresponding chore in the
picture. Ask Ss to repeat and point.

WARM-UP AND REVIEW • Read the instructions for Exercise 1B aloud.

CD2, Track 36 Play or read the audio (see audio script,
page T-150). Tell Ss: Listen and point to the picture. As Ss
• Before class. Write today’s lesson focus on the board. hear the key vocabulary, check to see that they are pointing
Lesson A:
to the correct part of the picture. Repeat the audio as
Daily living
needed.
Vocabulary for daily activities
• Begin class. Books closed. Point to the words daily activities
in the lesson focus. Say each word aloud. Ask Ss to repeat COMPREHENSION CHECK
them after you. Tell Ss some daily activities that you do in
your house, such as: washing the dishes, making the bed. • Ask Ss Yes / No questions about the picture. Tell Ss: Listen.
Say “yes” or “no.”
• Ask: What are some activities you do at home every day?
Write Ss’ responses on the board. Elicit any appropriate Point to the mother. Ask: Is she making lunch? (Yes.)
responses, such as: cooking, doing the laundry. Say: These Point to the father. Ask: Is he drying the dishes? (No.)
types of activities are called household chores. Write chores Point to the boy drying dishes. Ask: Is he washing the dishes?
on the board. Say the word and ask Ss to repeat it after you. (No.)
Teaching Tip Point to the boy doing the laundry. Ask: Is he doing the
laundry? (Yes.)
Do not expect Ss to know the vocabulary for all their daily
activities. This warm-up will help you to find out what Ss Point to the girl making her bed. Ask: Is she doing her
know before you present the vocabulary for daily activities homework? (No.)
in this lesson. Point to the girl doing her homework. Ask: Is she making the
bed? (No.)
Literacy Tip
If you have literacy Ss in your class, it might be helpful
Expansion activity (student pairs)
to spend time at the beginning of any activity with art or • Write on the board: Do you do this chore at home? Hold up
photos talking about the pictures before focusing Ss’ the Student’s Book. Point to one of the activities. Ask a S: Do
attention on the printed words in the exercise. Have Ss you do this chore at home? Elicit Yes, I do or No, I don’t. Write
work in pairs. Tell them to ask each other: What do you this question and these responses on the board as a guide.
see? Encourage Ss to describe the pictures to each other.
Consider pairing literacy Ss with Ss who can help them • Ss in pairs. Say: Point to different activities in the picture. Ask
read the text in the exercise. This will help preview the your partner the question on the board. Your partner answers.
exercise for literacy Ss and make them more confident as Take turns.
the exercise continues.
• Walk around and help as needed.
Option Write on the board: Who does this activity at your
PRESENTATION house? Model the task. Point to an activity in the picture.
Tell Ss who does the activity at your house, for example: My
husband washes the dishes. Ask Ss to point to activities in
• Books open. Set the scene. Hold up the Student’s Book.
the picture. Elicit short responses to the question on the
Show Ss the picture on page 110. Ask: What do you see?
board, such as: My brother / sister / roommate / daughter.
Elicit and write on the board any vocabulary that Ss know,
such as: a kitchen, a family, food, father, mother, daughter,
son.
• Ask: What are the people’s names? (Huan, Quan, Li, Tao, Mei,
Ping.)

Lesson A T-111
T-110

From Ventures Basic, 3rd Edition Teacher’s Edition (Bitterlin, et al. 2018)

8.8 Taking learning outside of the classroom

Given the limited amount of time learners actually spend in ESL classes, it is crucial that teachers
provide opportunities to take learning beyond the four walls of the classroom. We know that
a feature of effective ESL teaching and learning is authenticity of content and tasks. We do the
best we can in classrooms to replicate authentic use of language; we use authentic materials
for listening and reading practice; realia connects new concepts to the outside world. But taking
learning outside of the classroom expands learners’ opportunities to engage in meaningful and
authentic exchanges with others in their community. The question is what should students be
asked to do? Are whole-group field trips, which require extra funds and transportation, practical
or even possible? Are there tasks other than field trips that can provide an extension to learning?

Task 8.4
Before we go on, brainstorm activities learners could do outside of the classroom. You can
include ideas for class field trips, but also think of individual tasks that learners can complete
in the community, on the job, or at home. Of course, we can promote extensive online
independent learning, which will be included in the next section of this chapter.

Chapter 8 Selecting Instructional Materials and Resources 263

 Taking Learning Outside of the Classroom

Follow-up: Activities that take learning outside of the classroom may fall into one of the
following categories. See if your answers in Task 8.4 fit any of these categories.
a. Field trips: group or independent
b. Scavenger hunts
c. Surveys/interviews
d. Community events and resources

Regardless of the tasks you choose to assign, the key to successful completion of the task is
preparation done beforehand in class. Let’s look at examples of tasks for each category along with
suggestions for preparing learners in class before they go out on their own.

A. Field trips (group and independent)

Programs that have transportation (a van, bus, easy access to public transportation) may take
students to libraries, schools, museums, performances, or community services in order to
complement and enhance their curricula. An integrated education and training class might visit a
company that employs individuals in the area the students are learning about (e.g., health care,
auto mechanic) so that they can observe firsthand what a job in that field entails; they could speak
to someone from human resources about hiring practices.
Preparing for a field trip is much like conducting pre-listening or pre-reading activities; you
need to activate the learners’ prior knowledge and expectations about what they are going to
experience when they get someplace. The teacher also needs to preview vocabulary and pre-
teach key questions they may need to ask once they get there. Finally, students need to go on the
field trip with a specific task to complete, in pairs or individually.
For those programs with limited funding and no access to transportation, independent field trips
with a purpose can be assigned. Rather than taking the entire class somewhere, students explore
a location in their neighborhood (See 8.2. for how to do the same with web searches). Everyone
can visit the bank near their home to gather information about opening an account. Afterwards,
the class can compare which bank has the lowest fees. The class can conduct research on the
most cost-effective shopping options: a local co-op, a large supermarket, or a farmer’s market.
Which offers the freshest food and best prices? Which has foods the learners prefer to buy?
Learners create questions of interest to them, conduct their research, and bring the information
back to class for analysis. Learners can choose destinations in their community based on their
personal needs and interests. After any field trip, learners can conduct paired interviews to gather
information about their community (Parrish and Pecoraro 2002).

264 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Paired Interview to Debrief Field Trips
1 W
 hat did you see? Did you talk to anyone
there? Who?

2 W
 hat was one new thing you saw or did?

3 W hat did you bring home from your trip?

Examples: library book, food, cloth,
information, schedule
4 H
 ow did the field trip help you?

5 W
 as speaking English easy or difficult?
Why? Did you have any trouble saying
what you wanted to say in English? When
did this happen?

B. Scavenger hunts
Scavenger hunts can be conducted for a variety of purposes. Learners can gather information
from stores and services in their neighborhoods, their children’s school, from work, or from the
Internet. At the beginning level, learners can complete a scavenger hunt through observation,
as in Sample 1. The information they bring back to class can be used to personalize lessons on
places in the community or giving directions.
Sample 1:

Find stores and services in your neighborhood. Write the names of the places you find.
For buying groceries For washing clothing For buying gasoline

Pump and Go

For buying clothing For buying medicine For opening a bank account

The Clothes Horse

Higher-level learners might read manuals and talk to others to find the information they need, as
illustrated in Sample 2. This example is designed for learners who are already working and can be
used in conjunction with a unit on safety and work.

Chapter 8 Selecting Instructional Materials and Resources 265

Sample 2:

Look for the following information at your job. You may look at signs or manuals at
your job, or you can talk to your coworkers.
1 D
 o you know how to report an accident? Find out how to report an accident.
2 W
 here can you find first aid at your workstation?
3 W
 hat hazardous materials are at your workplace?
4 W
 hat safety precautions do you need to follow?
5 H
 ow many breaks can you take?
6 W
 hat should you do if you feel sick at work?
Write three more things you want to find at your workplace:

C. Surveys/interview
As with field trips, surveys and interviews should be conducted for a concrete and meaningful
purpose. It is up to the learners (with the help of the teacher) to develop questions that are
appropriate and connected to the curriculum. Here are just a few examples of the types of tasks
adult English learners might complete:
• Interview someone who has a job in an area of interest to you. What training did they need for
this job? How did they find their job?
• Interview someone whose first language is not English and who speaks English at work. What
helps them communicate with others on the job?
• Interview someone who has become a citizen. How did they prepare for the test? What
suggestions can they give you to practice for the citizenship test?
• Interview a teacher or other parent at your child’s school. What are some suggested homework
routines (when and where should children study)? What are some good resources for
homework (teacher phone lines, websites)?

D. Community events and resources

For those students living in large urban areas, there may be free or low-cost concerts or other
performances, community education classes, health services, or legal services from which they
can benefit. The learner may be more inclined to take advantage of them if the teacher uses
materials about these resources in class. One teacher shared student outcomes that resulted
from a lesson she conducted with her class on community education: one class member enrolled
in a basic computer class, another took advantage of an exercise class, and another ended up
teaching a class about her language and culture (Celeste Mazur—personal communication).

E. Project-based learning
Project-based learning (PBL), described in detail in section 2.10, can inform learners about
resources, both material and human, available to them in their communities around issues of
concern to them. Learners can explore issues such as these:
• Immigration reform with visits from local human rights groups
• Exploring first language maintenance and its benefits (interviews the other immigrants, English
language education experts)
266 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
Civic participation and community action sourcebook (Nash 2001) includes reports on several
other projects initiated by ESL classes, including projects on AIDS awareness, domestic violence,
bringing transportation to a rural community, and peace and tolerance.

Conclusion
Textbook and materials selection depends on learner variables, program and teacher needs, as
well as available resources, and making sound decisions can make all the difference for everyone
involved. Adapting and supplementing the materials we choose can bridge the gaps that exist
between a textbook and learner needs. This can be achieved by adding visuals, realia, and
authentic materials, by adjusting activities to promote more interaction, and by addressing the
needs of learners in today’s digital-rich world—the focus of the next part of this chapter.

Chapter 8 Selecting Instructional Materials and Resources 267

Part II: Digital learning and technology integration

8.9 The place of digital learning in today’s world

In the first edition of this book, most of this chapter focused on selecting print materials with a
section on computer assisted language learning (CALL). How things have changed in 15 years! In this
day and age, in which digital literacy is as commonplace as print literacy, digital learning needs to be
embedded in all that we do and at all levels of adult English language instruction. Just as with print
literacy, competence with digital literacy has an impact on an adult’s employability, health, and civic
engagement (Batalova and Fix 2015). Digital literacy tasks have been included in sample lessons
throughout the book, but in this section, we dig deeper into the overall goals of digital learning,
ways of assessing learners’ digital skills, and guidelines for choosing what tasks and tools to use.
We also consider how technologies can promote more independent learning, allowing learners to
persist in their education even if they can’t come to a brick-and-mortar school every week.
Many times, adult educators make erroneous assumptions about learners’ digital skills. In fact,
even those without access to computers may be very savvy when it comes to communication
apps and navigation tools on their phones. Just as teachers’ skills will vary, so will learners’. “ELLs
and their teachers are part of a continuum of digital literacy experience and skills. Education, age,
income, access to technology, social networks, and family members’ use of digital technologies
are some of the many factors that influence the digital literacy of ELLs.” (Harris 2015a: 2). Even
so, learner access to reliable broadband needed for some learning tools and the ability to use
devices to access information and solve problems can vary greatly (Rosen and Vanek 2017).
The good news is that Tyton Partners (2016) estimate that “55%–75% of the 4.1 million adult
education students in programs today have smartphones” (p. 17). That said, not all learners have
affordable access to the Internet. Later in this section we will see how we can leverage that mobile
technology inside and outside of the classroom.

Getting Started
Task 8.5
With a partner or in your journal, brainstorm all of the things you have to do in your personal
and professional life that are digital. If you are currently teaching, which of these tasks and
tools do you work on with English learners?

Digital practices in your personal and Tasks and tools you include (or could
professional life include) in your curriculum with English
learners
Use a navigation app on my phone

I asked leaders in digital learning to share with me what they believe teachers should know
about digital literacy and technology integration in adult ESL instruction.
As you read their responses, take notes about the following:
1. What was affirmed for you?
2. What surprised you?

268 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

3. What was clarified for you?
4. What questions do you have about this topic?

Since one of our teaching principles is to teach English in authentic contexts, we need
to include digital contexts throughout our English language instruction. For example,
communicating with children’s teachers is done through email or some other digital
messaging system. In workplace and educational settings, collaboration is very often
done online in shared documents like Google docs. That means that we need to teach the
language skills in those contexts. I often say to teachers, think about what you have to do
in your life that is digital. Your students need to do those same things and you need to help
them have the English language and literacy skills to do those things.
Kathy Harris, Director of the Learner Web in the Department of Applied Linguistics at
Portland State University

There are three primary uses for technology in classrooms: 1) to develop learners’ digital skills
through direct instruction, practice, and application, 2) to meet the teacher’s instructional
goals (such as assessment, differentiating instruction to learners’ unique needs, or soliciting
learner input), or 3) to transform instruction in ways that would not be possible without the
use of technology. For example, video chat tools can bring guests from anywhere in the
world to speak in your classroom, virtual reality hardware could allow learners to go on field
trips to distant locations, from coral reefs to the pyramids of Giza, or mobile devices could
be leveraged by learners to create and share videos advocating for adult education funding.
Technology in the hands of a skilled teacher can expand learners’ horizons. But we must be
careful not to rush to use a technology just because it is new and exciting. All technology use in
classrooms should be purposeful. Teachers need to think carefully about the goals they have
for themselves and for learners and which technology will best help them achieve those goals.
Susan Wetenkamp-Brandt, Educational Technology Manager, Minnesota Literacy Council

Classroom technology integration and digital literacy should be thought of as two sides
of the same coin. Done well, technology integration can both support digital literacy
and transform learning in classroom, enriching it with real world tasks mirrored in our
technologically-rich society. Selection of technologies should be driven by the digital literacy
learning needs and skills of learners; these strengths and challenges need to be balanced
with both the level and quality of support available in the classroom and the difficulty or
newness of the content being taught.
Jen Vanek; Director of the IDEAL Consortium, EdTech Center, World Education

Technology integration, using digital hardware or software, in an adult ESL class should begin
with instructional goals or objectives, not with a search for the latest “cool tool.” The broad
question teachers and program or school administrators should ask is, “What are we trying
to accomplish, what do we want adults to be able to learn and do, and are there digital tools
that will help us to do that better?” Learning about technology should be part of a language-
learning goal. For example, if there is a writing goal, that may be the time to teach how to use
a word processing tool, in the context of the language-learning goal. A simple way to think
about this is to incorporate a technology objective, where relevant, as part of each language-
learning lesson plan. 
David Rosen, Moderator, LINCS Community of Practice, Integrating Technology Group

Chapter 8 Selecting Instructional Materials and Resources 269

These colleagues have identified a variety of themes, which will be addressed in this section:
• The components of digital competence in today’s world
• Integration of digital skills in all lessons and at all levels
• Aligning learning with overall learning objectives
• Innovative and meaningful applications and using technologies for learning
Let’s start with the components of digital competence for adult learners.

8.10 Components of digital competence

Digital learning encompasses a whole array of skills, as depicted in Figure 8.1.

Basic computer
skills

Information
Solving problems and data
in technology- literacy
rich environments

Digital
Competence

Safety Communication
and
collaboration

Digital content
creation

Figure 8.1 Components of Digital Competence (Categories from DigComp 2.0: The Digital Competence
Framework for Citizens and Northstar Digital Literacy Standards (N.D.)

Considering what you brainstormed in Task 8.5, along with the recommendations from the four
technology leaders at the beginning of this section, can you find examples that correspond to
the categories above? Any time teachers work on basic word processing, saving documents,
or creating attachments, they are working on basic computer skills. Developing a PowerPoint
presentation as a culminating product in project-based learning represents digital content
creation. Table 8.4 provides examples of each of the six components of digital competence:

270 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Table 8.4 Components and Examples of Digital Competence
Components of Digital Current Examples (These May Change!)
Competence
Basic computer/digital Turn devices on and off.
device skills: using Use a mouse, touch pad, keyboard, and touchscreen as input
the tools to access devices.
information
Find, open, close, save, and create files.
Locate, open, and close programs and applications.
Recognize email and web addresses.
Create and send emails; add and read attachments.
Locate and open a browser, use search box, and open and close
tabs.
Enter information into online forms; use the tab key to navigate.
Information and data Evaluating the accuracy and reliability of information.
literacy: evaluating and Making use of hyperlinks to follow desired/required path of
managing information information.
Differentiating between relevant and non-relevant information.
Communication and Using apps for communication.
collaboration: interacting Using email to communicate with teachers.
using digital tools
Using shared documents to work on a project at school of work.
Collaborating with others using virtual meeting spaces (e.g.,
Skype or Zoom).
Digital content creation Making a presentation for a class or conference.
and the tools needed: Composing a research paper.
word processing, Excel,
Collecting and analyzing data for a project.
PowerPoint
Safety: protecting data, Recognizing phishing and other scams.
personal security Creating strong passwords.
Solving problems Defining a problem to solve or decision to make.
in technology-rich Formulating questions.
environments
Accessing information to solve a problem or answer a question.

Examples drawn from Harris 2015a; 2015b; Vuorikari, et al. 2016; DigComp 2.0: The Digital
Competence Framework for Citizens; Northstar Digital Literacy Standards (N.D.)

8.11 Building language and digital skills at the same time

As language teachers, we can support language acquisition while at the same time addressing
these essential digital competencies. We first need to identify the digital tools and tasks that will
advance student learning and that mirror authentic use as in Kathy’s example of emailing a child’s
teacher, the expected means of communication with most teachers nowadays. As both David
and Susan noted, the decisions we make about what technologies to use or digital literacy skills
to address should be driven by the objectives of the lesson and the needs of the learners. Finally,
digital skills need to be integrated at all levels of instruction:

Chapter 8 Selecting Instructional Materials and Resources 271

 New teachers need to know that they should not wait until learners have mastered print literacy to
begin introducing digital skills. Because print literacy and digital literacy are so closely intertwined,
learners need to develop both skill sets simultaneously. No matter what level of print literacy the
learners have achieved, there are digital literacy activities and applications they can engage with.
Susan Wetenkamp-Brandt
Each time you teach a unit, you should ask yourself these questions (Harris 2015b):
• W hat real-world tasks related to the lesson themes are typically undertaken in a digital
environment?
• What activities could be added or adapted to this lesson or unit so that learners can work on
them digitally?
Harris (2015b) provides clear examples of digital skills used in contexts that are often addressed
in core ESL texts and curricula, along with the English language acquisition focus of each
(Table 8.5). This kind of analysis assures that a teacher is considering the language and digital
learning objectives at the same time, rather than trying to use the “latest cool tool” as David
cautions us against.

Table 8.5 Integrated Digital Tasks and Language Focus

Topic or Theme Digital Task English Language Acquisition
Focus
Children’s • Email the teacher • Communicate informally
education • Use online field trip permission through writing
and volunteer applications • Convey personal information
• Find information on school • Scan for information
website
Employment • E mail cover letter and résumé • Communicate formally
as attachments through writing
• Use online job application forms • Convey personal information
• Search for a job online • Read carefully for information
Consumer • U se technical support by chat or • Communicate informally
information email through writing
• Complete online forms for • Read technical questions for
product registration or warranty understanding
• Compare products using • Read for understanding,
consumer reviews synthesize
Community • L ocate addresses on map and • Read maps for information
navigation help • Scan for information
• Find ESL classes available or
volunteer opportunities
Transportation • F ind local public transportation • Read maps for information
system and routes • Scan for information
• Find bus/train arrival times • Convey personal information
• Complete an online credit
application for car purchase

(From Harris 2015b)

272 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
In addition to determining the digital skills needed in today’s world, we need to determine
learners’ digital literacy skills. A valuable tool for assessing learners’ (and teachers’) digital
skills is the Northstar Digital Literacy Assessment https://www.digitalliteracyassessment.org/. The
assessment and standards cover basic computer skills, common operating systems, email, social
media, and information literacy. After each assessment, a report highlights the information
mastered and the areas in need of improvement. This allows the instructor to customize
instruction for learners, and the learners know what areas they need to work on as well. When
ESL teachers take the assessment, it reveals their own strengths and gaps.
Teachers can also create targeted in-class needs assessments like this information-grid task
(Harris 2015b). Learners mingle and tally results; the teacher can learn what the primary needs of
the class are and gear instruction accordingly.

I can . . . Yes No
take pictures with my phone. III IIII
take videos on my phone.
send text messages.
send pictures with a text message.
use my phone to find translations
of words.

We also need to determine learners’ access to devices (computers, smartphones, tablets) in the
classroom, home, and community.
• What devices do they have?
• What is their access to Internet/data?
• What are they already using technology for?
• How much upfront technology training/orientation do they need to use the technology?
To navigate the course?
(Ascher Webber and Wrigley 2018)

8.12 Digital learning tasks for the language classroom

What follows are sample activities that combine language objectives with one or more of the
areas of digital competence outlined in Table 8.4. Any digital task may involve a certain amount of
trial and error for learners and teachers alike, so it is important to pair learners more comfortable
with the digital skills being practiced with learners who may be less so (Harris 2015b). It is also
important to note that recommendations on digital learning may never stay up to date. As Kathy
Harris shares:
Things that adults need to be able to do in the digital world are changing and will continue
to change. This is true for us as teachers and for students. That means that we all need to get
comfortable experimenting in digital spaces that are unfamiliar. That might mean a website that
looks different than the last time you were there, an app that you use in class that has gone away,
or a new thing that is being done digitally. While this may sound challenging, it is actually quite
liberating to know that we don’t have to be the one who has all the answers with digital literacy!
Therefore, the samples that follow should be viewed as illustrations of the types of tools and tasks
you might choose. Those included here can be used at any level based on the content you are

Chapter 8 Selecting Instructional Materials and Resources 273

teaching and the needs of learners. As you read these examples, consider these questions and
take notes:
• Does the task advance learning in a meaningful way?
• Does the task represent authentic, real-world digital practices?
• What does the example inspire you to try in your own setting?

Constructing texts
An authentic use of technology is to construct written texts using a word processing tool. During
LEA (5.4) lessons, learners can type3 the class-generated text, leading to these combined language
and digital learning objectives:
Language objective: Learners will be able to copy a class-generated text
Basic computer skills: Learners will be able type the story using a word processing tool.
Similarly, during paired dictations, learners can type what they their partner says instead of
writing with pen and paper, thereby providing practice with typing using a word processing tool.
At the most basic literacy levels, learners can create labels and cover sheets with their name,
themes, and dates for their class binders.

Filling in forms
In all aspects of life and work, we fill in online forms:
• Ordering merchandise online
• Providing medical information
What else? Find examples in Table 8.5 and add ideas of your own. Make a list with a partner or on
your own.
Teachers can create simple forms using any number of online form makers, creating something
that mirrors the language learners have practiced in a unit and is as authentic-looking as possible
(Harris 2015b). If you’re unsure about how to create forms, you can search YouTube for an
instructional video for whatever form maker you plan to use. Adding practice with online forms
helps learners with a number language and digital literacy skills, including:
• Conveying personal information
• Spelling names, places, and basic personal information
• Reading for specific information
• Keyboarding; navigating a web page
What else?

Using online quizzes to assess learning

In the lesson on job vocabulary in Section 3.4, we can add an in-class quiz using any number of
freely accessible online quiz makers.

3
 Learners can practice typing/keyboarding using one of many online apps. Teachers can link to one of these
on the class learning management system (LMS) or a class web page.

274 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

(Developed by author using Kahoot)

These online quizzes provide teachers with immediate feedback on achievement of the language
objectives while also letting learners practice the basic skills of entering URLs and passwords
online; they can point and click on the correct answer. Learners are also exposed to tools they can
access to create digital flashcards or their own quizzes for independent practice.

Web searches
Adult basic education learners report that the Internet gives them access to information through
print and videos that they wouldn’t have had access to in the past (Rosen and Vanek 2017).
Most websites and online materials, though, have been designed for an audience with advanced
English skills. As with any form of authentic text, a teacher needs to create activities that facilitate
the learners’ abilities to make educated guesses about where to find information and to read
selectively to find what they need on the site.
In a lesson on the climate and weather, learners can go to a website to gather information about
the weather where they live now, or the weather conditions in their own country. The teachers
can provide URLs for sites to visit, or learners can enter their city and weather into the search
engine. These sites often use minimal print and vivid visual presentations with maps and weather
symbols, making them ideal for those learners who have limited literacy. Learners work towards
these language objectives: spell their city name, read selectively for high and low temperatures
and weather conditions, and compare weather in their current city and home city, as well as
these basic computer skills: browse for cities and weather using a search engine and navigate
a web page.
We can also use information gap activities when doing web search tasks. The example below
includes practice with selective reading, followed by an information-gap activity where pairs of
students share the information they gathered from their local Department of Motor Vehicles
(DMV) website on getting a driver’s license (this task can be modified using the state or national
website on how to get a driver’s license). This example is based on a typical DMV site in the U.S.
Same-group students (A or B) may work collaboratively to gather the information they need and
then they are paired (A-B) to exchange their information. This approach lightens the web search
load and builds in communicative practice at the same time.

Chapter 8 Selecting Instructional Materials and Resources 275

 Student A Student B
You are at the Department of Motor You are at the Department of Motor
Vehicles website. You need to find the Vehicles website. You need to find the
following information for yourself and following information for yourself and
your classmates. your classmates.
1. The website gives nine steps to follow to 1. The website gives nine steps to follow to
get an original driver’s license. What are get an original driver’s license. What are
the first five steps? the last four steps?
2. Click on DMV office. Find the office 2. Click on DMV office. Find the office
closest to your home. closest to your home.
3. Click on make an appointment. What 3. When are DMV offices closed?
number do you call to make an
4. Click on birth date and legal presence.
appointment?
Give three examples of documents you
4. Click on social security number. What can use as proof of birth date and legal
can you use to show your SNN? presence.
5. Click on vision exam. How good does 5. What is a passing score? How many
your vision need to be? What happens if times can you take the test?
you don’t pass the vision test?
Now ask your partner what they found at Now ask your partner what they found at
the website and record that information. the website and record that information.
Share what you learned as well. Share what you learned as well.

We need to consider authorship, content, and currency, as well as design and navigation when
evaluating websites for use with ESL students. Some key questions to consider are what Kathy
Schrock calls the five Ws:

Who • Who wrote the pages and are they an expert?

• Is a biography of the author included?
• How can I find out more about the author?
What • What does the author say is the purpose of the site?
• What else might the author have in mind for the site?
• What makes the site easy to use?
• What information is included and does this information differ from other sites?
When • When was the site created?
• When was the site last updated?
Where • Where does the information come from?
• Where can I look to find out more about the sponsor of the site?
Why • Why is this information useful for my purpose?
• Why should I use the information?
• Why is this page better than another?
Kathy Schrock ©2001-2016

276 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

We also need to make sure the site is free of bias and stereotypes. Learners can use these same
questions for evaluating the legitimacy of websites.

Cooperative learning tasks: jigsaw and paired reading

In the sample reading lesson in Chapter 5 on the science of happiness (5.8), learners read and
completed one section of a graphic organizer in the jigsaw reading lesson. What happens if that
stage is completed using a shared cloud-based document? Pairs or small groups can first work
together to fill in their section of the grid. As the sections of the grid are populated, the class reads
what has been written (as opposed to the mingle and share in the original plan, which practices
oral/aural skills). Not only do learners read for specific information—define one happiness
booster and result from research; use reporting language in constructing a summary of the
article—they also practice digital communication and collaboration when using a collaborative
word processing tool to share information and construct an overview of an article.

There are a number of reading resources that allow different learners to explore the same topic
through different readings (ReadWorks and NewsELA are two free sources). The Change Agent
(see 5.10) is an excellent source for content written by and for adult learners, each issue including
several articles on a theme. This makes the magazine ideal for jigsaw tasks or for paired reading
(5.8 and 5.9). Peterson (2018) shares how learners can work collaboratively to respond to writing
prompts in a shared document using different color fonts to highlight the various perspectives;
learners could then look for commonalities and differences and write a synthesis of class views on
a topic. Learners can choose a partner to respond to using the commenting feature.

Learner-generated content
Nell Eckersley (2017) suggests that teachers and learners alike are better at consuming
information with technology, for example, watching YouTube videos or gathering information

Chapter 8 Selecting Instructional Materials and Resources 277

online, than creating information using technology: “We are generally pretty strong in our
consuming of information via technology, but for many creating and curating are not skills that
are practiced. If teachers are creating with technology, they often think that they have to be
the creators and the students are the consumers. But one of the most powerful aspects of the
technology today is that students can be creators too” (Eckersley 2017).

Garden video project

Mary Zamacona’s learners at the Open Door Learning Center of the Minnesota Literacy Council
worked on a garden movie project.

Learners worked in the school’s community garden and groups of learners created a two to three
minute video giving a tour of the school garden and instructions for how to cook one food item.
Developing a storyboard (Figure 8.2) was but one of the many activities conducted as part of this
16-week project. Learners also entered data about the garden’s progress in a shared document.

Simple Storyboard

Title of Video:

Group Name:    Group Members:

1. Introduction
Welcome to the garden
2. Show and name the vegetables in English.
Does it grow in your country?
3. Explain how to cook vegetable one.

4. Closing: Say why the garden is important

for the school.
Thank you

Figure 8.2 Story Board for Developing Video

Creating connections
A common practice in English classes is to have students teach others about their countries of
origin. In the past, that normally took the form of a poster, but today we can take others to the
street where we lived or the place where we shopped, using web-based virtual maps with 360°
278 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
street views (Shiring 2017). Students can create digital stories using any number of freely available
web-based, collaborative tools that allow for use of audio, video, slides, and narration as well as
movie-maker applications. Digital storytelling entails any combination of text, videos or photos,
audio narration, or music (Stanley and Dillingham 2017). In a reading lesson on photo archives
and memories, Jessica Jones (personal communication) has students choose a picture on their
phones, then stand and mingle to share the photo/memory before moving on to the creation of a
more formal presentation. Learners load at least three photos to their personal cloud-based drive
and create a slideshow to present to the class. Learners can take and share pictures on any theme
related to the curriculum (Gaer 2011), whether it is pictures of a favorite place or, in a lesson on
our environmental footprint, photos of “green” practices in the community.

Problem-solving
PIACC (2009) proposes three dimensions to problem-solving in technology-rich environments.
Figure 8.3 illustrates this process with examples English learners may encounter.

What is the
problem to be
solved?
e.g., securing a job,
sorting out an
issue with a health
insurance claim

What technologies What language and

are needed? thinking skills are
e.g., digital device needed?
(computer, phone, e.g., read for
tablet) to search information,
for informational organize information,
online make decisions

Figure 8.3 Dimensions of Problem-Solving

We start with a scenario adapted from Northstar Digital Literacy to model the problem-solving
process with learners. In this example, learners work on reading information presented visually
(a chart), writing in a spreadsheet, searching for information online, and they also engage in
discussion skills as they compare the various criteria for the jobs presented to Alejandra’s needs.

The Hernandez family lives in St. Paul, MN. They spent a lot of time at the hospital this year.
Alejandra had a baby, her son Miguel broke his arm, and her husband Antonio was very sick
and in the hospital two times. Now they have high medical bills to pay.
Antonio makes a good salary, but not enough to pay the medical bills. Alejandra stays home
taking care of the baby while Miguel is at school. Antonio works nights. They have a strict
budget, but they still need a little extra money to pay the bills.

Alejandra has decided to look for a part-time job and has these criteria:
• Work when Miguel is at school (8:30-3:30)
• Temporary
• Part-time
• At least $10.00 an hour
Chapter 8 Selecting Instructional Materials and Resources 279
Learners are asked to consider which job sites to search; sample sites are provided and the
teacher and learners complete a spreadsheet like this:

A B C D E
1 Job Title Description Location Pay Days
2 Part-time Childcare; twin Burnsville $13/hour Weekdays:
nanny boys; nine M-F
months old
3 Nanny Meet kids at St. Paul $12/hour Weds/Thurs
for three school; walk evenings
children to home
4 Part-time Childcare for St. Paul $11/hour Mon and
for one three months; Weds 9:00–
infant one baby 3:00
(Based on Northstar Digital Literacy Information Literacy Assessment)

Learners then make a decision as to which job is most suitable for Alejandra based on her criteria.
Next, learners consider criteria for their own job search, visit the job sites, create their own
spreadsheet, and determine which job is most suitable for them.

Task 8.6
Consider other topics/themes that would that work well for a problem-solving task. What
technologies would be most suitable and what language and thinking skills would the task require?

Digital communication tools

Email, text messages, chat rooms, discussion forums, blogs, and social media are tools that can
promote interaction at a distance between teachers and learners, among learners, and with
individuals all over the world. In writing classes, shared documents or email are vehicles for
sharing drafts and receiving feedback outside of class time. Some of these tools are particularly
important for learners preparing for entrance into post-secondary academic programs where
faculty expect a high level of computer and Internet literacy and knowledge (Johnson and
Parrish 2010) and they promote independent learning, the focus of the next section.

8.13 Using technologies for independent learning

In a large survey of adult education teachers and administrators, practice for students outside
of class, opportunity for self-paced learning, and personalization of learning were cited as the
greatest benefits of technology in adult education (Newman, Rosbash, and Sarkisian 2015).
Workers need access to flexible learning opportunities and open educational resources so that
they can continue on a path to acquiring more language and skills (OECD 2016). Teachers can
extend learning through cloud-based shared documents, discussions through social media
groups, blogs or wikis, emails, and more using learners’ mobile devices (Vanek, et al. 2016).

Integrated mobile learning

Chapter 2 includes a description of distance learning options, one of which was MOBILE UP!
(see 2.20). Like MOBILE UP!, Cell-Ed pilot projects include very short learning modules with an
audio lesson, a follow-up text from the “coach” to reinforce learning, and an interactive quiz to
280 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
assess and apply learning. Learners can study any time, during break times at work, on the bus,
or at home. Learners in the pilot expressed appreciation for texts from coaches and for the ability
to learn at different times and in different ways. As students became more comfortable using the
program, they shared it with peers around the country, who then joined the Cell-Ed pilot program.
A great advantage to this program is that no data plan or Internet access is required (Ascher
Webber and Gaer 2016).
The processes used in the Cell-Ed project could be used with any adult English learners. Teachers
can send out questions for review, pre-writing, or homework that learners respond to by text.
Teachers can have conversations with learners, add extensions to readings, or ask students to
search for additional information (Ascher Webber and Gaer 2016). Gaer (2011) provides examples
of the types of message we might send to learners that represent authentic reasons for this mode
of communication (i.e., reminders, inquiries):
• We missed you in class today. Will you be coming tomorrow?
• Please bring ______ to class tomorrow.

Learning management systems and class web pages

Anyone who has taken an online course has used a learning management system (LMS), which
hosts the materials, online discussion forums, assignments, and tools for independent learning.
There are free LMSs for teachers such as Schoology or Emodo that ESL teachers can use to
support independent learning for students in their classes. Alternatively, teachers can create
a web page to provide learners access to additional materials for independent learning. Alison
Shank’s page for her intermediate, integrated skills English language class provides learners with
supports for monthly units as well as links to self-access materials that learners can use on their
own outside of class.

8.14 Learning software and apps

The selection and evaluation of software and learning apps for digital learning and language
practice must be taken as seriously as any other choice made by ESL teachers. Learning software
and apps are changing and emerging every day and these guidelines can assist new teachers in
making the best choices possible for their learners (Gaer 1998, Healey and Johnson 2002).
• Does the language and content of the software or app reinforce or complement my curriculum?
• Does it meet the goals of the learners?

Chapter 8 Selecting Instructional Materials and Resources 281

• Is it easy for students and teachers to learn and use?
• Is the language and content familiar and relevant to students?
• Will it work on any device (phone, tablet, or computer)?
• Does it require students to use their own data or can they operate it on the school’s Wi-Fi?
• For classroom use, does the software allow for pair activities in cases where I have few
computers or digital devices?
Other challenges arise in the selection and implementation of software in English language
curricula. In programs with open enrollment, software needs to be simple enough to use so that
learners can be trained to use it quickly as they enter the program. Assigning veteran students as
trainers is one way to overcome this obstacle (Gaer 1998). Yet another consideration is the cost
of software, which can be prohibitive for small community-based programs. Most large programs
have someone on staff who can handle questions about costs and licensing agreements. Whether
we recommend or assign software or an online curriculum, we need to make sure that any links
to sites or videos are accessible to all levels of technology users. Downloading a video may use
up an inordinate amount of a learner’s data plan allowance and there are still many learners who
may have limited access to computers and reliable broadband (Rosen and Vanek 2017), so we
need to be selective about what we assign and make sure learners can view and use materials.

Conclusion
The technology leaders cited in this chapter have made a compelling case for the integration of
technology in ESL instruction from the very beginning levels of instruction. Teachers recognize the
need to integrate digital learning for authentic purposes. Doing so allows adult learners to acquire
the digital skills needed in today’s world as well as to access to an abundance of information from
every corner of the globe. The ESL teacher’s job is to create purposeful and achievable activities,
to choose tasks and tools that align with instructional and learner goals, and to support learners
in developing digital literacy in ways that are at their pace and within their means.

282 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Key Terms

On your own, or with a partner, provide an example or brief definition for each concept:

Checklist of Key Terms

core series

integrated-skills texts

literacy-level texts

independent field trips

problem-solving in digital-rich
environments

mobile learning

learning management
systems

Chapter 8 Selecting Instructional Materials and Resources 283

 Applying What You’ve Learned

Before doing these activities, revisit your answers to the questions at the beginning of the chapter.

1 Textbook and materials evaluation

Look at the list of criteria for choosing materials that you generated in Task 8.1 and consider what
you would add now after reading the chapter. If you are already teaching, evaluate texts that
you could use for at least two of the groups you currently teach. Evaluate one core text for each
level, as well as one skill-specific text (reading, writing, listening, speaking or grammar) for each
level: four texts in all. You may practice using the textbook evaluation checklist in Section 8.3 as
well. For those of you who are not yet teaching, evaluating a textbook has some limitations. You
do not have a learner audience as a frame of reference for your evaluation. Therefore, create a
description of a class based on an observation you have completed. Evaluate two core texts and
one skill-specific text (reading, writing, listening, speaking, or grammar).

2 Adapting textbooks and materials

If you are already teaching, choose a unit in a book or curriculum (online or developed by
your program) that you recently used that did not respond adequately to your learners’ needs.
If you aren’t teaching, choose a unit from an ESL textbook or online curriculum and identify
ways in which you think it could be enhanced using ideas from sections 8.1.6 Adapting and
supplementing textbooks and 8.1.8 Taking learning outside of the classroom, or any of the
ideas for digital learning integration in Part II of the chapter.

3 Developing a problem-solving, web-based activity

If you are teaching, consider an issue of concern to your learners that can be explored through
digital tools and resources (see Figure 8.3. for the problem-solving components in a technology-
rich environment). Develop a problem-solving task like the one in Section 8.2. Remember to
consider the problem to be solved, the technology needed (also find websites you could send
learners to), and the language and thinking skills the task requires. As you choose websites for
exploration, consider the five Ws in Section 8.12 when selecting sites.

284 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Recommended Resources

ESL textbooks

You can visit publishers’ websites for extensive listings of adult ESL materials, including core
series, literacy-level texts, integrated skills texts, grammar books, videos, software, and more.

Teacher Professional Books for Ideas to Supplement Textbooks or Curricula

Any of the New Ways in Teaching series from Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages
(TESOL) http://www.tesol.org

Maley, A. (2017) 50 Creative Activities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ur, P. (2016) 100 Teaching Tips. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ur, P. (2009) Grammar Practice Activities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Digital Learning and Technology Integration

Clandfield. L. and Hadfield, J. (2017) Interaction Online: Creative Activities for Blended Learning.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Goldstein, B. and Driver, P. (2014) Language Learning with Digital Video. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. The book contains a variety of generic, easy-to-use, practical activities as
well as a number of ready-made worksheets for specific video clips. Activities require minimal
preparation and are suitable for a range of ages and levels, and for both the experienced and less
experienced teacher. 

Harris, K. (2015) Integrating Digital Literacy into English Language Instruction: Issue Brief and online
professional development module. LINCS ESL Pro Project. Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of
Education, Office of Career, Technical and Adult Education https://lincs.ed.gov/programs/eslpro.

Jenkins, R. (2015) Integrating Digital Literacy into English Language Instruction: Companion Learning
Resource. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Career, Technical and Adult
Education https://lincs.ed.gov/programs/eslpro.

Vanek, J., Simpson, D., Johnston, J. and Petty, L. (2016) IDEAL Distance Education and Blended
Learning Handbook, 5th edition. Boston, M.A.: World Education.

Walker, A., and White, G. (2013) Technology Enhanced Language Learning: Connecting Theory and
Practice. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Chapter 8 Selecting Instructional Materials and Resources 285

Some Useful Websites (see the resource page at Cambridge
University Press for this book for additional resources)
EdTech of World Education As noted at their web page, “educational technologies advance at
rapid speeds.” EdTech experts help to identify, design, implement, evaluate, and promote best
practices in leveraging technology to accelerate learning. There are articles, teaching tips, and
links to webinars on digital learning and technology integration. https://edtech.worlded.org/

The Northstar Digital Literacy Assessment (http://www. digitalliteracyassessment.org) assesses

digital skills through online, self-guided modules.

The ESL Literacy Network (https://esl-literacy.com) is for professionals who work with English
learning adults with little formal education and limited literacy. Created at Bow Valley College in
Calgary, Canada, users may find the online ESL literacy readers (https://esl-literacy.com/readers)
particularly useful. The readers include sound, clear images, and simple language.

286 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

9 Assessing Learning and
Teaching
To consider before reading this chapter:
• W hat are some ways to assess learning on an ongoing basis with adult English language
learners?
• What types of standardized tests are used in your area and for what purposes?
• How can learners assess their own progress?
• How can you continuously develop as a teacher and integrate self-assessment and
reflection into your teaching and learning?

Part I: Formal and informal assessment processes

9.1 Introduction
Assessment occurs every day in ESL programs. Adult English learners may take standardized
tests for placement and advancement; they complete entrance interviews and educational
plans at intake. Assessment occurs as teachers observe students and provide feedback, and as
learners provide feedback to one another. Teachers conduct in-class assessments to measure
performance and achievement in relation to student goals and course outcomes; learners
assess their progress as well. Assessment plays an important role in program evaluation and
accountability. Finally, teachers undergo assessment; a supervisor may formally evaluate them;
teachers may also engage in self or peer assessment for professional development purposes. All
of these processes are complex and require careful planning and implementation.

Getting Started
Task 9.1
Take a few minutes to think about these questions and write down a few notes:
• H
 ow have you been assessed as a language learner? If you haven’t studied another language,
think of any type of assessment you have experienced as a learner.
• Now think of one of those assessments. What was the purpose of the assessment?
• How did you feel taking the assessment?
• Do you think that it was an accurate measure of your skills?

I reflected on these questions for Mandarin classes I audited several years ago. In one class,
I had daily Chinese character quizzes (we had to memorize 10 a day); we had unit tests and
one final oral interview. As someone who was used to getting good grades in school, I was
disheartened when quizzes were returned to me with a low grade. However, when I attended
events with people from China, I was gratified to find that I could make a little small talk in
Mandarin. I didn’t feel as though assessment techniques used in class measured the gains in my
communicative competence. The teacher in this class used formal assessments, some formative
(representing my ongoing development during the course) and some summative (a measure of
my achievement at the end of unit or course). No doubt, learners in our classes have the same
Chapter 9 Assessing Learning and Teaching 287
need to see their progress and we need to find assessments that accurately reflect gains they are
making in their language development.

A different view of assessment

In another class, the teacher took a very different approach to assessment. On the first day of
the term, we each created a flash card with an activity we learned about in Mandarin 1, using a
character we could remember. I was thrilled because I remembered how to write watch movies.

看电影
Kàn diànyıng
Then, we walked around the room asking others whether they liked our chosen activity. What
was the purpose of this assessment? This first-day activity was both diagnostic (showing the
teacher how comfortable we were asking and answering questions about personal activities)
and formative (getting feedback that contributed to our learning). This was an example of a
classroom-based assessment, using a regular classroom activity (a mingle) to assess learning.
Up until now, this book has focused on what teachers and learners do in the classroom. As we
turn to the topics of assessment, accountability, and standards in this chapter and in chapter 10,
it is time to consider how everything ESL teachers do fits into the bigger picture, as described by
administrators from Australia and the U.S.:
Teachers come with enthusiasm for creating engaging lessons, but have to quickly understand
a very complex system. Funding for different programs is usually linked to strict compliance
related to curriculum delivery, assessment frameworks, and reporting of learner progress,
which can often seem incompatible with good teaching practice. It is possible for administrators
and teachers to work together to ensure that program delivery meets learner needs as well as
compliance requirements.
Margaret Corrigan
Manager, Carringbush Adult Education, Melbourne
Teachers want to teach, but there are greater goals than theirs. Teachers come to programs
with good training and good intentions, but may not know what drives the system. Teachers
need to know what data to collect for accountability purposes, and as they gain more time and
experience in the program, more about broader national philosophical initiatives that drive
policy. And finally, they need to know how to reconcile learner goals with program goals that
don’t appear, at first glance, compatible.
Diane Pecoraro
Long-time ABE/ESL Minnesota State Specialist
This chapter focuses on assessment processes that are used day-to-day in classrooms and for
these broader accountability purposes. Chapter 10 turns to the issue of standards and how those
relate to accountability systems at the state or federal level.

9.2 Assessment dilemmas

As Margaret and Diane point out, the perception of many ESL teachers is that their
primary job is to teach. While this is absolutely true, programs are accountable to funders
in terms of gains in learner performance, and teachers need to have the tools to gather
information that can provide evidence of learner progress and achievement of goals.

288 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Task 9.2
Read the following assessment dilemmas. Identify the issues involved in each one and list the
teachers’ concerns in the box below:

Assessment dilemmas
a. I have always used a participatory approach, developing a curriculum from my learners’
expressed needs. My program uses assessments that focus on many skills that we don’t
necessarily work on in my class. I find that my students aren’t promoted to the next level as
quickly as before, but I don’t want to teach to a test that doesn’t represent what I do. Also, I’m
feeling pressure from my supervisor to adjust my approach to teaching.
b. My learners are highly motivated and work very hard at improving their English. We use a
standardized test to place learners, and a different version of that test at the end of each class level,
but I don’t know how to show them that they are making progress during the class. I teach level-1
students, many who have limited formal education from their countries. They have a lot of difficulty
with test-taking. Because of this, I don’t know if the test really captures all that they’ve learned. I’m
thinking I should do more on testing strategies in my class, but we have so little time together.
c. I find assessment to be the most difficult part of my job. We need to write a report on every
student at the end of the term, but I always feel like I don’t have enough meaningful data about
my students’ progress. I know this is important because our coordinator uses our assessments
in reporting progress under our federal grant. I need to find ways to conduct meaningful and
reliable assessments in class.

Assessment Issue Teacher Concerns

Standardized tests Learners don’t have experience with testing. Don’t know if I should work
on test-taking skills in class.

The concerns of these teachers are echoed throughout the adult ESL community. What teachers
really want to know is: Are students learning and are my classroom practices helping them learn?
Many teachers question the need to spend significant amounts of class time on assessment.
Many new teachers (and experienced ones, for that matter) do not feel that they have the
expertise to design tasks and tools that measure progress, nor do they appreciate the need to
assess learning on a continual basis. MaryAnn Cunningham Florez, manager of an adult education
program in Virginia that serves around 6,000 learners each year, shares the connections she sees
between assessment, accountability, and standards. She highlights the multiple ways teachers
can gather information about learner progress and then use that information or data to plan
instruction and measure achievement in relation to learner needs, and in relation to program
accountability standards.

Chapter 9 Assessing Learning and Teaching 289

 As a teacher, you use data from different sources to create instruction that is relevant,
engaging and productive for learners. You draw feedback from the students about their
needs and goals; you look at intake assessments to see what they are bringing to the table;
you become a social scientist of sorts, constantly observing, recording, and analyzing what
students are doing; you tap into the theories and approaches and strategies you have gained
from your professional training and experiences about what is best practice. Standards and
accountability are another source of information to help you in this process: what should
students at this level be able to do and what are your students achieving or not achieving?

Programs need to employ a variety of processes that, in combination, provide all of the different
stakeholders (learners and their families, teachers, programs, and funders) with the information
they need. As we will see, teachers and programs should use assessments that reflect the
integrative nature of language and literacy, as opposed to viewing language as a discrete set of
skills to be measured (Wrigley 2008). This can be a challenge with standardized tests alone, which
is why we need to assess learners in multiple ways and on a continuous basis.

9.3 Clarifying terms

The topic of assessment can be daunting due to the many assessment terms and concepts. In this
section, I pose some common questions, and follow them with brief explanations. There are a
number of resources available for those interested in a more in-depth study of test construction
and assessment overall (see resource section).

A. What is the difference between testing, assessment, and evaluation?

Testing typically refers to those times when we measure “a person’s ability or knowledge in a
given domain, with an emphasis on the concept of method and measuring” (Brown and Lee 2015:
489). Assessment is a broader term that encompasses day-to-day observations as well as a
variety of alternative assessment tools that will be explored later. Evaluation entails an in-depth
study of assessment results to determine the effectiveness of programs.

B. What do I need to know about practicality, reliability, and validity in assessing students
in my classes?
Practicality refers to the feasibility of implementing a particular assessment or test. Conducting
one-one-one interviews of learners at the end of class may be practical if you have 15 students,
but not if you have 40. Is the tool you are using reliable? Reliability means that the assessment
tool would result in consistent outcomes if administered more than one time or if rated by more
than one assessor. What is the validity of the test results? Does the tool assess what it is intended
to assess? A basic literacy assessment conducted in English may not adequately measure what a
learner actually knows about literacy practices overall. Are results related to what a learner knows
about English (vocabulary or structures) or to experiences with reading or writing overall (e.g.,
perhaps is nonliterate in the L1)? The learner may also be unfamiliar with the cultural references
in the task (Wrigley 2008). Does the test correspond to what was taught and what learners can
reasonably be expected to know and does it assess the targeted skills? In one of my Mandarin
classes, the teacher had us answer listening comprehension questions by writing out answers in
Mandarin characters, but another had short multiple-choice items written in English. This second
teacher’s assessment was a more valid measure of our listening skills since we didn’t have to read
and process questions, and then write in Mandarin at the same time. This worked because all the
learners in the class shared the same first language, English. This is something an ESL instructor
could consider doing if all the learners share the same first language.

C. How are placement, diagnostic, achievement, and proficiency testing different?

Look at Table 9.1 for a summary of these types of tests.

290 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Table 9.1 Test Types and Purposes
Placement Where should a learner be placed in a program? Placement testing is
testing conducted for the purpose of identifying the level most suitable for a
learner. While some programs use a standardized test for this purpose,
the placement testing may also include interviews, surveys, or an in-house
placement test that adequately differentiates learner levels.
Diagnostic What do learners already know and what do they need to learn in relation
testing to course outcomes? A diagnostic test reveals a learner’s competence in
relation to the outcomes of a particular class. In a class that focuses on
speaking and pronunciation, the diagnostic test assesses oral skills; in a
career-focused class, the test assesses strengths and weaknesses for that
particular work setting. Teachers employ a variety of tasks for the purpose
of diagnosing learner needs, including interactive tasks, role plays, writing
samples, and observation by the teacher.
Achievement What have learners gained through a unit or course? In many programs,
testing standardized pre- and post-tests are given to ascertain achievement,
for example, CASAS (CASAS stands for Comprehensive Adult Student
Assessment System and is commonly used in adult education programs in
the U.S.). This can be appropriate in cases where the program outcomes
are strongly tied to what the standardized test measures. Alternative
assessments are commonly used to determine achievement.
Proficiency What is the learner’s overall competence? A proficiency test is not designed
testing for a specific course or set of outcomes. It may be used to determine
someone’s readiness for academic work, for example, the TOEFL (Test of
English as a Foreign Language) or IELTS (International English Language
Testing System), which are given to thousands of students throughout the
world hoping to enter universities in English speaking countries or English-
medium universities around the world. IELTS is also used as part of the
immigration processes in Canada, the UK, and Australia.

9.4 Standardized tests

It is important to understand what standardized test can do and what they cannot do. Standardized
tests are typically used to differentiate among learners at different levels in order to determine the
most appropriate level for them within a program, or to determine whether or not they have made
progress in relation to a norm or criterion. Standardized tests can be norm-referenced, which means
that scores reflect a comparison to a group (or norm), or the test taker’s performance in comparison
to other test-takers. A norm-reference test may be used to determine cut scores for the distribution
of scholarships in a college setting. Alternatively, standardized tests can be criterion-referenced,
which means that scores reflect a comparison to a set of outcomes (or criterion), for example, a
citizenship test (Kunnan and Grabowski 2014). Standardized tests are administered and scored using
procedures that are uniform and consistent (Bailey and Curtis 2015). As a result, test scores can
give a broad and consistent view of learner progress within and across levels, programs, and states.
These test scores may be only part of the picture, though, as these state-level administrators share:
Local adult basic education (ABE) programs and states are now expected to report more
outcomes for their students. Federal accountability measures move beyond just traditional
educational gains via assessment to now include diploma attainment, employment, wages, and
postsecondary enrollment for participants after they exit classes.
Brad Hasskamp (Adult Secondary Credential and Education Policy Specialist)
Astrid Liden (ABE Professional Development Specialist)
Minnesota Department of Education
Chapter 9 Assessing Learning and Teaching 291
Now let’s consider what standardized tests cannot do. When used for placement, they cannot
tell us what individual learners want and need as they enter programs. Because of a lack of test-
taking experience, a learner’s score may not reflect his or her real strengths and prior knowledge.
When used to measure level change, unless the test mirrors program outcomes, it cannot provide
us with learner progress and achievement in relation to unique learner or program goals. Nor
can it depict learner achievement of more elusive skills, for example, increased use of learning
strategies, or reading daily to a child. That is why standardized tests must be only one of many
assessment tools used in adult ESL.

Task 9.3
Most any program you work in will use standardized tests for placement, achievement, or for
reporting outcomes to state agencies. Find out what standardized assessments are used in
your program, state, province or region and for what purposes (placement or achievement).
Conduct a web search and talk to program administrators in your area. Common standardized
tests used in adult ESL are included here, but you may also need to add your own.

Assessment What is the focus and how it is used?

BEST Literacy

BEST Plus 2.0

Basic English Skills Test

CASAS
The Comprehensive Adult
Student Assessment System

IELTS Life Skills

TABE

TABE CLAS-E

ESOL Skills for Life

Add others:

In reviewing a variety of tests, it becomes evident that different standardized tests emphasize
different skill areas. Some are more appropriate for literacy or beginning-level learners, for
example, the BEST (Basic English Skills Test) is often used with new immigrants with very limited
English. It can even be used with pre-literate students, and those with little or no spoken English,
through tasks that require only pointing to a picture. As a classroom teacher, chances are you
292 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
will not be the one selecting or administering the test; however, it is beneficial to have a general
understanding of what learner test scores represent. Also, in cases where standardized tests are
used throughout the program to measure learning gains, there are some things that can be done
that do not require “teaching to the test.”
• C arefully examine the content of tests used and check to see when and where test items
correspond to course outcomes and learner goals.
• When you cover a particular skill or competency that you know is assessed on the test used by
your program, tell students that this is something they may encounter on the test.
• Periodically use activity types that mirror formats used on the standardized tests, for example,
multiple-choice activities in reading and listening lessons to get learners used to that format
(not as a test item per se).
In a literacy class that has been working on giving directions and understanding prepositions
of direction, one of the practice activities includes the same format learners encounter on the
standardized test used in the program. In the same class, the teacher does a group matching
activity with images and words students will encounter on the test. She shared with me that
the assessment is decontextualized and the questions are very random as compared to what
learners encounter in her highly contextualized lessons. This matching gives learners practice
with sounding out the words and working with decontextualized images/drawings, which can be
difficult for literacy-level learners to interpret (Bruski 2012).

 
Learners in Kristin Klas’s Literacy-Level Class Preparing for the Standardized Test

Many textbooks include activities that mirror the multiple-choice with bubbles format found on
most standardized tests.
Assessments will, ideally, assess the sorts of higher-order thinking skills presented in Section 3.6,
and reading test items should assess the kinds of higher-order reading strategies discussed in
Section 5.7, especially at the intermediate to advanced levels.

Task 9.4
Take a look at the sample test item (text followed by two sample questions) from the CASAS
Reading Goals Series Level D, which corresponds to advanced ESL. Decide which of these
higher-order reading strategies are assessed and how:
• Evaluating an argument and identifying specific claims in a text
• Analyzing the evidence a writer provides to support a claim

Chapter 9 Assessing Learning and Teaching 293

 • Analyzing conflicting views on the same topic
• Synthesizing information
Anything else?

294 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 16. Nadine Ng’s argument supports the 17. What would be the best alternative title
claim that a college education is not for for this article?
everyone by explaining that _____.
A. Why Is College Ultimately the Best
A. many students who start college Route to Career Success?
never graduate
B. How Much Education Do Effective
B. a college education limits students’ Workers Really Require?
career choices
C. Is College or Vocational Training
C. a majority of students transfer to the Ultimate Answer?
vocational courses
D. Are European Companies
D. colleges put too much emphasis on Transforming the Labor
remedial classes    Market?
From CASAS Reading Goals Series Samples (2018)

Teachers can create reading tasks that assess these higher-order reading strategies and that
mirror this format.
Standardized test results provide only a partial view of learner ability and achievement. There
are alternative means of capturing learner progress and achievement that engage learners in
ways that more closely mirror instruction, many of which are more meaningful to teachers and
students alike. These formative assessments that do not entail a formal paper-pencil test or
standardized test fall under the umbrella of alternative assessment. A variety of alternative
assessment techniques are described in the next section, including observation, performance
assessment, learner self-assessment, and dialogue journals, among others.

9.5 Alternative assessment

Alternative assessment aligns with many of the principles of learner-centered teaching:
• It is program-based and reflects the content/context of the course in which it is used.
• It mirrors the approach to teaching used in the classroom, meaning it is likely to be more
comfortable for learners.
• It allows learners to demonstrate accomplishments in ways that reflect natural use of language.
• It captures ongoing, continuous progress.
• Many alternative assessment techniques (performance assessment, dialogue journals, group
projects) involve interaction among learners or between teacher and learner in communicative ways.
Alternative assessments can be used for both formative and summative purposes. Formative
assessments are those that provide learners and teachers with immediate feedback and are said
to focus on assessment for learning. They can even direct a teacher to make adjustments at the
moment. Summative assessments are those that measure learner gains in relation to a set of
learning objectives at the end of an instructional unit of study. Before reading about alternative
assessment techniques, complete the following task.

Task 9.5
Imagine you are teaching the lesson on expenses outlined in Chapter 3 (see 3.3). The learners
work with an authentic informational text (a pie chart of expenses) to explore average expenses
of people in the U.S. to their own expenses. The objectives for this lesson are the following:

Functional:
• Compare and contrast expenses among residents of the U.S.
• Compare and contrast their own spending habits to those presented in a graph

Chapter 9 Assessing Learning and Teaching 295

 Grammatical:
• Make comparisons using “spend more on __ than ___;” “as much on ___ as___.
• Use qualifiers to show degree of differences (considerably, somewhat, a little).
Vocabulary: categorize types of expenses
Speaking/pronunciation: Use proper word stress on vocabulary (exPENses; contriBUtion)
Critical thinking:
• Compare U.S. Labor and Statistics chart to their own expenses
• Categorize expenses
• Analyze and question the expenses displayed (surprises they note; explanations for expenses)
(Review the lesson plan in Section 3.3 before continuing)
1. Think of two ways you could assess that learning took place in this lesson.
2. Think of two ways the learners could assess their own progress.
Follow-up: Now see if your own ideas are among the suggestions offered in the sections below.

A. Observation
Careful observation of learning is a way to capture learning in the moment and allows teachers
to make adjustments to teaching so that learners can find the best means of learning. It also
allows us to notice those times when a learner makes gains and then backslides, a normal part
of learning, and hopefully to notice what approaches to teaching and learning promote the most
success for learners. Teachers observe learning every day, but are they always assessing learning
in the process? A teacher may report that the class did very well on an activity, but is not able to
report specifically what went well, who was engaged and successful in the lesson, and who wasn’t.
When a teacher has a clear idea of what she or he is observing for in the classroom, observation
can be a valid formative assessment tool. This starts with articulating clear objectives in a lesson
and observing for evidence that learners are moving towards meeting those objectives, then
noting what happens in class in relation to those objectives either during or after the lesson. Is it
only language that should be assessed? Assessing a learner’s ability to use and interpret graphics,
think critically, or employ learning strategies are equally important. The sample observation
tool in Figure 9.1 consists of a simple teacher-made grid with the day’s objectives and space for
recording progress. This example corresponds to my lesson on expenses in 3.3.

Lesson Objectives Evidence of Progress

Students will be able to compare All but two students contributed to the discussion at
and contrast expenses among the beginning, saying things like “People spend a lot
residents of the U.S. and compare more on housing than on food.” During the mingle,
and contrast their own spending comparing U.S. expenses to their own, all of the
habits to those presented in a graph. students interviewed at least three others.
Grammatical: I elicited the grammar from them with success after we
• Make comparisons using “spend analyzed the pie chart together, so that showed who
more on than ;” “as already had knowledge of the structures. I heard Alex
much on as ” struggle with the structure during the mingle (he said “spend
more better on housing.” I wonder if he thinks “better” is a
• Use qualifiers to show degree
marker for comparisons? It was hard to elicit “considerably”
of differences (considerably,
and “somewhat,” but when we did a continuum on the
somewhat, a little).
board, they placed those in order from least to most.

296 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Vocabulary: categorize types of The only category that they had a hard time with was
expenses “charitable contributions.” Great when José started
giving personal examples (I give clothes to my church).
His example seemed to make it easier for everyone.
Speaking/pronunciation: use They had a really hard time hearing the stress. When
proper word stress on vocabulary we started using both clapping and humming along
(exPENses; contriBUtion) with the bubbles, everyone started adding words to
the right columns. I’ll have to remember to use that
multimodal approach with this group. When the word
was a cognate with Spanish, they tended to say the
words with syllable final stress (contributiON).
Critical thinking: The final activity of interviewing and then creating their
• Compare U.S. Labor and Statistics own graph for the group pushed everyone to both
chart to their own expenses contribute and create a lot of original language and
thought.
• Categorize expenses

Figure 9.1 Sample Observation Tool

An alternative to writing notes is to record these reflections on your phone or computer

immediately after a class. Zoshak (2016) calls these immediate recorded reflections “tiny talks”
and suggests that using them as a tool for reflection between novice teachers leads to highly
constructive analysis of practice. While it may be unrealistic to maintain records like these on a
daily basis, print or recorded, doing so even weekly or biweekly allows a teacher to analyze in
more detail the learning that is going on in class. The same can be achieved on a more immediate,
smaller scale. Teachers can add post-its or notes in the margins of handouts and lesson plans on
learner success and teaching effectiveness. This daily documentation and reflection can feed into
the planning of subsequent lessons. A practical benefit of observation and ongoing assessment
is that the job of writing progress reports at the end of the term is far easier and far more
meaningful as a teacher draws on data collected during the term.

B. Performance assessment
Performance assessment involves learners demonstrating their ability to perform a real-life task,
for example, calling in sick to work or requesting a meeting with a child’s teacher by email. Central
to performance assessment is the development of a rubric for evaluating learner outcomes on
the task. What criteria should I use for evaluating performance? What language forms, functions,
and vocabulary are needed to perform the task successfully? What extra-linguistic features of
language (tone, nonverbals) should learners make use of to be intelligible if it is a speaking task?
The sample in Figure 9.2 illustrates what a rubric to assess writing an email to a child’s teacher to
request a meeting could include.

Chapter 9 Assessing Learning and Teaching 297

 Assessment Rubric
Task: writing an email to request a meeting with a child’s teacher
1 needs improvement
2 adequately conveys information
3 very clearly conveys information; few errors in grammar or spelling
1 2 3 Comments
Uses appropriate
opening
Makes request
appropriately
Gives reason for
meeting
Gives times when
available to meet
Uses appropriate
closing

Figure 9.2 Performance Assessment Rubric

In order for performance assessment to be a meaningful measure of learner competence, the

task learners perform needs to be as authentic as possible and reflect the language and skills that
were taught. Ask yourself these questions about the performance task:
• Does it measure what has been taught?
• Does it mirror real-world problems?
• Can students demonstrate their knowledge and skills?
(CAELA Network 2007: III-B-47)
When possible, use authentic materials such as real forms, work documents, or appropriate
online tools (have learners email you a mock response to a child’s teacher). In workplace
programs, observe and assess learners performing tasks on the job. Conducting frequent
performance assessments may not be practical in a large class. As an alternative, learners can
observe peers doing the performance task and complete a rubric like the one above. When done
as a class routine, peer assessments provide learners with valuable feedback on their progress.
Rubrics can be used for all kinds of learning tasks and outcomes. Teachers in Minnesota created
an #IamABE curriculum, with this goal:
We realized that one of the main issues we were facing is that many community members outside
our classrooms did not understand how legislation was affecting our students. We also didn’t
have outlets for our students to share their ideas, needs, and complex identities that weren’t
overshadowed by our own political leanings. So, we set out to create that space.
The curriculum includes lessons on First Amendment rights, voicing one’s political opinions on
social media, and provides a foundation for elevating student voices through social media. The
lessons are aligned to state content standards and the teachers developed assessment rubrics
to measure progress. Figure 9.3 shows how a rubric can be used to assess participation on group
tasks and critical thinking, along with writing outcomes.

298 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Name: 1 Emerging 2 Developing 3 Satisfactory 4 Exemplary
Student S did not S contributed S contributed S contributed
participated in participate, by speaking at least multiple
large group recall or quietly in their L1 to once to the times to the
and categorization observed. a classmate whole group discussion and
of stereotypes who translated discussion in encouraged
(Learning and/or their L2 and their others to
Strategies 2). contributions contributions participate.
were off topic. were on topic.
Student S did not S contributed S contributed S contributed
participated in participate, by speaking at least multiple
small group sort or quietly in their L1 to once to the times to the
of stereotypes observed. a classmate whole group discussion and
(Critical Thinking 1). who translated discussion in encouraged
and/or their L2 and their others to
contributions contributions participate.
were off topic. were on topic.
Student can S did not S responded S responded S responded
articulate (yes or respond in L1 and/or in L2 and their in L2 and
no) if statement when their response response was able to
or picture reflects asked. indicated reflected give a simple
a stereotype they did not understanding. explanation as
and give reason understand to why.
(Critical Thinking 2 the question.
and 4).
Student can S cannot S produced a S produced S produced a
produce clear produce a response but a response response in
and coherent I response. response did in the L2 the L2 that is
am statements to not refute a to refute a clearly refuting
refute stereotypes stereotype, or stereotype, a stereotype
(Writing Anchor 4). response in but it requires discussed in
L1 to another some class.
classmate who clarification.
translated.

Figure 9.3 Assessing Project Outcomes with a Rubric (Klas and Kreil 2017 #IamABECurriculum)

C. Checklists
Checklists are less complex than rubrics and can be used to track ongoing achievement of lesson,
unit, or course objectives. The sample in Figure 9.4 is for a literacy-level program where emergent
readers are acquiring foundational reading skills.

Chapter 9 Assessing Learning and Teaching 299

 Sample Foundations Checklist

Date: Oct. 18-22

Purpose of Assessment: Assessment for learning
General Learning Outcome: Interpret formatted text
Specific Learning Outcome: Interpret lists, charts and tables
Task: Naming and ordering letters

Conditions:
• task is familiar
• task is modeled/prompted by instructor

Participates Contributes Spells name Using a Uses finger

in choral orally to aloud model and for tracking
rote reciting naming working in on a model
of alphabet various pairs, puts while class
letters alphabet recites
flashcards in alphabet
order

Nyabile    
Farida    
Adam   

Figure 9.4 Checklist of Foundational Reading Skills (Bow Valley College (2011) Learning for Life: An ESL
Literacy Curriculum Framework)

The sample in Figure 9.5 is for assessing a persuasive essay with high-intermediate to advanced
learners. A checklist like this can be used by leaners for self-assessment or for peer feedback as
they work on drafts of their writing.

Persuasive Essay Comments

Make my position clear Yes/No
Provide background in the introduction Yes/No
Have three arguments to support my position Yes/No
Support my arguments with evidence Yes/No
Use appropriate citations Yes/No
Summarize key points in conclusion Yes/No

Figure 9.5 Assessment Checklist for a Persuasive Essay

Notice that the items in the checklist correspond to the features of that particular writing genre.
A checklist for assessing a paragraph describing a process would include: ordering steps correctly,
using appropriate transitions, (First, the next thing, finally), using imperatives, including a reminder
or warning (e.g., It’s important to remember...).

D. Quiz-quiz-trade
Quiz-quiz-trade is a cooperative learning technique developed by Kagan and Kagan (2009) that
can be used to assess learning of any content covered in class. The teacher prepares question/
answer cards (ideally as many questions as there are learners, but there can be duplicates).
Students mingle and pair up. They do not show their card to their partner.
Student A asks Student B the question and coaches the partner as needed using the answer
provided on the card.

300 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Student B asks Student A the question and coaches the partner as needed.
Students switch question cards and then move on to a new partner.
This technique is especially useful for reviewing material from a lesson or unit. The question cards
in Sample 1 could be used after the reading lesson on the science of happiness in Section 5.8,
assessing learners’ content knowledge from the reading.
Sample 1: Assessing content learning

Question 1: Answer:
According to the research on Those who took time to consciously count their blessings in
happiness boosters, what was a gratitude journal on weekly basis significantly increased
the effect of using a gratitude their overall satisfaction with life over a period of six weeks,
journal on a weekly basis? whereas a control group that did not keep journals had no
such gain.

Question 2: Answer:
Give two limitations of this kind Studies have been conducted in Western, individualistic
of research. cultures where striving for self-satisfaction may be an
acceptable practice. In more collectivist cultures, this focus on
self-improvement may be at odds with beliefs about the good
of the group as opposed to the individual.
Definitions of happiness are culturally-bound, so finding
suitable measures for purposes of doing research can be
problematic.

The question cards in Sample 2 are for a class that has been working on the language of academic
conversations.
Sample 2: Assessing linguistic knowledge

Question 1: Possible answers:

What can you say to bring • We haven’t heard from you yet.
someone into a discussion? • , what do you think about this?
• I’d like to know what thinks about this.

Question 2: Possible answers:

What are three ways to • But don’t you think that . . .?
disagree politely with someone • I see what you mean, but . . .
in a discussion?
• But isn’t it really a question of . . .?
• I take your point, but . . .
• Yes, but on the other hand . . .
• But all the evidence suggests that . . .

E. Exit tickets/exit questions

There are any number of ways to use exit tickets or exit questions, for example, when I had
to answer my Mandarin teacher’s question using the language of the day before exiting the
room. This formative assessment tells the teacher if learners need additional practice or further
Chapter 9 Assessing Learning and Teaching 301
instruction. It also gives learners a chance to organize their ideas and engage in metacognition
(thinking about their thinking and learning). Possible formats for exit tickets are:
• 3-2-1
After a reading: three things you discovered, two things that interest you, one question you
still have. At the end of a lesson or unit: three things you learned; two ways you’ll use this
information outside of class; one thing that still confuses you.
This can be done with post-it notes, index cards, or through online polling.
• Mini-quizzes
Two to three questions related to the learning objectives of the day.
• Reflection on learning
What did you learn today that you hadn’t considered before? What did you learn today that was
most useful?

F. Dialogue journals: oral and written

Dialogue journals provide a vivid record of learner progress as well as an ongoing sense of growth
for the learner, making them an ideal vehicle for ongoing assessment. Audio-recorded oral
journals can be used in much the same way written journals are used through an ongoing spoken
dialogue between a teacher and learner. When I used oral dialogue journals in an advanced
speaking/pronunciation class, I responded first to the content of what the learners told me,
then provided language feedback for those areas where word choice or pronunciation affected
intelligibility. At the end of term, the learners had the satisfaction of hearing themselves at the
beginning and end of the class. This form of assessment may have limited practicality in very large
class, but could become more so with the help of volunteers.

G. Video/audio recordings at intervals

It is difficult for teachers and learners to perceive progress in oral proficiency because most
of the products we keep tend to be written ones. While we may have a sense that a learner
is more fluent, creating records of that progress is easy to do through occasionally audio or
video recording learners’ enacting a role play, a short conversation, telling a story, or giving
presentations. After recording at regular intervals, review a compilation video with learners so
that they can recognize their development and growth.

H. Portfolio assessment
A portfolio is a collection of learner work (selected by the students) that is representative of
accomplishments made in a class or during a term of study. It may include writing samples,
written exercises, projects, video recorded presentations, audio recorded stories, digital stories,
drawings, readings and accompanying activities completed, learning logs, or even letters from
teachers or employers. Planning for the portfolio can become an activity by having learners
brainstorm and discuss what they would like to include. This is also a time for the teacher to
clarify the purposes and benefits of creating a portfolio. Canada has recently implemented
Portfolio-Based Language Assessment (PBLA) in lieu of standardized testing to assure consistency
and standards of quality of ESL programming for adult immigrant learners across the country
(Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks 2017).

I. Work samples/group projects

Evaluating group projects can provide insights into learners’ ability to distribute tasks, work on a
team, and present information clearly, either through a final written product or presentation. As
with performance assessment, a teacher can create a rubric for assessing the final project, which
can be completed by the teacher, the learners, and the audience who sees the final product.

302 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

J. KWL charts: What do I know? What do I want to learn? What did I learn?
This strategy is used for multiple purposes: to activity prior knowledge on a topic, to set learning goals,
and to assess learning. At the start of a unit, learners work in small groups and brainstorm everything
they know and everything they want to learn about the topic. Their responses are compiled to create a
group chart on the board, projected on a screen, or as a wall chart. At the end of the unit, learners go
back to the chart and assess what they learned and compare those outcomes to their learning goals.

What Do I Know? What Do I Want to Learn? What Did I Learn?

Figure 9.6 KWL Chart

9.6 Learner self-assessment

Learner self-assessment should be an integral part of an ESL class. The benefits are numerous:
• It allows students to reevaluate the goals they have set for themselves, to recognize their
progress in relation to those goals, and to identify new goals revealed as they progress.
• It heightens their awareness of the goals and outcomes of the program and allows them to
identify their strengths and needs in relation to those outcomes.
• It helps them identify how they learn best; reflect on what they can do as learners (not just
what the teacher does as a teacher).
• Develops a skill common in many workplaces, but that is new for many immigrants.
• Gives learners a voice in their education and in shaping the curriculum; they can see
themselves as one of the many stakeholders.
Self-assessment needs to be a daily routine that can start with something as simple as asking
learners to reflect on that day’s lesson (or any of the exit ticket ideas above):
What is one thing you learned that was new for you and particularly helpful?
How will what you learned help you in your daily life, at home, work, or in the community?
During review the following day, ask learners if they used anything from the previous lesson
outside of class. Did they notice any of the new words they learned on signs, on the news, at work,
or anywhere in their community?
At the end of a unit, learners can reflect on what they learned as well as how they learned best.
The teacher can develop a simple task like this one for my lesson on expenses in 3.3:

Think about your learning.

1. The most useful thing I learned in this unit (or this week) was .
2. I still want to learn .
3. I learned best by working:
with the teacher and class alone with a partner.
4. The most useful activities were:
looking at the pie chart and talking about everyone’s expenses.

Chapter 9 Assessing Learning and Teaching 303

 practicing the grammar (people spend more on than on ).
practicing pronunciation of the vocabulary words.
interviewing everyone about expenses.
making our own pie chart and presenting to others.
Why?
Figure 9.7 Lesson Self-Assessment

In order to highlight learner achievement in relation to the specific language outcomes in a lesson
or unit, students complete a learning log or checklist with can-do statements (can be the same
used as a needs assessment). Think back to the lesson on job titles and responsibilities in 3.3,
which addressed these learning objectives:

Vocabulary:
• Match job titles to visuals
• Match jobs to job responsibilities
• Say job titles with correct word stress
• Categorize types of jobs (e.g., indoor/outdoor; work alone or with others)

Grammar:
• Students will be able to use simple present tense to talk about jobs (e.g., a butcher cuts meat)
Learners can complete a learning log like the one in Figure 9.5.

I can name all the jobs presented in the lesson.

Yes No Some Write what you remember:
I can pronounce the names of jobs clearly.
Yes No Some Which ones need some more work:
I can describe what people do for their jobs.
Yes No Some Give one example:
I can say which jobs are outdoors or indoors.
Yes No Some Give one example of each:
These were easiest for me today (√ what was easy):
Listening
Speaking
Reading
Writing
These were more difficult for me today (√ what was difficult):
Listening
Speaking
Reading
Writing

Figure 9.8 Sample Learner Log

304 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 9.7 Using assessment results for accountability purposes
The assessment techniques and tools outlined above provide fairly immediate results to those
stakeholders in the classroom, i.e., learners and teachers. But what about those stakeholders who
are outside of the classroom? In a discussion of accountability, it is crucial that classroom
teachers hear from stakeholders that are outside of their classrooms. I asked several
state adult ESL specialists and program coordinators what they see as the signs of a
successful program. I also asked which performance indicators are the most important to
them. Their responses give classroom teachers insight into the kind of data they need to gather
about learner progress.

Task 9.6
First, reflect on this question:
In your opinion, what are indicators of a successful program?
Now look at this list of the most common themes that emerged from administrators.
How does this compare to your own list?

Successful programs are those that . . .

• Meet the goals the students have established for themselves.
• Build personal connections with the teachers and among learners.
• Prepare learners for the demands of the 21st century.

Important indicators of success are . . .

• Gains on standardized assessments
A strong program will find that balance
• Attainment of learners’ personal goals between meaningful classroom work,
• Job attainment; job improvement navigation to self-efficacy, and customer
service.
• Entrance into job training and further education
Adrienne Fontenot, Director of Adult
• Attainment of high school equivalency Learning and Educational Programs
• Increased learner earnings
• Learner retention
• Learner persistence
• Learners as partners in their children’s education
• Independent learning (online, learning circles, etc.)
• Increased community involvement
• Cultural adjustment
Follow-up: All of those I spoke to identified learner involvement and attainment of
personal goals as signs of success. While measures on standardized tests are still
important, it is clear that other means of assessment need to be used to capture gains
such as employment, cultural adjustment, or attainment of personal goals. You have
already learned about numerous means of assessing learning and teaching, all of which can be
used to gather data that provides all stakeholders with evidence of learner achievement and
suitability of programming.

Chapter 9 Assessing Learning and Teaching 305

 Task 9.7
Look at five examples of learner outcomes that need to be assessed and reported. What do
you think would be the most suitable assessment technique (e.g., performance assessment,
dialogue journals) for measuring achievement of each outcome?

You need to . . . What assessment tool could you use?

Capture gains in writing using evidence
from sources to support claims.
Determine how learners are working on
their language skills outside of class.
Find out how learners are involved in the
community outside of school and/or work.
Know whether learners have achieved
employment goals.
Capture improved intelligibility in
pronunciation over time.
Find out if learners are doing independent
reading or reading to their children more
frequently.

The best assessment tools are those that are compatible with the content of instruction, or the
outcomes being assessed, as well as the approach to learning and teaching used in your class.
This means that you need to use multiple means of gathering data to capture the breadth of
learning that occurs in a class. Table 9.2 reviews assessment tools and techniques and describes
how they can be used for accountability purposes. See if any of your ideas from Task 9.7 are
included in the table.

Table 9.2 Tools for Gathering Data for Reporting Progress

Portfolios Make learners aware of program standards and accountability
expectations. Have them collect work for their portfolio that
corresponds to the standards and accountability requirements
of your program. This includes in-class work as well as
achievement of employment and other personal or educational
goals. Portfolios can take the form of a binder or learners could
develop an online portfolio (folders or a simple web page).
Performance Conduct performance assessments that align with program
assessments outcomes and standards and keep rubrics as a record of
learner achievement. This technique is useful for assessing
outcomes of competencies such as reporting an accident at
work or calling in sick. Rubrics for assessing writing can be used
and kept as well.

306 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Recorded samples Audio/video record performance assessments or speech
samples periodically to capture progress over time. If you are
looking for improvement in intelligibility of pronunciation,
recorded speech samples are crucial.
Learner writing As with recorded samples, writing samples gathered over time
samples / Journal entries are a powerful means of capturing development in writing ability.
collected over time
Projects Collect projects and identify the standards covered through
the development of the project. Document outcomes using
checklists or rubrics that delineate the standards.
KWL charts Save KWL charts as a record of learning goals and achievement
What do I know? What do of those goals.
I want to learn? What did
I learn?
Reading logs Record titles of books read, brief summaries and feelings about
the book, both for personal reading and books read to children.
Learner folders / Print Keep a folder for each student with all test scores, learner goals,
or digital and any information gathered using the techniques above.

Checklists of learner achievement of program outcomes are commonplace in adult ESL programs.
Sometimes they are developed by the program and used program wide, and other times the
teacher and learners develop checklists themselves. These can be particularly helpful for tracking
progress of non-linguistic goals such as improved employment, community involvement, or
educational attainment. The sample learner checklist (Figure 9.9) includes a number of these
types of goals.

How am I doing with my English skills?

Since I started this class…
1 I read more in English. Yes/No
2 I attend more events in my community. Yes/No
3 I communicate more with teachers. Yes/No
4 I applied for a new job. Yes/No
5 I got a promotion at work. Yes/No
6 I got a new job. Yes/No
7 I talk more to my co-workers. Yes/No
8 I find information online more easily. Yes/No

I also .
Three goals I still have:
1
2
3

Figure 9.9 Sample Learner Checklist

Chapter 9 Assessing Learning and Teaching 307

In an Integrated Education and Training program (see 2.19 D), these assessment checklists are
ideal for measuring achievement of content and language outcomes. For example, in a class in
English for Retails Jobs, checklist items might include:
I can describe product features. 1 2 3 4 5
strongly disagree somewhat agree strongly
disagree agree agree

I can handle customer complaints. 1 2 3 4 5

strongly disagree somewhat agree strongly
disagree agree agree
Any of the tools recommended for initial needs assessment (see 6.2 and 7.3) or for diagnostic
purposes can be revisited at the end of a unit of instruction or course and results can become a
part of a learner’s record or portfolio.

Conclusion
Far too often teachers fail to make use of the information and data they gather through the
assessment processes outlined in this section. Sharing the results of standardized tests and
alternative assessments with learners allows them to see the benefi ts of testing and assessment.
In programs that allow time for teacher collaboration, sharing results with colleagues provides
a means of building cohesion among classes in the program, as well as a means of identifying
common strengths and weaknesses of instructional practices.
• Inform students of their successes on tests and alternative assessments as well as the areas in
which they need improvement.
• Show them the link between their results and subsequent instruction. For example, the
outcomes of a performance assessment on returning items to the store indicate that the class
needs more work on this competency. Show them those results and the ways the new lesson
will help them to improve in this area.
• Collect and use the results of learner self-assessment. Show them the link between those
assessments and subsequent instruction so that they see the ways in which they have an
impact on instruction.
• Compare the outcomes of assessment with other teachers in the program. Also share the
assessment tools themselves so that the processes used throughout the program become
more consistent.
In this section, I have explored the place Ongoing
of standardized tests and alternative assessments:
assessment tools commonly used in formal and
adult ESL programs. A fair assessment informal
refl ects what students have learned and
is conducted in ways that are familiar
to students. Developing valid means
of capturing learner performance and
achievement is paramount, not only
for the benefi t of teachers, program Teacher reflection
Learner
and professional
administrators, and funders, but development
self-assessments
most importantly, for learners. Seeing
progress motivates students; observing
Figure 9.10 An Assessment Loop of Learning and Teaching
and recording learner outcomes has a
positive impact on teaching. Equally important is intentional refl ection on our practice as part of
an assessment loop, as depicted in Figure 9.10.

308 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Part II: A
 ssessing teaching effectiveness and continuous
­teacher development

9.8 Introduction
One of the primary goals of assessment is to determine the extent to which instructional practices
meet the needs of learners. Observant teachers modify content, activities, and techniques as they
observe for and reflect on learner outcomes in their lessons. Teachers also need to be deliberate
about their growth and professional development; teacher change takes intentional and purposeful
reflection. In this section, we explore processes for teacher reflection and personal development,
including peer- and self-observation, learning logs, journals, communities of practice, and mentoring.

Task 9.8
Discuss these questions with a partner or write answers in your journal if you are on your own:
• H
 ow do you assess the effectiveness of the work you do (as a teacher or as a professional in
another setting)?
• How do you continue to grow in your professional life?
• How do you collaborate with others to work on issues you face in your class or at your job?

9.9 Self-directed professional learning and development

In the past, it was common practice for schools to hold required workshops and trainings that may have
had little connection to what teachers needed or wanted to work on in their practice. More recently,
teachers are given choice in their professional development plans (Crandall and Finn Miller 2014).

A. Leveraging social media and online sources

With time constraints and limited resources for professional development (PD), there are many
things teachers can do to promote professional learning on their own. Jayme Adelson Goldstein, a
professional development specialist, highlights a number of ways that we can leverage both social
media as well as the myriad online resources out there for teachers.

Self-directed professional development is a 21st-century solution to the constraints (funding, scheduling,

content) that often limit access to PD. Internet tools and social media make it relatively easy to engage
in self-directed professional development. I always recommend starting with a few self-survey
questions—Where do I need support with instruction? What do I want to know about x? Where can I
find tools and resources to address my learners’ needs? This way you can customize and focus on your
needs and learners’ needs—allowing you to choose the what, how, and when to learn. A quick perusal of
online lists of best English language teaching practices and/or resources can help you determine which
avenue(s) to explore. Set up email notifications whenever content on your selected topics is posted to the
web. And “following” guiding lights in our field (researchers, authors, organizations) on social media can
give you a “backstage pass” to someone closely associated with the topic you’re exploring.
Jayme Adelson-Goldstein, National Professional Development Specialist, Lighthearted Learning

We can apply the same guidelines for evaluating the reliability of online teacher resources as
we would for any website (see Section 8.12). A great place to start is to visit the websites for
professional organizations for our field (see listings in the chapter resources).

Chapter 9 Assessing Learning and Teaching 309

B. Collaborative/cooperative development
Peer observation Of course, professional learning is
As Jayme highlights, there are many ways that exponentially more valuable in collaboration
we can go solo in our professional development with a colleague, and connecting through
social media and virtual meeting spaces (like
pursuits, but as she notes, one of the most Skype and Zoom) makes it possible to find
valuable resources for teacher development is PD accomplices anywhere in the world.
communication with other teachers. Research
 Jayme Adelson-Goldstein
indicates that professional development should
promote collaboration among teachers, draw on
research to inform practice, and be extended over
time, as opposed to the one-shot workshop (Burt,
Peyton, and Schaetzel 2008; Guskey 2000; Smith 2010). Heavy teaching schedules, busy lives, and
little preparation time are all obstacles to collaborative development among teachers, but finding
a colleague for peer observations is well worth the effort. Recognizing the strength of this process,
some administrators give release time once a term (or more in a few cases) to conduct peer
observations. If this is not an option, find a peer with a different work schedule than yours and
arrange to visit one another periodically, or video record a lesson and post it to a shared drive for
peer observation. That way you could work with that “accomplice” anywhere in the world.
Just as with any form of observation, having a clear task and focus can make the experience
richer. The task can be a set of questions that your peer wants you to respond to, questions you
have about your own teaching, or an observation task that delves into a specific area of learning
and teaching. The task below was designed for student teachers to use while observing peers
during their practicum, but would work equally well for teachers observing one another in their
own classrooms.

Sample Observation Task: Giving Learners Voice in a Lesson

As you observe, look for evidence that the teacher is accounting for these principles of learner-
centered teaching.

Some principles of learner-centered Note evidence of this principle in practice

teaching
Learners’ first language and culture are I noticed a lot of peer support with the L1 when the
viewed as a resource for learning. learners worked in groups. That seemed to really
clarify the task expectations for Greta and Vang.
The content of instruction is relevant to the
learners’ needs and interests and draws
on their experiences and knowledge.
Learners make choices about content
and classroom activities.
Classroom interactions and tasks are
authentic, representing how language is
used in the real world.

Possible questions for follow-up conversation with your colleague:

1. Share the information you gathered through the observation. First, find out how your
colleague feels about the lesson. Did the instructional decisions account for these principles?
What did both of you notice?

310 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

2. What learner roles and interactions did you observe? Where do you think the teacher was
most responsive to learners’ backgrounds, interests, and needs? Where might your colleague
like to focus more attention on the learners? Brainstorm ways in which the lesson might be
modified to give students more voice.

Lesson Study
Another collaborative process is called Lesson Study, described by professional development
specialist Susan Finn Miller as follows:

Teachers in Professional Learning Circles can engage in the iterative Lesson Study process, which
involves a group of teachers in designing a lesson together and then observing one instructor
teaching that lesson. Those who are observing the lesson focus their attention on the learners in
the class rather than on the teacher. The observers are interested in determining how well learners
are achieving the goals of the lesson. In the follow-up PLC meeting, the teachers talk about their
observations and make changes to the lesson to enhance its effectiveness—after which another
instructor teaches the lesson.
Research has shown that these job-embedded and collaborative forms of professional learning have
a positive impact on teachers’ practices as well as learner outcomes.
Susan Finn Miller, LINCS Moderator, Adult English Language Acquisition

Teacher collaboration with Lesson Study has been shown to improve teachers’ self-efficacy,
which has been associated with improvements in learning outcomes (Ciampa and Gallagher
2016; Chong and Kong 2012). In the Lesson Study process, colleagues can track learners’ comfort
and success with different teaching strategies and activities and a record like the one below can
be kept. This example is from a beginning-level class for newcomers working on language for
requesting information over the phone.

Activities/Techniques Learner Comfort/Involvement

Role play I noticed you might need to give them more time to practice language they
need for the role play.
Making calls on cell Seemed to enjoy this—lots of laughter. All but two pairs finished making their
phones from class calls. Maybe we can try having them finish from home next time.
Selective listening So many of the students wanted to write down everything from the recorded
messages. Let’s talk about ways to help them see the value of listening only
for the info they need. This will help them a lot outside of class.

Figure 9.11 Assessing Effectiveness of Teaching Strategies During Lesson Study

Notice how the colleague teacher identifies aspects of the lesson that need adjusting; she’s not
just observing learner outcomes, but also teaching effectiveness. The next teacher who teaches
the same lesson can now implement those adjustments and the colleague observers can track the
impact those adjustments have on learning.

9.10 Journals and learning logs

I never kept a journal until I was asked to do so as a requirement in my teaching practicum in
1982. Journaling allowed me to process what had happened each day, to pose questions for

Chapter 9 Assessing Learning and Teaching 311

myself or to ask my mentor. Looking back over my entries allowed me to see development in my
thought processes about teaching and learning. Journaling does not need to be a solo endeavor.
Teachers can work cooperatively with a peer or mentor using dialogue journals. Pairs or groups
of teachers commonly create online forums for this purpose. An alternative to keeping a journal
is to maintain a learning log in which the teacher records observations, reflections, insights, or
questions about the teaching and learning that occur in a lesson.
I wonder what would happen if I tried . . .
The language experience activity worked well today—need to use that more often.
I was uncomfortable with Souling’s questions about my colleague. I need to think of ways to
handle situations like that.
Capturing these thoughts and reflections immediately after teaching is important, otherwise they
tend to vanish from our memory.

Communities of Practice/learning and study circles

Another way to interact with colleagues is through
the formation of Communities of Practice (CoPs), Teachers learn most when they have the
which are small groups of teachers devoting time chance to engage with one another about
to support one another through active listening and their work in professional learning circles.
exploration of common issues and concerns they are Susan Finn Miller
having in their teaching. CoPs exist in any profession
and represent any group with common goals seeking
to develop personally and professionally (Wenger
1998). CoPs can be face-to-face or virtual, with
teachers coming together from across a state, a region, or even from different countries. As part
of the LINCS ESL Pro initiative (2015-2016) sponsored by the Office of Career and Technical Adult
Education, a number of states formed CoPs based on their needs and interests and chose to work
through online modules in one of these three areas:
• Meeting the Language Needs of Today’s Adult ELL
• Integrating Digital Literacy into English Language Instruction
• Preparing English Learners for Work and Career Pathways
These online modules were developed with CoPs Sometimes having someone else
and professional learning circles/communities in map out a PD path can be comforting. In
mind and include reflection and application tasks that case, consider using the autonomous
for teachers and administrators. The LINCS ESL Pro online courses at LINCS. And don’t forget that
members of professional organizations such
suite of materials also includes issue briefs and as COABE and TESOL can take advantage of
digital magazines on each theme that are ideal for their recorded online sessions as part of their
study circles, which is when teachers come together membership.
to deepen their understanding of a topic through Jayme Adelson-Goldstein
readings, attendance together at conferences or
webinars, discussion, and reflections. Many of the
professional organizations listed at the end of this
chapter also host CoPs and study circles, and they
offer webinars along with other professional development opportunities.

Action research
All of the processes above can lead to deeper exploration of your teaching through action
research, which involves teachers identifying problems or issues in their teaching, gathering
data or information about what is happening, researching the topic, and taking action in their
classes. This kind of exploration, which is situated in the teachers’ classrooms, is a powerful tool
312 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
for ongoing personal development. Nunan and Bailey (2009) propose the following steps for
conducting action research:
• I dentify an issue: What is something that you are struggling with as a teacher? Is there an
approach or strategy that you want to experiment with in your class? Any of the teacher
development ideas outlined above, as well as the outcomes of the ongoing assessment tools
described in Section I of this chapter, can provide possible topics for action research.
• Gather information about the issue: There are many ways to gather information about any
area of teaching: read, conduct online research, talk to other teachers, observe others.
• Use that information to design changes in classroom procedure: Design activities, implement
specific strategies that apply what you have learned through your research.
• Implement this procedure: Now try the procedure out in your classroom over a period of time.
• Observe changes this implementation brought about in the classroom: Observation takes
planning; use observation grids/checklists, journals, video/audio recording, learning logs, and
self-assessment to capture the changes that occurred as a result of the action research.
• Reflect on the outcomes and implications of the process: Keep a log or journal and share
your findings with colleagues.
Action research can be as simple or complex as a teacher wants it to be. It is a common tool in
teacher education programs, allowing teachers to apply the principles they are learning about to
their classes. For those of you already teaching, it can be a way for you to apply principles you are
learning about right now.
I engaged in a mentoring project with ESL teachers in the community with the aim of helping
novice and experienced teachers implement learner-centered teaching practices through action
research. The project sought to heighten teacher awareness of the impact their practices have
on learner involvement and learning outcomes. The mentoring process began with observations
and personal assessments to identify areas for exploration. In the second stage, the teachers
conducted action research around the identified growth areas. I also provided targeted mentoring
sessions on those targeted areas. The third stage consisted of follow-up observations and
discussions of the effects changes in teaching practices had on learner involvement.
All of the processes the teachers and I engaged in could be utilized between peers, with a mentor
and new teacher, or even individually as a means of observing and reflecting on one’s own
practice. All of the teachers began the cycle by completing this task:
The mentoring pre-activity
Provide examples of what learners and you are doing in your classroom that correspond to
each of these characteristics of a learner-centered classroom (See Chapter 1 Section 1.3).
In what areas are you most responsive to your learners’ needs? What are some areas that
would benefit from further research and experimentation in your classroom? We will use
the outcomes of this initial assignment to determine the areas for focus during the first
observation. From there, you will develop targeted observation tasks for me to complete as
I observe the learners in your class, and for you to complete after your lesson.
Celeste was particularly concerned that quieter students in her class were not participating enough
and that, provided the opportunity to do so, they would. She incorporated two concrete teaching
techniques that she was very familiar with, but had not become routines in her teaching: think-
pair-share and teaching the language of turn-taking more explicitly (e.g., It’s your turn. Do you have
something to add? What do you think?), and consistently asking learners to use that language. Her
curriculum included a unit on job routines, including a focus on simple present tense and adverbs
of frequency. In previous lessons, she used the learners’ textbook but she was never satisfied that
the material was relatable to students. See how she implemented the strategies above in a lesson
on job routines to make her lesson more participatory and learner-centered:

Chapter 9 Assessing Learning and Teaching 313

• L earners moved to tables based on their type of job (here or in their country): retail;
housekeeping; food service; education; office. This grouping strategy promoted a fair amount
of communication among students as they determined which table was the best fit for them.
This also worked in some higher-order thinking: categorization.
• Next, she used think-pair-share: Think of activities you do on the job and work together to create
a list of at least five items. Each member needs to add at least one example. (She directed them to
the turn-taking phases on the wall that they could use to elicit information from one another).
• Groups shared ideas as Celeste wrote activities on the board. Now Celeste asked what a good
day or bad day on the job would be like, first modeling for herself:
On a good day, I plan carefully.
On a bad day, I speak too quickly.
Groups worked together again to create good day/bad day lists using a simple T-chart. As an
observer, I recorded which learners contributed at my table and how frequently. The result was
that two of the typically quiet students were among the most involved in the activities. Celeste
and I continued the process over several weeks, each time focusing on a different aspect of
learning and teaching. Celeste revisited the pre-activity at the end of the cycle, and the following is
a sample of how the process affected her teaching:
• T
 he learners control direction of the activities. With the group-work language, students are politely,
appropriately communicating with one another, encouraging participation of quieter students,
developing English confidence, and learning great skills for outside of the classroom. Looking back at
group work just a couple months ago and now, there is a great improvement.
TESOL International Association recently released “The Six Principles for Exemplary Teaching of
English Learners™” (TESOL 2018). These principles are:

Principle 1. Know ​Your Learners

Principle 2. Create ​Conditions for ​Language Learning
Principle 3. Design ​High-​Quality Lessons for Language ​Development
Principle 4. Adapt ​Lesson ​Delivery as ​Needed
Principle 5. Monitor and ​Assess ​Student ​Language ​Development
Principle 6. Engage and ​Collaborate Within a ​Community of ​Practice

These principles are in keeping with those we have explored in this text and the resources
provided by TESOL will give you inspiration for any of the teacher development suggestions
outlined in this section of the chapter. All of these processes take intentional effort on the part of
teachers. Taking time to truly reflect on what we do is energizing and allows us to collaborate with
colleagues in new and meaningful ways.

9.11 Learners assessing instruction

The processes of assessment discussed throughout this chapter provide us with rich data
about the effectiveness of learning and teaching, but there is one more important piece to the
assessment puzzle: What do learners feel about instruction? How do students evaluate the
effectiveness of our teaching? Research in K-12 education indicates that tracking progress can
lead to greater learner achievement (Marzano 2009). As with all forms of assessment, teachers
need to gather ongoing and meaningful input from their learners, but sometimes this can be
difficult for both linguistic and cultural reasons:
Language obstacles: Learners may not have enough language to talk about instruction.
Use bilingual aids or interpreters, or develop strategies by which learners can show or
demonstrate their feelings through visuals.

314 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Cultural obstacles: Understand that in many cultures, students would never be asked
to evaluate their teachers. Develop means of evaluation that allow learners to provide
meaningful feedback in non-threatening ways. Assure them that feedback does not affect
their standing in the program. Use group consensus activities, which give a group opinion
rather than a personal opinion.
Students may have an easier time talking about activities and content as opposed to the teacher
and teaching. The following evaluation activity can be conducted on a regular basis (weekly,
monthly) as well as at the end of a term as a final evaluation. List typical activities you use in
class: role plays, interviews, debates, discussions, reading short articles, writing exercises, digital
learning tasks, grammar exercises, listening activities. Also list content you have covered (healthy
living, the environment, local elections). Have students complete sentences like these:
I liked doing
I didn’t like
I liked learning about
I didn’t like learning about
Next week/term I want to
To elicit group feedback, have small groups of students answer these two questions:
What have you learned (this week, month, in this class)?
What helped you learn best?
Invite a group representative to write their answers on the board, compile the lists, and ask the
class to identify the five most common responses to the two questions. The outcomes of this
activity provide the teacher with feedback about which activities had the most impact and which
instructional strategies were the most beneficial for this particular group. In cases where the
learners will continue on in the program, the teacher needs to inform them that these results
will help shape the instruction in the next class, whether with the same teacher or with another
teacher. Any of the exit ticket/exit question tasks in section 9.5 e. can also provide you with
feedback on your teaching effectiveness. Your program may have a formal evaluation process,
often conducted online. For this reason, frequent teacher-made online polls or online forms can
be used to acquaint students with this process as well as to give you ongoing feedback.

Conclusion
Many forms of assessment have been examined in this chapter, including standardized tests and
alternative assessment, as well as teacher assessment and ongoing professional development.
Assessment results are also used to inform funders about program effectiveness and learner
successes. All of these processes take careful consideration and planning. The information
gathered allows teachers and program administrators, as well as students to monitor and adjust
the strategies they employ to make learning and teaching as productive as possible.

Chapter 9 Assessing Learning and Teaching 315

 Key Terms

On your own, or with a partner, provide an example or brief definition for each concept:

Checklist of Key Terms

proficiency test

placement test

diagnostic test

achievement test

practicality

reliability

validity

standardized tests

alternative assessment

formative assessment

summative assessment

performance assessment

rubrics and checklists

learner logs

Communities of Practice
(CoPs) and Professional
Learning Circles/Communities
(PLCs)

action research

316 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Applying What You’ve Learned

Before doing these activities, revisit your answers to the questions at the beginning of the chapter.

1 Program intake

Every program uses different processes at intake to place students in the most suitable class. If
you are already teaching, find out what processes your program uses. What placement test do
they use (a standardized test or their own)? What other processes do they use at intake? Reflect
on the following:
What do the test scores and any other intake procedures tell you about learners in your classes?
Describe two things you do once students are with you to have a more complete picture of their
level and needs.
If you’re not teaching yet, visit a site and ask the intake coordinator, an administrator, or a
teacher what process they use for placement. If possible, look at copies of their intake forms and
placement tests. Reflect on the following:
What would the test scores and intake process tell you about students?
Describe two more things you would do at the beginning of a course to have a more
complete picture of their level and needs.

2 Developing performance assessments

If you are already teaching, choose an upcoming unit for which you have not developed an
assessment tool before. Describe the task you will ask learners to perform (e.g., a role play, a real-
life written task) and develop a rubric that you could use to assess learner performance with this
task. If you are not teaching, choose a unit from an ESL textbook and do the same thing.

3 Learner self-assessment

Look at three ESL textbooks or online curricula and find out if they include any kind of learner-
assessment at the end of the units, in the support materials (sometimes these are in the online
tools), or periodically throughout the book. Choose one unit and develop a learner log and a
reflective task that would allow learners to identify what they accomplished.

4 Continuous professional development plan

Identify an issue that you want to work on in your teaching. How would you like to learn more
about that topic? Consider the ideas provided in Part II of the chapter. What resources will you
draw on, with whom would you like to collaborate, and how will you assess the effectiveness of
any changes you are making in your teaching? Here are some steps you may consider:
• G ather information about the issue (visit professional websites, read, talk to other teachers,
observe others).
• Use that information to develop a procedure (technique, activity) that is new for you.
• Implement this procedure.
• Observe changes this implementation brought about in the classroom, particularly, what
impact does that change have on student learning?
• Reflect on the outcomes and implications of the process with a colleague.
Chapter 9 Assessing Learning and Teaching 317
 Recommended Reading

Assessment

Bailey, K. and Curtis, A. (2015) Learning About Language Assessment, 2nd edition. Boston, MA:
Cengage. This text outlines the principles of second language assessment through three
sections, beginning with authentic dilemmas from practicing teachers, followed by principles of
assessment, and ending with inquiry-based activities.
Brown, J.D. (2005) Testing in Language Programs. New York, NY: McGraw Hill. This book provides
teachers with tools for developing good tests, analyzing and interpreting test results, and
improving tests so that they are fair and accurate measures of learner achievement.

Teacher Reflection and Self-Assessment

American Institutes for Research (2015) The Adult Education Teacher Competencies. Designed to
identify the knowledge and skills needed by adult education teachers to improve student learning
and performance. https://lincs.ed.gov/professional-development/resource-collections/profile-833
Danielson, C. (2009) Talk About Teaching! Leading Professional Conversations. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Corwin Press.
O’Leary, M. (2014) Classroom Observation: A Guide to the Effective Observation of Teaching and
Learning. New York, NY: Routledge.

Online Resources
LINCS (https://lincs.ed.gov/)
Through the LINCS Community of Practice, self-paced online courses, and searchable resources,
adult education practitioners can collaborate and share ideas to improve educational outcomes.

Professional Organizations (these organizations also have local affiliates):

Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) (http://www.tesol.org/)

Coalition on Adult Basic Education (COABE) (https://www.coabe.org/)
National Association for Teaching English and Community Languages to Adults (http://www.
natecla.org.uk/)
TESOL Canada (https://tesolcanada.org/)
Literacy Education and Second Language Learning for Adults (LESLLA) (https://www.leslla.org/)
The International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (IATEFL)
ProLiteracy (https://proliteracy.org/)
National College Transitions Network (NCTN) (https://www.collegetransition.org/)/www.tesol.org.au/)

318 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

10 Standards and
­Accountability
To consider before reading this chapter:
• W hat standards drive practice and policy in adult English language programming in your
context?
• How can teachers reconcile learner goals with program standards that don’t appear
compatible?

10.1 Introduction
Much, if not all, of what ESL teachers do each day could not happen without resources and
funding from state and federal agencies. What are funders’ expectations? Are they radically
different from those of learners, classroom teachers, and program administrators? What
standards do state and national funders hold programs to and how do they measure that those
standards have been met? What do ESL teachers need to know about those standards, and how
can they align instruction to meet them in ways that are consistent with learner goals and their
own practice? Answers to these questions are the basis for this chapter. While accountability
and standards may seem daunting, being accountable for what you do in an English language
classroom is one of the responsibilities of the job; accountability and standards provide one
means of capturing the achievement of students as well as the effectiveness of instruction.

10.2 What are standards?

Standards are a broad set of desired outcomes for learners from which programs develop their
curricula. Content standards represent what students are expected to know and be able to do as
a result of instruction, and performance indicators or descriptors show what learners need to
do to demonstrate their proficiency within the content standards. Content standards are normally
broad statements and the performance descriptors or indicators represent what can be expected
at any given level of instruction as with this example from the English Language Proficiency
Standards for Adult Education (US Department of Education 2016b: 21).

Chapter 10 Standards and Accountability 319

ELP Standard 1 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5
An ELL can By the end of By the end of By the end of By the end of By the end of
. . . construct English language English language English language English language English language
meaning proficiency level 1, proficiency level 2, proficiency level 3, proficiency level 4, proficiency level 5,
from oral an ELL can . . . use an ELL can . . . use an ELL can . . . use an ELL can . . . use an ELL can . . . use
presentations a very limited set of an emerging set of a developing set of an increasing range a wide range of
and literary and strategies to: strategies to: strategies to: of strategies to: strategies to:
informational • identify a few • identify the main • determine a • determine a • determine
text through key words and topic in oral central idea or central idea or central ideas or
level- phrases in oral presentations theme in oral theme in oral themes in oral
appropriate communications and simple presentations presentations presentations
listening, and simple spoken and and spoken and and spoken and and spoken and
reading, and spoken and written texts. written texts. written texts. written texts.
viewing. written texts. • retell a few key • retell key details. • analyze the • analyze the
details. • answer development development
questions about of the themes/ of the themes/
key details. ideas. ideas.
• explain how • cite specific • cite specific
the theme is details and details and
developed by evidence from evidence from
specific details in texts to support texts to support
texts. the analysis. the analysis.
• summarize part • summarize a
of a text. text.
As already noted throughout this book, standards
have moved from being largely life-skills and Standards are about preparing
competency-based to now placing greater emphasis students for the demands of college,
careers, and civic engagement in a complex,
on college and career readiness. This is particularly
global, information-rich, and technology-
evident in the U.S. with the Workforce Innovation based society, allowing students to engage
and Opportunity Act (2014) that emphasizes the successfully with others in each of those
need to prepare all adults for employment in contexts.
high-demand industries and jobs that can lead to Dave Coleman, Los Angeles Unified
economic self-sufficiency. This legislation requires School District
states to adopt rigorous content standards that
prepare adults for the demands of post-secondary
education and work. This move to standards
leading to employability is a global trend. In fact, Gibb (2015) suggests that worldwide, standards
today are quantifying learning in ways that are often counter to what we know about socially-
constructed literacy practices, or practices that are truly learner-oriented. She cautions us that
larger world-economic forces have had significant influence over standards in adult education, as
opposed to in the early years when adult education was a “humanistic community-based practice”
(p. 55).

10.3 Standards frameworks and reporting

In Chapter 9 (9.7) we considered how assessment results can be used for program-level
accountability purposes. In this chapter, we focus on national-level policies and standards that
guide curriculum development within the context of adult ESL in English-dominant countries
such as Australia, Canada, the UK, and the U.S.1 Common to all of these countries is that English
language instruction for immigrants and refugees is the responsibility of the government
through funding and oversight of program delivery (Murray 2005). Educational policies are ever
changing, so what’s true today may not be in five years. At present, the standards, outcomes, or
benchmarks in Table 10.1 are used for guiding curriculum development and in some instances,
for defining measures of learner gains.

Table 10.1 Standards and Curriculum Frameworks Used in Adult ESL

Country2 Standards, Outcomes, or Program Funding and Oversight
Benchmarks
Australia Certificates I-IV in Spoken and National Adult Migrant English
Written English (CSWE) constitute Program (AMEP); programs apply for
a national curriculum framework of competitive grants.
spoken and written English language, The Australian Core Skills Framework
literacy and numeracy for the is used to describe an individual’s
federally run Adult Migrant English performance in the five core skills
Program (AMEP). of learning, reading, writing, oral
http://www.ameprc.mq.edu.au/ communication, and numeracy.
resources/cswe_2008 https://www.education.gov.au/
australian-core-skills-framework

1
 New Zealand was not included as there is no curricular framework specifically for adult English language
learners.
2
 Europe’s Common European Framework of Reference (Council of Europe 2001) provides descriptions that
apply to competence in all languages across all levels. While used extensively in language programming,
it is used less so in programs developed specifically for immigrant and refugee learners in these English-
dominant countries.
Chapter 10 Standards and Accountability 321
 The UK Programs offer ESOL Skills for Life National Controlling Migration Fund;
qualifications that draw from the the controlling migration prospectus
Adult ESOL Core Curriculum, a explains how local authorities can
framework for English language access the fund and makes clear
learning which defines the skills, that proposals for funding should
knowledge, and understanding that demonstrate how they will benefit
ESOL learners need to demonstrate the resident community (Foster and
and it guides curriculum and Bolton 2018).
instruction for ESOL teachers in a
variety of settings.
https://cdn.cityandguilds.com/
productdocuments/skills_for_work_
and_life/english_mathematics_and_ict_
skills/4692/centre_documents/adult_
esol_core_curriculum_v1.pdf
Canada Canadian Language Benchmarks Immigration, Refugees and
represent national standards in Citizenship Canada (IRCC) funds
English and French for describing Language Instruction for Newcomers
and measuring second language to Canada (LINCS) and Occupation-
proficiency of adult immigrants and specific Language Training
prospective immigrants for living and (OSLT). Accountability now based
working in Canada. The benchmarks on a Portfolio-Based Language
consist of a set of descriptive Assessment (PBLA) based on the
statements of language ability and Canadian Language Benchmarks.
communicative competencies on a
leveled continuum. This framework
is used for planning curricula for
language instruction in a variety of
contexts.
http://www.language.ca/home/
The U.S. Under the Workforce Innovation and States receive funding from the
Opportunity Act (WIOA), states must federal government, and disperse
adopt rigorous content standards. funds to individual programs through
Many states have adopted the competitive grants. Funding may
College and Career Readiness be earmarked for specific types of
Standards (CCRS) for Adult programming, for example, career
Education. The English Language pathways.
Proficiency Standards (ELPS) for States gather learner data from
Adult Education articulate the programs and report levels
language needed to meet rigorous of performance with the U.S.
content standards; some states Department of Education’s
develop their own ESOL frameworks National Reporting System (NRS),
that integrate these national an accountability system used
standards frameworks. to measure the effectiveness of
CCRS: https://sites.ed.gov/ federally funded adult education
octae/2013/04/22/college-and-career- programs. Data on three primary
readiness-ccr-standards-for-adult- measures include indicators of
education/ employment, credential attainment,
and measureable skill gains (i.e.,

322 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 ELPS: educational functioning level gain
https://lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/ or receipt of a secondary school
elp-standards-adult-ed.pdf diploma). NRS authorizes which
assessments (e.g., CASAS, TABE
CLAS-E, BEST) can be used. The
NRS educational functioning levels
are based on the English Language
Proficiency Standards for Adult
Education.

It would seem that the move to college and career readiness standards in adult education
makes sense in today’s economic landscape. According to a 2011 study, those without a high
school diploma are nearly twice as likely to be unemployed compared to those with even some
college (e.g., a short certificate, some technical training) (Foster, Strawn, and Duke-Benfield
2011). Educational attainment affects the well-being of adult immigrants and refugees and their
families and an adult education system that focuses on basic survival skills alone falls short of
preparing adults to meet their full economic potential. Learners need adequate levels of English
and academic readiness skills to pursue those career qualifications. Do these standards and
associated assessments represent what learners know and need to be able to do in their lives
and social contexts? Are all learners seeking employment, and should that be the primary focus of
adult ESL instruction?

10.4 Placing standards in context

National standards, outcomes, or benchmarks are used as a means of building consistency
across programs and authorized assessments are normally tied to those standards. In the U.S.,
while many applaud WIOA for better aligning federally-funded job training and adult education
programs with the skills sought by businesses, the Migration Policy Institute’s National Center on
Immigrant Integration Policy (2015) raises concerns about whether this legislation could prevent
states from using funds to serve immigrants and refugees, particularly those with limited prior
formal schooling or limited literacy, who may not need or want workforce training. Educators in
the UK expressed similar concerns, namely that national funding has favored programs serving
higher-proficiency level learners or career-focused programs over programs that support literacy
development for newcomers (Casey 2016).
In the U.S., both the English Literacy and Civics (EL Civics) and Family and Intergenerational
Literacy programs funded under WIOA include workplace systems in their description, but those
programs also aim to integrate English literacy and civics education to help immigrants and
other English learners master English and navigate governmental, educational, and community
systems (e.g., banking and health care). The optional indicators for reporting outcomes for English
language civics and family literacy programs in the U.S. point to the sorts of outcomes to consider
in any adult ESL program to assure that we are meeting a wide range of learner needs:
• Involvement in children’s literacy related activities:
– Reading to children
– Visiting a library
– Purchasing books or magazines for children
• Achieving citizenship
• Voter registration

Chapter 10 Standards and Accountability 323

• Involvement in community activities:
– Attending or organizing meetings of neighborhood, community, or political organizations
– Volunteering to work for such organizations
– Contributing to the support of such organizations
– Volunteering to work on community improvement activities
(National Reporting System 2017:57)
The Adult ESOL Core Curriculum and Canadian Language Benchmarks both include community
involvement and strategies for independent learning among the desired outcomes. Among the
theoretical underpinnings of the Australian Core Skills Framework are these:
• V iew core skills as complex social practices embedded in context, and influenced by purpose,
audience, and contextualized expectations and conventions.
• Recognize that core skills are best learned within a context that the adult learner perceives to
be relevant and important.
• View texts as serving particular functions in a social context and different texts have predictable
language structures depending on their function.
Commonwealth of Australia (2012:3) Australian Core Skills Framework
As educators of adult English learners, we need to balance government mandates with learners’
needs, goals, and backgrounds. Generally speaking, standards in the four contexts outlined above
don’t prescribe the content or topics of instruction.

Task 10.1
Look at these sample standards and performance indicators for beginning to high-beginning
English language learners. In what ways do these examples focus on college or career readiness?
In what ways do they address broader language and literacy needs? How could they be
addressed using learner-generated texts or content? Are some more prescriptive than others?

Standards Sample Standard Performance Indicators

Framework
U.S. ELP 2: Participate in By the end of English language
English Language level-appropriate oral proficiency level 1, an ELL can . . .
Proficiency (ELP) and written exchanges • actively listen to others.
Standards for Adult of information, ideas,
• participate in short conversations
Education; ten and analyses, in various
and written exchanges about familiar
anchor standards social and academic
topics and in familiar contexts.
and for each one, contexts, responding to
peer, audience, or reader • present simple information.
five sets of leveled
descriptors. comments and questions. • respond to simple Yes/No questions
and some wh- questions.
UK Speaking Level 1 The learner will be able to:
ESOL Core Be able to obtain 1.1 Follow the gist of simple verbal
Curriculum information from communication.
(3 levels) simple verbal 1.2 Obtain necessary detail from simple
communication verbal communication for a given task.
1.3 Follow single step verbal
instructions correctly for a given task.

324 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Canadian Speaking Level 1: • Responds appropriately to common
Language Interacting with Others greetings, introductions, and leave-
Benchmarks takings.
• Use and respond
For each level, to basic courtesy • Uses appropriate basic courtesy
provides a profile formulas and formulas. Indicates communication
of ability; organized greetings. problems verbally or non-verbally.
by the four skills [Interlocutors
(listening, speaking, are familiar and
reading, writing); supportive.]
four levels for each
skill.
Australian Core Oral communication • Understands and responds
Benchmarks (five level 1: appropriately in highly familiar oral
levels); organized 1.07 Gives or elicits contexts where exchanges are short
around five core basic information in a and explicit.
skills (listening, short, simple spoken • Asks simple questions and makes
speaking, reading, context. statements with reasonable
writing); and effectiveness where this involves
numeracy across short utterances and highly familiar
three domains: content.
• Personal and • Responds to a request for clarification
community or repetition and makes statements
• Workplace and with reasonable effectiveness where
employment this involves short utterances and
• Education and highly familiar content.
training

In this world of standards-based instruction, we need to keep the learner at the center of
instruction. A standard related to interpreting information presented in diverse formats can be
applied to texts that learners use in their own lives and that they bring to class, whether that be a
diagram for putting together a table or the online grading portal used at their child’s school. The
standard below (English Language Proficiency Standard 2) could be addressed through a debate
on an issue of local concern or through a problem-solving task related to a neighborhood or work
issue. What are some other ways this standard could be addressed at the advanced level?

Standard Level 5 (Advanced) Descriptors

ELP Standard 2 By the end of English language proficiency level 5, an ELL can . . .
An ELL can participate • participate in conversations, extended discussions, and
in level appropriate oral written exchanges about a range of substantive topics, texts,
and written exchanges and issues.
of information, ideas, • build on the ideas of others.
and analyses, in various
• express his or her own ideas clearly and persuasively.
social and academic
contexts, responding to • refer to specific and relevant evidence from texts or research
peer, audience, or reader to support his or her ideas.
comments and questions • ask and answer questions that probe reasoning and claims.
• summarize the key points and evidence discussed.

Chapter 10 Standards and Accountability 325

 10.5 Standards in the classroom
In Chapter 1, I make the case for preparing all learners for the demands of the 21st century. In my
context of adult ESL in the U.S., the introduction of the College and Career Readiness Standards
for Adult Education prompted some key instructional shifts in the landscape of adult education,
namely, that we are giving learners more practice with: (1) complex texts and the academic
language in those texts; (2) reading, writing, listening, and speaking grounded in evidence from a
text; and (3) building learner content knowledge through the use of content-rich, non-fiction texts
(U.S. Department of Education 2013). I don’t see these shifts as uniquely college or career focused;
they represent ways that anyone can engage more deeply in their communities by accessing
information presented in multiple formats.
Let’s now see how we can align standards to diverse learner backgrounds and needs using any
variety of teaching approaches, including task-based or project-based learning. To demonstrate
how standards can play out in the language classroom, consider the Leisure Time Activities task
in Section 2.9 task-based learning. Learners read and interpret information about leisure time
activities among adults in the U.S. presented in a pie chart.
Task: Read this chart and answer these questions with your partner:
1. How much time could people spend interacting with others?
2. How much of the time can be spent outdoors?
3. How healthy are these practices? Why?

Leisure time on an average day

Other leisure activities
Relaxing and thinking (12 minutes)
(17 minutes)

Playing games;
using computer for leisure
(25 minutes) Watching TV
(2 hours and 47
minutes)
Participating in sports,
exercise, recreation
(18 minutes)

Reading
(19 minutes)

Socializing and Total leisure and

communicating sports time =
(41 minutes) 4 hours and 59 minutes

NOTE: Data include all persons age 15 and over. Data include all days of the week and are annual averages for
2015.
From Bureau of Labor Statistics, American Time Use Survey

In order to work with this informational text, learners take part in a series of activities:
Step 1: Build background knowledge and pre-teach concepts (leisure vs. work/chores).
• Present visuals with photos
• Picture sort/categorizing
326 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
Step 2: Answer the questions about activities and health issues related to leisure activities using
evidence from the chart to support their claims.
Step 3: Work with the language forms and functions needed to successfully complete the task:
• Pronunciation of vocabulary; word stress matching (words to stress patterns)
• Speculating using language like this:
– I think people could . . .
– People can do alone or with others.
• Co-construct language for comparing and contrasting:
– People spend (a little, much, considerably) more time than .
Step 4: As a final task and outcome, conduct class research on own groups’ leisure time activities
and create their own pie chart. Compare their practices to those depicted in the pie chart.

Task 10.2
In what ways are each of these English Language Proficiency Standards addressed with this
lesson? Review the lesson and take notes here:

English Language Proficiency Standards Justification for choosing that standard

addressed with this lesson
ELP 1: Construct meaning from
oral presentations and literary and
informational text through level-
appropriate listening, reading, and viewing.
ELP 3: Speak and write about level-
appropriate complex literary and
informational texts and topics.
ELP 4: Construct level-appropriate oral
or written claims and support them with
reasoning and evidence.
ELP 10: Demonstrate command of the
conventions of standard English to
communicate in level-appropriate speech
and writing.

Now compare your notes to my analysis below of this lesson. The highly integrated, task-based
approach and the use of an authentic informational text makes meeting a variety of standards
quite natural. Notice that the task requires a high level of analysis and it prompts practice with a
variety of language functions and forms. At the same time, the topic could be of interest to any
learner, whether someone with specific career goals or one who is acquiring English to feel more
confident in an English-dominant country.

Chapter 10 Standards and Accountability 327

 English Language Justification for choosing that standard
Proficiency Standards
addressed with this lesson
ELP 1: Construct meaning • Task-based on an informational text in graphic form (pie chart)
from oral presentations • Requires learners to read closely and repeatedly and to
and literary and extrapolate meaning beyond surface level understanding
informational text through
• Learners classify information from the pie chart; interpret
level-appropriate listening,
information presented visually; draw conclusions about
reading, and viewing.
what is and is not healthy.
ELP 3: Speak and write • Learners converse about a complex text (an informational
about level-appropriate graphic) and topic (healthy leisure time).
complex literary and • Learners formulate opinions based on information
informational texts and presented in the pie chart.
topics.
ELP 4: Construct level- • The final question requires learners to make a claim: “How
appropriate oral or healthy are these practices, and why?” in an oral exchange
written claims and support with a partner.
them with reasoning and • Learners need to cite evidence from the text to support
evidence. their claim.
ELP 10: Demonstrate • Comparatives and superlatives
command of the • Simple present tense
conventions of standard
• Modals of possibility and probability (can/could)
English to communicate in
level-appropriate speech • Gerunds
and writing. • “Wh- question” forms (e.g., How much time . . .?)

Now let’s return to the teacher who used project-based learning,

where learners developed a mosaic for the school, described very
briefly in Chapter 2. The culminating project in Colleen Crossley’s class
was the creation of an “all are welcome here” mosaic. This project was
part of an ongoing unit on the theme of civil rights where learners
explored the critical issue of discrimination many immigrants may face
in their communities. Learners read about the civil rights movement in
the U.S., Jim Crow laws, and discrimination. They took part in a variety
of discussion activities and writing tasks. The mosaic project addressed
the language of following instructions, asking clarifying questions, and
explaining a process to others.
Colleen’s program uses the College and Career Readiness Standards
for Adult Education and she shared the alignment between the overall
unit on civil rights and those standards.

328 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 CCRS Addressed Descriptors and Sample Tasks for Her Level
Reading Anchor 1: Read closely Level B: Ask and answer such questions as who,
to determine what the text says what, where, when, why, and how to demonstrate
explicitly and to make logical understanding of key details in a text.
inferences from it; cite specific Viewed and discussed art as a way to bring about
textual evidence when writing or social change; read about civil rights topics and
speaking to support conclusions heroes. Five Ws reading task.
drawn from text.
Reading Anchor 2: Determine Level B: Determine the main idea of a text; recount
central ideas or themes of a text key details and explain how they support the main
and analyze their development; idea.
summarize the key supporting Used graphic organizers while reading texts to
details and ideas. identify topic sentences and supporting details. 
Writing Anchor 2: Write Level B: Write informative/explanatory texts in which
informative/explanatory texts they name a topic, supply some facts about the topic,
to examine and convey complex and provide some sense of closure.
ideas and information clearly and Wrote related paragraphs with topic sentences and
accurately through the effective supporting details 
selection, organization, and
Used graphic organizers and paragraph frames to
analysis of content.
support writing
Grading rubric addressed: topic sentence, supporting
detail
Speaking and Listening Anchor 4: Level B: Report on a topic or text, tell a story, or
Present information, findings, and recount an experience with appropriate facts and
supporting evidence such that relevant, descriptive details, speaking clearly at an
listeners can follow the line of understandable pace.
reasoning and the organization, Shared the steps of, and participated in, making
development, and style are mosaics, first, with another class of beginning ELLs
appropriate to task, purpose, and and then with senior partners at a senior center.
audience.

Standards should guide curricula; they should not dictate everything that happens in the
classroom. The teacher’s job is to guide learners to articulate their goals, and then look for
overlaps between those goals and program or state/national outcomes and standards by which
learners will be assessed. Teachers also select materials that respond to both learner needs and
program standards.

Choosing standards-based textbooks

One way for programs to align instruction to standards is by adopting a standards-based
textbook series. Publishers may provide alignments in the scope and sequence of the book or
through online correspondence charts to, for example, College and Career Readiness Standards
or the Canadian Language Benchmarks. Here’s an example aligning a unit from a published text
to the College and Career Readiness Standards used in the U.S.:

Chapter 10 Standards and Accountability 329

Unit 4 Health
Lesson F Reading Anchors 1, 2, 4, 7, 10
[Life Skills] 1) read closely to determine what the text says explicitly and to make logical inferences from it; cite
specific textual evidence when writing or speaking to support conclusions drawn from the text.
2) determine central ideas or themes of a text and analyze their development; summarize the key
supporting details and ideas.
4) interpret words and phrases as they are used in a text, including determining technical, connotative,
and figurative meanings, and analyze how specific word choices shape meaning or tone.
7) integrate and evaluate content presented in diverse media and formats, including visually and
quantitatively, as well as in words.
10) read and comprehend complex literary and informational texts independently and proficiently.

(From Ventures Level 4 CCRS and ELP Standards Correlation Chart, 2nd Edition, Cambridge University
Press Website).

In this example from a career-contextualized text, Road to Work (Magy 2017), the college and
career ready topics and skills that relate to standards are outlined:

Critical Thinking,
Unit, Title, Career Clusters College and Career Informational
Theme Language Functions Problem Solving,
Pages and Occupations Readiness Skills Text
and Paraphrasing

Unit 1 • Moving up a Transportation: • Discuss setting • Read closely • Read about • Paraphrasing
career ladder transportation educational and career • Respond to text- moving up a
Park Here!
operations goals dependent questions career ladder
Pages 14–19 • Parking lot • Talk about getting a • Read an
• Cite evidence
attendant better job automotive
• Build vocabulary
• Automotive • Talk about moving up a service
• Retell a story technician job
service career ladder
technician and • Write about working as description
mechanic a parking lot attendant
• Internet Research: career
ladders

(From Road to Work, Magy 2017: 4)

In the U.S., many publishers provide correlations to standards of states with extremely large
ELL populations, for example, California, Florida, Texas, and New York. While these correlations
to standards are very useful, an important question to ask continually is: Does the text align with
learner goals as well as the program standards? One can assure a measure of alignment between
learner and program goals by providing ample opportunities for learners to reflect on what
they’ve learned in a lesson and, more importantly, articulate how what they have learned can help
them in their lives (see 9.6 for ideas on learner self-assessment).

10.6 Emergent learner needs and standards: two cases in point

Many programs, even those using a core series for instruction, utilize practices that allow the
curriculum to emerge from learners’ lives and needs, for example, project-based learning (2.11)
or participatory problem posing (2.10). How do teachers reconcile the issues and concerns that
emerge through these approaches with the standards and accountability systems that may be in
place in their programs? The following cases illustrate how a teacher can align learner needs with
different standards or outcomes.
In a visit to a low-intermediate adult ESL class, learners shared a number of challenges they had
encountered over the previous few weeks. The teacher was concerned that the issues raised did
not fit the program curriculum. As I analyzed the learner challenges, I was able to identify specific

330 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

language needs that are common to many sets of standards. As you read the learner challenges,
see if you can identify the language skills Diana and Chae need to develop in English.

Learner challenge 1
Chae tried to call school to report his daughter’s illness. He couldn’t navigate the voicemail
system so he gave up. Not surprisingly, his daughter’s teacher called him at mid-morning
to find out where his daughter was. This student was highly motivated to learn the skills
of calling the school and using voicemail systems. Now that the class is more focused on
college and career readiness, the teacher isn’t sure how working on navigating voicemail
systems and leaving messages fits into her curriculum.

Learner challenge 2
Diana found that she had unknowingly purchased a very expensive service contract for the
used car she recently purchased at a local car dealership. When she realized it, she had
tremendous difficulty canceling the policy. She couldn’t understand all of the options on the
voicemail system when she called the dealership. When she finally got through to someone,
she had difficulty describing the problem so she finally gave up and kept the contract.
I identified the following language needs. Diana and Chae need to . . .
• explain that there is a problem so that the others can understand.
• verify information during interactions like the one at the car dealership.
• be able to understand voicemail systems that offer multiple options.
• understand how and when to leave a voice message.
• read contracts; conventions of service contracts.
• learn how to recognize offers and refuse offers.
Now let’s see how some of these learners’ needs align with various standards we explored in
Table 10.2. This time I included the College and Career Readiness Standards that are used widely
in the U.S.

Table 10.2 Aligning Learners’ Expressed Needs to Standards

Learners English Language College and UK Adult Canadian
need to . . . Proficiency Career Readiness ESOL Core Language
Standards for Standards Curriculum Benchmarks
Adult Education

• describe a ELP 2 Level 3 Speaking and Speaking Speaking CLB 5

problem • Participate in Listening Anchor 4 Level 2 Level 2
so that conversations, Level B: 2.3 express IV. Sharing
the others discussions, • Report on a topic clearly Information
(e.g., sales and written or text, tell a story, statements of • Provides
people, exchanges or recount an fact and short necessary
employers) about familiar experience with accounts and information
understand. topics, texts, appropriate facts descriptions.
• Asks relevant
and issues and relevant,
questions
• Restate some descriptive
details, speaking • Repeats
of the key ideas
clearly at an information and
expressed
understandable ideas to confirm
pace. understanding

Chapter 10 Standards and Accountability 331

 • verify ELP 2 Speaking and Speaking Level 2 CLB Listening 5
information Level 3 Listening Anchor 1 2.4 ask II.
during Level B questions
• ask and answer Comprehending
interactions • ask questions to clarify
relevant Instructions
such as to check understanding
questions • seeks
the one understanding
at the car • restate some clarification
of information
dealership. of the key ideas and
presented, stay
expressed confirmation if
on topic, and link
ask questions required
their comments
to gain
to the remarks
information
of others
or clarify
understanding

• understand ELP 1 Level 3 Listening Level 2 CLB Listening 5

voicemail • determine a 2.4 listen to and II.
systems central idea or follow short, Comprehending
that offer theme in oral straightforward Instructions
multiple presentations explanations • understand
options. and spoken and simple to
• understand and written instructions moderately
how and texts complex
when to • retell key directions and
leave a details and instructions
message. answer for generally
questions familiar and
about key relevant
details procedures
• responds with
actions to
directions and
instructions

In addition to these listening and speaking standards, this class could benefit from working on
reading standards that may help them to access complex texts such as service contracts. The
needs expressed by Chae, Diana, and others in their class are real and immediate. These learner
challenges can now provide rich contexts for instruction that are relevant to the learners, while at
the same time helping the students meet standards like the ones above.
The two cases in this section illustrate how learner input provides the content and context for
instruction that is compatible with a variety of standards, and in many cases multiple standards.
Here is a checklist of important reminders:
• Provide ongoing opportunities for learners to articulate their goals.
• Find out what standards your program uses for accountability purposes and to guide the
curriculum, and look for places where learner goals align with them.
• Use textbooks or online curricula that correspond as closely as possible to outcomes and
standards that address both learner and program needs and expectations.
• Use learner strengths, needs, wants, and dilemmas as the starting point of instruction.
• Develop assessment tools that capture learning in these areas.
Using standards is just one of your lesson-planning tools. Remember how Dan addresses
standards in his lesson-planning process for his literacy level class (6.1):

332 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Planning for me always starts with the thematic unit; the over-arching theme or line of inquiry
of the coming weeks or months. Then I look at the individual parts that make up that theme
and what I can address in the allotted time. These are the main content and skill goals for the
students in my class. Then I get to the fun part of planning the techniques and materials I think
are going to help us get towards those goals, hopefully in a sequential way that builds upon
previous lessons and cycles back for review. As I’m doing that, I look to see which standards
I think I am addressing and see if there are any more opportunities to adjust the lesson to
include more standards work. This last part is newer to me so it takes some thinking, but it also
keeps things fresh trying to teach familiar topics in new ways.
Standards need not be a noose around teachers’ and learners’ necks; use standards to guide,
shape, and help you in the process of developing lessons that are, first and foremost, responsive
to learners. Use standards to assure that you are holding learners to the highest expectations
possible.

10.7 Standards and assessments

Standardized tests are used by programs as one measure of learning outcomes and they are
often used to report level gains to funders. As a teacher, it is important to find out how program
assessments are tied to standards. As an example, the CASAS assessment system is informed by
both the College and Career Readiness Standards and the English Language Proficiency Standards
for Adult Education. Test items assess foundational literacy, language and vocabulary (with a
focus on the academic word list3), and literal comprehension of both informational and literary
texts, as well as higher order reading strategies such as making inferences or determining an
author’s point of view (CASAS 2016).
It may be quite evident how we would assess literal understanding of a text, as reflected in this
CCR Reading Standard Anchor 1 Level A performance descriptor: Ask and answer questions about
key details in a text. However, it may be less evident how to assess outcomes on a standard such
as this:
CCR Reading Anchor 7: Integrate and evaluate content presented in diverse media and
formats, including visually and quantitatively, as well as in words.
Level A Performance Indicator: Use the illustrations and details in a text to describe its key
ideas (e.g., maps, charts, photographs, political cartoons, etc.).
How does this CASAS level A test item assess both CCRS Reading Anchor 1 Level A and CCRS
Reading Anchor 7 Level A performance descriptor?

Monday – Saturday: Open 8 AM – 10 PM

Sunday Only: Open 10 AM – 5 PM

No babies younger than 3-years-old

A parent must be with children 3 to 10 years old.

3
 The Academic Word List contains words which appear with high frequency in English language academic
texts (Coxhead 2000).
Chapter 10 Standards and Accountability 333
2. The pool opens on Sunday at .
A. 5 AM
B. 8 AM
C. 10 AM
D. 5 PM
(CASAS Level A Reading Goals Test Series sample test items, 2018)
At the beginning proficiency level, this item assesses the learners’ ability to interpret information
presented in a chart with visuals and text; in this case, signage they may encounter in their
community. They can use the graphics to determine which line presents pool hours. By Level D for
CCRS Reading Anchor 7, learners are assessed on their ability to: integrate quantitative or technical
information expressed in words in a text with a version of that information expressed visually (e.g., in
a flowchart, diagram, model, graph, or table). How does this sample item from the CASAS Reading
Goals Test Level D series assess both CCRS Reading Anchor Standard 1 Level C (Refer to details and
examples in a text when explaining what the text says explicitly and when drawing inferences from the
text) and the CCRS Reading Anchor Standard 7 Level D performance indicator?

Plastic waste in waterways harms wildlife, creates hazards for navigation,

and may even threaten the health of humans. As a result, communities
spend large sums of money to educate the public and to remove trash that
might end up in the rivers and oceans. The charts below compare water
clean-up budgets for two communities.

Test item:
According to the two charts, Porter City and Santa Bella spend the largest percentage of their
water cleanup budgets on .
A. Street Sweeping
B. Beach Clean-Up
334 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
C. Manual Clean-Up
D. Storm Drain Maintenance
(CASAS Level D Reading Goals Test Series sample test items, 2018)

10.8 High-leverage instructional practices to meet rigorous

content standards
What is common to many of the standards explored in this chapter is that they lead learners
to collaborate with others effectively, think critically in community, work, and school contexts,
and employ strategies for understanding oral and written text presented in a variety of formats,
including digitally. They represent the kinds of 21st-century skills needed for access to information
and full participation in communities in today’s world. Teachers can help learners meet these
skills through the routine implementation of high-leverage instructional practices across
disciplines (a course focused on literacy development or a career-focused course) and levels.
There are various definitions of “high-leverage” practices. Research on helping English language
learners access rigorous content standards (Ewert 2014; Neri, et al. 2016) consider high-leverage
practices to be those that scaffold learning, address the academic language demands of a lesson,
promote collaborations among learners, prompt higher-order thinking, and provide language
needed to make that thinking visible. We have explored many such practices throughout this book.
Table 10.3 highlights some of those practices along with 21st-century skills that are likely to dovetail
with many of the standards that programs are currently using.

Table 10.3 High-Leverage Practices and 21st-Century Skills Addressed

Activity Type 21st-Century Skills Addressed
Jigsaw activities and • Read closely
paired reading • Present results to others
• Interview others; present information to others
• Synthesize information from multiple sources
• Employ effective communication strategies
One-question interviews • Collect, organize, represent, and interpret data
and data analysis • Use and interpret tally marks
• Represent data visually
• Interpret graphs
• Transfer information (data to graphs)
• Summarize and synthesize information
• Conduct “research”
• Practice numeracy skills
Graphic organizers as • Recognize text organization and text genre
while-reading or while- • Organize and categorizing information
listening activities
• Practice note-taking
Information grid tasks / • Note-taking using a grid
Interviews • Communicate effectively using:
– clarification strategies
– follow-up questions for elaboration

Chapter 10 Standards and Accountability 335

 Providing academic • Using an academic register with sentence frames (two thirds
language frames or of the class)
paragraph frames • Transferring information (graphs to paragraph)
Short authentic video • Practice with mini “lectures;” authentic, non-scripted language
clips in listening lessons • Listen selectively
• Practice note-taking
Analysis of real-world • Cite evidence to support claims
information (graphs, • Interpret information presented in diverse formats
tables, charts)

When teachers use high-leverage instructional practices like these, they afford learners the
opportunity to collaborate with others, employ a wide variety of critical thinking skills, and
develop the language needed to express their ideas clearly.

Conclusion
I began this book with an examination of the unique strengths adult learners bring to English
language classrooms as well as challenges they may face, and I have ended with a look at the
larger picture of adult English language standards and accountability systems. These topics, along
with everything in between, should be seen as interconnected with the learner at the center; each
element in adult English language education systems should inform the others.

Outcomes The
and Curriculum
Standards

Learners

Instruction Assessment

Our primary responsibilities as English language teachers are to the learners in our programs.
Standards and accountability systems should be viewed as one means of providing and
maintaining quality instruction. They should be connected to the lives and needs of learners,
while at the time satisfying the needs of other stakeholders. I have argued, along with many
other professionals in the field, that the most suitable approaches for working with adult English
language learners within this system are those that are truly learner-centered. It is my hope that
the principles and practices in this text will get you started on the road to teaching in a variety of
settings, with diverse groups of learners, and in keeping with your own beliefs and strengths as a
teacher.

336 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

 Key Terms

On your own, or with a partner, provide an example or brief definition for each concept:

Checklist of Key Terms

accountability

content standards

performance indicators or
descriptors

standards-based textbook series

high-leverage practices

Chapter 10 Standards and Accountability 337

 Applying What You’ve Learned

Before doing these activities, revisit your answers to the questions at the beginning of the
chapter.

1 Standards in your setting

If you are already teaching, answer as many of these questions as you can. Then do research on
answers to those you were not sure about, or to add to your current understanding:
a. What are the accountability requirements of my program and/or state/region?
b. What standards guide my program?
c. To whom is my program accountable and for what purposes?
d. How can I align program standards with learner goals?
If you are not teaching, answer questions a., b., and c. by searching online for the Adult Education
office in your area or by interviewing an adult English language teacher or program coordinator.
For question d., describe two things you would do in an ESL class to align learner goals and
program standards.

2 Aligning instruction to your program standards/outcomes

If you are already teaching, identify and describe three standards or outcomes for which learners
need to be assessed in your program. Describe what you believe would be the best way to
address those standards in your context and with your curriculum. Consider a lesson you recently
taught and see if you can identify which standards are addressed.

If you are not teaching, ask a teacher in your area to share three outcomes or standards from a
class she or he teaches or find a list of the standards for your state online and choose three for
this activity. Describe what you believe would be the best way to address those standards in your
context and with your curriculum.

3 Aligning learner goals to standards

If you are already teaching, identify three standards or outcomes that you believe overlap with
learner goals you have elicited. Describe two ways you would connect the program standard to
your learners’ goals. If you are not teaching, find a list of the standards for your state or region
(ask an ESL teacher or do an online search) and look for places where the Learner Challenges in
Section 10.5 overlap with those standards.

Post-task
Looking back . . .

Go back to the statements you reflected on at the beginning of this book. With a partner or
on your own, complete these statements again with your current beliefs about teaching and
learning in adult ESL contexts. Afterward, discuss the ways in which your views have evolved or
changed through the process of reading and working through the activities in this book, and by
collaborating with others to develop your knowledge and skills for meeting the needs of adult
English language learners.
338 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
Complete these statements with your current beliefs about teaching and learning in adult English
language learning contexts.
1. Strengths and challenges adult learners may bring to the classroom are . . .
2. Some common purposes for learning English are . . .
3. Learning a second language involves . . .
4. If I walked into an adult English language classroom, I’d like to see . . .
5. Learners’ roles and responsibilities in class are . . .
6. My responsibilities as a teacher are . . .

Chapter 10 Standards and Accountability 339

 Recommended Reading

A selection of standards not already listed in this chapter:

Partnership for 21st-Century Skills (P21): Framework for 21st-Century Learning. Tucson, AZ:
2009. Available online http://21stcenturyskillsbook. com/resources/

The Northstar Digital Literacy Assessment provides comprehensive lists of digital literacy
standards that can be included in curricula. http://www. digitalliteracyassessment.org assesses
digital skills through online, self-guided modules.

Transitions Integration Framework (TIF), ATLAS (2013; Revised version 2016) The TIF defines the
academic, career, and employability skills essential for adult learners to successfully transition to
postsecondary education, career training, the workplace, and to enrich community involvement.
http://atlasabe.org/professional/transitions

The Cambridge Framework for Life Competencies Life competencies grouped into eight
areas: Creativity, Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving, Digital Literacy, Learning to Learn,
Communication, Collaboration, Emotional Development and Social Responsibilities. We have
then developed Can Do Statements to describe what learners should be able to do for each
competency at each stage of the learning journey, including higher education and work. http://
www.cambridge.org/elt/blog/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Life-Competencies-Digital-final.pdf

Standards for Adult Education ESL Programs TESOL (2002) define quality components from a
national perspective. Using program indicators in eight distinct areas, the standards can be used
to review an existing program or as a guide in setting up a new ESOL program. While this predates
the move to college and career readiness standards, the indicators are still highly relevant and
could be used in programs in any part of the world.

OTHER USEFUL WEBSITES

National Reporting System website: This site provides adult education teachers, administrators
and others interested in the adult education program reference material and training related to
the guidelines of the National Reporting System in the U.S. Available at: https://www.nrsweb.org/
Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks: The Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks
supports the national standards in English and French for describing, measuring and recognizing
second language proficiency of adult immigrants and prospective immigrants for living and
working in Canada. http://www.language.ca/home/

340 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Glossary
academic language – language needed for work and school that includes, for example,
discipline-specific vocabulary, language structures, and rhetorical conventions typical for a
content area. 
accommodations – allowances made for students with learning disabilities or physical
handicaps that allow them equal access to all aspects of programs.
accountability – being answerable to program administrators and funders for instruction and
learner outcomes.
acculturation – understanding of the beliefs, emotions, and behaviors of the dominant
culture, without letting go of the first culture.
achievement test – measures what learners have gained through a lesson, unit, or course.
acquisition vs. learning – acquisition refers to natural, unconscious processes that children
go through as they acquire their first language; learning refers to consciously learning the
rules and patterns of the language.
action research – a process of teachers identifying problems or issues in their teaching,
gathering data or information about what is happening, researching the topic, and taking
action in their classes.
affective filter – Krashen’s term for emotional barriers to learning, for example, high stress or
embarrassment.
agency – the ability of individuals to take control of their learning in pursuit of their personal
goals and aspirations.
alternative assessment – refers to tools to assess learning that are typically classroom based
and ongoing, and reflect the outcomes of a particular course. Examples include performance
assessment, observation, self-assessment, or portfolio assessment.
assimilation – is the complete absorption of the second culture practices, beliefs and norms.
backwards design – starting lesson planning by first determining what the desired results or
goals are for a lesson, and building the lesson to achieve those goals.
balanced literacy approach – an approach to literacy development that draws on the
principles of Whole Language teaching as well as more form-focused activities.
BICS – Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills.
behaviorism – refers to a theory that human beings learn new behaviors through a stimulus
and response cycle.
BEST (Basic English Skills Test) – intended for new immigrants with very limited English.
Includes listening, speaking, reading and writing.
blended learning – a combination of face-to-face and distance learning.
bottom-up processing – involves attempts to decode and understand a language word-for-
word.
Bridge program – a program that prepares students to enter a particular academic degree or
credentialing program.
Glossary 341
 CALL – Computer Assisted Language Learning is any means of enhancing instruction through
the use of computer-based activities including software, the Internet, email, or basic word
processing.
CALP – cognitive academic language proficiency.
career-contextualized ESL – programs that integrate English language skills development
with general workplace, or transferable job skills such as effective communication with
supervisors and co-workers or problem-solving at work.
CASAS (The Comprehensive Adult Student Assessment System) – an assessment system
that includes an array of standardized tests for placement and achievement for reading,
writing, listening and life skills.
central design – lesson planning that begins with class materials and activities, then builds
the lesson from there.
chain drills – a teacher or learner asks a question, another answers and asks the next
question in a chain fashion, until all learners have practiced the language.
checking questions – used so that learners demonstrate their understanding of new concepts
(content, vocabulary, grammar, functions or competencies).
collaborative dialogue – interactions that help learners to co-construct language through
collaborative activities.
communicability – the ability to meet communicative demands.
communicative competence – the ability to use language in a variety settings (at work, at a
store, at home) with varying degrees of formality (with a friend vs. with a boss).
communicative language teaching – an approach to teaching that focuses on developing
fluency and communicative competence through extensive interaction and use of authentic
materials.
competencies – real-life tasks learners need to complete at home, in their communities or
workplace, for example, calling in sick to work or completing a permission slip for a child’s
teacher.
competency-based education – an approach to education whereby language competencies
become the basis for instruction. Language functions, grammar, vocabulary and skills are
taught to assist learners in achieving the competencies.
comprehensible input – Krashen’s term for language input that is understandable to
learners. Language is made comprehensible through gestures, visual support, repetition or
prior knowledge.
concurrent enrollment – enrollment in job-specific content classes along with supports or
ESL classes that integrate the field-specific content.
content standards – refers to what students are expected to know and be able to do as a
result of instruction.
content words – those words that are stressed within a sentence; those that carry the most
meaning, for example, nouns, verbs, or adjectives.
content-based teaching – curricula which have a content area as the focus of instruction, for
example, citizenship, math, social studies, or global studies. Content-based instruction is often
used in pre-academic programs.
contextualized language lessons – focus on a particular language competency, function,
grammar or set of vocabulary used in real-world contexts.
342 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
Cooperative Language Learning (CCL) – centers around group tasks where each member is
held accountable for his or her learning, and where outcomes to activities are dependent on a
genuine exchange of information among participants.
core series – consist of a sequence of books for beginning through high-intermediate or
advanced-level learners that integrate instruction in all skill areas as well as grammar,
functions, and competencies.
criterion referenced test – a test for which the scores reflect a comparison to a set of
outcomes (or criterion).
critical period – the stage when one is best able to acquire a second language, thought to be
from around three to just before puberty.
cultural competence – understanding cultural norms and practices.
curricular routines – daily or weekly classroom routines that make instruction consistent and
predictable for learners.
diagnostic test – a test or assessment tool that determines what learners do and do not know
in relation to the course objectives.
dialogue journals – learner journals that include an ongoing reader (usually the teacher)
response.
differentiation – tailoring instruction to account for and address varying learner profiles,
interests, and readiness.
digital literacy – using current technologies (which are ever-evolving) to evaluate, organize,
communicate, solve problems and create information in our technology-rich world.
discourse chains – a controlled practice activity whereby learners are provided with the
steps in a conversation (greet, request information, provide information) to complete with a
partner.
discrimination task – a listening task used in pronunciation instruction whereby learners
demonstrate their ability to discriminate between different sounds or different stress or
intonation patterns.
display questions – questions for which one already knows the answer.
distance learning – instruction where there is a separation of place and/or time between the
learner(s) and the instructor conducted through one or more media, for example video or on-
line learning.
dominant culture – the majority and long-established culture of a society.
echoing – a teacher repeating verbatim what learners say in class, either correctly or
incorrectly.
English Language Civics (ELC) – programs that promote active citizenship and participation
in all aspects of the community including voting and civic involvement, involvement in
neighborhood programs, and active participation in children’s schooling.
emergent curriculum – a curriculum that develops around learners’ expressed wants and needs.
English Language Acquisition programs (ELA) – programs that serve a broad population
of learners without specific vocational or academic outcomes. All four skills and all areas of
language are integrated into the curriculum.
environmental print – print that is found in the community or workplace such as street signs,
billboards, warning signs, or store names.

Glossary 343
 extraneous teacher talk – less helpful teachers talk where the majority of the words are not
needed to convey the intended message.
extrinsic motivation – motivation that derives from factors imposed on the learner by an
outside force (e.g., requirement for a job, citizenship exam).
family/intergenerational literacy – these programs promote connections between homes
and schools by promoting literacy among adults and their children so that children reach
their highest academic potential.
financial literacy – the ability of learners to navigate financial systems; learn about issues such
as online phishing and identify theft; acquire skills for meeting their financial needs and goals.
fluency – the ease with which one is able to communicate in a second language, even without
accuracy in the language.
function words – the words that are typically unstressed within a sentence.
functional texts – reading texts that are used for an everyday, functional purpose, such as
menus, phone books, or labels.
functions of language – represent the ways we use language forms and phrases in social
interactions, for example, greetings and introductions, making invitations, making polite
requests, or complaints and apologies.
funds of knowledge – knowledge all learners bring to class based on culturally and historically
accumulated knowledge and skills that enable an individual or household to function within a
given culture.
graphic literacy – the ability to use and understand pictorial symbols to convey meaning.
graphic organizers – any means to visually organize information, for example Venn diagrams,
word webs, or charts.
i + 1 – is Krashen’s term for input that is just beyond a learner’s current level. This kind of
input challenges, yet is accessible to learners.
identity – the ways that learners perceive themselves within their social networks.
independent field trips – are field trips that are completed by individual students outside of
class time.
inductive approach – when language is presented in context first and learners deduce or
figure out the rules with the teacher’s guidance.
information-gap activity – refers to an activity that requires a genuine exchange of
information in order for learners to complete the task.
Integrated Education and Training (IET) – programs where the occupational instructor and
adult education instructor co-teach in the same classroom or coordinate instruction through
integrated-skills texts – provide practice in all four skills areas and typically integrate
grammar, language functions, and competencies.
intelligibility – pronunciation that is understandable by the listener and does not interfere
with communication.
Interactionism – a view that second language acquisition requires interaction between
speakers. Language is made comprehensible through modifications or comprehension
checks by both the speaker and listener.
intergenerational tension – struggles that emerge among generations in immigrant families as
a result of conflicting values, beliefs, and norms between the first culture and the new culture.
344 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction
interpersonal dialogue – dialogue for the purpose of communicating with others for personal
reasons, for example, making small talk with a co-worker, talking to a friend about a concern
at home.
intrinsic motivation – motivation that stems from a desire within the individual for personal
growth.
investment – the degree to which a learner sees that his or her contributions are valued in a
given social context.
high-leverage practices – those that: scaffold learning; address the academic language
demands of a lesson; promote collaborations among learners; prompt higher-order thinking;
and provide language needed to make that thinking visible.
higher-order thinking skills – a model for sequencing learning objectives that move beyond
simple recall to include understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating.
jigsaw reading (or listening) – refers to a reading or listening activity that involves different
groups of learners reading or listening to different texts related to one theme, and then
grouping with others in class to exchange the information they learned about in their text.
KWL chart – is a means of activating background knowledge, setting learning goals, and
reflecting on learning. The chart contains three sections: What do I know? What do I want to
learn? What did I learn?
L1 – an individual’s first language.
Language Experience Approach (LEA) – an approach that starts with a class recounting a
shared experience, which is transcribed by the teacher. The class-generated text becomes the
basis for literacy instruction.
language learning strategies – tools learners employ to help them learn more effectively,
remember or organize information, or compensate for lacks in their language.
language skills – the four language modes: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
learner-centered – instruction that puts the learners’ backgrounds, expectations, strengths,
wants, and needs at the center of curricular choices and classroom practices.
learning disability – refers to any of a group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties
in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical
abilities, presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction.
learning strategies – any tools or tactics that learners employ to learn more effectively and
more autonomously.
learning styles/learning preference – a person’s preference for understanding and
processing information.
lesson study – a professional development process where several teachers collaboratively
plan, teach, observe, revise and share the results of the same lesson taught with different
learners.
linguistic competence – refers to the ability to use and understand language forms, including
grammar, spelling, and pronunciation.
literacy-level texts – are intended for emergent readers who may have extremely limited
literacy skills in their first language.
managed enrollment – refers to a practice of admitting students only at particular times in a
program, be it once a week or once every six weeks. It is an alternative to “open enrollment,”
whereby learners enter programs on an ongoing basis.
Glossary 345
 meaningful practice – involves activities in which learners talk about information that is
truthful and relevant to their lives.
mechanical practice – helps learners reinforce forms without necessarily creating meaningful
utterances.
minimal pair – pairs of words that have only one phonemic difference, for example, bat and
vat (/b/ and /v/).
minority cultures – groups that arrived in a country more recently than the dominant culture
and make up a minority of the population.
monitor – Krashen’s term for learned language acts as a monitor that edits and corrects
language.
multiple intelligences – Howard Gardner’s term for at least seven intelligences that learners
draw on to process and understand the world: verbal/linguistic, musical, logical/mathematical,
spatial/visual, bodily/kinesthetic, intrapersonal, and natural/environmental.
National Reporting System (NRS) – an accountability system used to measure the
effectiveness of federally-funded adult education programs.
Natural Approach – an approach to teaching that starts with providing abundant
comprehensible input to learners, much in the way children acquire their first language.
nonliterate – refers to students who speak a language which has a written form, but who
don’t read or write that language themselves.
norm-referenced test – a test for which the scores reflect a comparison to a group.
objectives – what learners will be able to do at the completion of a lesson. Objectives should
be observable and/or measurable.
open educational resources (OERs) – online resources where teachers can find teacher-made
materials around a variety of core themes, oftentimes vetted for quality by an educational body.
open enrollment – refers to allowing learners to enter programs at any time during a course
or term.
outcomes – the desired results of instruction.
paired reading – working with two texts on the same topic. Pairs of learners read one of two
assigned texts and then work with another pair of learners to combine the key concepts from
their texts.
parallel writing – a guided writing activity that starts with a text that learners follow as model
for their own writing.
Participatory Approach – drawn from Freire’s work, a teaching that derives from learners’
lives and personal issues within their social context so that they can take action to improve
their lives.
performance assessment – an assessment tool whereby learners perform language tasks to
demonstrate their competency with language. The assessor uses a rubric with specific criteria
in order to determine learner achievement.
performance indicators – various means of providing evidence that learners are meeting
program standards or outcomes, e.g., gains on test scores, achievement of personal goals,
employment.
performance standards – represent what learners need to do to demonstrate their proficiency
within content standards.

346 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

persistence – when learners continue learning through multiple means (classes, self-directed
learning, distance learning) until meeting their educational goals.
phonics – is a view that literacy development is a linear process whereby learners first acquire
sound-letter correspondences, with which they create words and then sentences.
placement test – is used to determine the most suitable level for a learner within a program.
practicality – the extent to which an assessment tool is practical to administer.
pre-academic ESL – programs that prepare ESL learners to enter academic settings.
pre-listening – activities that serve to activate learner prior knowledge about a theme before
listening to a passage and completing listening activities.
pre-literate – refers to students who speak a language that does not have a written form, or
has a form that is rare or has developed very recently (e.g., Hmong).
pre-writing – activities that prepare a learner to write, for example, brainstorming and
organizing ideas.
problem posing – a process in participatory education whereby learners identify problems
that are affecting their lives. These issues and concerns become the basis of further activities.
process-oriented approach – a multi-step approach to writing that includes pre-writing,
ongoing feedback, and multiple drafts.
productive skills – speaking and writing skills.
product-oriented writing – focuses on the finished product rather than the process of
writing.
proficiency test – measures a learner’s overall competence.
Question Formulation Technique (QFT) – process for generating learner questions that can
be used for any number of purposes in the classroom.
realia – real objects brought into class for demonstration or practice.
receptive skills – listening and reading skills.
reformulation – responding to learner errors by naturally restating learner language.
register – the level of formality as well as the academic language conventions that are
suitable for a particular situation.
reliability – refers to tests that provide consistent results.
retention – the numbers of learners staying in a program and moving from one level to the
next.
rubric – a scoring tool that attempts to communicate expectations of quality around a task.
They aim to delineate consistent criteria for assessment and grading.
scaffolded writing – a writing tasks whereby learners complete a sample text with key
information left out.
scaffolding – instructional techniques that help move students progressively toward stronger
understanding and greater independence in the learning process.
scanning – reading a text only for specific information.
SCANS (Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills) – refers to the soft skills
needed to perform adequately in the workplace, for example, asking for help, working in
teams, managing resources.
Glossary 347
 schema theory – suggests that prior knowledge shapes our expectations and understanding
of what we hear; the closer our schema is to the content of what we hear or read, the easier it
will be for us to understand.
semi-literate – refers to students who have some formal education or are able to read and
write but only at an elementary level.
semi-scripted dialogue – dialogues that have some of the words provided and in which
learners must fill in the missing portions to complete the dialogue with a partner.
sentence stress – refers to the words that are stressed within a sentence.
silent period – Krashen’s terms for the initial period of language acquisition when a learner
understands some language but is not able to produce it.
skimming – reading for the main idea or gist of a text.
Sociocultural Perspective – a view that learning is not an individual process but a social one.
Grounded in the work of Lev Vygotsky, the belief is that understanding of language is co-
constructed through collaborative activities, or collaborative dialogue.
sound/letter correspondences – the correlation between written symbols (letters) and the
sounds they represent in a language.
stand and talk – a class routine where learners think about their answer to a question and
then stand to talk to someone not at their table or in their group.
standardized tests – tests that are administered and scored using procedures that are
uniform and consistent; typically used to differentiate among learners at different levels for
placement purposes.
standards-based textbooks – those texts that are aligned to a particular set of (or sets) of
standards, either state or national.
target language – has two meanings: 1) the second language learners are working to acquire;
2) the language focus of a particular lesson, for example, returning something to a store or
the simple present tense.
Task-Based Learning (TBL) – an approach where instruction is based on real-world tasks that
learners need to complete in the target language (an information-gap activity or development
of a project) rather than on a set of language features that need to be taught.
text-dependent questions – those questions that require the learner to go back to the text
and read carefully to find the information.
think-pair-share – a classroom routine whereby learners think of an answer or brainstorm
ideas, then talk about it with a partner before sharing with the whole class.
top-down processing – involves making educated guesses about content based on prior
knowledge and visual clues (facial expressions, context, etc.).
Total Physical Response (TPR) – a teaching method whereby learners respond physically to
teacher commands and eventually commands from other learners.
transactional dialogue – dialogue that serves to transmit factual information.
transition programs – programs offered in adult education that are the most advanced and
aim to develop academic skills.
translanguaging – the process whereby multilingual speakers utilize their languages as part
of an integrated communication system. The L1 is seen as an asset and is leveraged to assist
in the language learning process.

348 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

validity – refers to tests or assessment tools that test what they are intended to test.
visual literacy – represents the ability to process and represent knowledge through images.
Vocational English as a Second Language (VESL) – refers to courses that provide instruction
in English needed for a particular vocation, for example, nursing or carpentry.
virtual field trips – are “field trips” that are completed through online searches, typically
around a particular theme with particular tasks to complete.
wait time – the time provided for a learner to think of and respond to teacher questions.
Whole Language – is an overall philosophy to learning, which views language as something
that should be taught in its entirety—not broken up into small pieces to be decoded.
whole-part-whole approach – an approach to emergent literacy development that begins
with a whole text that learners understand and then moves on to phonics instruction.
word stress – refers to the syllable that is stressed within a multi-syllable word.
word web – a visual presentation of how words or concepts are interconnected, with a key
word in the center and related words branching out from there.
workplace ESL – ESL programs offered at the workplace.
work-readiness programs – ESL programs that prepare learners for a variety of work settings.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZDP) – the distance between a learner’s current
developmental state and potential state the learner can reach provided they have the
appropriate supports, or scaffolds, from a more expert listener.

Glossary 349
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364 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

Index
ability levels: see multilevel classes assessment 287–8
absenteeism 217 alternative assessment 295–303
abuse victims 243–5 clarifying terms 290–1
academic language dilemmas about 288–90
beyond basic skills 21–2 high-leverage instructional practices 335–6
functions 61 learner self-assessment 303–4, 317
graphic organizers 173–4 standardized tests 291–5
literacy types 143 and standards 333–5
reading skills 157–60 using results for accountability purposes
speaking skills 114 305–8
accent 124 see also checking learner understanding
see also pronunciation assimilation, and acculturation 7
access to teaching programs attendance at classes 11
11, 46–8 attitude, factors affecting pronunciation 125
accountability audio recordings 302
and assessment 305–8 audiolingual method (ALM) 19, 34
and standards 319, 321, 322 Auerbach, E. 41
acculturation 6–7 Australia, standards frameworks 324, 325
achievement testing 291 authenticity
acquisition: see language acquisition acquisition vs. learning 20
action research 312–13 communicative language teaching 38
Adelson Goldstein, J. 160, 309 digital learning 274
adult English language learners integrated and contextualised teaching
cultural adjustment 7–10 approach 66
language demands of today’s world 12–14 learner-centered classrooms 12, 27, 255
learner-centered classrooms 11–12 listening skills 207, 225
making the adjustment to a new country outside of the classroom 263
5–6 sources for listening passages 112–13
process for understanding 6–11
advocacy role 237, 238 backward design 187
affective filter 20, 90 balanced literacy approach 149–50, 165
affective strategies 206 Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills
age (BICS) 21–2
factors affecting pronunciation 125 behaviorism 18–19
language acquisition 22–3 bingo activities 78, 84–5
see also intergenerational literacy blended learning 53–4
agency, language acquisition 23–4 blindness case study 242–3
alternative assessment 295–303 Bloom’s Taxonomy 81
apps 281–2 book groups 164
assessing teaching effectiveness 309, 314–15 books: see textbooks
see also professional development bottom-up processing 107–9, 149
bridge programs 52

Index 365
 Canada, standards frameworks 322, 325, 331 Communities of Practice (CoPs) 312
Canadian Center for Victims of Tortures community events 266
(CCVT) 243–4 community services 46–7
can-do statements 218 compensation strategies 205, 206
career pathways/career-focused competency-based education 35–6
programming 50–3 comprehensible input 20
Cell-Ed 280–1 computer-assisted language learning (CALL)
central design 188 268
chain activities 83–4 computer labs 229–30
checking learner understanding 200–2, 211 concentric circles 237
see also assessment; correcting learner content standards 319
language content words 128
checklists for assessment 299–300, 307–8 content-based instruction 40
children of adult learners 11 content-based textbooks 254
Chomsky, N. 19 contextualized teaching approach 59–60: see
citizenship integrated and contextualised teaching
teaching approaches 40 approach
teaching programs 49 continuous professional development: see
civics education (CE) programs 49 professional development
class field trips 263–7 cooperative language learning 38
class sizes 231–2 cooperative learning
see also multilevel classes and assessment 300–1
class web pages 281 digital resources 277
classroom practice paired reading 160, 277
communicatively-based approaches 37–8 pairing/grouping students 234–7
content-based instruction 40 cooperative professional development 310
learner-centered 11–12, 26–7 core series textbooks 253
and standards 326–30 correcting learner language
task-based learning 39–40 checking learner understanding 200–2, 211
see also learning environments; teaching dialogue journals 175
approaches integrated and contextualised teaching
classroom volunteers 230–1 approach 89–95, 99
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency writing skills 176–7
(CALP) 21–2 see also teacher talk
cognitive strategies 206 corrective feedback 91–4
collaborative dialogue 21 course design 185
collaborative professional development 310 see also lesson plans
College and Career Readiness Standards critical thinking
(CCRS) 66, 68, 322, 329, 331, 333–5 integrated and contextualised teaching
color vowel approach 129 approach 62
communicative competence 16–18 lesson plans 188
see also language acquisition teacher talk 202–4
communicative language teaching cultural adjustment
pronunciation 123 beyond basic skills 21–2
teaching approaches 34, 36–8 factors affecting 7–10
communicative pronunciation practice 131 learner-centered classrooms 11, 26–7
communicatively-based approaches 37–8 cultural background (multilevel classes) 215

366 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

cultural competence 18, 62 emotional barriers to learning 90
cultural concepts, checking learner employment
understanding 200–1 career pathways/career-focused
cultural obstacles 315 programming 50–3
Cummins, J. 21 language demands of today’s world 13
curricular routines 195 pronunciation 123, 124–5
curriculum and standards 321
communicative language teaching 37 teaching programs 47
online curricula 257 unemployment rates 11
participatory approach 41 Workplace ESL programs 52
standards frameworks and reporting English language acquisition programs 48–9
321–3 see also language acquisition; teaching
see also lesson plans programs
English language learners: see adult English
data collection interview activities 118–19 language learners
see also information-gap activities English Language Proficiency Standards
decision-making activities 121, 221 (ELPS) 319, 322–4, 327–8, 331
diagnostic testing 291 enrollment 232–4, 317
dialogue journals 174–5, 302 environmental print 143
dictations 168–9 environments: see learning environments
dictocomp 169 errors: see correcting learner language
dictogloss 169 ESOL Core Curriculum 322, 324, 331
differentiation, learning environments 220–2 evaluation 290
see also multilevel classes see also assessment
digital competence 270–1 exit questions 301–2
digital learning exit tickets 301–2
blended and distance learning 53–4 expectations, factors affecting pronunciation
building language and digital skills at the 125
same time 271–3 experiential learning cycle 65–6
components of digital competence 270–1 exposure, factors affecting pronunciation 125
independent learning 280–2 extensive reading 164
place in today’s world 268–70 extensive writing tasks 165–7, 169–73
tasks for the language classroom 273–80
and writing skills 175–6 family and intergenerational literacy (FIL)
digital literacy 62, 144, 268 programs 50
direct learning strategies 205–6 family relationships within classes 235
disabilities: see learning disabilities (LD); feedback
physical disabilities checking learner understanding 200–2, 211
discussion activities 119–20, 131–2 correcting learner language 89–95
distance learning 53–4, 280–1 dialogue journals 175
document literacy 143 writing skills 176–7
Dörnyei, Z. 37 Ferguson, I. 219
field trips 263–7
Echelberger, A. 149 financial literacy 144
Eckersley, N. 277–8 “find someone who...” activities 85–6
education level 215 find the difference activities 117
electronic polling 218 first language literacy, impact on learning
emergent curriculum 41 English 8, 10, 21, 125

Index 367
 fluency as goal identity
speaking skills 114, 135–6 factors affecting pronunciation 125
writing skills 174 language acquisition 23–4
follow-up listening activities 109–10, 112 independent field trips 264
follow-up reading activities 157, 159, 163 independent learning, use of technologies
formal communication 101–3 280–2
formative assessment 295, 296, 301–2 indirect learning strategies 205–6
four corners technique 217 individual factors (multilevel classes) 215–16
Freire, P. 41 inductive grammar lessons 67
function words 128 inferences 107, 109, 111
functional texts 143 informal communication 101–3
funding information-gap activities 86–7, 116–17, 131,
standards and accountability 319, 323 275–6
teaching programs 46 initiate-response-evaluate (I-R-E) 203
innate phonetic ability 125
gallery walks 119 instructions (teacher talk) 199–200, 204, 211
gender 235 intake processes 232–4, 317
giving directions (teacher talk) 199–200, 204, integrated and contextualised teaching
211 approach 60–4
goals: see learning outcomes; objectives correcting learner language 89–95, 99
Gonzalvez, L. 150–1 lesson plans 97–9
grammar meaningful purposes 64–72
acquisition vs. learning 20 practice activities 68–72, 77–88
correcting learner language 91, 94, 175 scaffolding lessons 72–9
digital checkers 176 integrated basic education and skills training
fluency as goal 114, 115, 116 (I-BEST) 52
integrated and contextualised teaching integrated education and training (IET) 52
approach 67 integrated English literacy (IEL) 49
language for meaningful purposes 60, 62, integrated mobile learning 280–1
67, 72, 76 interactionism 20–1
learning logs 304 interactions teacher-student: see correcting
lesson plans 189, 190 learner language; teacher talk
multiple intelligences theory 33 intergenerational literacy 50
pronunciation 126 intergenerational tension 11
self-access materials 229 interpersonal dialogue 114
textbooks on 253 interview activities 85–6, 118–19, 261, 266
graphic literacy 144 intonation 126–8
graphic organizers 169, 173–4 investment, language acquisition 23–4
Graves, K. 185
group expectations 218–19 jigsaw activities 157–9, 162, 226, 277
group needs 218 jobs: see employment
group projects 302 journals 174–5, 302, 311–14
grouping students 234–7
groupings activities 117–18 knowing a language, meaning of 15–16
guided pronunciation practice 131 Krashen’s input hypothesis 34–5
Krashen’s model of language acquisition
Harris, K. 273 19–20
high-leverage instructional practices 335–6 KWL charts 303, 307

368 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

language acquisition 18–19 learning circles 312
age 22–3 learning disabilities (LD) 240–1, 246
agency 23–4 physical disabilities 242–3
behaviorism 18–19 universal design for learning 241–2, 243
beyond basic skills 21–2 victims of torture or abuse 243–5
correcting learner language 89–95 learning environments 213–14
English language acquisition programs additional practices for multilevel classes
48–9 223–31
identity 23–4 differentiation 220–2
interactionism 20–1 establishing appropriate boundaries 237–9
investment 23–4 managed enrollment 233–4
knowing a language 15–16 managing large classes 231–2
Krashen’s model 19–20 multilevel classes 214–17
vs. learning 20 objectives 217–19
motivation 23–4 open-enrollment 232–3
order 19 pairing/grouping students 234–7
sociocultural perspective 21 learning experiences 32, 33, 56
language competencies 61 learning logs 304, 311–14
language experience approach learning management systems (LMS) 281
learners with limited literacy 147–8 learning outcomes
lesson plans 188 assessment 305–8
literacy-level materials 257 fluency as goal 114, 135–6, 174
multilevel classes 228–9 identifying learner needs 186
reading and writing skills 165 lesson plans 189–92
teaching approaches 34 objectives for multilevel classes 217–19
language forms 18 and standards 323–4, 333, 338
language obstacles 314 see also objectives; skills
language skills: see skills learning software 281–2
law learning strategies 18, 205–9
employment and pronunciation skills 124 see also teaching approaches
standards and accountability 321, 323–4 lesson plans 183–5, 211
learner affect 90 approaches to 187–9
learner choices 223 components of 189–93
learner self-assessment 303–4, 317 continuity from day to day 194–6
learner-centered classrooms identifying learner needs 186
cultural adjustment 11, 26–7 integrated and contextualized teaching
fluency as goal 114 approach 97–9
meaning of 12 templates 193–4
professional development 313–14 life-skills curriculum 188–9
pronunciation 128 line activities 237
textbooks 255–6 linguistic competence 62
learner-produced texts 161–3 listening skills
learners: see adult English language learners applying strategies instruction in the
learning classroom 107–10
beliefs about 1–2 how do we listen 105–7
collaboration 2 informal and formal communication 101–3
cyclical nature of 1–2 learning strategies development 207

Index 369
 modes of communication 62 objectives
multilevel classes 225–6 and assessment 295–7, 303–4, 305–8
preparation 103–5 lesson plans 183–5
sources for listening passages 112–13, 135 multilevel classes 217–19
stages and suggested tasks 110–12 see also learning outcomes
standards frameworks 329 observation of learning 296–7, 310–11, 313
strategies development 101 online curricula 257
literacy online forms 274
beyond basic skills 21–2 see also digital learning
in first language 8, 10, 21, 125 online professional development 309
integrated and contextualised teaching online quizzes 274–5
approach 60–4 see also digital learning
knowing a language 15–16 open educational resources (OERs) 257
language demands of today’s world 13 open-ended tasks 223
learners with limited literacy 146–51 open-enrollment 232–3
social construction of 142–3 outcomes: see learning outcomes
types of 143–4
see also language acquisition paired reading 160, 277
literacy textbooks 254 pairing students 234–7
literacy tutoring 50 paragraph frames 170
literacy-level materials 257–9 parallel writing 170–1
low literacy learners 146–51 participatory teaching approach 41–2
peer assessments 298
managed enrollment 233–4 peer observation, professional development
mentoring, for professional development 310–11
312, 313–14 performance assessment 297–9
mingle activities 118 performance indicators 305–8, 319
mistakes: see correcting learner language persistence, teaching programs 46
mobile learning 280–1 Peyton, J. 161
monitor hypothesis 20 phonics 148–9
motivation physical disabilities 242–3
factors affecting pronunciation 125 picture story activities 116
language acquisition 23–4 placement testing 291
multi-faceted teaching approach 32–3, 44 planning: see lesson plans
multilevel classes polling 218
additional practices for 223–31 portfolio assessment 302
objectives 217–19 post-listening activities 109–10, 112
pairing/grouping students 234–7 post-reading activities 157, 159, 163
working with 214–17, 248 PPP model 64–5
multiple intelligences theory 33 practicality, assessment 290
practice (PPP model) 64–5
national standards: see standards pre-listening 103–5
natural teaching approach 34–5 pre-reading 158, 162
Northstar Digital Literacy Assessment 273 presentation (PPP model) 64–5
note-taking, observing lessons 297 presentations 119
Nunan, D. 38 prior knowledge 145
problem posing 41–2

370 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

problem-solving activities 120–1, 131–2, reliability, assessment 290
279–80 rephraser software 176
production (PPP model) 64–5 resettlement trends, community services 47
productive skills 145 resources
see also speaking skills; writing skills digital learning 273–80, 284
product-oriented tasks 165–9 learner-produced texts 161–3
professional boundaries 237–9 learning outside of the classroom 263–7
professional development literacy-level materials 257–9
journals and learning logs 311–14 online curricula 257
learners assessing instruction 314–15 selecting materials 251–3
self-directed professional learning 309–11, self-access materials and computer labs
317 229–30
proficiency testing 291 sources for listening passages 112–13, 135
project-based learning 34, 42–4, 266–7, 328, standards-based textbooks 329–30
330 teacher editions 262–3
pronunciation textbook adaptation and supplementation
factors affecting 125 259–61, 284
integrated and contextualised teaching textbook selection 254–7, 284
approach 74–5 textbook types 253–4
teaching approaches 126–32 retention, teaching programs 46
in your curriculum 123–5 rhythm (pronunciation) 126–8
prose literacy 143 role play 122, 228, 261
rubrics for assessment 297–9
quantitative literacy 143 rules 218–19
question formulation technique (QFT) 203–4
quiz-quiz-trade 300–1 scaffolding
graphic organizers 173–4
reading circles 164 integrated and contextualised teaching
reading skills approach 72–9
academic language 157–60 writing skills 168, 173–4
assessment 293–5 scavenger hunts 265
extensive reading 164 schema theory 103–5, 145
how do we read 145–6 segmentals 126, 128
learner-produced texts 161–3 self-access materials 229–30
learners with limited literacy 146–51 self-assessment 303–4, 317
literacy types 143–4 self-directed professional learning 309–11,
modes of communication 62 317
paired reading 160 silent period 35
promoting strategies development 154–7 situational factors (multilevel classes) 216
situated skills development 141–2 Six Principles for Exemplary Teaching of
social construction of literacy 142–3 English Learners 314
standards frameworks 329 skills
text types 153–4 beyond basic skills 21–2
real-world contexts 64, 69–72, 76 building language and digital skills at the
see also integrated and contextualised same time 271–3
teaching approach digital competence 270–1
receptive skills 145 digital literacy 62, 144, 268
see also listening skills; reading skills high-leverage instructional practices 335–6

Index 371
 language demands of today’s world 12–14 audiolingual method 34
speaking, listening, reading and writing 62 citizenship 40
transitions level 49 collaboration 2
see also listening skills; reading skills; communicative language teaching 34, 36–8
speaking skills; writing skills competency-based education 35–6
skill-specific textbooks 254 content-based instruction 40
social context 66–7 cooperative language learning 38
social interaction 18 language experience approach 34
social media for professional development multi-faceted 32–3, 44
309 natural approach 34–5
social strategies 206 participatory 41–2
software for learning 281–2 project-based learning 42–4
see also digital learning pronunciation 126–32
speaking skills task-based learning 38–40
fluency as goal 114, 135–6 whole language approach 34
modes of communication 62 see also assessing teaching effectiveness;
practice activities 115–22 integrated and contextualised teaching
pronunciation factors affecting 125 approach
pronunciation in your curriculum 123–5, teaching programs 45–6, 57
136 career pathways/career-focused
pronunciation teaching 126–32 programming 50–3
standards frameworks 329 citizenship 49
standardized tests 291–5, 333–5 distance education 53–4
see also assessment English language acquisition programs
standards 319–21, 338 48–9
and accountability 319, 321, 322 family and intergenerational literacy 50
and assessment 333–5 integrated English literacy/civics education
in the classroom 326–30 49
in context 323–5 literacy tutoring 50
and emergent learner needs 330–3 to promote learner persistence and success
frameworks and reporting 321–3 46–8
stress (pronunciation) 126–8, 129–30 technology integration 268–9
study circles 312 see also digital learning
summative assessment 295 TESOL, Six Principles for Exemplary Teaching
suprasegmentals 126, 128 of English Learners 314
survey activities 266 testing 290–1
survival literacy 143 see also assessment
textbooks
task-based learning 38–40, 326 adaptation and supplementation 259–61,
teacher resource books 254 284
teacher talk 197 selection 254–7, 284
checking learner understanding 200–2 sources for listening passages 113
giving directions 199–200, 204, 211 standards-based 329–30
maximizing learner involvement 198 types 253–4
promoting critical thinking 202–4 top-down processing 107–9, 145
teacher-directed classes 12 topic choices 188–9
teaching approaches 31–2, 33–4, 56 torture victims 243–5

372 Teaching Adult English Language Learners: A Practical Introduction

total physical response method 82–3 whole language approach 34, 148–9, 165
transactional dialogue 114 whole-part-whole approach 149–50
transition skills 49 word association activities 131
translanguaging 230 word search activities 128–9
trauma victims 243–5 work samples 302
workplace ESL programs 52
unemployment rates 11 Wrigley, H. 42, 54
United Kingdom, standards frameworks 322, writing skills
324 dialogue journals 174–5
United States, standards frameworks 322–3, extensive writing tasks 169–73
324 graphic organizers 173–4
universal design for learning 241–2, 243 integrated and contextualized teaching
approach 87–8
validity, assessment 290 learners with limited literacy 146–51
vanishing letters 167–8 literacy types 143–4
video recordings 302 modes of communication 62
videos as resources 261 product-oriented tasks 165–9
visual literacy 144 promoting strategies development 154–7
vocabulary, learning strategies 208–9 responding to learner writing 176–7
volunteers 230–1 situated skills development 141–2
Vygotsky, L. 21 social construction of literacy 142–3
standards frameworks 329
web searches 275–6 and technology 175–6
see also digital learning text types 153–4
web pages, for the class 281 types of writing task 165–7

Index 373