04.03.

2019

Electrical Measurement and Instrument

Lecture 2 – Fundamentals of Measurement

Systems and Instrumentation

Content of Lecture 2
2.1 Introduction to Measurement Systems
2.2 Measurement Units
2.3 Measurement System Design
2.4 Measurement System Applications
2.5 Introduction to Instrumentation
2.6 Functions and Characteristics of instruments
2.7 Electrical Units
2.8 Measurement Standards
2.9 Error in Measurement
2.10 Statistical Analysis of Error in Measurement
2.11 Limiting Errors
2.12 Elements of Electronic Instruments
2.13 Selection, Care, and Use of Instruments

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2.1 Introduction to Measurement Systems

 Measurement is the act, or the result, of a quantitative comparison between a

given quantity and a quantity of the same kind chosen as a unit. (a given quantity >< a reference/standard quantity)
 The device or instrument used for comparing the unknown quantity with the unit
of measurement or a standard quantity is called a measuring instrument.
 Direct measurement methods: measured directly instead of comparing it
with a standard, e.g., ohmmeter, power by wattmeter, etc.
 Indirect measurement methods: by measuring the functionally related
quantity and calculating the desired quantity rather than measuring it
directly, e.g., measuring voltage (V) and current (I) to determine the
resistance (R).

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2.2 Measurement Units (1)

Table 2.1: Fundamental SI Units

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2.2 Measurement Units (2)

Table 2.2: Derived SI Units

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2.2 Measurement Units (3)

Table 2.2: Derived SI Units (cont.)

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2.2 Measurement Units (4)

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2.2 Measurement Units (5)

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2.2 Measurement Units (6)

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2.2 Measurement Units (7)

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2.3 Measurement System Design (1)

Figure: Elements of a measuring system

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2.3 Measurement System Design (2)

 A measuring system: to provide information about the physical value of some

variable being measured.
 The measuring instrument: to describe a measurement system, whether it
contains only one or many elements.
 Sensor: gives an output that is a function of the measurand.
 Variable conversion elements: to convert the measured signal in a more
convenient form.
 Signal processing: to improve the quality of the output of a measurement
system in some ways.
 Signal transmission: consists of single or multi-cored cable to minimize signal
corruption by induced electrical noise.
 A signal presentation unit or a signal-recording unit: to display the
measured quantities.

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2.4 Measurement System Applications

Figure: Elements of a simple closed-loop control system

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We Need to Measure Many Different Things

Length Temperature

Weight

Speed

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Temperature Measurement

Materials (e.g. mercury) expand

when heated
100
Idea: Connect a reservoir to
90
a very thin tube to make the
expansion more noticeable 80
70
Put tick marks and numbers next 60
The standard unit to the tube by exposing the 50
of temperature: thermometer to known
0 Celsius degree 40
temperatures (0C for melting ice, 30
or 100 Celsius degree
100C for boiling water)
20
10
0 C 0
32 F
100 C
212 F

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Measuring Instruments

A Second Way for Measuring Temperature

Different materials expand by

different amounts when heated

Idea: Connect two different metals

together to form a strip. Different
expansions will cause the strip to
bend when heated.

Bimetal strip
Use spiral shape to
convert the shifting
motion into rotation

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Measuring Speed
Goleta

How fast the car is moving is But how do you measure

proportional to how fast the electricity?
wheels are spinning

Idea: Convert the spinning

motion to electricity (as in a
hand-crank flashlight that
gives-off more light the faster
you turn the crank)

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Measuring Instruments

Measuring Electrical Voltage

When there is no electricity

in the circuit, the spring keeps
the needle at 0.

Electricity in the circuit turns the needle’s

wire coil into a magnet that pulls rest
the iron vane. position
spring

The higher the electrical voltage,

the stronger the magnetic pull of
the wire coil and the greater the
rightward movement of the
needle.

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2.5 Introduction to Instrumentation

 Analog instruments  Electromechanical measuring system

 Digital instruments  Power electronic based measuring system (e.g. using
IGBTs, MOSFET, BJT, OP-AMP,…)

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2.6 Functions and Characteristics of instruments

 Instruments have three basic functions: indicating, recording, and

controlling.
 General-purpose electrical and electronic test instruments: primarily
provide indicating and recording functions.
 The instrumentation used in industrial-process situations: frequently
provides a control function  called a control or automated system.

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2.7 Electrical Units

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2.8 Measurement Standards

 The international standards are defined by international agreement.

 The primary standards: maintained at national standards laboratories in
different countries (The National Bureau of Standards (NBS) in Washington
D.C., is responsible for maintaining the primary standards in North America)
 The secondary standards (basic reference standards): used by measurement
and calibration laboratories in the industry to which they belong.
 The working standards: are the principal tools of a measurements laboratory

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2.9 Error in Measurement (1)

 Measurement is the process of comparing an unknown quantity with an

accepted standard quantity (so-called the expected (true) value). It involves
connecting a measuring instrument into the system under consideration and
observing the resulting response on the instrument.
 Error of the measurement: the different degree between the measured value
to the expected value.
 Error may be expressed either as absolute or as a percent of error.

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2.9 Error in Measurement (2)

 Absolute error: the difference between the expected value of the variable and
the measured value of the variable

Percent of error is relative error, the unit is %

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2.9 Error in Measurement (3)

 Relative Accuracy:

 Exercise 1:

(relative error)

(relative accuracy)

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2.9 Error in Measurement (4)

Exercise 1 (cont.):

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Relative error

Absolute error
Relative error

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2.9 Error in Measurement (5)

 If a measurement is accurate, it must also be precise; that is, accuracy

implies precision.
 The reverse, however, is not necessarily true; that is, precision does not
necessarily imply accuracy.

 The precision of a measurement is a quantitative, or numerical, indication

of the closeness with which a repeated set of measurements of the same
variable agrees with the average of the set of measurements.

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Note: The measurement precision depends on the smallest change (resolution)

observed in the measured quantity.

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2.9 Error in Measurement (6)

 Exercise 2: The following set of ten measurements was recorded in the

laboratory. Calculate the precision of the fourth measurement.

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2.9 Error in Measurement (7) Significant number

(the significant number is 3)

(the significant number is 4)

(the significant number is 4)

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2.9 Error in Measurement (8)

(the significant number is 3)

(the significant number is 4)

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2.9 Error in Measurement (9)

 Error is the deviation of a reading or set of readings from the expected value of
the measured variable.
 Gross errors: are generally the fault of the person using the instruments
(e.g. incorrect reading of instruments, incorrect recording of experimental
data, or incorrect use of instruments)
 Systematic errors: are due to problems with instruments (e.g. mal-
operations, losses, calibration…), environmental effects (e.g. temperature,
pressure, or humidity…), or observational errors (e.g. reading a meter scale,
the error of estimation when obtaining a reading)
 These errors recur for the same quantity under the same conditions.
 Random errors: are generally the accumulation of a large number of small
effects. Such errors can only be analyzed statistically.

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2.9 Error in Measurement (10)

 Instrument>>>
A device or mechanism used to determine the present value of a quantity under
observation.
 Measurement>>>
The art (or process) of determining the amount, quantity, degree, or capacity by
comparison (direct or indirect) with accepted standards of the system of units
employed.
 Expected value>>>
“The most probable value" that calculations indicate one should expect to
measure.

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2.9 Error in Measurement (11)

 Accuracy>>>
The degree of exactness of a measurement compared to the expected value, or
the most probable value, of the variable being measured.
 Resolution>>>
The smallest change in a measured variable to which an instrument will respond.
 Precision>>>
A measure of the consistency or repeatability of measurements.

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2.9 Error in Measurement (12)

 Exercise 3:

A basic deflection-type meter movement

(the input to the instrument is current

whereas the output is the angular
displacement of the needle)

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2.9 Error in Measurement (13)

 Exercise 3 (cont.):
The average output, determined by adding the output values and dividing by eight,
is equal to 20.02 degrees. The fifth reading differs from the average by the
greatest amount  The worst-case precision

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2.10 Statistical Analysis of Error in Measurement (1)

 A statistical analysis to allow us to obtain the mean value, average deviation,
and standard deviation of our data  to make quantitative judgments of the
variations, or errors, in our data.

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2.10 Statistical Analysis of Error in Measurement (2)

 Exercise 4:

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2.10 Statistical Analysis of Error in Measurement (3)

 The average deviation of a set of numbers is:

 The standard deviation for a set of values is the degree to which the values
vary about the average value. The standard deviation of a set of n numbers is

(n-1)

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Example:

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2.11 Limiting Errors (1)

 A full-scale reading is guaranteed to be within the limits of 2% of a perfectly

accurate reading  limiting error

 Exercise 5:

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2.11 Limiting Errors (2)

 Exercise 6:
A voltmeter and an ammeter are to be used to determine the power dissipated
in a resistor. Both instruments are guaranteed to be accurate within 1% at full-
scale deflection. If the voltmeter reads 80V on its 150-V range and the ammeter
reads 70 mA on its 100-mA range, determine the limiting error for the power
calculation.

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2.11 Limiting Errors (3)

 Exercise 6 (cont.):
A voltmeter and an ammeter are to be used to determine the power dissipated
in a resistor. Both instruments are guaranteed to be accurate within 1% at full-
scale deflection. If the voltmeter reads 80V on its 150-V range and the ammeter
reads 70 mA on its 100-mA range, determine the limiting error for the power
calculation.

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Measurement error combinations

 Examples:

(5/180)*100=2.8%

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Measurement error combinations (cont.)

(5/20)*100=25%

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Measurement error combinations (cont.)

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Measurement error combinations (cont.)

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Measurement error combinations (cont.)

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2.12 Elements of Electronic Instruments (1)

 The transducer converts a nonelectrical signal into an electrical signal.

 The signal modifier is required to process the incoming electrical signal to
make it suitable for application to the indicating device.
 The indicating device is generally a deflection-type meter for such as
voltmeters, current meters or choppers.

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Homework (1)

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Homework (2)

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Homework (3)

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Homework (4)

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Homework (5)

Answers:
51.1mA; 44.9mA

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Homework (6)

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Homework (7)

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THANK YOU VERY MUCH

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VIETNAMESE-GERMAN UNIVERSITY

Bui Minh Duong

Lecturer in Electrical Power System
EEIT program, Faculty of Engineering
Email: [email protected]
Mobile phone: 0918163356

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