Science of the Total Environment 544 (2016) 299–308

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Science of the Total Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv

Development of emission factors for motorcycles and shared

auto-rickshaws using real-world driving cycle for a typical Indian city
Prasenjit Adak, Ravi Sahu, Suresh Pandian Elumalai ⁎
Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad 826004, Jharkhand, India

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Real-world DCs were developed for

typical Indian shared auto-rickshaws.
• EFs using real-world DCs differed signif-
icantly than EFs from legislative DCs.
• Real-world DCs for shared auto-rickshaws
yielded high EFs.
• Number of passengers in shared auto-
rickshaws linearly affected EF of CO.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Vehicular emission is one of the most important contributors of urban air pollution. To quantify the impact of traf-
Received 25 June 2015 fic on urban air quality, it is necessary to quantify vehicular emission. In many cities of India, such as Dhanbad,
Received in revised form 19 November 2015 shared auto-rickshaw is the pre-dominant mode of transportation. Indian Driving Cycle (IDC) and Modified
Accepted 20 November 2015
Indian Driving Cycle (MIDC) are used for emission testing of motorcycles, shared auto-rickshaws and passenger
Available online xxxx
cars in India for regulatory purposes. IDC used for motorcycles and shared auto-rickshaws does not recognize the
Editor: D. Barcelo difference in two vehicle classes in terms of driving pattern. In real world, shared auto-rickshaws, behave differ-
ently than motorcycles. To quantify the impact of shared auto-rickshaws on urban air quality accurately, emission
Keywords: factors (EFs) are required to derive from real-world driving cycles (DCs). In heterogeneous traffic, vehicles of one
Driving cycle class affect the behavior of vehicles of other classes. To estimate the emissions from different vehicle classes ac-
Emission factor curately, EFs for motorcycles and passenger cars are also required to be revised. In this study, real-world DCs were
Heterogeneous traffic developed for motorcycles, shared auto-rickshaws and passenger cars in Dhanbad. Developed DCs were used to
Motorcycles calculate EFs for respective classes. Shared auto-rickshaws were found to have the highest deviation from EFs de-
Shared auto-rickshaw
rived using IDC.
Passenger cars
© 2015 Published by Elsevier B.V.

1. Introduction

⁎ Corresponding author. Air pollution due to vehicular emission is a major environmental

E-mail address: [email protected] (S.P. Elumalai). issue as well as an important health concern for the inhabitants of

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.11.099
0048-9697/© 2015 Published by Elsevier B.V.
300 P. Adak et al. / Science of the Total Environment 544 (2016) 299–308

Fig. 1. Study route for speed profile measurement to generate representative DCs for motorcycles, shared auto-rickshaws and passenger cars in Dhanbad (Base map source: “Dhanbad”
Map. Google Maps. Google, 10 Dec. 2014. Web. 10 Dec. 2014.).

large cities and sub-urban areas (Lakshmanan et al., 2015; Kamal et al., average speed emission models (eg. MOBILE) do not account for
2015; Zhang and Batterman, 2013). World population of vehicles in- speed change in small scale due to traffic congestion and are unable to
creased drastically in last two decades. In 1994, worldwide population recognize different driving modes, which results in uncertainties in
of passenger cars was 98.305 million. In 2012 the population increased emission estimates. On the other hand modal emission models focus
to about 773.323 million (Davis et al., 2014). Rapid growth in number of on intricate details of traffic dynamics and consider variations in emis-
vehicles and lack of required road facilities lead to severe traffic conges- sion rates due to different driving modes. Some of the existing modal
tion in intra-urban roadways especially at intersections and hence affect emission models such as, Comprehensive Modal Emission Model
the driving pattern. Moreover, heavy movement of vehicles during (CMEM) (Barth et al., 2000), VT-Micro (Ahn et al., 1999) require
peak-hours aggravates the congestion phenomena. Stopping delay second-wise vehicle speed data to calculate instantaneous emission
and approach delay due to traffic congestion lengthen the total travel rates. Furthermore, they are used to derive acceleration and % time
time and consequently increase the total emission from the vehicles. spent in each driving mode.
Moreover, vehicles in accelerating and decelerating mode of driving Driving cycles (DCs) of a particular region provide a generalized es-
are found to emit pollutants in different quantity (Coelho et al., 2005; timate of speed–time profile and modal distribution in terms of dura-
Hung et al., 2005; Ahn et al., 2002; Frey et al., 2001; Rouphail et al., tion and frequency. There are two types of DCs in use: legislative DCs
2001). So, the fraction of time a vehicle spends in different modes also and real world DCs. Legislative DCs are used to test emission from all
has significance in pollutant emission. mass produced vehicles to get authorization for selling in market. In
To design any policy to minimize the traffic associated emission and India, Indian Driving Cycle (IDC) and Modified Indian driving cycle
its exposure to human beings, the detailed understanding and accurate (MIDC) is used for legislative purpose. MIDC is 108 s long speed profile
site-specific quantification of vehicular emission is very crucial. Emis- consisting of 16 s of idling, 13 s of cruising, 42 s of accelerating and 37 s
sion models play a very important role to serve this purpose. Emission of decelerating period (MoRTH, 2010). In real world, speed–time profile
models can estimate vehicular emission using both average travel differ city to city as each city has its unique features such as topography,
speed and second by second speed–time profile. Macroscopic or average width of roads, composition of vehicle fleet etc. Vehicle type,
traffic facility type and time of the day also influence the speed–time
profiles (Yu et al., 2010; Kamble et al., 2009; Saleh et al., 2009; Hung
Table 1
Specification of different vehicle categories used in present study.
et al., 2007; Ericsson, 2001). For example, many cities in India lack

Parameters Motorcycle Shared auto-rickshaw Passenger car

Table 2
Mass of vehicle + passengers 127 + 130 695 + 480 1650 + 240 Indian emission standards for motorcycles and three-wheelers used in present study
(kg) (ARAI, 2011).
Frontal surface area (m2) 1.39 2.5546 2.5546
Wheel diameter (m) 0.62 0.25 0.38 Type of vehicle Sub-category Vintage Fuel Emission factors
Gear Ratios 1st 3.00 3.32 3.81
CO HC NOx
2nd 1.69 2.09 2.25
3rd 1.20 1.35 1.51 Motorcycle (4 s) 100–200 cm3 Post 2000 BS-II 1.48 0.50 0.54
4th 0.875 1 1 Three wheeler diesel b500 cm3 Post 2005 BS-II 0.41 0.14 0.51
Drag co-efficient 0.7 0.7 0.48 Passenger cars (Diesel) b1600 cm3 Post 2005 BS-II 0.06 0.08 0.28
 P. Adak et al. / Science of the Total Environment 544 (2016) 299–308 301

Fig. 2. Comparison of real-world DC for motorcycles and shared auto-rickshaws with IDC for motor vehicles.

proper regulations for public transports regarding passenger pick-up cycle for motorcycles are still in scarcity. Real-world DC for motorcycles
sites which lead to abrupt and unplanned stoppage on various locations has been developed for few regions such as Taipei (Tzeng and Chen,
on road resulting severe traffic congestions. On the other hand, real- 1998) and some other regions in Taiwan (Chen et al., 2003), Kaohsiung
world DCs are derived from actual trip data on the roads. Many (Tsai et al., 2005), Edinburg (Saleh et al., 2009), Hanoi (Tong et al., 2011)
researchers have successfully developed real-world DCs for different and Khon Kaen (Seedam et al., 2015). In India, real-world DC for motor-
cities. Some of such DCs are Urban Emissions Drive Cycles (UEDC), cycles has been developed only for Delhi (Saleh et al., 2010). An exclu-
ARTEMIS European DCs, Hong Kong DC, Kaohsiung DC, Athens DC, sive test cycle (MoRTH, 2010), designed for motorcycle and three-
DT80 DC, FTP-75 DC, Bangkok DC, LA92 DC, SC03 and US06 DC (Tsai wheelers, is presently in use for legislative purpose but adopting the
et al., 2005; Montazeri-Gh and Naghizadeh., 2003; Tong et al., 1999). same test cycle for two different vehicle classes is not realistic as it
In India, Pune (Kamble et al., 2009), Chennai (Nesamani and does not address the obvious difference in driving pattern of motorcy-
Subramanian, 2011), Maharashtra (Maurya and Bokare, 2012) and cles and shared auto-rickshaws due to their dimensional variation and
Delhi (Chugh et al., 2012), DCs for busses are developed. non-identical stoppage pattern. Shared auto-rickshaw is one of the
Due to mixed traffic condition existing in Indian roads and varying most common public transports in cities of developing countries like
physical dimensions, different vehicle classes have different driving be- India. Lack of public transport in Dhanbad made shared auto-
haviors thus creating difference over time span resulting in different rickshaws as the only vehicle type for public transport within the city
driving modes. Larger vehicles generally move slowly and affect the and near-by regions. Although studies on emissions from Indian auto-
other classes more often whereas, smaller vehicles such as motorcycle rickshaw operating on IDC was done (Grieshop et al., 2012), no distinct
and auto-rickshaw can maneuver more fluently in dense traffic zones. DC is reported for the same. As a result estimation of vehicular emission
In order to quantify this variation among vehicle classes, it is utmost for air quality modeling using a common driving pattern tends to yield a
necessary to study driving cycles in real-world scenario. Exclusive driv- serious deviation from observation. It is useful to understand the effect
ing cycles such as WMTC (Worldwide harmonized Motorcycle emission of shared autos on personal vehicles to identify the suitable manage-
Test Cycle) for motorcycle are in extensive use, but real-world driving ment options.

Table 3
Properties of different DCs for different vehicle classes in Dhanbad and their corresponding legislative IDCs.

Motorcycle Shared auto-rickshaw IDC for motor vehicles Passenger cars MIDC for passenger cars

Time duration (s) 1683 3493 2136 2697 1744

Road length (m) 12,998.02 13,008.48 13,001.43 13,042.19 13,012.36
Avg speed incl idle (km/h) 27.82 13.41 21.92 17.42 26.88
Avg speed excl idle (km/h) 28.65 14.79 26.08 17.55 37.54
Max. speed (km/h) 64.01 51.80 42.00 39.10 90.00
Total idle time (s) 49 325 340 20 495
No. of idle period 9 27 21 20 23
No. of micro-tips 8 26 20 19 22
Mean length of driving periods (s) 204.13 121.81 89.75 140.84 56.73
Avg acc (m/s2) 0.79 0.37 0.74 0.15 0.58
Avg dec (m/s2) −0.81 −0.47 −0.89 −0.13 −0.89
RMS acc (m/s2) 2.26 2.18 2.06 0.41 2.75
% Time spent in idle mode 2.91 9.31 15.93 0.74 28.40
% Time spent in acc mode 41.20 40.21 38.31 45.62 20.71
% Time spent in dec mode 43.04 43.50 33.63 41.39 15.78
% Time spent in cruising mode 12.90 7.02 12.18 12.28 35.17
302 P. Adak et al. / Science of the Total Environment 544 (2016) 299–308

Fig. 3. Comparison of real-world DC for passenger cars with MIDC.

Fig. 4. Emission rate generated from DC of motorcycles: (a) CO, (b) HC (c) NOx.
 P. Adak et al. / Science of the Total Environment 544 (2016) 299–308 303

Fig. 5. Emission rate generated from DC of shared auto-rickshaws: (a) CO, (b) HC (c) NOx.

Present study focuses on development of real-world DCs for motor- 13 km long road segment up to Bank More covering a large and populat-
cycles, shared auto-rickshaws and passenger cars using GPS as well as ed part of Dhanbad city is selected for generation of speed profiles of dif-
attempts inter-comparison among all developed DCs, IDC and MIDC. ferent classes of vehicles (Fig. 1).
This study also quantifies the impact of real-world DCs on vehicular
emission estimation by comparing Emission Factors (EFs) derived 2.2. Data collection
using real-world DCs and legislative DCs.
Data collection methods, presently in use for vehicle speed profiling,
2. Materials and methods can be categorized into three: Chase-car method, on-board measure-
ment method and hybrid of chase-car and on-board measurement
2.1. Study area methods. Chase-car method involves equipped car to follow randomly
chosen vehicles imitating their driving patterns. Driving Cycles for
Dhanbad is one of the 24 critically polluted areas identified by CPCB Bangkok, Hong Kong, Edinburgh, Sydney and Pune was developed
(2009). Being designated as the “coal capital of India”, Dhanbad experi- using this technique. In on-board measurement method, vehicle of in-
ences a huge flow of daily traffic and hence increased level of pollutant terest is equipped with instruments to collect trip data and a combined
load, especially at occupational areas. Most of these occupational sites form of chase-car and on-board measurement to record vehicle speed
are located beside (mostly at intersections) National Highway 32 (NH- (Wang et al., 2014; Tong and Hung, 2010; Niemeier et al., 1999). Present
32) as it is the most important roadway of Dhanbad. Part of NH-32 lo- study uses on-board measurement method of data collection. This
cated in Dhanbad city, experiences dual mode of traffic activities. A por- method was used to develop driving cycles of South Korea, New Delhi,
tion of the road falls into dense commercial area (such as, Bank More, Malaysia and Singapore.
City Center etc.) and other portion is in less dense area and in close vi- In traffic fleet of Dhanbad, heavy motor vehicles like busses are rare.
cinity of another highway (NH-2). Therefore the impact of heavy vehicle on traffic characteristics of
NH-32 connects Govindpur in Dhanbad district with Jamshedpur in Dhanbad is negligible. Traffic fleet in Dhanbad is mainly composed of
East Singhbhum district in Jharkhand. The total length of NH-32 is motorcycles, shared auto-rickshaws and passenger cars. These three dif-
179 km. It originates from the intersection of NH-2 at Govindpur. A ferent classes of vehicles were used in study. Vehicles were equipped
304 P. Adak et al. / Science of the Total Environment 544 (2016) 299–308

Fig. 6. Emission rate generated from DC of passenger cars: (a) CO, (b) HC (c) NOx.

with GPS-based speed recorder and 10 runs for each vehicle class were square of acceleration, time proportion of idling, accelerating, decelerat-
executed. Vehicle speed data were collected on weekdays of at peak ing and cruising mode. Averages of each of the vectors for all the cycles
hours (8:00 AM to 11:00 AM). were estimated. Every cycle was segregated into a pool of micro-trips.
The computer program generated candidate cycles by randomly
2.3. Generation of representative DC selecting micro-trips from the pool. The vectors of the candidate cycle
were then estimated and compared with its corresponding mean
Representative DC was generated with a custom made computer values. The cycle producing minimum error was selected as the repre-
program written in AutoIt (a BASIC-like scripting language). All 10 sentative driving cycle.
test cycles of each road segment and each vehicle class were then
preprocessed using a method adopted by FHWA (Fincher et al., 2010) 2.4. Emission estimation
which involves removal of waiting time, stuck speed blocks and false
trips. Process of considering a candidate cycle as representative was To estimate CO, HC and NOx emission from each vehicle classes using
based on following parameters (vectors): average speed (including their corresponding driving cycles, Comprehensive Modal Emission
idle time), average speed (excluding idle time), maximum speed, total Model (CMEM) was used. Emission estimation using MIDC and test
idle time, number of idle periods, number of micro-trips, mean length cycle for motor vehicles was also done for comparative analysis.
of driving period, average acceleration and deceleration, root mean CMEM uses power demand approach to calculate fuel rate and derived
fuel rate is used to estimate vehicular emission.
Change in operating gear breaks the linear relationship between ve-
Table 4
Comparison of EFs (g/km) of different vehicle classes. hicle speed and engine rpm and thus contributes in uncertainties in en-
gine torque calculation using vehicle speed. These uncertainties get
IDC Local DC for motorcycle Local DC for shared auto-rickshaw
manifested into fuel rate calculation and finally in emission estimation.
CO 0.41 1.60 7.24 To eliminate this gear related uncertainty, gear shift schedule is re-
HC 0.14 0.45 1.47 quired for the model. In this study, gear change is simulated on the
NOx 0.51 0.46 1.32
basis of vehicle speed. The threshold speeds for each gear was obtained
 P. Adak et al. / Science of the Total Environment 544 (2016) 299–308 305

Fig. 7. EF developed using real-world DC of motorcycles. Fig. 9. Difference in % of EF of motorcycles and shared auto-rickshaws from standard EFs of
motorcycles.

by averaging the field observations of gear change pattern of 20 samples

of each vehicle type. The basic information required for model run, was out emission module were calibrated using regression method as de-
obtained from the documentations of the vehicles provided by the man- scribed in Barth et al. (2000). Indian emission standards of different ve-
ufacturers and field observation (Table 1). hicle classes were converted into emission rates of IDC. Using IDC
Rolling resistance co-efficient was estimated using the method de- derived emission rates in place of engine-out emission rates of corre-
scribed in Hersey and Mayo (1970, 1969). sponding pollutants, model parameters were calibrated by regressing
Second-wise emissions from each representative DCs were cumulat- emission rates against fuel rates. Once the model parameters were cal-
ed to find out the EF of a single unit of certain vehicle class. The model ibrated, they were used to estimate the emission rates from different ve-
parameters were calibrated using the EF standards for motorcycle, hicle classes.
auto-rickshaws and passenger cars (Table 2). Parameters for engine-

Fig. 8. EF developed using real-world DC of shared auto-rickshaws. Fig. 10. Difference in EF between motorcycles and shared auto-rickshaws following IDC.
306 P. Adak et al. / Science of the Total Environment 544 (2016) 299–308

Fig. 11. Effect of no. of passengers on EF of shared auto-rickshaws. Fig. 13. EF developed using real-world DC of passenger cars.

3. Results and discussion 2136 s to travel the entire study route, whereas while following real-
world representative driving cycle, motorcycles take 453 s less to
3.1. Driving characteristics cover the same distance. A significant difference in terms of total idle
period between IDC and real-world DC was observed. For IDC 340 s of
The local DC for motorcycles and shared auto-rickshaws is presented idle time is observed but in real-world, only 49 s of idle time was
in Fig. 2 and compared against IDC for motor vehicles. The properties of observed. Average acceleration and deceleration showed very little de-
developed DCs and their corresponding IDCs are tabulated in Table 3. As viation which implies that the difference in total travel delay is mostly
a single cycle of IDC covers only 3948 m distance, it is repeated several because of lesser idle time spent in real-world. Remarkable difference
times until it covers the distance of the study route. Local DC for motor- in mean driving period was observed. In case of IDC, mean driving
cycle differs from IDC in many cases. A vehicle following IDC takes period is 89.75, but in real-world, it is found to be 204.13. It can be

Fig. 12. % Difference in EF of shared auto-rickshaw between IDC and real-world DC. Fig. 14. Comparison of EF of different vehicle categories.
 P. Adak et al. / Science of the Total Environment 544 (2016) 299–308 307

interpreted that shorter duration of dense vehicle condition or very cars get free space to move without idling. Due to their high and decel-
short congestion period. Real-world DC of motorcycles was found to eration property, motorcycles avoid the row of continuously moving
be greater to presently used legislative IDC for motor vehicles in terms cars. Besides, motorcycles are used for shorter trips. As the study route
of average speed. The percentage of time spent in cruising mode in is one way, most of the arterial roads open on its left side. So they mostly
real-world DC was found to be close to that of IDC. Maximum speed of tend to take left side for ease of slowing down and exit the highway
motorcycles was found to be greater in real-world scenario. whenever required. As a result, motorcycles end up following shared
Shared auto-rickshaws, while following real-world representative auto-rickshaws. When shared auto-rickshaws stop unexpectedly, mo-
DC, take 3493 s to travel the road segment under study, which is more torists find difficulty in maneuvering and assimilating themselves into
than 1.5 times of that of IDC. The percentage of time spent in idle the stream of moving cars on right side. Although for all vehicle classes
mode in real-world DC was found to be 9.31 whereas, for IDC, it is under study, percentage of time spent in accelerating, decelerating and
15.93. Average acceleration and deceleration was found to be much cruising mode showed significant deviation from their respective IDCs,
lower than that of IDC but the percentage of time spent in acceleration the time shares were found to be similar for all study vehicles classes.
and deceleration mode was higher than IDC which is possibly due to
higher load on the vehicle. A shared auto-rickshaw in study area carries 3.2. Emission factor
10 passengers most of the times whereas test vehicles in chassis dyna-
mometer testing experience much less load. Moreover, due to the over- CMEM provides second wise emission from a vehicle. Figs. 4–6 de-
load of the vehicle, drivers tend to take extra care for passenger safety picts the ER of CO, HC and NOx motorcycles, shared auto-rickshaws
which causes smoother driving pattern. Average travel speed excluding and passenger cars. To derive EF from output data, the emissions for en-
idle period shared auto-rickshaws for real-world DC was found to be tire trip duration was summed up and divided into each kilometer of
14.79. For IDC, it was 26.08. Lower average speed may be a combined re- study road length. EF of motorcycles for CO was found to be slightly
sult of less freedom of the vehicle to maneuver due to larger size and higher than regulatory standard, whereas EFs for HC and NOx were
drivers concern for public safety. Another additional reason for lower lower than the standard (Table 4; Fig. 7). For shared auto-rickshaws,
speed is occasional slowing down of the vehicles due to the expectation EF was found to be much higher for all three pollutants (Fig. 8). EF for
of passenger pick-up at sites other than pre-planned auto-rickshaw CO was more than 350% higher than the standard EF of motorcycles.
stands. Largely diverse length of driving period and less time spent in For HC and NOx, EF was several times higher than the standard
cruising mode also explain this phenomenon. High maximum speed (Fig. 9). Emission rate was simulated on IDC for motor vehicles using
(51.8 km/h) in spite of much lower average speed indicates the occur- specifications of both motorcycles and shared auto-rickshaws. Motorcy-
rence of long mid-block sections with very less traffic flow and absence cles and shared auto-rickshaws following same IDC showed significant
of auto-rickshaw stoppages. difference in derived EF (Fig. 10). The difference is due to different vehi-
MIDC is an 1180 s long cycle which covers 10.647 km distance. To cle mass, frontal surface area and wheel diameter. Number of passen-
cover the entire study route, it was repeated accordingly. Fig. 3 shows gers carried by shared auto-rickshaws plays a major role in emission
MIDC and real-world DC for the study route. Properties of MIDC and as it increases the vehicle load which eventually increases vehicle spe-
real-world DC for passenger cars are shown in Table 3. Passenger cars cific power (VSP) and hence the fuel rate and emission. Fig. 11 shows
following MIDC take 1744 s to cover the total length of the study the effect of passenger numbers in a shared auto-rickshaw on emission.
route but in real world scenario, passenger cars take 953 s more to travel Apart from vehicle characteristics, difference in emission solely due to
the same distance. Remarkable difference in percentage of time in idle driving pattern difference is shown in Fig. 12.
mode between MIDC and real-world DC was observed. For MIDC, Passenger cars were also seen to be emitting more pollutants than
28.4% of the total time was spent in idle mode, but in real-world DC, it prescribed standards for all three pollutants (Fig. 13). Shared auto-
was found as low as 0.74%. As the number of idle periods did not rickshaws were found to be the most polluting vehicle among all vehicle
show much deviation, it can be elucidated that passenger cars on classes under study (Fig. 14) which indicates the highest deviation of
study route experience few congestions with numerous micro idle pe- real-world scenario from ideal IDC. The deviation is the combined effect
riods with very short duration and consequently short running periods of vehicle specification related uncertainties and different driving
that are similar to false trips with slightly higher duration than thresh- behavior.
old limit of 5 s and therefore were not removed in data pre-processing
stage of DC development. Average speed for real-world DC was ob- 4. Conclusion
served as 17.42 km/h which is less than half of that of MIDC. Average
speed of passenger cars in real-world scenario is more close to elemen- Real-world DC for shared auto-rickshaws was found to be signifi-
tary urban cycle (MIDC part I only, excluding extra-urban cycle) which cantly different from IDC which is in use for legislative purpose, espe-
is 19 km/h. Although average acceleration and deceleration is much cially in terms of idle period, average speed, average acceleration and
lower in real-world DC than that of MIDC but time spent in acceleration deceleration. This is mostly due to complex interaction among different
and deceleration mode was found to be more than 2 times of that of classes of vehicles in heterogeneous fleet. Shared auto-rickshaws and
MIDC, which indicates a smooth driving pattern of passenger cars. motorcycles showed a very different type of driving pattern due to
Among all vehicle classes, motorcycles were found to have the their structural differences, gross weight and their purpose of existence.
highest average speed (27.82 km/h), followed by cars (17.42 km/h). So, using same driving cycle for both of the vehicle classes to estimate
The slowest moving vehicle class in the study route was observed to vehicular emission yields huge difference in CO, HC and NOx emission.
be the shared auto-rickshaws (13.41 km/h). One of the major reasons Simulation of emission using real-world driving cycle reveals that
behind this is the time taken by shared auto-rickshaws to pick the pas- shared auto-rickshaws have the highest emission factor among all vehi-
sengers up. As a proof, it can be shown that among all vehicle classes cle classes under study hence it has greater contribution in local air
under study, shared auto-rickshaws spend greater amount of time in quality degradation. Real-world DC for passenger cars showed signifi-
idle mode (325 s) where motorcycles spend 49 s and car spend 20 s in cant deviation from MIDC in terms of time spent in different driving
idle mode. Despite of their smaller width, motorcycles spend more in modes, average speed, maximum speed, average acceleration and de-
idle mode than cars in present study route. This phenomenon is caused celeration and hence generates significantly different level of emission
by the abrupt stopping behavior of shared auto-rickshaws. Shared auto- estimates. So to obtain more accurate emission estimates, real-world
rickshaws tend to move along the left side of the road throughout the driving cycle for concerned region should be used.
entire trip as in this way it is easier to pick up passengers and major con- Developed DCs will help policy makers to propose various policies to
gestion can be avoided as well. As a result, on the right side of the road, reduce emission and delay such as, replacement of shared auto-
308 P. Adak et al. / Science of the Total Environment 544 (2016) 299–308

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