THE SENTENCE

A sentence is a unit of speech made up according to the rules

existing in the language. It is a means of conveying a thought and
also expresses the speaker’s attitude to it. Sentences are classified
according to two main principles: according to the structure and
according to their communicative purpose.

Sentence (Structure)

simple composite

one- member two- member compound complex

nominal verbal complete incomplete (elliptical)

The difference between the simple and composite sentences: the
simple sentence has one subject and predicate, whereas the
composite sentences have more than one predicative lines. The
difference between the complete and incomplete (elliptical)
sentences: the complete sentence has a subject and a predicate,
while in incomplete sentences one or both of them are omitted. The
omitted part of the sentence can be understood from the context.

- Who came first yesterday?

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- John. (the predicate came is omitted)

- Have you done the translation?

- Sure I have. (part of the predicate, done, is omitted)

- What did you do on Sunday?

- Relaxed. (the subject I is omitted)
The difference between elliptical and one-member sentences: in an
elliptical sentence a member is missing which can be guessed and
restored, while a one-member sentence has one member which is
neither a subject, nor a predicate. So the one-member sentence is
complete. One-member sentences can be nominal(expressed by a
noun or a nominal part of speech) or verbal (expressed by an
infinitive or a gerund).
Summer. Hot. It’s becoming unbearable! (nominal)
Living like a fool! That’s not for me. (verbal)
The difference between extended and unexpended sentences: the
unextended sentence consists of principal parts only (subject and
predicate), the extended sentence consists of principal and
secondary parts(object, adverbial modifier, attribute).
It is raining. (unextended)
It was raining in Yerevan yesterday. (extended)
According to the purpose of communication sentences are
classified into declarative, interrogative, exclamatory and
imperative.
Declarative sentences state a fact in the affirmative or negative
form. They are characterized by direct word-order (subject-
predicate-object).

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Interrogative sentences ask for information and have inverted
word-order (predicate-subject-object). Alongside with this
meaning, they can express various other meanings as well.
Would you mind if I smoke? (asking for permission)

Can I help you? (offer)

Shall we dine out today? (suggestion)
Interrogative sentences are classified into:
a) general (yes/no) – open with an auxiliary or a modal verb
(Do they work together? Can we meet today?)
b) special (-wh) – open with a question word (Where do you
live? How old is your brother?)
c) disjunctive (tag) – consist of a statement and a tag. If the
statement is affirmative, the tag is negative. If the statement
is negative, the tag is affirmative (though in colloquial
speech this rule is not always observed).
You live with your parents, don’t you?
You don’t live with your parents, do you?
Note: the first part of tag questions can be imperative. In
this case the tag doesn’t structurally correspond to it.
Turn down the music, will you?
Come earlier, can you?
Note: I am right, am I not?
I am right, aren’t I?
d) alternative – offer a choice (or).
Is your boss a man or a woman?

Note: there are some other types of questions which do not fall
under the main classification. These are rhetorical, declarative and
echo questions.

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Rhetorical questions are not supposed to have an answer. They
express various emotions, strong opinions, etc. In form rhetorical
questions can be general, special, so it is not a structural type of
question.
Aren’t we all mortal? (We are all mortal.)
Who knows what will happen to him the next day? (Nobody knows
what will happen to him.)
Why should I help him? (I don’t want to help him.)
Declarative questions are not made up by means of inversion. They
express the speaker’s attitude towards the topic and are supposed to
be asserted or rejected.
So you have told him all the truth?
Echo questions are used when the speaker is surprised or hasn’t
heard part of the sentence.

- Have you seen my wallet?

- Have I seen your what?

Imperative sentences express a command, order, request, etc.

The verb here coincides in form with the bare infinitive. (Come
here! Close the door, please.) The negative imperative is
formed by means of the auxiliary do. (Don’t come here. Don’t
close the door, please.) The imperative sentences have no
subject but usually the 2-nd person is implied (you).
Exclamatory sentences express various emotions. They usually
open with the words what, how.
What wonderful children you have!

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How nice she is!
Exclamatory sentences can be one- member.

Living like a fool!

Danger!

THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

The Subject.

The subject is one of the principal parts of the sentence and is

independent of the other parts of the sentence. The morphological
means of еxpressing the subject are:
a) noun in the common or genitive case:
The students are all present at the lecture.
My brother’s is a very nice house.
b) pronoun (demonstrative, personal, interrogative, negative,
possessive, indefinite, defining):
This is a very important piece of information.
He heard a strange noise downstairs.
Nobody came to help them.
Everybody wants to be happy.

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All is well that ends well.
c) substantivized adjective or participle:

The rich should support the poor.

The injured were taken to hospital.
d) numeral (cardinal or ordinal):
The two on the deck seemed quite happy.
The first is usually the most important one.
e) infinitive, infinitive phrase or construction:

To struggle means to endure any difficulty.

To struggle for peace was all he wanted.
For him to struggle for peace was very important.
f) gerund, gerundial phrase or construction:
Painting is not an easy task.
Painting portraits was his only happiness.

John’s painting portraits annoyed his wife.

g) quotation (it can be any part of speech, even a letter or a
sentence):
“Table” is a noun.
“A” is the first letter of the alphabet.

“Don’t come here again” were her last words.

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 e) indivisible word-groups:
A number of students took part in the discussion.

The bread and butter is for you.

It as the Subject of the Sentence.

The subject can be notional, which is expressed by various parts of
speech and has a lexical meaning, and functional (formal), which
has no lexical meaning and performs a grammatical function. It is
notional(personal or demonstrative) when: a) it stands for a definite
thing and is used not to repeat the noun;
Freedom is the most precious thing. It is worth struggling for.
b) it points out a definite person or thing.
It is Mary.

It is a very nice house.

Functional (formal) it is classified as follows:
a) impersonal – denotes natural phenomena, time, distance.
It is raining.
It is 5 o’clock.
How far is it from here to the airport?
b) Introductory (anticipatory) – introduces the notional subject
which is expressed by an infinitive (infinitive phrase,
infinitive construction) or a gerund (gerundial phrase,
gerundial construction).
It is difficult to speak on public.

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 It is difficult for him to speak on public.
It is fun skating with your friends.

Thus in sentences with introductory it there are two subjects – one

is formal, the other is notional.
c) emphatic – it has an emphatic force. Any part of the
sentence can be emphasized by means of emphatic it.
It was John who came first.
It is my home that I like most of all.

Subject

notional functional

definite indefinite impersonal emphatic

introductory (anticipatory)
personal demonstrative

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 The Predicate.
The predicate is the second principal part of the sentence. It
expresses the action, state or quality of the person or thing denoted
by the subject. Unlike the subject, which is independent of the
other parts of the sentence, the predicate grammatically depends on
the subject. In certain cases it agrees with the subject in number
and person.
The child is making a noise.
The children are making a noise.
You are making a noise.

The structural types of the predicate are as follows:

Predicate

simple compound

nominal verbal

modal mixed

aspect

modal aspect
aspect nominal

9 modal nominal
The simple verbal predicate is expressed by: a) a finite verb:
We finished our work in the evening. (synthetic form)
We have already finished our work. (analytical form)
b) a phraseological unit (take care, pay attention, look forward,
have dinner, have a smoke, etc.). The components of these units are
indivisible, so the whole unit is treated as one verb.
She takes care of her sick father.
The had a rest and then continued their way.
The compound predicate consists of two or more elements one of
which is a finite verb.
The compound nominal predicate consists of a link-verb and a
predicative. The lexical meaning of the predicate is expressed by
the predicative, the link-verb expresses various grammatical
categories (tense, aspect, person, number, etc.). Among the most
commonly used link-verbs are: be, become, remain, look, seem,
feel, get, grow, etc.
Note: the same verb can be a finite verb(with a full lexical
meaning) and a link-verb.
She looks happy.(looks – link-verb)
Don’t look at me. (look - finite verb)
They grew tired at the end of the day. (grew – link-verb)
He grows roses in his garden. (grows – finite verb)
The predicative is expressed by:
a) a noun (common or genitive case):
He is a professor.
This bag is the professor’s.

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 b) an adjective:
The girl is very pretty.
The couple looked happy.
c) a pronoun:
Is it yours?
He is nobody to me.
You’re my everything.
d) a numeral (cardinal or ordinal):
I am twenty.
He was the first to speak.
e) an infinitive, infinitive phrase or construction:
My first impulse was to run away.
The best thing was for me to run away.
f) a gerund, gerundial phrase or construction:
The worst thing in life is losing your opportunity.
Our big problem was Bob’s leaving the team.
g) a participle (most often Participle II):
The house looked abandoned.
h) a prepositional phrase:
The engine is out of order.
That was beyond my expectations.
There are two main types of compound verbal predicate – the
compound verbal aspect predicate and the compound verbal modal
predicate. Compound verbal aspect predicate – aspect verb +
infinitive/gerund ( aspect verbs are the verbs which denote the

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beginning, duration or cessation of the action: begin, start, go on,
continue, finish, cease, etc., as well as would and used to).
Suddenly she started crying.
He would sit on the beach for hours looking at the waves.
Note : stop + gerund is a compound verbal predicate;
stop + infinitive – stop is a simple verbal predicate, the infinitive is
an adverbial modifier.
Stop talking nonsense! (cessation of the action)
He stopped to talk to me. (talk – adverbial modifier of purpose)
Compound verbal modal predicate – a) modal verb (modal
expression) +infinitive; b) a verb with a modal meaning (want,
desire, intend,yearn, etc.)+ infinitive/gerund.
You should see a doctor.
I have to tell her the truth.
They want to help you.
We intend taking the risk.
Note : there is a special type of compound verbal modal predicate
which is called a double predicate. The sentences with a double
predicate contain a subjective infinitive construction.
The train is announced to arrive at 5.
I happened to meet him in Paris.
The mixed types consist of two types of predicates described above.
Thus they are classified as follows:
a) compound modal nominal predicate – modal
verb/expression + nominal element:

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 He can become a good doctor.
In that situation I had to be very careful.
b) compound aspect nominal predicate – aspect verb +
nominal element:
Suddenly she stopped being the little girl I knew.
After those words he began to feel guilty.
c) compound modal aspect predicate – modal verb/expression
+ aspect verb + infinitive/gerund:
Now we have to begin saving our money.
You should stop teasing her.

Agreement of the Predicate with the Subject.

The predicate agrees with the subject in person and number (though
in many cases the verb has no markers showing those categories).
The rules of the agreement of the predicate with the subject are the
following:
1. If there are two or more homogenious subjects in the sentence,
the predicate is used in the plural:
The carpet and the table are in the middle of the room.
If the homogenious subjects are expressed by infinitives, the
predicate is in the plural:
To live in the camp and help the poor was all she wanted.
The two subjects sometimes denote the same person or thing. In
this case the predicate is used in the singular:
Her mother and best friend was always there to help her.
2. In sentences introduced by here/there the predicate agrees with
the first subject following it:

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There is a table and six chairs in the room.
There are six chairs and a table in the room.
3. If the subjects are connected by the conjunctions not only…but
(also), neither…nor, either…or, nor, or, the predicate agrees with
the last subject:
Not only Bob but also his parents are involved in this affair.
Not only his parents but also his wife is in involved in this affair.
4. If the subjects are connected by as well as, (together) with,
rather than, the predicate agrees with the first subject:
Mary, as well as her parents, was present at the wedding.
His friends, as well as his wife, were present at the wedding.
5. If the subject is expressed by indefinite, negative or defining
pronouns, the predicate is always singular:
Everything was ready for the trip.
Nobody likes being ignored.
Each was given two copies.
6. If the subject is expressed by emphatic it, the predicate is always
used in the singular:
It is John who always helps me.
It is my old friends who always help me.
7. With the titles of books, names of magazines and newspapers the
predicate is singular, even if the title/name is plural:
The Times is one of the oldest newspapers in the world.

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8. If the subject of the sentence is expressed by a collective noun
(family, band, orchestra, government, etc.), The predicate can be
singular or plural. When the idea of oneness is important, the
predicate is singular:
The government tries to do everything possible to help the poor.
Their family is famous for charity.
But if each member is meant, the predicate is used in the plural:
The government were all present at the funeral.
Their family go to church every Sunday.
Note: with the nouns humanity, mankind the predicate is always
singular. With the nouns people, cattle, police, jury the predicate is
plural.
9.With word-groups denoting calculations the predicate is singular:
Two and two is four.

THE SECONDARY PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

The Object.
The object completes or restricts the meaning of the verb
(sometimes an adjective).
They read the advertisement.
The boss was angry with the employees.

The classification of the objects is as follows:

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 Object

direct indirect cognate

non-prepositional prepositional

The direct object is used with transitive verbs, without a

preposition and can be used without any other object. It denotes a
person or a thing directly affected by the action:
I can meet you at the station.
We heard the news on the radio.
The indirect non-prepositional object can be used only with the
direct object (+transitive verb). It denotes the addressee of the
action (to whom the action is directed):
Show me your photos, please.
I sent my friend an interesting article to read.
The indirect non-prepositional object normally precedes the direct
object:
I will send you my CV.
When it follows the direct object, it is used with a preposition (to,
for):
I will send my CV to you.

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She bought toys for her children.
When the direct object is expressed by the pronoun it, it always
stands before the indirect object:
Show it to me.
Buy it for him.
The prepositional indirect object is used with intransitive verbs,
always with a preposition and without any other object. Unlike the
previous two types, the prepositional object can express various
relations depending on the preposition used with it.
I went to the party with my friends.
They were talking about their future vacations.
The cognate object is a special type of object which is not to be
found in other languages. a)It is used without a preposition, with
intransitive verbs; b)it is expressed by a noun which is of the same
root as the verb or similar in meaning (live-life, die-death); c)it is
always modified by an attribute without which it would be
meaningless.
His grandparents had lived a happy life.
The young lady smiled a charming smile.

Ways of Expressing the Object.

a)a noun in the common case (sometimes in the genitive case):
They have a comfortable apartment.
I don’t like this room. I like Mary’s.

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b)a pronoun (personal pronoun in the objective case, possessive,
demonstrative, indefinite, defining, negative, reflexive):
We liked him for his kindness.
This pencil is not sharp, will you give me yours?
She couldn’t accept that.
The tourists could see someone in the distance.
You do nothing to help them.
The old lady was talking to herself.
c)an adjective or a participle (substantivized):
Parents try to help the young.
They took the wounded to hospital.
d)an infinitive or a gerund (phrase, construction):
He asked me to come in the morning.
She was thinking about leaving that awful place.
e)an indivisible word-group:
The administration punished a number of students.
They met a couple of old friends in the park.
Note: the pronoun it can function as a notional object and as a
formal one (see: It as a subject). When it stands for a particular
object, it is notional. When it introduces the notional (lexical)
object, it is formal.
Is this your new car? I like it! (notional)
She considered it impossible to marry that man. (formal)

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 The Complex Object.
The object in English can be simple and complex. The simple
object is expressed by a word or a phrase.
I love you.
They ordered a bottle of French wine.
The complex object is expressed by a predicative construction (a
predicative construction consists of a nominal element and a verbal
element- an infinitive, a participle or a gerund).
We would like you to come to our party.
I was waiting for the guests to come in.
The professor heard the students discussing his lecture.
Bob’s parents were talking about his failing the exams.

The Attribute.
The attribute is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies a
noun or a pronoun.
She was a nice girl with clever eyes.
There was nothing interesting on TV.
Ways of Expressing the Attribute.

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a)an adjective.
An old lady entered the room.
b)a pronoun (possessive, demonstrative, interrogative, negative,
indefinite, defining).
I have lost my glasses.
This article is just for you to read.
What floor are you going to?
Any information would be of great help.
We have no information yet.
Every woman wants to be a mother.
c)a numeral (cardinal, ordinal).
I read three essays.
The third essay was the best.
d)a noun in the common or genitive case:
Mr. Brown is a school teacher.
Mary’s translation was faultless.
e)an adverb:
The room above is light and large.
The then president was Kennedy.
f)a participle (I, II):
A smiling face appeared in the window.
The injured passengers feel better.

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g)an infinitive (phrase, construction):
Here is a text to translate.
Here is a text to translate immediately.
Here is a text for you to translate.
h)a gerund (phrase, construction):
They go to the dancing club once a week.
I don’t like the idea of spending the night in the camp.
I don’t like the idea of your spending the night in the camp.
i)a prepositional phrase:
A man of his wealth could not marry a poor woman.
The attribute can be close (non-detached) and loose(detached). The
close attribute is commonly used in pre-position (fine weather,
interesting story), though it can be used in post position if
expressed by an infinitive, an adverb or a prepositional phrase (a
book to read, the room below, a man of property).
The loose attribute is more independent and is separated from the
antecedent by a comma.
Her face, pale and unhappy, spoke louder than words.
Tired and hungry, they reached the village at night.
The Apposition.
Apposition is a secondary part of the sentence which gives another
name to the antecedent, characterizing it or giving some
information about it. The apposition is mostly expressed by a noun
(a noun phrase). Like the attribute, the apposition can be close and
loose. Close apposition is used in pre-position and is not detached

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by a comma. It denotes relationship, rank, position, etc. (aunt
Mary, Captain Brown, Queen Elizabeth). There is a special type of
close apposition introduced by the preposition of (the city of
Yerevan, the name of Joanne). Loose apposition always stands in
post-position and is detached by a comma, a dash, sometimes- a
semicolon. It gives additional information about the antecedent.
This is Yerevan, the best city in the world.
There were only two people he would obey - his wife and his
mother.
Captain Brown, his boss, was strict but fair.

The Adverbial Modifier.

The adverbial modifier is a secondary part of the sentence which
modifies a verb, sometimes an adjective.
She speaks English fluently.
The water is not warm enough.
The adverbial modifiers are classified according to their semantics
(meaning).Thus, the following types of adverbial modifier are
distinguished:
1.of time:
We can meet in the evening.
Her new book will come out this year.
2.of frequency:
Do you often see your friends?
No, only once a week.

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3.of place/direction:
They met in Paris and fell in love.
The ship was sailing to New Zeeland.
4.of manner:
She slowly opened her bag and took out the documents.
Don’t speak in a whisper.
5.of attendant circumstances:
They parted without saying a word.
The children were playing in the yard, their mothers talking to each
other.
Note: sometimes it is rather difficult to distinguish between the
adverbial modifiers of attendant circumstances and manner. The
difference between them is really vague: the adverbial modifier of
manner denotes the manner in which the action is fulfilled (how?),
while the adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances denotes
what is/was happening simultaneously with the action described in
the sentence.
They were walking slowly. (how?)
They were walking, their children following them. (=and their
children were following them)
6.of degree and measure:
He is not clever enough to estimate the situation.
The tower is 20 meters high.
7.of cause (reason);
The weather being fine, we decided to go to the beach.

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Having no arguments, she kept silent.
8.of result:
It is too late to go for a walk.
He is young enough to start a new life.
8.of purpose:
You should get up early to be there on time.
I came here to speak to you.
Note: sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between the adverbial
modifiers of result and purpose, especially when they are expressed
by an infinitive. The adverbial modifier of result can be
paraphrased: “as a result of that …”.
It is too late to go out. (=as a result we can’t/ shouldn’t go out)
The adverbial modifier if purpose can be paraphrased by means of
“so that”.
I came here to help you. (=so that I can help you)
10.of condition:
But for the rain they would have finished the work.
11.of comparison:
This time he behaved like a real gentleman.
John is much taller than his father.
12.of concession:
Though tired the tourists continued their way.
He reached his goal in spite of all the difficulties.

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Ways of Expressing the Adverbial Modifier.
The adverbial modifier can be expressed by:
1.an adverb.
I often met him on my way to work.
2.a noun, more commonly – a noun phrase.
Let us meet next Sunday.
3.a prepositional phrase.
The tourists saw a ship in the distance.
4.a participle (participial phrase).
He went out, speaking to himself.
5.an infinitive (infinitive phrase,).
I went to the station in the morning to catch the earliest train.
6.a gerund (gerundial phrase).
She left without saying a word.
On coming home they unpacked their things.
7.absolute constructions.
The luggage being heavy, we couldn’t carry it to the exit. (absolute
participial construction)
They were sitting in silence with the rain beating on the window.
(prepositional absolute construction)
The concert over, the fans rushed to the backstage. (nominative
absolute construction)

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HOMOGENIOUS PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
Two or more parts of the sentence having the same function in the
sentence are called homogenious parts. They can be linked together
by means of coordinating conjunctions (syndetically) or without
any conjunction (asyndetically).
John and Mary are students. (homogenious subjects)
He came in, took off his coat and sat down in the corner.
(homogenious predicates)
There were a lot of red, yellow and blue flowers in the field.
(homogenious attributes)

THE INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE

Independent Elements of the Sentence

interjection direct address parenthesis

Unlike the secondary parts of the sentence, the independent

elements are not grammatically dependent on any part of the
sentence and have no syntactic function. The independent elements
of the sentence are:
a)interjections (ah, oh, goodness, etc.)

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Oh, I am sorry.
b)direct address:
Where have you been all this time, Bob?
c)parenthesis (it expresses the speaker’s attitude towards the idea
expressed in the sentence or connects ideas).
Unfortunately, I can’t come to your party today. (attitude)
He didn’t want his wife to go alone, however he wished her good
luck. (connects ideas)
Parenthesis can be expressed by:
a)modal words (certainly, surely, maybe, perhaps, etc.).
Perhaps that was the most serious decision in his life.
b)prepositional phrases (in short, by the way, on the contrary, etc.).
In my opinion, it is too early to carry out such an experiment.
c)connectives (firstly, secondly, finally, nevertheless, etc.).
And finally, the Oscar goes to…
d)infinitive or participial phrases (to tell the truth, to begin with, to
cut the long story short, frankly speaking, etc.).
Frankly speaking, I didn’t like it at all.

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 WORD ORDER
Word order is of great importance in English as English has very
few grammatical inflexions to show the relations between the
words in the sentence. The grammatical and semantic relations are
more often expressed by the arrangement of the words in the
sentence and this arrangement is called word order. Word order in
English is fixed: Subject – Predicate - Object (SPO).
John loves Mary.
If this order of words is changed, the idea expressed in the sentence
will be quite different: Mary loves John.

Inversion
Word order can be direct (when the predicate follows the subject)
or inverted (when the predicate or part of it stands before the
subject). Inversion can be grammatical and stylistic. It is
grammatical when a certain part of a sentence requires inversion
according to the grammatical rules existing in the language.
Grammatical inversion is used in:
1. interrogative sentences. In most interrogative sentences the
inversion is partial, i.e. part of the predicate is used before the
subject.
What are you doing?
Can I ask a question?
Inversion is full when the predicate is expressed by the verb be and
there is an adverbial modifier of place in the sentence.
Are you in the office now?

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No inversion is used in interrogative sentences when the question
refers to the subject or the subject group.
Who wants to stay here?
Whose essay was the best?
2.sentences introduced by there/here.
There is a park not far from my house.
Here are the documents.
Note: if the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun, no
inversion is used: Here it is. Here I am.
Note: here can be an adverbial modifier of place. In this case no
inversion is used and the sentence has quite another meaning.
Here is the book. (Ահա գիրքը:)
The book is here. (Գիրքն այստեղ է:)
3.exclamatory sentences.
Be it so! Long live freedom!
4.adverbial clauses of concession.
Tired as he was, he continued his way.
5.sentences with so/neither.
- I am a student. – So am I.
He doesn’t work, neither does his wife.
Inversion is stylistic when it is used as a means of emphasis.
Stylistic inversion is used when:
1.a lengthy adverbial modifier opens the sentence.

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In the middle of the hall was an ancient carpet and a huge oval
table.
2.a word with a negative meaning opens the sentence (never, in
vain, little, etc.).
Little did they know about the new land.
Never have I seen such a wonderful place.
3.an adverbial modifier expressed by so, now, then, thus opens the
sentence.
Now comes the most interesting part of the story.
Thus went the days and nothing changed.
4.the word-groups not…a, many…a, the adverbs hardly, scarcely
open the sentence.
Many a promise had he given but she wouldn’t believe them.
Hardly had hey entered the hall, when the music began.
5.the second element of the phrasal verb (postposition) opens the
sentence.
In came a noisy company of young people.
If the subject of the sentence is expressed by a pronoun, no
inversion takes place.
In they came.
6.the predicative expressed by an adjective (or N+adjective) opens
the sentence.
Tender is the night.
An awful person is your boss.

30
If the subject is expressed by a pronoun, the link-verb stands after
the subject.
An awful person he is.
7.a conditional clause is introduced without a conjunction.
Had you come a bit earlier, you would have met hem here. (=If you
had come a bit earlier,…)

The Position of the Object.

The object usually stands after the predicate. In exclamatory
sentences it can open the sentence.
What a wonderful day we spent together!
Sometimes a direct object opens the sentence to make it more
emphatic.
A very touching story she told me last night.
The prepositional object can be used in front position, especially in
colloquial English.
About his young days the old sailor never spoke.
For me she has done nothing.
The non-prepositional indirect object is hardly ever used in front
position.
The Position of the Attribute.
The usual position of the attribute is before the word it modifies
(little girl, this book, my words).

31
When there are homogenious attributes in the sentence, their
arrangement is the following:
various (size, opinion, general description, etc.) – age – colour –
material – nationality/origin + Noun
She was wearing a gorgeous new Italian dress.
The beautiful red silk scarf made her look younger.
Note: the adjectives little, young, old commonly stand closest to the
noun and make up an indivisible word-combination.
There was a charming Japanese young lady among the guests.
(young lady – օրիորդ)
She is a very cute, smart Irish little girl. ( little girl – աղջնակ)
Note: some adjectives are inseparable from the nouns they modify
and are perceived as one lexical unit.
I am reading a very interesting French historical novel.
(պատմավեպ)
2.Most adjectives with the suffixes –able,- ible are used after the
noun they modify (very often preceded by only).
The only figure visible in the distance was a huge ship.
However, the pre-position of such adjectives is also possible.
Yours is the only reasonable plan.
3.In some stock-phrases the adjective is used in post-position:
generations unborn, first person singular, etc..
4.The adjectives proper and present can be used both in post-
position and in pre-position. Their lexical meaning depends on
their position.

32
When used in post-position, the adjective present has the meaning
ներկա, ներկա գտնվող.
All the students present can ask their questions after the meeting.
In pre-position the adjective present has the meaning ներկայիս,
այսօրվա.
The present political situation is rather grave.
The adjective proper in post-position has the meaning իրական,
որպես այդպիսին.
The article discusses art proper.
If used in pre-position, proper means տեղին, սպառիչ, ճիշտ.
We can’t find a proper explanation to this phenomenon.
5.When the adjective refers to an indefinite or negative pronoun, it
stands in post-position.
There was nothing new in his words.
I didn’t find anything interesting in this article.
6.When the attribute is expressed by an infinitive (phrase,
construction), it is used in post-position.
I sent you some documents to translate.
Here are the documents for you to translate.
7.The attribute expressed by a prepositional phrase always stands in
post-position.
I like the song “The shadow of your smile”.

33
 The Position of Adverbial Modifiers.
1.Adverbial modifiers of time and place can stand at the beginning
or at the end of the sentence.
In the morning he usually has a big breakfast.
He usually has a big breakfast in the morning.
At the end of this street you will find a very nice café.
You will find a very nice café at the end of this street.
If there are adverbial modifiers of time and place in the sentence,
the adverbial modifier of place usually stands before that of time.
They met in Paris before the war.
If there are two adverbial modifiers of time in the sentence, the
adverbial modifier denoting more specific time stands first and the
one with a more general meaning follows it.
Let us meet at six tomorrow.
2.The adverbial modifier doesn’t separate the direct object from the
predicate. It stands after the direct object.
I found this article on the internet.
3.The adverbial modifier of frequency usually stands before the
predicate or the notional element of the predicate.
They usually meet in this club.
I have never seen that man.
But when the adverbial modifier of frequency is expressed by a
phrase, its position is free.
They meet every day.

34
Very often they go to work together.
The adverbs sometimes and generally can occupy any position in
the sentence.
Sometimes it is hard to be calm.
He sometimes visits his relatives in the country.
He feels sick and tired of his job sometimes.
The adverbial modifier of frequency can be used before the verb to
be for emphatic force.
Whenever I ask you for help, you always are tired.
4.The adverbial modifier of manner stands after the verb or after
the object (if there is any in the sentence).
He ran quickly.
I listened to you attentively.
But if the object is long, the adverbial modifier comes before the
verb.
He attentively listened to the old sailor’s long story.
5.The adverbial modifier of degree precedes the predicate if it is in
a synthetic form.
I fully agree with you.
The adverbial modifier of degree stands after the first auxiliary
verb when the predicate is expressed by an analytical form.
He had fully ruined his career.
The adverbs quite and rather usually precede the word they
modify.

35
He is quite good for this job.
He is rather selfish.

THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE

The composite sentence consists of two or more clauses which can
be linked by means of coordination or subordination.
Correspondingly, two types of composite sentences are singled out
– the compound sentence and the complex sentence.

The Compound sentence.

The compound sentence consists of two or more clauses which
grammatically are on an equal rank. Each clause has its subject and
predicate. The clauses can be linked by means of coordinative
conjunctions (syndetically) or without them (asyndetically).
It was late and we decided to set off in the morning.
The tourists were tired but they continued their rout.
The sun was shining, the children were running along the beach,
everyone looked happy.
The following types of syndetic coordination are distinguished:
a)copulative
b)disjunctive
c)adversative
d)causative-consequtive
This classification is based on the fact that there can be various
semantic relations between the clauses in the sentence.

36
Copulative coordination – one idea is simply added to the other.
Conjunctions – and, nor, not only… but (also), etc.
He did not move, nor did he say a word.
Disjunctive coordination – a choice is offered between the
statements. Conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs – or, either…or,
else, or else, etc.
You should believe me, or I will not be able to help you.
Adversative coordination – the statements are in contrast to each
other. Conjunctions – but, while, yet, nevertheless, etc.
John is hard-working, while his brother is idle.
Causative-consequtive coordination – the clauses express cause
and consequence. Conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs – for, so,
hence, thus, therefore, etc.
They were nearly the same age, so they easily made friends.

The Complex Sentence.

The complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or
more subordinate clauses. The subordinate clause is grammatically
dependent on the principal clause. The clauses in complex
sentences can be linked syndetically, by means of conjunctions and
connectives, and asyndetically.
Note: conjunctions are formal elements used to connect clauses.
Connectives are also used to link clauses but they have a syntactic
function in the subordinate clause.
He said that he couldn’t come to the meeting.( conjunction)
The man who came in was my old friend.(connective)

37
The subordinate clauses are classified according to their syntactic
function in the sentence. Thus the following subordinate clauses are
singled out:
The subject clause performs the function of a subject to the
predicate of the principal clause. It is linked to the principal clause
by means of:
a) conjunctions (that, if, whether) and connectives (who, which,
what, whoever, where, how, etc.).
It was obvious that they were in love.
Whether he will come or not is a big question.
Who had brought the letter was a mystery.
How you managed to do it is still a question.
b)asyndetically.
It’s a pity you can’t be present at my performance.
The predicative clause performs the function of a predicative to
the subject of the principal clause. It is introduced by means of:
a)conjunctions (that, if, whether, as if) and connectives (who,
which, what, whoever, where, how, etc.).
You sound as if something terrible has happened.
The question is what can be done to avoid losses.
My problem is how I should treat people like that.
b)asyndetically (though it is not a common case).
What I mean is you should not interfere in this.
The object clause performs the function of an object to the
predicate of the principal clause. It is introduced by means of:

38
a)conjunctions (that, if, whether) and connectives (who, which,
what, whoever, where, how, etc.).
He still hesitated whether his decision was right or not.
Jane will gladly accept whatever you offer.
b)asyndetically.
You said there was nothing to worry about.
The attributive clause performs the function of an attribute to any
nominal part of the principal clause. Attributive clauses are
classified into relative (which qualify the meaning of the
antecedent) and appositive (which disclose the meaning of the
antecedent). Relative clauses can be restrictive (which restrict the
meaning of the antecedent) and non-restrictive or descriptive
(which give additional information about the antecedent).
Attributive relative restrictive clauses are introduced by:
a)relative pronouns and adverbs (who, which, where, when, etc.).
Unfortunately, we can’t show you the rooms which are occupied.
The employees who are often late will be fired.
b)asyndetically.
The apartment we bought is large and comfortable.
Attributive non-restrictive clauses are introduced by relative
pronouns and adverbs (who, which, when, where).
Yerevan, which is one of the oldest cities in the world, attracts
many tourists.
Mr. Brown, who was the head of our department, was very strict
but fair.

39
Note: non-restrictive clauses are separated from the principal clause
by a comma and in most cases they can be omitted without
destroying the logical structure of the sentence. (Yerevan attracts
many tourists. Mr. Brown was strict but fair.).
A special type of non-restrictive clause is the continuative clause.
The antecedent of this clause is not a single word but the whole
sentence. The continuative clauses are introduced by the relative
pronoun which, sometimes – that.
In the morning George was kind and joyful, which surprised
everybody.
Attributive appositive clauses disclose the meaning of the
antecedent which is expressed by an abstract noun (fact, idea,
news, hope, etc.). Appositive clauses are introduced by the
conjunction that.

She cherished a hope that she would find her family one day
The idea that we could win the prize inspired us greatly.
Adverbial Clauses.
An adverbial clause performs the function of an adverbial
modifier. It can modify a verb, an adjective or an adverb. There are
the following types of adverbial clauses:
a)of time – denotes the time of the action expressed in the principal
clause. Conjunctions – when, while, since, till, until, before, after,
etc.
We’ll meet when I come back.
They have been good friends since they were children.

40
b)of place – denotes the place of the action expressed in the
principal clause. Conjunctions – where, wherever.
Put the vase wherever you like.
I will be waiting for you where we first met.
c)of manner – denotes the manner/way in which the action
proceeds. Conjunction – as.
Do everything as I taught you.
He worked as only he could.
d)of cause (reason) – denotes the cause of the action expressed in
the principal clause. Conjunctions – as, because, for fear (that),
since.
As everything is clear, I have nothing to ask.
They had a lot to talk about since they were old friends
e)of purpose – states the purpose of the action expressed in the
principal clause. Conjunctions – that, so that, lest, in order that.
He came early so that he could talk to the boss before the meeting.
They spoke in a whisper lest someone could overhear their
conversation.
f)of condition – states the condition necessary for the action
expressed in the principal clause. Conjunctions – if, in case, unless,
on condition that, provided, etc.
If you want to be the best, you should work a lot.
I’ll join the project, provided you supply me with all the
information.

41
The adverbial clause of condition can also be introduced
asyndetically. In this case inversion takes place in it.
Had I known about it earlier, I would have come here. (=If I had
known about it earlier, I would have come here.)
g)of concession – denotes an obstacle for the action expressed in
the principal clause. Conjunctions and connectives – though,
although, no matter how, however, whatever, etc.
Though they were divorced, she decided to ask him for help.
No matter how hard you beat an ass, it will never turn a mule.
f)of result– denotes the result of the action expressed in the
principal clause. Conjunctions – that, so that.
I am so tired that I can’t move a finger.
The place was deserted and gloomy , so that I decided to leave it at
once.
i)of comparison – denotes an action in comparison with the action
in the principal clause. Conjunctions – as, than, as if, as though.
The garden was even more beautiful than she had expected.
They were sitting without saying a word, as if they were strangers.

Parenthetical and Inserted Clauses.

Alongside with the clauses described above, there are clauses
which are not closely related to the sentence structure
grammatically. They refer not to a single member of the principal
clause but to the whole statement. Parenthetical clauses (I think, I
suppose, I am sure, etc.) express the speaker’s attitude.

42
He is the best employee in the company, I think.
I am afraid, Mary is not the right woman for you.
Inserted clauses give some additional information.
Those boxes (you can see them in the corner) are what you
ordered.
Adverbial clauses, as was stated above, perform the function of an
adverbial modifier.

43
THE SENTENCE
Exercise 1
State the communicative type of the following sentences.

1.What’s the matter with Alice? 2. We don’t have any dress-code

in the office. 3. You are not going to tell a lie again, are you?
4.Promise me to keep it in secret. 5. How old is your grandmother?
6. Let us do it right now, shall we? 7. Don’t trouble trouble until
trouble troubles you. 8. The day I arrived in the town was sunny
but cool. 9. What a nice hat you are wearing! 10. The human brain
is often compared with a computer. 11. How can he live with such
a burden on his shoulders? 12. Don’t you realize that all is in vain?
13. Don’t ask any questions. Just trust me. 14. Nothing like a bottle
of beer on a hot day like this! 15. Is he going to travel by air or by
sea?

Exercise 2
State the type of the following interrogative sentences.

1.It’s a wonderful picture, isn’t it? 2. Where does he come from? 3.

Why should I trust you? 4. Where is your job application? 5. Do
me a favour, will you? 6. Who can know what will happen
tomorrow? 7. Would you like to leave a message? 8. Are you
leaving today or tomorrow? 9. How can I help him if I don’t know
him? 10. The new project is quite a success, isn’t it? 11. Do you
like my new hat? 12. Will you tell the boss about it or shall I? 13.
You are a shameless liar, aren’t you? 14. What have you been
doing all day? 15. Does he speak any foreign language?

Exercise 3

44
Make up questions to suit the following answers. State the type of
the question.

1.Sure I can. 2. It depends. 3. Why should I? 4. Armenia. 5. I don’t

think I will. 6. Only with your help. 7. If only I could. 8. Why not?
9. Yesterday. 10. Not yet. 11. No, thank you. 12. I don’t know yet.
13. Yes, please. 14. Are you joking? 15. Whatever you like.

Exercise 4
What do the following interrogative and imperative sentences
imply (asking information, suggestion/offer, request, surprise,
etc.)?

1.When are you going to hand in your essay? 2. Don’t touch,

dangerous! 3. Who can give me his phone number? 4. Aren’t you
ready yet? 5. Be a nice girl, don’t cry. 6. Can I help you? 7. Go out!
8. If you don’t find me at my desk, leave me a message, will you?
9.Would you like tea or coffee? 10. Didn’t you know that they were
engaged? 11.Where do you come from? 12.Can I have your pen for
a moment?

Exercise 5
State the structural type of the sentences (two-member complete/
incomplete, one member).
1.Why are you angry with me? – I’m not. 2. What exercises have
you done for today? - N 1,3,5 and 10. 3. He is in Yerevan. Comes
here every year. 4. Where are the documents? I can’t find them. –
On the shelf, as usual. 5. Winter. Cold. Snow everywhere. 6. But I
don’t want to do it! – You must. 7. Why didn’t you tell me about
it? Can’t expect me to know everything by instinct! 8. Beg your
pardon. Can I leave my things here? 9. Had a good time, didn’t
you? Want a drink? 10. How is your husband? – All right. Busy

45
with his problems. 11. My breakfast ready? I’m dying from
hunger. 12. Who is making that noise? – The children. 13. Jane said
she knew nothing about it. – Shameless liar! 14. So glad to see you
again! 15. We are going to meet them at the station tomorrow. - At
what time? 16. I’m sure you will help them. – Why should I? 17.
Wonderful picture. I’ll buy it.

Exercise 6
Translate into English.

1.Ինչ հիանալի երեխաներ ունեք: 2. Ներեցեք, կարո՞ղ եմ

այստեղ նստել: 3. Տնօրենն այսօր շատ նյարդայնացած է, չէ՞: 4.
Կցանկանայիք, որ նամակներն ուղարկենք փոստո՞վ, թե՞
ֆաքսով: - Փոստով, խնդրում եմ: 5. Դուք վաղուց եք այստեղ
աշխատում, այնպես չէ՞: 6. Նա պետք է ավելի խիստ լինի
աշխատակիցների նկատմամբ: - Չեմ կարծում: 7. Ամառ:
Անտանելի շոգ: Կեսօրին փողոցները համարյա դատարկ են: 8.
Ո՞վ ինձ կօգնի այս իրերը բարձրացնել: - Ես: 9. Երեկոյան մեզ
կայցելեք, չէ՞: Երեխաների հետ: 10. Ի՞նչ ես անում: -
Առանձնապես ոչինչ:

SUBJECT
Exercise 1
Point out the subject and say by what it is expressed.

1.A few know how to make and use tools. 2. How can people best
learn a second language? 3. Using gold for trade was rare among
the Indians in America. 4. Sculpting is one of the important parts of
art from Africa. 5.It can take several weeks to produce a detailed
figure.6.Humans have a history of trying to control the
environment.7.I wish that our team will win today. 8.Only 10
percent of the population uses this system. 9.Europeans travelled to
China in the 13th century. 10.This should be your key. Mine is in

46
my bag. 11. Jack’s was the best paper in the group, wasn’t it? 12.
There are two ways to support your opinion. 13.The wounded are
not taken good care of here. 14.There was something strange about
the boy. 15.One never knows what can happen tomorrow. 16. The
wealthy should pay more taxes. 17.Living at home or renting a
room both have some benefits for students. 18.Nothing is more
exciting for me than travelling. 19.To speak like that is very naïve.
20.Who knows the truth? 21.Living in a foreign country can be
stressful. 22.“Don’t come back again” were her last words. 23. The
needle and thread is in the tiny box.

Exercise 2
State the nature of it.

1.It is everybody’s moral duty to help the poor. 2.It is late and we
have to leave.3.It takes many years of experience to become a
master glassblower.4.It is mainly elderly people who suffer from
economical problems. 5.Is it impossible for an individual to have
an effect on the world situation? 6.Read this book. It will help you
find the answers to many questions. 7.It was very kind of him to
offer his help. 10.It is necessary to have all the documents typed by
the end of the week. 11.No, no, it was the traffic jam that made me
nervous. 12. It is unbelievable that they could become good friends.
13.It was so stuffy in the room that she fainted. 14.Is it love that
has made you so charming? 15.Somebody knocked at the door. It
was just the man we were expecting to come. 16.It took his
colleagues a long time to persuade him to accept the present.

Exercise 3
Answer the questions using emphatic it.

1.Who has typed these document, you or Jack? 2.I think they
moved to France a few years ago. Or was it Switzerland? 3.They

47
got married in March. Or was it in April? 4.Did you or did your
secretary receive the delegation? 5.Did all the guests notice that?
Or was it only the hostess? 6. They donated ten thousand pounds to
the hospital. Or was it more? 7.Did the scientists find these old pots
in Mexico or in Brazil?

PREDICATE
Exercise 1
Point out the predicate and state its type.

1.They are good friends, though they don’t meet very often. 2.He
picked up the suitcase and carried it upstairs. 3.There were many
antique things in the house. 4.No one understood why the child
began to cry. 5.I suppose you want to get down to business. 6.I
wasn’t very pleased to hear that he would stay for dinner. 7.
Several animals can stand upright like humans. 8.When he was a
student, he used to buy lots of language tapes. 9.I am sure he will
speak Spanish well one day. 10.Students begin to acquire a
grammar which can generate an infinite number of new sentences.
11.Few people think that Esperanto will become a universal
language. 12.Why can’t you stop making that terrible noise? 13.
Men’s bodies are usually bigger than women’s, consequently men
have heavier brains and hearts. 14.Women have less water in their
bodies, so they become drunk more quickly. 15.In order to use this
technique, the artist had to be skillful at working with gold. 16.
Some artists were not permitted to do any other kind of work. 17.I
have attempted to do oil painting several times. 18.I would like to
go to the Museum of Fine Arts. 19.He stopped to take a break. 20.
We have stopped taking long breaks, it’s a waste of time. 21. A
second language can be important for your education or profession.
22.A few animals know how to make and use tools, but only
humans are able to speak.

48
Exercise 2
Point out the predicative and say by what it is expressed.

1.This fur feels so soft! 2.Are you Mr. Rick’s sister? 3.We are
hungry, let’s have a break. 4.The flight attendant is getting ready to
announce something. 5.That was a boring and dangerous job, so I
decided to quit it. 6.The left hemisphere of our brain is more
analytic, and the right one is more holistic and relational. 7.Many
scientists think this idea is nonsense. 8.Those papers are for the
boss to sign today. 9.The best thing you can do now is leaving her
alone. 10.The dinner smells delicious, so I think it must be great!
11.When she was younger, she played tennis every day. 12. You
will understand what I say when you grow older, my son. 13.When
I was speaking, his face remained expressionless. 14.She will make
a perfect wife, I am sure. 15.What you need after that incident is to
have a good rest. 16.He was lying awake for a long time.

Exercise 3
Fill in the blanks with link verbs (be, get, turn, make, feel, seem,
appear, remain, etc.).

1.She … very unhappy. Do you know the reason? 2.When you …

tired, you can have a short break. 3.The Internet … a good source
of information nowadays. 4.Suddenly he … pale, muttered
something and ran out. 5.I am sure we’ll … good friends. 6.
Unexpected enough, he … very generous. 7.Your words …
attractive, but I cannot believe them. 8.He was looking at her,
begging an answer, but she … silent. 9.He … more intelligent than
I had expected. 10.This cake … wonderful. 11.You …disappointed.
Or … I mistaken? 12.The house … as beautiful as a palace and the
garden … bigger than a park. 13.A few years passed and this

49
episode … almost legendary. 14.The children didn’t know that the
old man …. blind. 15.In fact she … forty but she … much younger.

Exercise 4
Translate into English and state the type of the predicate.

1.Դու հոգնած ես երևում: Կարող ես գնալ տուն և մի քիչ

հանգստանալ: 2. Ակնկալվում է, որ հյուրերն այստեղ երկար
չեն մնալու: 3. Այդ մարդու դեմքն ինձ ծանոթ էր թվում, բայց
չէի կարողանում նրան հիշել: 4. Դուք պետք է կարողանաք
ավելի համբերատար լինել երեխաների հետ աշխատելիս: 5.
Հայտարարված էր, որ երեկոն սկսվելու է ժամը յոթին, բայց
մասնակիցները շատ ուշ հավաքվեցին: 6. Նա ազնիվ և
ճշմարտախոս մարդ է և դուք պետք է հավատաք նրա
խոսքերին: 7. Հանկարծ երիտասարդը գունատվեց, սկսեց
կակազել և դուրս վազեց սենյակից: 8.Երիտասարդ ժամանակ
նա ուզում էր օդաչու դառնալ, բայց հետո միտքը փոխեց: 9.
Երբ տնօրենը դադարեց խոսել, բոլորն ապշած իրար նայեցին
և մնացին լուռ: 10. Ես չեմ ուզում ձեզ հետ խոսել հիմա, երբ
այսքան հուզված եք: 11. Նա համարվում է լավագույն
մասնագետն այդ բնագավառում: 12. Դու չպետք է անտարբեր
լինես այն մարդկանց նկատմամբ, որոնք քո օգնության կարիքն
ունեն: 13. Ես չեմ կարող սկսել խոսել, երբ դահլիճում այսպիսի
աղմուկ է: 14. Մենք պետք է դադարենք նրանց օգնել: Այդ
օգնությունից նրանք ավելի ծույլ ու անբան են դառնում: 15.
Ակնկալվում է, որ պատվիրակությունն օդանավակայանում
կլինի ժամը հինգին:

AGREEMENT OF THE PREDICATE WITH THE SUBJECT

Exercise 1

50
Put the verb in the correct form.

1.Neither the boss nor the employees (is/are) responsible for that. 2.
None of them (is/are) expected to be here today. 3.Diabetes (is/are)
a disease caused by too much sugar in the blood. 4.The thorough
analysis of the case (show/shows) that he is not guilty. 5.The
number of good specialists in that sphere (has/have) grown
recently. 6.All the family (was/were) deeply concerned with the
incident. 7.About 50 percent of the library (has/have) been
damaged. 8.When he arrived, everybody (was/were) ready to hear
the bad news. 9. I was surprised to see that a young woman with
two children (was/were) running along the busy road. 10.A number
of students (is/are) invited to take part in the conference. 11.The
latest news about the flood (is/are) very disturbing. 12.The
government (is/are) expected to take measures against terrorism.
13.There (is/are) a print-machine, two computers and a telephone
on the desk. 14.The bread and butter (is/are) for you. Have your
breakfast and go to work. 15.His eldest son and heir (is/are)
supposed to run the business. 16.The police (is/are) warned about
the escape. 17.50 miles (is/are) a long distance for an old man to
cover. 18.Mr. Black and his wife (was/were) soon off. 19.Where
(is/are) the needle and thread? 20. The cattle (is/are) grazing in the
field. 21.In the 15th century economics, together with politics and
religion, (was/were) changing the societies in Europe. 22.A number
of da Gama’s sailors (was/were) veterans of many voyages.

Exercise 2
Translate the sentences into English.

1.Ամբողջ ընտանիքը հավաքվել էր սեղանի շուրջ՝ սպասելով

փաստաբանի ժամանելուն: 2.Աշխատակազմի մեծ մասը դեմ
էր ղեկավարության քայլերին: 3. Սեղանին դրված էր մի մեծ
ափսե և մի քանի գինու բաժակ: 4. Ոչ հայրը, ոչ էլ որդիները

51
պատրաստ չէին այդ լուրը լսելուն: 5. Ժամում 150 կմ-ը
բավականին մեծ արագություն է անփորձ վարորդի համար: 6.
Ես պատրաստել եմ երկու զեկուցում, բայց նրանցից ոչ մեկը
դեռ տպված չէ: 7. Համերգը հրաշալի էր, որովհետև
նվագախումբն անթերի էր նվագում: 8. Տնտեսագիտությունը
գիտության կարևորագույն ճյուղերից մեկն է ցանկացած
երկրում: 9. Հանձնաժողովը շատ է աշխատում՝
քաղաքացիների սոցիալական վիճակը բարելավելու համար:
10. Նա հայտնի բժիշկ է, բայց ոչ նրա որդին, ոչ էլ դուստրերը
չեն ցանկանում շարունակել հոր գործը: 11. Բրաունների
ընտանիքը մեր քաղաքում հայտնի է բարեգործությամբ:
12.Դեպքը կատարվեց, երբ մայրը երեխաների հետ անցնում էր
փողոցը: 13. – Ո՞ւր է իմ ակնոցը: - Գրասեղանին է, բերե՞մ: 14.
Ոստիկանությունն ամբողջ գիշեր փնտրում էր խանութը
թալանած հանցագործներին: 15. Գրասենյակում երկու
հեռախոս կա, բայց նրանցից ոչ մեկն այս պահին չի
աշխատում:

OBJECT
Exercise 1
Point out the type of object and say by what it is expressed.

1.The hunters got permission from the neighbouring landowner to

shoot in his parks. 2.The director never spoke to the employees
about the hard time they were having. 3.We can draw lessons from
the distant past or speculate on the distant future. 4. How do
animals communicate with each other, and what do they
communicate about? 5.Every language has certain forms that are
used to show respect or politeness. 6.I am afraid this shirt is not my
size. Would you give me another one? 7.Why do many people find
it difficult to learn a second language? 8. I can’t find my pen. Can I
borrow yours? 9.Venice is a city surrounded by water. 10. The
archeologists’ work has yielded many answers, but we may never

52
understand all of the history. 11.Large, complex societies have a
great deal of information that needs to be stored. 12.Right-
hemisphere thinking provides us with instinct, feeling and intuition.
All mammals have right-hemisphere thinking. 13. The left
hemisphere controls long-term memory, reading and writing, and
critical thinking. 14.She can no longer carry on a conversation, and
she doesn’t even recognize me. 15.While younger people may have
this disease, it normally attacks the elderly. 16.We were waiting for
him to come, but he didn’t turn up.17.Your grandparents lived a
happy life, didn’t they? 18.I consider it wrong to interfere in your
affairs. 19.The boss refused them the simplest things. 20.When she
smiled her charming smile, even the strangers were fascinated.

Exercise 2
Change the position of the indirect objects where possible.
1.Would you spare me a few minutes? 2.He had to describe the
situation to the employees. 3.They will never forgive you this fault.
4.As soon as the guests come, show them their rooms. 5.The
lecturer dictated the text to the students. 6.The director promised a
pay rise to all of them. 7.He bought his wife a new sports car. 8.If
you explain the problem to me, I’ll be able to help you. 9.As soon
as I came in, they offered me a seat. 10.He didn’t hesitate to
demonstrate all his best qualities to us.

Exercise 3
Change the sentences using formal it as object.

1.I won’t speak about that problem here. I consider it wrong. 2.It is
not necessary to discuss his suggestion at the meeting. 3.In my
opinion, it is impossible to make changes in the project. 4.She
thought it was wise to leave him alone in that situation. 5.I won’t
follow your advice. I don’t think it is necessary. 6. Mother thinks

53
you spoke indecently to our relatives. 7.It was unfair to treat him so
rudely. 8.Ann left the room without saying a word. Everybody
thought it was unreasonable. 9. She refused to marry John after five
years of relationship. Her parents considered it was strange. 10.
You deny everything. It is unwise.

Exercise 4
Combine the sentences to use a complex object.

1.The students were discussing the interesting lecture. The

professor heard that. 2.George is going to visit us today. The
children are waiting for him. 3.Professor Brown is the best doctor
in our town. Everyone knows that. 4.She married so young. No one
had expected that. 5.He could see his car in the distance. It had
been burnt to the ground. 6.I’ll not object to his words. There is no
point in it. 7.You should be here on time. Everything depends on
that. 8.John’s car was stolen. His neighbours saw that. 9. Tom is
going to propose to Mary this evening. She is expecting that. 10.
Something strange was happening in the room above. We could
hear that.

Exercise 5
Translate into English and point out the objects.

1. Ես ձեզ տեսա միջանցքում զրուցելիս, բայց չցանկացա ձեզ

խանգարել: 2.Դու երբևէ մտածե՞լ ես մասնագիտությունդ
փոխելու մասին: 3. Ինչ էլ ասեք, մենք պարտավոր ենք օգնել
ծերերին և հիվանդներին: 4.Չմոռանաք բոլորին զգուշացնել,
որ այդ հարցը քննարկելու ենք վաղվա ժողովին: 5.Դուք չպետք
է դժգոհեք ձեր ընկերներից և հարազատներից. դուք երջանիկ
կյանք եք ապրել: 6.Նոր աշխատակցին նկարագրեք
իրավիճակը, որպեսզի նա հենց հիմա անցնի աշխատանքի:

54
7.Բոլոը խոսում էին նրա՝ երկրից հեռանալու մասին, բայց ոչ ոք
ստույգ ոչինչ չգիտեր: 8.Կարո՞ղ եք ինձ բացատրել՝ ինչու եք
զայրացած ինձ վրա: 9.Իմ գործընկերներն իսկապես հպարտ
են մեր հաջողություններով: 10.Դուք ինձ ստիպեցիք անել մի
բան, որ ես չէի ուզում անել: 11.Լավագույն զինվորները
զոհվեցին հերոսի մահով: 12.Մենք ակնկալում էինք, որ նա
ելույթ կունենա ժողովին: 13.Եթե քարտուղարուհուն թելադրեք
հրավիրվածների անունները, նա ամեն ինչ արագ
կկազմակերպի: 14.Մի ակնկալիր, որ ես քեզ օգնելու եմ. դու իմ
օգնության կարիքը չունես: 15. Բոլոր քաղաքացիները
հետաքրքրվում են երկրի սոցիալական խնդիրներով,
որովհետև դրանք վերաբերում են նրանցից յուրաքանչյուրին:

ATTRIBUTE
Exercise 1
Point out the attribute and say by what it is expressed.

1.Written languages that are more than 4000 years old have been
found, but humans were speaking thousands of years before that. 2.
Almost half of the world’s population speaks one of the Indo-
European languages. 3.Every language has certain forms that are
used to show respect or politeness. 4.Can I borrow your dictionary
for a few days? 5.Imagine that you are making plans for a space
voyage to a distant planet. 6 By the first part of the 15 th century,
Europe was beginning the most dramatic period of change in its
history. 7.The people standing on the beach could see the sinking
boat in the distance. 8.The explorers financed by merchants hoped
to find a short route to India. 9.Everest has become a universal
symbol of human courage and endurance. 10.Did you hear about
the new speed-reading course? 11.This is a brilliant piece of
modern literature for you to read. 12.Our shop sells children’s
books for children of every age. 13.The doctor was getting tired of
the woman’s permanent visits and imagined illnesses. 14.It is rather

55
difficult to play the leading part in this modern play. 15.The flight
was postponed because of non-flying weather.

Exercise 2
Point out the apposition and state to what antecedent it refers.

1.A sound – the vague murmur of woman’s movements – was

coming through the door. 2.Miles Davis, a brilliant trumpeter, was
a high-school student when he met jazz greats Charlie Parker and
Dizzy Gillespie. 3.It was made of silver – a metal people have
treasured for at least 5000 years. 4.What can you, an average
person, do to help achieve this kind of world? 5.People had more
free time, so they devoted themselves to arts – music, dancing,
painting. 6.Soon his son Gabriel disappeared, and no one knew
where he could be. 7.But it seems to me that Mr. Gale’s point is a
perfectly fair one. 8.Sadie had come a long way since the days of
Quentin sisters. 9.The phrase “female emancipation” still has
meaning for us. 10.A year later Isabel was delivered a daughter
who was given the name of Joan. 11.They took me to the general
office where there was the clerk Gresham, who was far from being
smart in appearance. 12.There was a long winding path from the
top of Monte d’Ora to the town of Montelepre below. 13.At that
time Joe Glaser (Loui’s manager) had serious doubts about Europe
as a commercial position. 14.He disappeared about a week ago -
November nineteenth. 15.It was a traditional Sicilian peasant
greeting a man of higher rank - priest, a noble or a land-owner.

Exercise 3
Point out the detached attributes and appositions.

1.My brother, Don Crose, has sent me to ask whether you would
like to take refuge with him in Villaba. 2.Tired and happy, they

56
returned home at last. 3.After that she married Rob Becker, the
American yacht owner. 4.After that film, “The Walls of Jericho”, I
came home as a famous director. 5.This outworn phrase, “beauty in
distress”, had once occurred to him. 6.Unhappy in his marriage,
George feared women. 7.My own friends, those of my generation,
think Larry is a washout. 8.May, gorgeous as usual, appeared in the
hall. 9.He named a city - the country’s prosperous industrial centre.
10.Megan, shell-like, rose-pink, wild and fresh, excited his
imagination.

Exercise 4
Translate into English and point out the attributes and appositions.

1.Նոր թանտրոնի շենքը նախագծվել էր քաղաքի լավագույն

ճարտարապետների կողմից: 2.Շքեղ երեկոյան զգեստն ավելի
էր գեղեցկացնում այդ վայելչակազմ տիկնոջը: 3. Ահա այն
փաստաթղթերը, որ ձեր հաճախորդը պիտի ստորագրի: 4.Նա
շատ գործ ուներ անելու, բայց որոշեց ամեն ինչ թողնել հաջորդ
օրվան: 5. Այդ երեկո նրանք տուն վերադարձան հոգնած, բայց
լիովին երջանիկ: 6.Պարոն Ջոնսոնը, ձեռնարկության նոր
տնօրենը, կրթությունը ստացել է Եվրոպայի լավագուն համալ-
սարաններում: 7. Ձեր այսօրվա ելույթն անթերի էր, և ես ոչինչ
չունեմ ավելացնելու: 8.Ջեյնը, նրա սիրելի կինը, ամեն
հնարավորինն անում էր նրան երջանկացնելու համար: 9.
Դուք՝ մեր գրասենյակի փորձված աշխատակիցներդ, պետք է
օգնեք երիտասարդ մասնագետներին: 10. Գրքերը՝ նրա
լավագույն ընկերները, այլևս չէին լցնում նրա միայնակ
երեկոները: 11.Վերևի սենյակները նախատեսված են մեր
արտասահմանյան հյուրերի համար: 12.Եթե այսօր ոչ մի
կարևոր գործ չունես անելու, մի քիչ հանգստացիր: 13.
Հրավիրված դասախոսը նոր մանրամասներ հաղորդեց մեզ
հետաքրքրող թեմայի վերաբերյալ: 14.Վստահ եմ, որ
պրոֆեսոր Բրաունը կպատասխանի մեր ֆակուլտետի

57
ուսանողների բոլոր հարցերին: 15.Քարտուղարուհին,
շփոթված ու այլայլված, կանգնած էր գրասենյակի դռան առաջ:

ADVERBIAL MODIFIER

Exercise 1
Point out the adverbial modifiers and state their type.

1.Recently my friends have bought a new flat and furnished it

nicely. 2.Although some societies are technologically undeveloped,
their languages are quite complex. 3.People do not learn language
by memorizing millions of sentences. 4.In Japan, politeness is
extremely important, and the Japanese language has many polite
forms. 5.In 1970s, Western scientists travelled to India to study the
powers of yogis. 6.At first in New York, he did several odd jobs to
make money. 7.While playing, Miles Davis often turned his back to
the audience to keep his concentration. 8.Jazz always involves
more than playing musical notes. 9.In ancient America gold was
believed to have a direct link to gods, so it was too precious to use
as money. 10.Through history, much of the world’s silver was used
to make coins. 11.Since the early days of civilization, silver has
brought a different sort of wealth as people have learnt to employ it
in a variety of important ways. 12.Because of the religious
influence, African art had two chief characteristics: variety in form
and similarity in style. 13.The average commute to work by car
takes 30 minutes; some commuters travel over an hour and a half
each way. 14.Despite having been coined by playwright Carel
Capek in 1921, the term Robot didn’t become popular until 1950s.
15.A Japanese engine factory operated with a small staff of
workers during the day and continued to produce engines at night
by using robots. 16.If installed in the factories, robots can bring 25

58
percent profit. 17.The weather being unusually rough that winter,
there were scarcely any tourists in the streets. 18.He disappeared
without saying a word or pausing one moment longer. 19.
Evidently, she was not so worried with the news as her mother. 20.
An old sailor was sitting in the far corner of the bar, a cigar
between his lips. 21.The hostess was standing at the front door to
meet the guests, her hand protecting her hat from the wind. 22.She
was too reasonable to allow herself to give in to sentiments. 23.
They continued their way down the hill, with their feet deep in
mud. 24.Due to some circumstances, he couldn’t reveal the truth so
far. 25.With a violent effort, she continued her way through the
darkness. 26.A rooming house is more economical than an
apartment. 27.Because of its beautiful rings, Saturn is the most
spectacular planet in the solar system. 28.Unlike all the other
planets, Venus rotates from west to east.

Exercise 2
Complete the sentences using adverbial modifiers of time,
frequency and place.

1…. he was walking nervously … . 2. … the students attended

Professor Brown’s lectures. 3.He was born … and lived … all his
life. 4.They got married … and have lived a happy life … . 5.The
tourists walked …, stopped … and took photos. 6.When we arrived
…, it was quiet and deserted. 7.We are staying …, so you can find
us … … . 8.The bride was … nervous … . 9.While …, they
discussed some urgent problems. 10.They … met … and …
became good friends.

Exercise 3
Complete the sentences using adverbial modifiers of manner,
comparison and attendant circumstances.

59
1.She speaks French… . 2.The professor entered the lecture hall… .
3.They were looking at each other,… . 4.She took care of the
child… . 5.Tom got angry and left the room… . 6.They were
speaking …, lest someone should overhear their conversation. 7.
I’ll help you… . 8.Don’t behave… . 9.He… gave his consent. 10.
The woman stopped… .

Exercise 4
Complete the sentences using adverbial modifiers of condition,
concession and degree.

1…., her husband will inherit all her property. 2. …, I’ll say
nothing about the incident. 3. …, we would have gone on a picnic.
4. …, he is a very nice person. 5. …, the children will live with
their mother. 6. …, she managed to cope with the problem. 7.I
think the problem was … investigated. 8.She was … touched by
her friends’ words. 9.The judge was … convinced of the young
man’s innocence. 10.I’ll try to help them… .

Exercise 5
Complete the sentences using adverbial modifiers of cause
(reason), purpose and result.

1.All the flights were delayed… . 2.That happened … . 3.I came

here today … . 4.She said those words … .5.He raised his voice …
6.This task is too difficult … . 7.His wife is sensible enough … . 8.
They worked day and night … . 9.The rescue team did everything
possible … . 10. …, his nerve was utterly gone.

60
Exercise 6
Translate into English and point out the adverbial modifiers.

1. Նա դիտավորյալ բարձր էր խոսում, որպեսզի ուշադրություն

գրավի: 2.Զբոսաշրջիկները կանգ առան, որպեսզի
լուսանկարեն հեռվում երևացող գեղեցիկ տեսարանը: 3. Նա
շատ էր աշխատում, որպեսզի լավ կյանք ապահովեր իր
ընտանիքի համար: 4.Վատ եղանակային պայմանների
պատճառով բոլոր չվերթներն այդ օրը հետաձգվեցին: 5.Նա
դատարանում իրեն պահում էր ոչ թե վկայի, այլ՝ հանցագործի
նման: 6.Ընտանիքը նստել էր սեղանի շուրջ՝ առանց որևէ բառ
փոխանակելու: 7.Երբ տղամարդը մտավ դահլիճ, հագուստը՝
կեղտոտ, ձեռքերը՝ գրպաններում, բոլորը զարմացած շրջվեցին
նրա կողմը: 8.Ի՞նչ կարող եմ անել այս տհաճ իրադրությունը
շտկելու համար: 9.Տղան շատ շփոթված է, որպեսզի հիմա ձեզ
պատասխանի: 10. Ես այդ բառերն ասացի՝ բոլորովին չուզելով
ձեզ նեղացնել, այլ միայն ձեզ օգնելու համար: 11.Նրանք
քայլում էին ձեռք ձեռքի, ժպիտը դեմքներին: 12.Ձմռանը
սարերում շատ զբոսաշրջիկներ են լինում, որոնք գալիս են
դահուկ քշելու և լուսանկարելու: 13.Հոգնածության
պատճառով նա վերջերս շատ սխալներ է թույլ տալիս իր
աշխատանքում: 14.Ինչո՞ւ ես օտարի նման խոսում ամեն ան-
գամ, երբ հանդիպում ենք: 15.Երիտասարդները բարձր
ծիծաղում էին, ոչ մեկի չնկատելով: 16.Առանց քո օգնության
մենք այսքան արագ չէինք ավարտի աշխատանքը: 17.Տարիներ
անց նրանք պատահաբար հանդիպեցին Փարիզում: 18.Ինչ-որ
անհասկանալի պատճառով այդ օրը գրասենյակում ոչ ոք
չկար: 19.Այսպես մտածելով՝ նա դանդաղ անցնում էր բոլոր
սենյակներով՝ լուռ ու գլխիկոր: 20.Հին ընկերները հանդիպում
էին տարին մեկ անգամ, քաղաքից դուրս որևէ գեղեցիկ
վայրում:

INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE

61
Exercise 1
Point out the independent elements of the sentence and state their
type (interjection, direct address, parenthesis). Translate the
sentences into Armenian.

1.Well, who can explain to me the problem? 2.By God, don’t tell
them my secret! 3.People, at least in developed countries, will live
to be 100 years old because cures for many diseases, including
AIDS, will have been found. 4.Dear friends, we are going to
discuss a very important issue today. 5.However, after a few
decades, interest in Esperanto declined. 6.You’d better not think
about it, darling. 7.But beyond all this, it's a key to your success,
George. 8.In fact, English is likely to become a universal language.
9.In brief, the situation is very grave, my friends. 10.Biologically
speaking, aging is characterized by the physiological weakening of
cells. 11.Frankly speaking, I am not at all interested in your project.
12.Well, Linda, are you going to tell us anything interesting? 13.In
fact, only you are responsible for this mess. 14.Symbolic of great
power, gold was believed to have a direct link to the gods,
especially the sun god. 15.Dear colleagues, perhaps 300 miles
south of Lima lies this wonderful plateau.

Exercise 2
Complete the sentences. Add appropriate punctuation.

1.Boys are believed to be better at maths however… 2.He worked

hard at his thesis as a result… 3.There are many ancient
monuments in Armenia for example… 4.You have made many
mistakes in your test consequently… 5.Frankly speaking I don’t…
6.He is a good specialist nevertheless… 7.In fact there are few… 8.
She is obviously… 9.Perhaps we’ll be able… 10.First you
should…

62
Exercise 3
Translate into English.

1.Սիրելի բարեկամներ, ցավոք այսօր մենք չենք հասցնի

քննարկել ձեզ հետաքրքրող բոլոր հարցերը: 2.Ճիշտն ասած, ես
շատ զարմացած եմ ձեզ այստեղ տեսնելով: 3. Աստված իմ, դու
սարսափելի տեսք ունես, սիրելիս: 4.Հարգելի բարեկամներ, ես
չէի ցանկանա ձեզ վախեցնել, բայց մեր ընկերությունը լուրջ
ֆինանսական խնդիրներ ունի: 5.Դուք նոր աշխատակից եք,
հետևաբար լավ ծանոթ չեք իրավիճակին: 6.Անկեղծ ասած՝ ես
չեմ հասկանում քո դժգոհության պատճառը, Ջորջ: 7.
Զարմանալիորեն՝ նրանք անմիջապես ընդունեցին մեր բոլոր
պահանջները: 8. Սկսենք նրանից, որ դուք իրավունք չունեք
այդպես խոսել կնոջ հետ: 9.Ախ, որքան կուզեի հիմա լինել իմ
ծննդավայրում, հարազատներիս հետ: 10.Ցավոք սրտի՝
ոչինչով չեմ կարող ձեզ օգնել:

WORD ORDER
Exercise 1
Comment on the word order in the following sentences.

1.Why is it difficult to learn a second language? 2.There are

navigators which notice and understand particular movements of
waves. 3.In the 16th century, Spain controlled the sea routs to Asia.
So did Portugal. 4.Never had a man succeeded in reaching the
summit. 5.Rarely do human beings endure so much hardship and
yet succeed. 6.His fellow students couldn’t help him, neither could
the professor. 7.Not only did Julie survive the cultural revolution,
but also life without her parents. 8.Here is the project I was talking
about. 9.May your family always be happy and wealthy! 10.In vain
did the sailors search for gold. 11.Above their heads was the blue

63
sky. 12.Somewhere in the world lives the man who will save me.
13.Only once in his life had he experienced the triumph of success.
14.In the middle of the hall stood a huge statue of marble. 15.The
guests didn’t utter a word. Nor did the hostess. 16.Tired as they
were, the travellers didn’t give up. 17.Here is my best friend and
colleague. 18.Down ran the children, happy with their presents. 19.
Not a single word could he understand from what the woman said.
20.Hardly had the delegation arrived at the airport when the
photographers surrounded them. 21.Why are you so impatient? 22.
So great was her desire to help everybody that she forgot about her
own problems. 23.Only after the negotiations can the parties
announce the results. 24.Had you come a bit earlier, you wouldn’t
have missed your chance. 25.Off he ran, shouting and waving his
hands. 26.Should you change your mind, let me know. 27.There are
a number of problems in our company that we have to deal with.
28.This is the busiest street, along which are the most fashionable
shops. 29.Do you really mean what you said? 30.Here is the lady
who wanted to see you.

Exercise 2
Make the sentences emphatic by using inversion.

1.We had scarcely met when Betty began to sob. 2.The lady was so
charming that you couldn’t help admiring her. 3.He wouldn’t agree
with you even if you were right. 4.A gorgeous Chinese vase was
placed on the round table. 5.If I had known about that earlier, I
wouldn’t have let him go. 6.The employees knew very little about
the financial problems of the company. 7.She had never met such a
loyal person. 8.The weather was chilly but we decided not to
postpone our picnic. 9.Mr. Brown went off without saying good
bye. 10.Happy young couples walked along the beach all night. 11.
I can’t agree with you under any circumstances. 12.A handsome
young man was standing just in the middle of the hall. 13. The

64
party was so noisy that the guests could hardly hear each other. 14.
If you should meet him somewhere, tell him about the accident. 15.
The mother had hardly come home when the children ran up to kiss
her.

Exercise 3
Change the position of the object if possible. Make the necessary
changes.

1.If you need an umbrella, I can lend you mine. 2.She wrote her
friends long letters every day. 3.He handed his article to me and
asked my opinion. 4.Don’t tell anybody about my plans. 5.She
enjoys teaching English to her sister. 6.After work Bob is going to
buy some flowers for his girlfriend.7.Berta cooked delicious
cupcakes for her neighbours. 8.Now dictate the sentences to your
classmates, please. 9.I’ll get it for you as soon as I can. 10.Can you
send me your new project? 11.Can you send it to me? 12.Read the
letter to me, please. 13.I can’t promise you anything. 14.The
manager will explain the problem to you. 15.You have to send your
paper to the professor today.

Exercise 4
Make the sentences emphatic by changing the position of the
object.

1.He would tell his wife nothing about his problems. 2.The new job
didn’t seem promising to me. 3.The newly married couple spent a
wonderful week on the island. 4.She cherished an anxious hope in
her heart. 5.Bob found an extremely strange advertisement in the
newspaper. 6.The news didn’t seem so exciting to Kate. 7.We had a
nice day together. 8.The poor child had a frightened look.

65
Exercise 5
Arrange the attributes in the following sentences.

1.I saw a (antique, green, wonderful) vase in the shop-window.

2.A (blue, square, big) box was placed in the middle of the table. 3.
Mary bought a pair of (nice, new, leather) gloves yesterday. 4.She
was looking for a (silver, Swiss, expensive) watch. 5.The lady was
wearing a (gorgeous, evening, black, silk) dress.6.George presented
his fiancé with a (Italian, gold, beautiful) chain. 7.My friend has a
(sports, Japanese, new, red) car. 8.I have recently read a (historical,
interesting, French) novel.

Exercise 6
Rearrange the words to make up sentences.
1. always/I/work/to/bus/by/go. 2.We/club/the/go/to/the/evening/in.
3.rarely/I/the/do/thing/same/twice.4.day/break/a/We/one/have.
5.arranged/carefully/books/the/the/shelf/on/He. 6.She/children/
takes/her/school/day/to/every.7.usually/my/check/weekends/I/
email/on.8.you/take/Do/bus/get.to/to/a/your/office?9.bag/
heavy/The/is/too/carry/to/upstairs.10.should/never/you/speak/
driving/on/while/phone/the.11.He/young/army/too/in/to/is/serve.
12.were/for/They/jam/traffic/stuck/in/two/a/hours.13.Let/the/in/tom
orrow/us/café/5o’clock/meet/at.14.Come/my/you/time/any/to/place
/like/you.15.John/achieve/to/success/hard/studied.16.Neighbours/
My/house/moved/into/a/months/new/two/ago.17.He/straight/walke
d/saying/word/ upstairs/a/without/

Exercise 7
Translate into English paying attention to the word order.

66
1.Սպասասրահում շատ մարդիկ կային, որոնք սպասում էին
գնացքին: 2.Եթե մի քիչ շուտ եկած լինեիր, կզրուցեիր նրա
հետ: 3.Տան առջև կանգնած էին տանտերն ու տանտիրուհին,
որոնք դիմավորում էին իրենց հյուրերին: 4. Եկեք հանդիպենք
վաղը ժամը տասին գրասենյակում և քննարկենք ձեզ
հետաքրքրող բոլոր հարցերը: 5. Ինչ գեղեցիկ աչքեր ունի այն
աղջիկը: Ես նրան իսկույն նկատեցի: 6.Ահա այն
փաստաթղթերը, որ երեկ խոստացել էի պատրաստել: 7.Ներս
մտավ սպասավորը՝ ասելով, որ դրսում ինչ-որ իրարանցում է:
8.Հենց նոր էի միացրել համակարգիչը, երբ ինչ-որ տարօրինակ
ձայն լսեցի իմ ետևում: 9. Ձեր ուզածն անհնարին մի բան է:
10.Եթե նրան հարցնեն, նա ոչինչ չի պատմի այդ մասին:
11.Սեղանին են միայն այն գործիքները, որոնք ձեզ պետք են
գալու: 12.Ահա այն տեքստերը, որ ուսանողները պետք է
թարգմանեն: 13. Իր խնդիրների մասին նա երբեք չէր խոսում:
14. Քարտուղարը Ջոնին ցույց տվեց նրա աշխատասենյակը և
մի քանի հարց տվեց նրան: 15.Որքան էլ հոգնած լինեք, դուք
պետք է այս աշխատանքն ավարտեք մինչև երեկո: 16. Բոլոր
ուսանողները պետք է ներկա լինեն ժողովին, դասախոսները՝
նույնպես: 17.Այնքան անհավանական հնչեցին տնօրենի
խոսքերը, որ աշխատակիցները մի պահ լռեցին: 18.Քո
խոսքերը նա կարող է ներել, բայց արարքդ՝ ոչ: 19.Իմ
ընկերները չեն ցանկանում աշխատել այսպիսի
պայմաններում: Ես՝ նույպես: 20.Եթե կարողանայի նրան
նորից հանդիպել, շատ բան կասեի:

67
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

Exercise 1
Define the meaning of the connectives used to join the clauses in
the compound sentences (addition, contrast, similarity, etc.)

1.Usually Mr. Black was uncommunicative about his work, but

today he was friendly and open. 2.I must have told him a hundred
times, and still he doesn't bring it. 3.He stood in the corner turning
the ring upon his little finger while his glance travelled deliberately
over the people passing by. 4.The grass was drenching wet, so he
descended to the road. 5.There was no news from her husband,
nevertheless she went on hoping.6.Hurry up, or else you will be
late.7.Jannie did not tell me, neither did she seem offended. 8.I am
sure you have no documents — otherwise you'd have handed them
to the court. 9.Winter was coming, the papers were announcing
hardships, and there was a general feeling of hard times in the
air.10.Not only did he speak more correctly, but he spoke more
easily, and there were many new words in his vocabulary.

Exercise 2
Define the type of coordination (copulative, disjunctive,
adversative, causative-consecutive).

1.Bill is probably the best student of those I know, and Jane is the
poorest. 2.Both children and adults enjoy the story of Peter Pan, for
the idea of never growing up has a magical appeal. 3. Barrie often
told the children stories , and their favorite stories were about a
group of boys like them. 4.Frozen meat from the winter months
tasted as good as fresh meat but frozen meat from the autumn
months did not. 5.After the war he married the woman he loved,
68
however the couple had no children. 6. He jumped into the river
and swam to the other side. 7.Do you want me to accompany you
or shall I wait for you here? 8.The prices rose last year,
accordingly, we had to increase our prices too. 9.He worked day
and night, while his brother gambled and flirted with women all his
life. 10.You must work hard, or you can lose your job.

Exercise 3
Combine the simple sentences into compound sentences using
various connectives.
Model: He was very tired. He decided to continue his work.
He was very tired but he decided to continue his work.

1.He is very old. His eyesight is excellent. 2.The younger sisters

are always playing with their toys. The elder is busy helping her
mother about the house. 3.The weather was bad. It threatened to
become worse. We stayed at home. 4.They must have been away.
Nobody answered the bell. 5.He regularly attends the laboratory.
He has a good pronunciation. 6.He is not persevering enough. He is
not bright. He failed at the examination. 7.Give it back to me. I’ll
tell your mother. 8.He found himself in a terrible situation. No one
could help him. 9.I offered her a seat. She refused. 10.The old man
felt lonely. There was nobody to look after him.
Exercise 4
Translate into English and point out the type of coordination.

1.Աղջիկը շատ նիհար էր ու գունատ, բայց նա հիվանդի նման

չէր: 2.Տունը լավ վիճակում չի և մարդիկ չեն ցանկանում
այնտեղ սենյակ վարձել: 3.Արի տաքսի նստենք, թե չէ ժողովից
կուշանանք: 4.Դու նրան լավ չես ճանաչում, հակառակ
դեպքում այդպես չէիր խոսի նրա մասին: 5.Ընտանիքի հայրը
հարգարժան մարդ էր, մինչդեռ նրա որդիները ծույլ էին ու
անհաջողակ: 6.Ծրագիրը լավը չէ. այնուամենայնիվ մենք այն
69
փոխելու իրավունք չունենք: 7.Նրանք վաղուց ամուսիններ
չէին, հետևաբար՝ ոչ մի պարտավորություն չունեին միմյանց
նկատմամբ: 8.Նա ոչ միայն լավ մայր է ու կին, այլ նաև
լավագույն մասնագետն է իր բնագավառում: 9.Նա որոշել էր
փոխել աշխատանքը, այնուամենայնիվ ինչ-որ բան նրան
խանգարում էր դա անել: 10.Աշունը եկավ, ծառերը դեղնեցին և
գյուղը նմանվեց մի գեղեցիկ նկարի:

COMPLEX SENTENCES WITH SUBJECT CLAUSES

Exercise 1
Analyze the connectives used to join the subject clauses and write
them out under the following headings: conjunctions, conjunctive
pronouns, conjunctive adverbs.

1.It was a pity that Celia couldn't understand because he did want
her to. 2.It's doubtful whether they had ever realized that an ending
was bound to come. 3.Who her mother was, and how she came to
die in that forlornness, were questions that often pressed on her
mind. 4.It seemed to me that I stood by the iron gate leading to the
drive. 5.Whatever she has told you is true, sir. 6.One day after her
first week's rehearsal, what she expected came openly to the
surface. 7.It's all a mystery why our attempts have been
unsuccessful. 8.It is the face of a woman with dark hair and eyes
and certainly a pale face; but whether she is pretty or ugly , is more
than I can say. 9.It's a grand thing when you see the working class
in action. 10.It’s great that you are back!

Exercise 2
Complete the sentences adding subject clauses.
70
1. When ... has not been settled yet. 2.Whoever ... will be welcome.
3.It was very lucky that .... 4.It is a matter of doubt how ... 5.
Where ... was not quite clear. 6.Who ... was a question that
interested me most. 7.It is evident why .... 8.It was of no
importance when ... 9. When will It be announced… 10It has been
proved that ... . 11.Was it agreed at the conference ... ? 12.It
amazed her ... 13.It is surprising ... 14.It was the director's order…

Exercise 3
Paraphrase the sentences using subject clauses.
Model: It's time for her to come back. It's time she came back.

1.I still think it's time for us to get rid of them. 2.It is possible for
her to do everything alone. 3.It is not right for him to sit there
listening to our conversation. 4.It is wrong for him to
complain.5.It's nice of you to be back home. 6.It's high time for you
to realize the danger. 7. It’s natural and rational for you to like it. 8.
It Is possible for him to find a solution. 9.It is impossible for me to
treat him badly. 10. It’s time for you to realize your mistakes.

Exercise 4
Use the construction with the emphatic it to emphasize the subject.
Model: Jane spoke to the boss.
It was Jane who spoke to the boss.
1.Bill cooked the breakfast. 2.The young man helped me with the
luggage. 3.Henry always stands on my way. 4.Tony informed us
about their arrival. 5 Mother always gives me good advice. 6.My
friends came to help me that night. 7.That incident changed his life.
8.His daughter looked after him after the operation. 9. Optimists
71
make the world go round. 10.The Internet is a powerful source of
information.

Exercise 5
Translate into English using subject clauses.

1. Ակնհայտ է, որ նոր տնօրենը պատրաստվում է մեծ

փոփոխություններ իրականացնել: 2.Թե ով էր նա և որ-տեղից
էր եկել՝ մեծ գաղտ¬նիք էր: 3.Անհնար է, որ նա ջերմ
ընդունելության արժանանա նոր աշխատավայ-րում: 4.Պետք է
նկատի ունենալ, որ մեր գործարանի արտադրանքը
լավա¬գույնն է երկրում: 5.Շատ հավանական է, որ նման
հիվանդություններն ապագայում հնարավոր կլինի բուժել:
6.Թե ինչու էր վկան լռում՝ ակնհայտ էր ոստիկանների համար:
7.Թե ինչպես էր այդ մարդը ողջ մնացել ՝իմ պատկերացումից
դուրս էր: 8.-Մեծ հարց է, թե որքան ժամանակ և եռանդ
կպահանջվի ձեր ծրագիրն իրագործելու համար: 9.Հիանալի է,
որ դուք կարողանում եք ամեն ինչ պահել հսկողության տակ:
10.Այն, որ լավ գործը միշտ հատուցվում է, կյանքի մեծագույն
ճշմարտություններից մեկն է:

COMPLEX SENTENCES WITH PREDICATIVE

CLAUSES

Exercise 1
Analyze the connectives used to join the predicative clauses and.
write them out under the following headings: conjunc-tions,
conjunc¬tive pro¬nouns, conjunc¬tive adverbs, asyndetic
subordina¬tion.

72
1.What I want to know is when you're going to get married. 2.All
he wanted to know was if he was engaged in all this. 3.My only
fear was lest somebody should follow me. 4.She sounded as if she
had com¬pletely forgotten our last conversation. 5.Work is what
keeps life going. 6.One of the first thoughts that came to her now
was where her children were. 7.And the question was how the
matter could to be kept in secret. 8. The problem is who will do it.
9.He looked just as he had looked ten years before. 10.It was as
though I saw myself in a distorting mirror.

Exercise 2
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate connectives to join the
predicative clauses.

1.The fundamental trouble is ... men and women are different

creatures, with different minds and different paths in life. 2. His
arms felt ... they would come out of their sockets. 3.All I can say is
... Mako's brain seems to be crammed full of knowl-edge. 4.It's
exactly ... I felt an hour before Crafts made his revelations. 5.He
says Lowell did that during the twenty minutes she was there. That
is ... she was so upset by Lavinia. 6.That is ... makes Englishmen
unpopular on the continent. 7.The reason he wanted to be alone
was ... he was very popular. 8.The problem was … there was
nothing we could do in that situation. 9.The question is … we can
get out of this horrible place. 10.She looked … all the joy in the
world was hers.

Exercise 3
Complete the sentences adding predicative clauses.
Model: The problem is that he never tells the truth.

73
1.The fact is ... 2.The result was that ... 3.The thing is that ... 4.The
difficulty is that .... 5.The main problem was how (what, who,
which) ... 6.The trouble with him is that…. 7. The reason is that ...
8.The point is that…. 9.The best thing here is that…. 10.Our
concern was….

Exercise 4
Paraphrase the sentences using predicative clauses.
Model 1. It is suggested that they should take part in the discussion.
The suggestion is that they should take part in the discussion.
Model 2. It was our suggestion that they should take part in the
discussion. Our suggestion was that they should take part in the
discussion.

1.It was demanded that the forms should be filled at once. 2.It was
decided that the written test should be postponed till after the
holidays. 3.It was arranged that the meeting should be postponed.
4.It was requested that all applications should be typed. 5.It was
arranged that I should meet the guests at the station. . 6.It is our
common desire that the work should be properly arranged. 7.It was
my father's will that we should invite all our relations to the
wedding-party. 8.It was the professor's special request that the
assistant should repeat the experiment under the same conditions.
9.It was the director's order that the meeting should be adjourned
until a later date. 10.It was his suggestion that our team should
carry out the plan.

Exercise 5
Translate into English using predicative clauses.

1.Խնդիրն այն է, որ վարորդներն անփորձ են, իսկ մեքե-

նաները՝ անսարք վիճակում: 2.Նա այնպիսի տեսք ուներ,
կարծես երկար ճանապարհ էր անցել ոտքով: 3. Փաստն այն է,
74
որ մենք ռեսուրսներ չունենք ճգնաժամը հաղթահարելու
համար: 4.Ահա թե ինչու մենք չէինք ստանում նրա
նամակները: 5.Բանն այն է, որ մենք ոչնչով չենք կարող ձեզ
օգնել: 6. Հարցն այն է, թե որտեղից ֆինանսներ գտնենք մեր
ընկերությունը պահպանելու համար: 7.Իմ խորհուրդն այն է,
որ խիստ լինեք նրանց նկատմամբ: 8.Հաջողությունն այն է, երբ
տեսնում ես աշխատանքիդ արդյունքները: 9.Իմ երազանքն
այն է, որ բոլոր երեխաները երջանիկ լինեն: 10. Նրա ձայնն
այնպես էր լսվում, կարծես նա գտնվում էր մի շատ մարդա-
շատ ու աղմկոտ վայրում:

COMPLEX SENTENCES WITH OBJECT CLAUSES

Exercise 1
Analyze the connectives used to join the object clauses and write
them out under the following headings: conjunc¬tions, conjunctive
pronouns, conjunctive adverbs, asyndetic subordination.
1.And finally, they must consider who had dragged the body
towards the house, and why the person had chosen to do so.
2.Don’t interfere in what is not our business. 3.I was nervous of
what I had just learnt. 4.I don't know whether they are ready to help
us or not. 5.I wondered when the ultimatum would expire .6.Take
whichever comes first. 7.The boy wanted to see how the system
worked. 8.I don't deny that they have done a lot for our company.
9.You’d better make a call and see if they'll cooperate with us. 10.I
think a man like that can’t be a hero.

Exercise 2
Complete the sentences adding object clauses.
75
1.They considered it desirable ... . 2.The general commanded ... .
3.The direc¬tor insisted ... . 4.We suggest .... 5.We arranged ...
6.Do you fear ... ? 7.The girls found it strange…. 8.The
com¬mittee considers it necessary ... 9.We found it unfortu¬nate ...
10.Don't you think it queer ... ? 11.The lawyer wondered ….
12.You were told …. 13.I came to tell you …. 14.She told me
how…. 15.She took it for granted ... .

Exercise 3
Translate into English using object clauses.
1.Աշխատակիցներին տեղեկացրեցին, որ տնօրենը կարևոր
լուր ունի հայտնելու: 2.Ես անհեթեթ եմ համարում այն, որ մեր
գրասենյակը կարող է փակվել: 3.Նա քաջ գիտակցում էր, որ
այդ ճանապարհով հաջողության չի հասնի: 4.Դուք չպիտի
պնդեք այն, ինչում համոզված չեք: 5.Նա չէր կարողանում
հիշել, թե որտեղ է տեսել այդ կնոջը: 6.Հանկարծ նա
գիտակցեց, որ ամբողջ կյանքում սխալ է ապրել: 7.Ես
անիմաստ եմ համարում այն, ինչ դուք առաջարկում եք:
8.Դուք ստիպված կլինեք փոխել այն, ինչը ձեզ խանգարում է
լավ աշխատել: 9.Իրավաբանը պնդում է, որ ձեր հաշվարկները
սխալ են: 10.Ես չեմ կարող հավատալ նրան, ինչ դուք հիմա
ասում եք:

COMPLEX SENTENCES WITH ATTRIBUTIVE

CLAUSES

Exercise 1
76
Analyze the connectives used to join the relative attrib¬utive
clauses and write them out under the following head¬ings. relative
pronouns, relative adverbs, asyndetic subordination.

1.There was something about him that made me nervous. 2. In the

book department I was surprised to meet an old friend of mine,
whom I hadn't seen for years. 3.We had never been friends since
the night she was taken ill . 4.In the window, whose curtains were
not drawn, I saw them running away. 5. He is a person who is
easily deceived. 6.I remember the day when he helped me carry
my suitcase into the house. 7. Everything that he did took a long
time. 8.He occasionally had toothache, which made him restless.
9.I'm used to London, where people live pretty thick on the
ground. 10. Ellen sat listening, which she did so very well.

Exercise 2
Make up complex sentences with relative attributive clauses and
define their types (restrictive, non-restrictive, appositive,
continuative).

1.Nothing ... could be more important under these circumstances.

2.This is all ... . 3.Everything ... produced a great impression upon
us. 4.You should learn all ... 5. I know something... 6.Can you tell
me anything ... ? 7.Everything…. was useless. 8.This is all ... .
9.The most important subject ... is history. 10.This is the only
question... . 11.Wasn’t it the best thing... ? 12.Provide me with any
information… . 13.The idea …. gave her strength to survive.
14.That day Father came home very late,…. 15.In this situation he
couldn’t trust even Tom,….

77
Exercise 3
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate connectives or join the
attributive clauses asyndetically

1.This was the best plan ... could be adopted. 2.I remembered the
night ... I first met him. 3.Everything ... she did that evening was in
vain. 4.The village ... they lived had been destroyed. 5.I didn't hear
all ... he said, for my mind was elsewhere. 6.The woman offered
me coffee, ... I refused politely. 7.There were times ... she felt
completely happy. 8. He told me that he missed me, ... was what I
wanted to hear. 9. My aim had been to write about the less
accessible islands ... charms are not so widely known. 10.The
house was the same ... we had seen many years ago .

Exercise 4
Classify the attributive clauses into relative and appositive.

1.He had the feeling that the woman had once suffered as she was
suffering now. 2.The question how their lives would end seemed
the deepest of possible enigmas. 3.She didn’t feel the satisfaction
she usually derived from such situations. 4. The impression that he
gathered was that he would be able to make his own terms. 5.I
added a suggestion that I should give some explana¬tion of the
project. 6.My tongue can’t utter the thoughts that arise in me. 7.She
had no idea where she was going. 8.Of all the different ideas that
were started lately, this seems the best one. 9.Deep in her heart was
the hope that things would change soon. 10.She couldn’t lose the
hope that she cherished in her heart.

78
Exercise 5
Complete the sentences adding an appositive or a relative
attributive clause.

1.They debated the question how ... . 2.The problem who ... was to
be discussed the next day. 3.He made the suggestion that ... . 4.The
news that ... shocked him. 5.There is no reason why .... 6.She had
very little hope that ... 7.The proposal that ... was accepted with
enthusiasm. 8.She had the impression that ... 9.He did not go to
church, which… . 10.Do you have any idea which…?

Exercise 6
Translate into English and point out the type of attributive clauses.

1.Տունը, որտեղ նա ծնվել ու մեծացել էր, այժմ վերածվել էր

ավերակների: 2.Աչքի անցկացնելով հին լուսանկարները,
ծերունին հիշում էր այն օրերը, երբ ինքը երիտասարդ էր և
երջանիկ: 3.Նա այնպիսի զգացողություն ուներ, որ այդ օրը
ինչ-որ կարևոր բան է պատահելու: 4.Այն աշխատակիցները,
ովքեր չեն ենթարկվի ընկերության կանոններին, կհեռացվեն
աշխատանքից: 5. Բակում կանգնած էր տանտիրուհին, որն
անհամբեր սպասում էր հյուրերին: 6 .Կնոջը հույս էր ներշնչում
այն միտքը, որ մի օր որդին վերադառնալու է տուն: 7.Այդ օրն
ամբողջ ընտանիքը հավաքված էր սեղանի շուրջ, որ հաճախ
չէր պատահում: 8.Տան բոլոր դռներն ու լուսամուտները բաց
էին, որ շատ զարմացրեց փոստատարին: 9.Այն մարդիկ, ովքեր
սովոր են կարգապահության, ավելի հաճախ են հաջողության
հասնում: 10.Նա երազում էր մեկ անգամ էլ տեսնել Փարիզը,
որտեղ անցկացրել էր իր կյանքի լավագույն տարիները:

79
COMPLEX SENTENCES WITH ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
OF PLACE AND TIME

Exercise 1
Define the type of the subordinate clauses joined by where and
state whether where is a conjunction, a conjunctive adverb or a
relative adverb

1.But he isn't where she thinks he is. 2.Where the meeting would be
held didn't matter much. 3.She ran down the side garden path to
where she had seen the face. 4.The car was just where it should
have been, just where I had parked it. 5.If only I knew where he is
or where he's going! 6.He cast a glance at the corner, where his
wife sat among the other employees. 7.No one knew where the
fighting was . 8.That was where they had arranged to meet.
9.Where the soldiers were hiding was a secret. 10.Everybody knew
where the wounded soldiers were, but no one spoke about it.
Exercise 2
Complete the sentences and define the type of the subordi¬nate
clause introduced by where.

1.Where…. is not settled up yet ... 2.Ask him where ... . 3. We

decided to go to the town where ... . 4.The problem was where ... .
5.I met my old friend at the place where … 6.He walked straight
into the room where ... 7.I feel quite comfortable where…. 8.The
guide left the tourists where…. 9.I would like to know where….
10.The question where… irritated me.

Exercise 3
80
Write out the conjunctions used to join the adverbial clauses of
time. Translate the sentences into Armenian.

1.The door had scarcely closed behind her before it opened again.
2.The floor shook a little as they passed. 3.He'll stay here till I call
him. 4.I haven't thought of anything else since I met him. 5.No
sooner had we left the house than all the lights went out as if by
magic. 6. The old man looked at the top of the mountain until he
saw what he expected to see. 7.I must get prepared before I see the
boss. 8.I don't think I'll ever get back to my village as long as I live.
9.For some days afterwards he had an uncomfortable sensation of
guiltiness whenever he was in his wife’s presence. 10.Well, think
over his proposal while he is out.
Exercise 4
Classify the subordinate clauses introduced by when into object
clauses, attributive clauses and adverbial clauses of time.

1.The day will come when you will know why I am silent even to
you. 2.We will talk when you have had a night's sleep. 3.When he
entered the house she greeted him with a bright face. 4.We never
knew when they'd break in and arrest us all.5.He had come to that
stage of life when he should enter into public affairs. 6.I’ll never
forget the day when all that happened. 7.The policeman asked the
neighbours when they had heard the noise. 8.The old man used to
speak about the times when he was young and strong. 9.The
passengers were in panic when something went wrong with the car.
10.When the mail came, he at once handed Brown his letters.

Exercise 5
Open the brackets using the appropriate tense of the verb.

81
1. He stared down at her waiting for the moment when she (to turn)
her head and (to look) at him. 2.I only hope Alis (to be) still there
when you (to come) out after winter. 3. He began to tell the story of
his life, from childhood to this day. He wept as he (to tell) it. 4.As
he (to stand) by it he (to straighten) up on his hind legs and then (to
mark) the tree as high as he could reach with his paw. 5.When he
(to finish) they heard him suddenly take a savage bite at the trunk.
6. After he (to go), Betty (to turn) in a rather weary way and (to
look) out the window after him. 7.Then, before the people (to
understand) the last words, the speaker (to step) out of the theatre
and was gone. 8.He remembered the telegram he (to receive) from
her while he (to be) still in hospital in New York. 9.Alan (to begin)
chuckling with him before he (to get) the point of the joke. 10.That
evening, before the shops (to close), she (to buy) three more silk
scarves .
Exercise 6
Make up complex sentences with adverbial clauses of time.

1.Nothing had changed …. 2. …. he had spent all the time he could

with her. 3.We hadn’t met…. 4.I’ve done a lot… . 5. ….. I've
wanted to tell you about it but could not. 6.You've changed a lot. It
is five years since ... 7.It was over twenty years since .... 8.It is over
a year since… 9.The house has not been lived in since… 10.The
children had been starving since…

Exercise 7
Complete the sentences adding the principal clause or an adverbial
clause of time.

1. You can ask him any question you like now that ... . 2. ... as she
was putting on her coat. 3. ... as he sat alone at table. 4.Don't leave
till … 5.He said he would return as soon as ... 6. ... when he stops
82
making such mistakes 7. ... before he had entered. 8.They were
still waiting for the guests while ... . 9. ... after they had left. 10.
... when he had read the assign¬ment.

Exercise 8
Translate into English using adverbial clauses of place and time.

1.Ես քեզ կսպասեմ այնտեղ, որտեղ մենք հանդիպեցինք

առաջին անգամ: 2.Նա գնաց այնտեղ, որտեղից լսվում էին
տարօրինակ ձայները: 3.Տղան շատ զարմացած էր, որովհետև
չէր գտնում իր ժամացույցն այնտեղ, որտեղ թողել էր:
4.Վարորդը մեքենան թողեց այնտեղ, որտեղից այն չէին
կարողանա առևանգել: 5.Նա գտնում էր, որ կինը պիտի լինի
այնտեղ, որտեղ իր ամուսինն է: 6.Դուք պետք է բոլոր գործերն
ավարտեք հյուրերի գալուց առաջ: 7.Նրանք արագ հեռացան՝
մինչև ես կհասցնեի որևէ բան ասել: 8.Ես փաստաթղթերը
կստորագրեմ՝ հենց որ դրանք պատրաստ լինեն: 9.Երբ նրանք
երիտասարդ էին, նրանք չէին մտածում իրենց ապագայի
մասին: 10. Հազիվ էին բոլորը հավաքվել, երբ մի սարսափելի
պայթյունի ձայն լսվեց:

COMPLEX SENTENCES WITH ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF

CAUSE AND RESULT

Exercise 1
Write out the conjunctions used to join the adverbial clauses of
cause. Translate the sentences into Armenian.

83
1.He knew nothing about that family since he hadn't been here so
very long himself 2.They did not say anything because they were
frightened. 3.We took our umbrellas because we were afraid it
would rain. 4.They didn’t tell anybody about their love because it
was a secret they wanted to keep to themselves. 5.She was very
surprised to see the door wide open, for it was usually locked.
6.Since he had been cheated very often, he couldn’t make himself
believe people. 7.As the trees could not grow without sunlight, they
soon died. 8. My dear friend, since you express your regret I
suppose there is nothing more to be said. 9.I decline to support this
scheme of hers as I hold it to be a dishonest scheme. 10.The
preparations were of a more elabo¬rate nature than usual, as the
past four days Mr. Samuel Griffiths, the husband and father, had
been absent.

Exercise 2
Fill in the blanks with the conjunctions because, for, since and as.

1.They had come straight from the plants, ... the hands that carried
the roses were grimed with toil. 2.He refused to take money ... he
couldn't 3.Her father, indeed, was always telling her that she only
drank China tea ... it was a fashion. 4. And ... I am married and
childless, I wish to adopt her. 5. She could neither clean her nails
nor wash her face, ... the water was frozen?" 6.He took a deep
breath of relief … he had found the solution of the problem. 7.She
looked miserable … she was angry and disappointed. 8. … they
had put no effort in their job, they could never succeed. 9. I could
see he was unhappy … he regretted his words. 10. … everything
was settled, we decided to start our journey.

84
Exercise 3
Write out the conjunctions used to join the adverbial clauses of
result. Translate the sentences into Armenian.

1.Several shots were fired; but such was the hurry of the Marksmen
that no one appeared to have taken effect. 2.They replied in such a
voice that he no longer pretended ignorance.
3.So heavy was the stress of the storm just at this place that I had
the hardest task to win my way up the hill. 4.Roses on the veranda
were still in bloom, and the hedges evergreen, so that there was
almost nothing of middle-aged autumn to chill the mood. 5.But the
inflections of the English verb are so scanty that we need not be
sur¬prised to find that the distinction between indicative and
sub¬junctive is very slight. 6.So great was the shortage of paper in
the Confederacy now that Gerald's note was written between the
lines of her last letter to him. 7.The poor child was so frightened
that he could not utter a single word. 8.She was so confused that
she forgot why she had come here. 9.George became so interested
in sociology that he changed his program. 10.She had such
extraordinary views that Tom couldn’t resist her. 11.The marriage
of Soames with Annette took place in Paris with such privacy that
even Emily was not told until it was accomplished

Exercise 4
Paraphrase the sentences using adverbial clauses of result.
Model: The old man was looked after well enough for her not to
worry about him.
The old man was looked after so well that she did not worry about
him.

1.He was so polite as to place his office at our disposal. 2. The

woman’s hands were shaking too much for her to read the letter.
3.He continued to speak too loudly to hear the sound of the
wheels. 4.I was too busy with my work to hear his approach. 5.She
85
felt happy enough to include the whole world in the affection.
6.Her heart was hammering too wildly for her to sit still. 7.It is too
early for us to call her. 8.Bertha is clever enough to do it on her
own, isn’t she? 9.We are too tired to continue the experiment. 10.
They were too happy together to see what was going on around.

Exercise 5
Use inverted word order in the complex sentences with adverbial
clauses of result according to the patterns:

Pattern I
Principal Clause
so + predicative + subject expressed by a "noun

1.His French was so rusty that he preferred speaking English.

2.Scarlett's hands were so swollen and bruised she could hardly
flex them. 3.She was so glad that she could not utter a word. 3.He
was so friendly I was beginning to think he was struck on. 5.They
were so high that the breeze did not bring them the grumble of the
surf below

Pattern II
Principal Clause
so + adverbial modifier + subject expressed by a noun

1.The boy ran so quickly that I couldn't catch him. 2.She looked at
me so furiously that I couldn’t utter a single word.3. The man
spoke so excitedly that we could hardly understand him. 4.Sir
Wigmore started so violently that he knocked his brief over upon
the head of the Clerk to the House of Lords sitting below him.

86
Exercise 6
Translate into English using adverbial clauses of cause and result.

1.Մենք չենք կարողանա հյուրերին դիմավորել օդանա-

վակայանում, քանի որ գրասենյակում շատ գործ ունենք
անելու: 2.Երեխաներն այնքան հուզված էին, որ չէին
կարողանում մի բառ արտաբերել: 3.Քանի որ ամեն ինչ
պատրաստ է, կարող ենք ճանապարհ ընկնել վաղ ա-
ռավոտյան: 4.Նա այնքան հարուստ փորձ ուներ, որ ոչինչ
այլևս նրան չէր զարմացնում: 5.Նորապսակներն այնքան
երջանիկ էին, որ չէին նկատում, թե ինչ է կատարվում իրենց
շուրջը: 6.Քանի որ Նոր Տա¬րին արդեն մոտենում էր,
ընտանիքի բոլոր անդամները սկսել էին նախապատրաստվել
տոնին: 7.Նա այնքան վատ է ֆրանսերեն խոսում, որ ոչ ոք
նրան չի հասկանում: 8.Քանի որ բոլորս չափահաս մարդիկ
ենք, կարիք չկա բացատրել իրավիճակի լրջությունը:
9.Դասախոսն այնքան արագ էր խոսում, որ ուսանողները չէին
հասցնում գրառումներ անել: 10.Ես չեմ կարող ձեզ ոչինչ ասել,
քանի որ դա հույժ գաղտնի տեղեկատվություն է:

COMPLEX SENTENCES WITH ADVERBIAL

CLAUSES OF PURPOSE

Exercise 1
Write out the conjunctions used to join the adverbial clauses of
purpose. Translate the sentences into Armenian.

1.I turned away so that Nell should not see my face. 2.She got up
and fixed the latch on the wicket at the landing so that Philip could
not get in. 3.Perhaps they had invited me only that we might have a
87
chat, though I was not sure. 4. He turned on the other side so that
he might see the reality of the world. 5.I will not make a noise lest
I should disturb you. 6.He held a very guarded conversation with
her on his way home, for fear that she would take additional
offence. 7.As you go, leave the door open so that the light from the
lamp may show you some of the way down. 8.We got everything
ready for the trip so that we could start as early in the morning as
possible. 9.They spoke in a whisper lest the children could overhear
them. 10.I left some of my things in the hotel, that I could have a
reason to come back.

Exercise 2
Complete the sentences using adverbial clauses of purpose.

1.The sailors were anxious to reach the land so that…. 2.We

decided to leave the place early in the morning lest… 3.He went to
see the doctor before his work so that…. 4.They lay motionless
lest… 5.He had to work day and night so that… 6.She looked down
so that… 7.The mother told the children to stay indoors lest…
8.You must work hard so that… 9 He decided to be at the station
very early lest… 10.I invited them to my office in the morning so
that…

Exercise 3
Replace the conjunctions lest and for fear by so that making all the
necessary changes in the adverbial clauses of purpose.
Model: Their names are kept secret lest the soldiers should arrest
them.
Their names are kept secret so that the soldiers may not (cannot,
should not, will not) arrest them.

88
1.Say as little as possible about it to your wife lest she should
reveal my secret. 2.I will not make a noise lest I should disturb you.
3.I found the notice in her pocket and took charge of it for fear
someone could get hold of it. 4.George didn’t touch upon that
problem lest it should hurt his wife. 5.She set the doors and
windows wide open, lest she should be left alone in the darkness.
6.I tried to protect them for fear they could be punished. 7.They set
a strong guard lest any¬one should escape. 8.Write down my phone
number lest you should forget it. 9.She wrapped the vase in thick
paper for fear that it could be broken. 10.The nurse drew the
curtains down lest the bright light might hurt the sick man’s eyes.

Exercise 4
Classify the subordinate clauses joined by the conjunctions that or
so that into adverbial clauses of purpose or result. Translate the
sentences into Armenian.

1.I want to be left alone that I may think over the problem. 2.I got
one of the bags of flour full in my face so that it burst all over my
head. 3.I put on my hat so that I should not have to come up again.
4. He was so upset that he couldn’t even express himself.5.Barrie
originally wrote the stories of Peter Pan so that Davies’s sons could
perform in them.6.Tribes also raided each other so that they could
acquire more horses. 7.So terrible was the noise that I decided to
leave the place. 8.The tourists gathered under the big oak-tree so
that they should decide where to put a tent. 9.The children were
very excited, so that they even forgot to greet the guests. 10.I came
here alone so that we could have a confidential talk.

Exercise 5
Translate into English using adverbial clauses of purpose.
89
1.Նա արևային ակնոց և կեղծամ էր կրում, որպեսզի ոչ ոք իրեն
չճանաչի: 2.Հայրն ընտանիքի բոլոր անդամներին հրավիրեց իր
տուն, որպեսզի անձամբ հայտնի կարևոր լուրը: 3.Մենք չենք
աղմկի, որպեսզի ձեզ չխանգարենք: 4.Զբոսաշրջիկներն
առաջին հերթին քարտեզ գնեցին, որպեսզի կողմնորոշվեն
անծանոթ քաղաքում: 5.Ես պետք է ամեն ինչ իմանամ ձեր
մասին, որպեսզի կարողանամ ձեզ օգնել: 6.Երեխան վառել էր
տան բոլոր լույսերը, որպեսզի մենակությունից չվախենա:
7.Նրանք ճանապարհ ընկան գիշերով, որպեսզի ոչ ոք իրենց
չտեսնի: 8.Եկեք այդ մասին այստեղ չխոսենք, որպեսզի որևէ
մեկը պատահմամբ չլսի մեր խոսակցությունը: 9. Նա բոլոր
դռներն ու լուսամուտները բացել էր, որպեսզի բնակարանն
օդափոխվի: 10.Ամեն ինչ արվում էր, որպեսզի հյուրերն ի¬րենց
ապահով զգային:

COMPLEX SENTENCES WITH ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

OF COMPARISON AND MANNER

Exercise 1
Point out the adverbial clauses of comparison and manner.

1.The intervals were never as long as they had seemed. 2.The old
man watched the guests as he had never watched them before 3.She
spoke so fluently as if she were a native speaker. 4.Don’t worry. I
will do everything as I was told. 5.The meeting was not so boring
as we had expected. 6.The play proved to be as exciting as they had
promised. 7.She looked at me as though she didn’t believe my
words. 8.Joseph continued to speak as if no one else were in the
room. 9.Why are you staring at me as if you'd never seen me
before? 10.She did everything as her mother had taught her.

90
Exercise 2
Make up complex sentences with adverbial clauses of comparison.

1.On the very first day they treated me so badly as though ... 2. I
will act as if ... 3.She spoke so fast as if ... 4.He came in without
greeting anyone as if ... . 5.They received the guests as though…
6.She looked at the children as if… 7.Don’t smile as if… 8.She
spoke in such a friendly manner as if… 9.He lowered his voice as
though… 10.The tourists looked frightened as if…

Exercise 3
Translate into English using adverbial clauses of comparison and
manner.

1.Տանտերն այնպես էր մեզ նայում, կարծես առաջին անգամ էր

տեսնում: 2.Ես ամեն ինչ կանեմ այնպես, ինչպես դուք եք
ցանկանում: 3.Երեխան այնպես էր կակազում, ասես ինչ-որ
բանից վախեցած էր: 4.Սենյակն այնպես թափթփված էր,
կարծես ինչ-որ մեկն ինչ-որ բան էր փնտրել այնտեղ: 5.Նա
այնպես էր խոսում, ինչպես երբեք մինչ այդ չէր խոսել: 6.Քեզ
այնպես մի պահիր, ասես օտար լինես: 7.Նրանք այնպես
գրկախառնվեցին, կարծես հարյուր տարի չէին հանդիպել:
8.Նա տան գործերն այնպես էր անում, ինչպես մայրն էր
սովորեցրել: 9.Տղան ներս մտավ այնպիսի տեսքով, ասես
ուրվական էր տեսել: 10.Վարվիր այնպես, ինչպես ճիշտ ես
համարում:

COMPLEX SENTENCES WITH ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

OF CONDITION
91
Exercise 1
Write out the conjunctions used to join the adverbial clauses of
condition and point out the sentences with asynde¬tic
subordination.

1.Work's no use unless you believe in it. 2.Once you start, it won't
be so easy to get off. 3.If George were a poor man, she would never
look upon him. 4.What will you do if you don’t pass the final
exam? 5.I will help you on condition you do it properly. 6.They
will have to return in case they don’t get their visas extended.
7.Don’t buy a watch unless it is guaranteed. 8. Would you play
tennis if you didn’t have a good racket? 9.Had they come earlier,
they would not face such a lot of problems. 10.Were I a bit
younger, I would fall in love with her.

Exercise 2
Make up complex sentences with adverbial clauses of condition.

1.I will stay here for three years if… 2.He wouldn’t be able to train
his dog… 3.Don’t accept their invitation… 4.Don’t apply for this
job… 5.If…, I would travel all over the world. 6.He will get a
promotion on condition… 7.Will you have a vacation….? 8.The
students will get high marks provided… 9. I can’t learn it by heart
unless… 10.They would be very happy if…

COMPLEX SENTENCES WITH ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF

CONCESSION

Exercise 1
92
Analyze the connectives used to join the adverbial clauses of
concession. Translate the sentences into Armenian.

1.However poor these explanations were, he managed to convince

the jury that he was innocent. 2.Although the sun was shining, the
heat did not seem to abate. 3.Everyone she met on her way, no
matter who they were, seemed to be enemies. 4.I will do as I like,
no matter whether it is right or wrong. 5. Whatever hap¬pened
now, he would never quite get over this. 6. Tired as he was, he
continued his way. 7.Mrs. Allen arranges social evenings even
though she has a lot of work in the library. 8.Bill’s mother doesn’t
expect him to call her every day, though she lives alone. 9.No
matter how hard you work, you will never be successful. 10.I will
not accept his invitation, whoever he could be.

Exercise 2
Make up complex sentences with adverbial clauses of concession.

1.They managed to finish their work before dark though.... 2.

Whether…., I will be there at 9. 3.I won't go there even if .... 4. No
matter …., you should forgive hm. 5.No matter how ... you can't
make him stop. 6.Even though he ..., he continued his journey.7.I
could never speak French as well as you do even if ... 8.Your
friends would have helped you even if….. 9.No matter..., he could
not succeed. 10.However ... she practiced without a mo¬ment's
interruption.

Exercise 3
Paraphrase the sentences using the connectives suggested in
brackets.

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Model 1: Linda works very hard but she cannot find the job
she wants to have.(no matter where, wherever). No matter how
hard Linda works, she cannot find the job she wants to have.
Mode1 2: If you had received the letter earlier, you wouldn’t
be able to do anything for him. Even if you had received the letter
earlier, you wouldn’t be able to do anything for him.

1.All the employees worked day and night but the boss was not
satisfied (no matter how). 2.If you had behaved better, she would
have treated you differently. 3.The tenant was very polite and
punctual, yet the landlady didn’t trust him(no matter how). 4.If
Julia had expected to meet him at the party, she would not have
received my invitation. 5.Everything she did about the house,
annoyed her husband(whatever, no matter what). 6.George could
marry her, but they would never be happy together(even if). 7.I can
talk to him on the problem. But he will never agree to accept you
offer. 8.She tried hard to convince me but I did not believe a single
word she said(no matter how). 9.The task is rather difficult but they
will cope with it. 10. It was dark but we found the way easily.

Exercise 4
Translate into English using adverbial clauses of condition and
concession.

1.Չնայած ընտանիքը մեծ խնդիրներ ուներ, ծնողները շատ

ժամանակ էին հատկացնում երեխաներին: 2.Ես շատ
շնորհակալ կլինեի, եթե ինձ օգնեիք այս դժվար իրավիճակում:
3.Եկեք կիրակի օրը թենիս խաղանք, եթե անձրև չգա:
4.Չնայած Քեյթն ամուսնուն չէր սիրում, նա ամեն ինչ անում էր
նրան գոհացնելու համար: 5.Որ¬քան էլ մարդ իմանա,
միևնույնն է, սովորելու շատ բան կա: 6. Եթե ժամանակին
չհանձնեք ձեր աշխատանքները, բավարար գնահատական չեք
ստանա: 7.Որքան էլ լավ ճանաչեի նրան, միևնույնն է, չէի
94
կարող իմանալ նրա բոլոր գաղտնիքները: 8.Եթե նա
ամուսնացած լիներ, ավելի հեշտ կդիմակայեր կյանքի
դժվարություններին: 9.Եթե կարողանանք այս իրավիճակից
դուրս գալ, ես խոստանում եմ կատարել քո բոլոր
ցանկությունները: 10.Չնայած նա խիստ արտաքին ունի, նա
շատ բարի և զգայուն մարդ է:

REVISION

Exercise 1
Combine the sentences with coordinating conjunctions.

1. Men are more masculine than women. Women often do the

hardest physical labor. 2.Female babies may be treated better in the
future. Their situation may worsen. 3.Male infants receive better
treatment in many countries. They are more highly prized than
female babies. 4.In rural areas, female infants are less valued than
males. Female babies are breast-fed for a much shorter period than
male babies. 5.In some countries baby girls are not fed as much as
their brothers. Girls do not get as much attention. 6.Fred is not
very sociable. He is not very polite either. 7.Fred is antisocial. He
loves to go to parties. 8. Her behavior is often rude. She has many
friends. 9.John hasn’t read the article. He hasn’t written the
summary either. 10.Patty doesn’t stay out late. She doesn’t go to
parties either.

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Exercise 2
Complete the following sentences to make up a compound
sentence.

1.Last Friday Bob asked me to go to a movie but….2 May is

engaged to be married, so… . 3.They may never get married, for…
. 4.He doesn’t love his wife, nor… . 5.Tom doesn’t have a new car,
nor… . 6.He is not sociable, so… . 7.Many people think that a
woman’s place is at home, with the children, yet… 8.You’d better
consider the problem seriously, or… 9.The restaurants in this town
are very good and cheap, so… . 10.She never does any housework,
nor… .

Exercise 3
Define the type of subordinate clause introduced by who, whose,
which and what and say whether they are relative pronouns or
conjunctions

1.And may I ask who she is and how you got to know her? 2.He
was certainly a much better judge than the villagers who were to
form the audience. 3.She was crying at the thought of the death of
her father, who was hanged twenty years ago. 4.I don’t know
whose address it can be. 5.There was once a tribe whose lands lay
many miles from the sea. 6.She doesn’t mind what you say. 7.What
bothers me is your health. 8.She told the police officer that she had
been at home all night, which was a complete lie. 8.He wanted to
know what the government was doing about the lives of poor
people in the city. 9.He told the doctor he had some terrible illness
which he had read about in the newspaper. 10.The main problem is
who should be sent to that meeting as a representative of our
community.

Exercise 4
96
Define the type of clause introduced by that and say whether that is
a conjunction or a relative pronoun.

1.Henry looked at his watch and saw that it was two o’clock in the
morning. 2.But it was not at her that the inspector stared. 3. All the
trains that there were at the station were empty. 4.He looked at her
with a despe¬ration that half frightened her. 5. That she loved a
married man was no longer a secret. 6.The thought that they would
never meet again seemed terrible. 7. The problem is that we don’t
know his address or phone number. 8.Here was the letter that we
had been looking for. 9. He was so excited that he couldn’t utter a
single word. 10.It was obvious that they were concealing
something.

Exercise 5
State what part of the sentence is emphasized by means of the
emphatic it.

1.It is specially in a big family that such an idea takes hold. 2.It was
the poor girl who was left with burning cheeks, hiding her
embarrassment. 3.It was only by force of will that she kept herself
upright. 4.It was into the hall that the guests went. 5.It was over
them that the great quarrel arose. 6.It was not altogether for this
reason that his mind misgave him. 7.It is undoubtedly from him
that the note comes. 8. It was very seldom that I uttered more than
monosyllables in their presence. 9.Itwas she who had stopped the
car. 10.But it was at her extravagant dress that the men looked.

Exercise 6
Define the type of clause introduced by as.

97
1.Little sunbeams crept between the leaves, and as they fell upon
the fountain, made it shine like silver. 2.Tired as she was, she
couldn’t understand my instructions. 3.It is just as you say. 4.He
did everything just as he had been told. 5.As there is nothing more
to say, you can pass on to your duties. 6.He decided to leave
everything as he had found the first day he arrived. 7.Strong as I
look, there is a weak place in my heart. 8. The wind had dropped
and it was as lovely a morning as one could desire. 9.As I laid her
down, I covered her ice-cold hand with mine. 10.The old man
shrilled as he looked in the innocent girl’s eyes.

Exercise 7
Define the type of subordinate clause joined by the conjunctions if
and whether.

1.Whether these state¬ments are really true is no concern of mine.

2.The lady knew nothing about mushrooms and inquired the man if
they were not poisonous. 3.His order was to deliver the letter right
away if anything unusual ever happened to him. 4.He wanted to
know if his orders were carried out on time. 5. She felt she
wouldn’t marry Bob if he were the last man left on the earth. 6.The
only question is if they are really involved in that terrible crime.
7.If you are busy, I will call you later. 8. The only question is
whether I can trust him or not. 9.Whether he expected to find
anything gruesome inside was not appar¬ent. 10.The pilot looked
up at the sky to see if it was flying weath-er.

Exercise 8
Define the type of clause introduced by when, where, how and
why. Name the type of connective.

98
1.What I want to know is when you're going to get married. 2.I
wondered where he was going, and why he carried the bag. 3. Let
us meet where we had arranged. 4.She wanted to visit Paris, where
she had met her first love. 5.Now it was clear why they were
always quarrelling. 6.Suddenly it struck me how unhappy this
woman was. 7.It is quite obvious why they have decided to sell the
house. 8.The boy could not forget the day when he first saw the
sea. 9.One day, when I was coming back from my office, I met
Steve in the street. 10.He led a regular life and was always very
careful about what he ate and drank.

Exercise 9
Analyze the clauses joined by so and so that.

1.Nothing would induce him to visit his relatives, so she offered to

accompany him. 2.He turned the picture to the light so that he
could see it better. 3.He had no time to look after the house and the
farm, so he married again. 4.I knocked for a while but there was no
answer, so I pushed the door open and stepped in. 5.His lips were
covered with a full beard, so that the sweet¬ness of the smile was
mostly lost. 6.A wonderful smile lit up his face, so that he became a
different man. 7.She was looking forward to the day when she
could get a divorce, so that she and George could marry. 8.I know
your wife quite well, so you needn't be afraid of any disagreeable
comments about her. 9.Everything was ready for the trip, so we
started with the dawn. 10.She did the housework perfectly so that
her husband was pleased with her.

Exercise 10
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate connectives and define the
type of clause they introduce.

99
1.I wonder ... they'll help you when you need it. . 2.She was quite
pleased to find ... there was a present for her… she hadn’t expected
to get. 3.The only thing she remembers is…. 4. At this hotel always
stopped Mrs. Brown, … was a bony woman of sixty, dressed in
shabby black clothes. 5.We were about to leave the bar… it began
to rain. 6.The restaurant was next door to the old building in…. she
had a room. 7.I found… you went away on Thursday. 8.There are a
lot of easy ways to do it,… you needn’t worry. 9. …. he was very
young, his colleagues respected him for his professional qualities.
10.You ought to talk to her,… hard it can be. 11.His inner life went
on, ….events took place outside - failure, humiliation, the
disharmony of his marriage. 12.I’ll be there for you, … you come
back.

Exercise 11
Paraphrase the sentences so as to use subordinate clauses as
suggested in brackets .
Model: The order was for all of us to be there on time (predicative
clause). The order was that all of us should be there on time.

1.But for the rain we could have our breakfast in the garden
(adverbial clause of condition). 2.It is most urgent for the staff to
have all the documents printed (subject clause). 3. Though tired,
she went on doing the translation (adverbial clause of concession).
4.He made a proposal about working out a new plan (appositive
attributive clause). 5.We have a lot to do, so it is high time to start
(subject clause). 6.Her desire was for all the family to live a happy
life (predica¬tive clause). 7.The speaker coughed and stammered as
if in doubt how to proceed (adver-bial clause of manner). 8.She
forced a smile, as if afraid of being ridiculous (adver¬bial clause of
manner). 9.All that was best in him he hid away, as if ashamed of it
(adver¬bial clause of manner). 10.It is important for all of you to
pass this exam (subject clause).
100
Exercise 12
Make up complex sentences using the clauses as subordi¬nate
clauses of different types.

1. Where the documents were ((subject clause, predicative

clause, object clause, attributive clause, adverb¬ial clause of place).
2. Happy as they were (adverbial clause of reason, adverbial
clause of concession).
3. How difficult the problem was (subject clause, predicative
clause, object clause).
4. If he is going to retire (subject clause, predicative clause,
object clause, adverbial clause of condition).
5. Whenever you come back (adverbial clause of time,
adverbial clause of concession).

101