NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE: ENG 454

COURSE TITLE: MULTI LINGUALISM

 COURSE
GUIDE

ENG 454
MULTI LINGUALISM

Course Team Dr. Taiwo Abioye (Course Developer/Writer) –

Covenant University
Prof. Kunle Adeniran (Course Editor) – University
of Ibadan
Dr. I. Omolara Daniel (Programme Leader) –
NOUN
Mr. Theodore O. Iyere (Course Coordinator) –
NOUN

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

ENG 454 COURSE GUIDE

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos

Abuja Office
5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja

e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

Published by
National Open University of Nigeria

Printed 2013

ISBN: 978-058-692-4

All Rights Reserved

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ENG 454 COURSE GUIDE

CONTENTS PAGE

Introduction………………………………………………….. iv
What you will Learn in this Course……………………......... iv
Course Aim…………………………………………………... v
Course Objectives…………………………………………… v
Working through this Course………………………………... vi
Course Materials……………………………………………... vi
Study Units…………………………………………………... vi
Textbooks and References…………………………………… vii
Assignment File……………………………………………… ix
Presentation Schedule……………………………………….. ix
Course Marking Scheme…………………………………….. x
Course overview……………………………………………... x
How to get the most from this Course……………………….. xi
Assessment Schedule………………………………………… xi
Tutor-Marked Assignment…………………………………… xi
Final Examination and Grading……………………………... xii
Facilitation/Tutors and Tutorial……………………………... xii
Summary…………………………………………………….. xii

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ENG 454 COURSE GUIDE

INTRODUCTION

ENG 454: Multilingualism is a three-credit unit course. This course

introduces key theoretical and practical issues in the study of
multilingual societies and individuals, exploring these at the levels of the
nation, the region, and the group. Multilingualism examines topics like:
languages and cultures; core concepts and core values; language
attitudes; assimilation and pluralism; and issues surrounding minority
languages. This course is designed to throw more light on the concept of
multilingualism as an individual or social phenomenon, particularly in a
society with a multiplicity of languages (such as Nigeria) at various
stages of development. The ethnolinguistic and sociopolitical
implications of multilingualism have been explained in both educational
and societal settings. ENG 454 takes into consideration, the academic
and professional needs of students of language, be it as language
planners or as teachers and researchers implementing the national
language planning policy.

The language situation in sub-Saharan Africa is generally characterised

by a type of dense multilingual phenomenon composed of a variety of
languages that include indigenous and exogenous languages. Thus, the
historical and other antecedents of multilingualism are pointed as well as
the different types and levels. This calls for systematic and deliberate
efforts at collating these languages after several surveys, which will
culminate in planning how to allocate functions to these languages.
These efforts have to be documented and backed by government
pronouncements or documents that have their bases in the nation’s
ideologies. Such documents emanating from the results of these efforts
are regarded as language policies.

Because language is the bedrock of any society, the importance of

language is highlighted in this course, as well as the social, cultural,
political and economic implications of multilingualism are discussed.
Multilingual nations such as Nigeria, Morocco, Uganda, and others are
examined for areas of commonality and differences.

COURSE AIMS

The overall aims of this course are to:

• introduce you to the fundamentals of multilingualism and its

different perspectives in a society
• explain the varieties of linguistic issues in multilingual nations
• illustrate the issue of language planning and policy in
multilingual nations

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ENG 454 COURSE GUIDE

• point out the social, cultural and economic implications of

multilingualism
• define the state of multilingualism in Nigeria.

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE

ENG 454 is meant to highlight the benefits and inherent complexities of

multilingualism in a society and how these can be harvested for positive
national development. This course will help you put in proper
perspective, varieties of linguistic issues in multilingual nations. It will
highlight the social, cultural and political implications of
multilingualism, the problems of national languages, languages to be
taught in schools, language policy, and language planning. Using
Nigeria as a case study, you will be examining the language situation,
multiglossic nature of language functions, language choice, language
attitudes, and the plight and destiny of small groups/minority language
groups. You will also learn about the management of
multilingualism/language engineering in Nigeria. The implications of
multilingualism in language planning pointed out here are equally
important.

COURSE OBJECTIVES

There are 17 units structured in three modules in this course and each
unit has its stated objectives. The objectives are based on the general
aims of this course and they are the tasks you should be able to perform
by the end of this course. Thus, by the end of this course, you should be
able to:

• define the term “multilingualism”

• explain the meaning of multilingualism
• differentiate between the levels of multilingualism
• describe the different perspectives on goals and objectives of
language policy and planning
• discuss the relationship between language policy, language
planning and multilingualism
• highlight the social, cultural and political implications of
multilingualism
• point out the challenges of managing multilingual societies
• proffer solutions to the Nigerian problem of multilingualism.

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ENG 454 COURSE GUIDE

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

There are 17 units in this course. To benefit maximally from this course,
you have to work through all the units in the course. You should pay
attention to the objectives, summary and conclusion in each study unit.
You should also do the self-assessment exercises, which you will find in
every unit of this course. Please, read some of the texts recommended
for further reading to complement what you already have in your course
material. You will be assessed through tutor-marked assignments, which
you are expected to do and turn in to your tutor at the right time. You are
also expected to write an examination at the end of the course. The time
of the examination will be communicated to you.

COURSE MATERIALS

The major components of this course are:

1. Course Guide
2. Study Units
3. Textbooks
4. Assignments File
5. Presentation Schedule

STUDY UNITS

Each study unit is meant for one week and this is preceded by the
objectives of the unit, which you are expected to study before going
through the unit. Each study unit also contains the reading materials and
the self-assessment exercises. The tutor-marked assignments, the study
units, the tutorials, will all help you to achieve the stated objectives of
this course.

There are 17 units structured into three modules in this course and they
are as follows:

Module 1 Multilingualism

Unit 1 Introduction and Overview of Multilingualism

Unit 2 Historical Underpinnings of Multilingualism
Unit 3 Aspects of Multilingualism
Unit 4 Issues in Multilingualism
Unit 5 Multilingual Nations: Varieties of their Linguistic Issues
Unit 6 Multilingual Nations: Case Studies

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ENG 454 COURSE GUIDE

Module 2 Language Planning and Policy

Unit 1 Language Planning and Policy: Preliminaries

Unit 2 Different Aspects of Language Planning and Policy
Unit 3 Objectives, Goals and Ideologies of Language Planning
and Policy
Unit 4 Language Planning and Policy Issues
Unit 5 Prestige and Multiglossic nature of languages
Unit 6 Official Orthographies

Module 3 Managing Language Issues

Unit 1 Language Engineering and Management

Unit 2 Language Situation and Language Management
Unit 3 Language Attitude
Unit 4 Minority Language Groups: Plight and Destiny
Unit 5 National Languages: Social, Cultural and Political
Implications

TEXTBOOK AND REFERNCES

Each unit has a list of recommended textbooks and other materials. Read
these materials for additional information while going through
the units.

Adegbija, E. (1994). Language Attitudes in Sub-Saharan Africa: A

Sociolinguistic Overview. Australia: Multilingual Matters
Limited.

Adegbite, W. (2003). “Enlightenment and Attitudes of the Nigerian Elite

on the Roles of Languages in Nigeria.” Language in Culture and
Curriculum, 16 (2): 185-196.

Auer, P. (1984). Bilingual Conversation. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Ayeomoni, M.O. (2006). “Code-Switching and Code-Mixing: Style of

Language Use in Childhood in Yoruba Speech Community.”
Retrieved from www.njas.helsinki.fi/pdf-
files/vol15num1/ayeomoni.pdf.

Babalola, E. T. O. & Taiwo, R. (2009). “Code-Switching in

Contemporary

Nigerian Hip Hop Music.” Itupale Online Journal of African

Studies, 1:1-26.Retrieved from www.cambridgetoafrica.org

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Cernoz, J. & Gorter, D. (2011). “Multilingualism”. In: The Routledge

Handbook of Applied Linguistics. J. Simpson (Ed.). USA &
Canada: Routledge.

Clyne, M. (2007). “Multilingualism”. In: F. Coulmas (Ed.). The

Handbook of Sociolinguistics. UK: Blackwell Publishing.

Coulmas, F. (2003). Writing Systems: An Introduction to their Linguistic

Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Sustainable Development in a Diverse World (SUS.DIV).

Durk, G.F. et al. (2005). Benefits of Linguistic Diversity and

Multilingualism. Position Paper of Research Task1.2 “Cultural
diversity as an asset for human welfare and development.”
Retrieved from
http://www.susdiv.org/uploadfiles/RT1.2_PP_Durk.

Gumperz, J. (1982). Language and Social Identity. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Holmes, J. (2000). An Introduction to Pidgins and Creoles. UK:

Cambridge University Press.

Hudson, R. A. (1996). Sociolinguistics. (2nd ed.).Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Hymes, D. (1972). “Models of the interaction of language and social

life.”(Revised from 1967 paper.) In” Gumperz & Hymes. (Eds).
Directions in Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography of
Communication. (pp. 35-71). Blackwell.

Kachru, B. (1989). “Code-Mixing, Style Repertoire and Language

Variation: English in Hindu Poetic Creativity”. World
Englishes, 8(3).

Labov, W.(1972). Sociolinguistic Patterns. Philadelphia: University of

Pennsylvania Press.

Myers-Scotton, C. (1993). Social Motivations for Codeswitching:

Evidence from Africa. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Rickford, J. R. (1986). “Contrast and Concord in the Characterisation of

the Speech Community.” Sheffield Working Papers in Language
and Linguistics, No. 3.

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ENG 454 COURSE GUIDE

Romaine, S. (1994). Language in Society: An introduction to

sociolinguistics. London: Blackwell.

Sebba, M. & Tony W. (1998). “We, They and Identity: Sequential

Versus Identity-Related Explanation in Code-Switching.” In:
Peter Auer (Ed.): Code-Switching in Conversation: Language,
Interaction and Identity.(pp.262—286). London: Routledge.

Simpson, J. (Ed.). (2011). The Routledge Handbook of Applied

Linguistics. Britain: Routledge.

Trudgill, P. (2003). A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Ufomata, T. (1999). “Major and Minor Languages in Complex

Linguistic Ecologies: The Nigerian Experience.” International
Journal of Educational Development, 19: 315–322.

Wardhaugh, R. (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. (5th ed.).

USA, UK & Australia: Blackwell Publishing.

Wolff, H. E. (2003). “Language and Society”. In: B. Heine & D. Nurse

(Eds). African Languages: An Introduction. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

ASSIGNMENT FILE

In this file, you will find all the details of the work you must submit to
your tutor for grading. The mark you obtain from the assignment will be
added to the final mark you obtain from this course. Additional
information on assignment will be found in the assignment file itself as
well as in the section on assessment in this Course Guide.

PRESENTATION SCHEDULE

The presentation schedule which has been included in your course

material, gives you the important dates you are expected to complete
your tutor-marked assignments (TMAs) and attending tutorials.
Remember, you are required to submit all your assignments as and when
due.

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ENG 454 COURSE GUIDE

COURSE MARKING SCHEME

The table below gives a breakdown of the course mark:

Table 1: Course Marking Scheme

Assessment Marks
Assignment 1-17 Three assignments, best three marks of the
assignments counts for 30% of course marks.
Final examination The final examination counts for 70% of overall
marks.
Total 100% of course marks.

COURSE OVERVIEW

This table brings together the units and the number of weeks you should
take to complete.

Table 2: Course Overview

Unit Title of Work Week’s Assessment

Activity (end of unit)
Course Guide 1
1 Introduction and Overview of 2
Multilingualism
2 Historical Underpinnings of 3
Multilingualism
3 Issues in Multilingualism 4
4 Aspects of Multilingualism 5 TMA1
5 Multilingual Nations and Linguistic 6
Issues
6 Multilingual Nations: Some Case 7
Studies
7 Language Planning Policy: 8
Preliminaries
8 Different Aspects of Language 9
Planning and Policy
9 Objectives, Goals and Ideology of 10 TMA2
Language Planning and Policy
10 Language Planning Policy Issues 11
11 Prestige and Multiglossic Nature of 12
Languages
12 Official Orthographies 13
13 Language Engineering and 14
Management
14 Language Attitude 15 TMA 3

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ENG 454 COURSE GUIDE

15 Language Situation 16
16 Minority Language Groups 17
17 National Languages: Social, 18 TMA 4
Cultural and Political Implications
18 Revision 19

Examination

HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE

The study units in this course have been written in such a way that you
will understand them without the lecturer being physically present with
you. This is why it is a distance learning programme. Each study unit is
for one week. The study unit will introduce you to the topic meant for
the week; it will give you the stated objectives for the unit and what you
are expected to be able to do at the end of the unit. All you need is time
to work through all the units, be focused and consistent in your reading;
and you will find ENG 454 is an interesting and relevant course,
particularly, to sustainable national development. If you take to the
instructions, and do the exercises that follow, you will find yourself
conversant with issues bilingualism and multilingualism. You will also
find yourself very knowledgeable in areas of language attitude, situation
and management and a competent language planner as you look for
relevant examples within the Nigerian context.

ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE

You will be assessed in two ways in this course – the TMA and a
written examination. You are expected to do the assignments and submit
them to your tutorial facilitator for formal assessment in accordance
with the stated deadlines in the presentation schedule and the
‘assignment file’. Your TMA will account for 30 per cent of the total
course mark.

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

It is important that you do the tutor-marked assignments (TMAs) at the

end of every unit. You should have read and understood areas which the
units expect you to know, before you meet your tutorial facilitator. You
will be assessed on the different definitions, goals, aspects, issues, and
so on, and some of them will be selected and used for your continuous
assessment. Your completed assignments, which must reach your
tutorial facilitator before the stated deadline, must be sent with your
tutor-marked assignment. Nonetheless, the new electronic format of
TMAs is still in force, except the University policy on TMAs
subsequently changes.

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ENG 454 COURSE GUIDE

The best three that have the highest grades will be used to evaluate you.
The total mark of the best three will be 30 per cent of your total course
mark. Assignments for the units in this course are contained in the
Assignment File. You should be able to complete your assignments
from the Information and materials contained in your set textbooks,
reading and study units. However, you should use your other sources
and reference materials to broaden your knowledge on the subject.

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

The final examination for ENG 454 will be a two-hour paper in which
you are expected to answer three questions out of five. These will add
up to a total of 70 marks for the examination. The 30 marks for the
tutor-marked assignments and 70 marks for the examination give 100
marks. You should revise your definitions and other aspects very well
before the examination date.

FACILITATION/TUTORS AND TUTORIAL

There are 10 tutorial hours for this course. The dates, time, location,
name and phone numbers of your tutorial facilitator and your tutorial
group will be communicated to you. Feel free to relate with your tutorial
facilitator who will mark and correct your assignments. You should
always contact your tutorial facilitator by phone or e-mail if you have
any problem with the contents of any of the study units.

SUMMARY

ENG 454 is a course that deals with the multiplicity of languages; this
calls for objective and innovative language planning efforts that are
visible in the policies, management and engineering of the “major” and
“minority” languages.

ENG454 is specially designed to introduce you to the issues concerning

languages in a multilingual and multicultural society such as Nigeria.
The units have been arranged in a sequential order that will enable you
to follow the multilingual phenomenon easily. It is meant to test you on
the skills required of you when you are faced with challenges of
multilingualism, language planning and policy issues or even problems
with language engineering and management, and you are expected to
perform some tasks.

What we have provided for you here is like a step-by-step approach to

the phenomenon of multilingualism. The course introduces you to
multilingualism by giving you some basic definitions of key
terminologies in multilingualism, the historical aspect, linguistic issues

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ENG 454 COURSE GUIDE

and case studies of some multilingual nations. It then introduces you to

the concept of Language Planning and Policy (LPP), its objectives, goals
and ideologies in order to place language planning in proper perspective.
Finally, language engineering and management issues such as language
attitude, language choice, and so on, are discussed.

These units will equip you with the skills necessary for recognising and
addressing language problems in such a multilingual context like
Nigeria. While I wish you the best as you work through this course, I
hope that you will begin to understand and conceptualised the various
linguistic challenges and opportunities available for a multilingual
nation and subsequently proffer innovative suggestions that will enable
sustainable national growth and development, especially in Nigeria.

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 MAIN
COURSE

CONTENTS PAGE

Module 1 Multilingualism…………………… 1

Unit 1 Introduction and Overview of

Multilingualism…………………….. 1
Unit 2 Historical Underpinnings of
Multilingualism…………………….. 10
Unit 3 Aspects of Multilingualism………… 15
Unit 4 Issues in Multilingualism…………… 22
Unit 5 Multilingual Nations: Varieties of
their Linguistic Issues………………. 29
Unit 6 Multilingual Nations: Case Studies…. 36

Module 2 Language Planning and Policy…… 45

Unit 1 Language Planning and Policy:

Preliminaries………………………… 45
Unit 2 Different Aspects of Language
Planning and Policy………………… 53
Unit 3 Objectives, Goals and Ideologies of
Language Planning and Policy……... 61
Unit 4 Language Planning and Policy Issues 71
Unit 5 Prestige and Multiglossic nature of
Languages…………………………… 77
Unit 6 Official Orthographies………………. 84

Module 3 Managing Language Issues………... 92

Unit 1 Language Engineering and

Management………………………….. 92
Unit 2 Language Situation and Language
Management………………………….. 100
Unit 3 Language Attitude……………………. 107
Unit 4 Minority Language Groups: Plight and
Destiny……………………………….. 116
Unit 5 National Languages: Social, Cultural
and Political Implications…………….. 122
ENG 454 MODULE 1

MODULE 1

Unit 1 Introduction and Overview of the Course

Unit 2 Historical Underpinnings of Multilingualism in Nigeria
Unit 3 Issues in Multilingualism
Unit 4 Aspects of Multilingualism
Unit 5 Multilingual Nations and Linguistic Issues
Unit 6 Multilingual Nations: Some Case Studies

UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF THE

COURSE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Introduction and Definitions
3.2 Some Definitions of Key Terminologies in
Multilingualism
3.2.1 Diglossia
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit presents definitions of multilingualism as well as those of

some relevant terminologies. As a student of multilingualism, you need
to be conversant with these terminologies right at the onset. This will
enhance your understanding as you advance in the remaining units of the
course.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define multilingualism
• explain some terminologies in multilingualism
• apply these terminologies in appropriate contexts.

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ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Introduction and Definitions

For pedagogical reasons, let us attempt a morphemic analysis of the

word “multilingualism.” Multi- a prefix, which means, to combine, form
or have many), and lingual (which means related to language). Multilin-
gualism, therefore, is the ability of an individual to speak multiple (or
many) languages. This predominantly is as a result or form of language
contact and it arises in societies where different languages co-exist in
specific patterns. It is the current linguistic phenomenon globally. In
other words, many nations for some fundamental factors now fit into
multilingual classification. Nigeria is a good example of a multilingual
nation because, according to Ethnologue, she has more than 500 lan-
guages.

According to Clyne (2003: p. 301), the term “multilingualism” can refer

to either the language use or the competence of an individual, or to the
language situation in an entire nation or society. It means the use of
more than one language, or to have “competence in more than one lan-
guage.” This allows for further refinement in the actual description to
cover different levels of communal use of the various languages. How-
ever, Baker (2006:16) opines that several overlapping and interacting
variables have made the definition less specific, “elusive and ultimately
impossible.”

It is important to make a distinction between “de jure” and “de facto”

(define them before further explanations) multilingualism. For instance,
Switzerland is a de facto multilingual nation because it has been official-
ly declared as such. Although, Switzerland is a de jure multilingual na-
tion, there is no legal document or formal certification to establish this.
Thus, public documents are presented in German, French and Italian.

3.2 Some Definitions of Key Terminologies in

Multilingualism

3.2.1 Diglossia

Diglossia is a sociolinguistic situation whereby two languages or varie-

ties of a language co-exist in a speech community. Each language or va-
riety is used in different domains in a kind of complementary distribu-
tion. The domains of language use are usually in hierarchy, from highly
valued (H) to less valued (L). The H domains are “formal” domains such
as public speaking, religious texts and practice, education, and other
prestigious kinds of usage. The L domains are informal conversations,

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ENG 454 MODULE 1

jokes, the street and the market, the telephone, or any other domains not
reserved for the H norm (Coulmas, 2003, p. 205).

Ferguson (1959: p. 435) summarises diglossia as “…a rela-

tively stable language situation in which, in addition to the
primary dialects of the language, there is a very divergent,
highly codified (often grammatically more complex) super-
posed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body of
written literature, either of an earlier period or in another
speech community, which is learned largely by formal edu-
cation and is used for most written and formal spoken pur-
poses but is not used by any section of the community for
ordinary conversation.”

3.2.2 Pidgin and Creole Languages

Pidgin and Creole languages are often referred to as broken English,

bastardised Portuguese, nigger French or isikula (‘coolie language’). A
pidgin language is a reduced language that results from extended contact
between groups of people who share no language. It evolves as a result
of the need for some means of communication, particularly trade. People
(languages) who are less powerful (substrate languages) are more ac-
commodating, and they use words from the language of those that have
more power (the superstrate) (Holmes, 2000). A pidgin has restricted
communication functions since it cannot be used in formal communica-
tion or in academic discourse. In addition, its grammar is not as structu-
rally flexible as that of fully-fledged languages and its vocabulary is re-
duced basically to trade. It equally tends to be stigmatised as low status
or low prestige, marginal, corrupt, and bad (Wolff, 2000, p. 326).

A Creole language has a jargon or pidgin in its ancestry. In contrast to

pidgin, Creole is often defined as a pidgin that has become the first lan-
guage of a new generation of speakers (Wardhaugh, 2006, pp 61–63).
Creolisation occurs when a pidgin becomes the first language of a gen-
eration of speakers; the pidgin becomes elaborated in terms of function,
vocabulary and grammar; then, language birth takes place and a Creole
is born (Wolff, 2000, p.326). This means that the speakers use it not just
for trade, but for all interactions that would normally require the use of a
first language.

3.2.3 Multilingualism

Multilingualism can be defined in different ways. But simply put, it re-

fers to the ability to use more than two languages. Kachru (1985: p. 159)
describes multilingualism as the “linguistic behaviour of the members of
a speech community which alternately uses two, three or more languag-

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ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

es depending on the situation and function.” It can refer to either the

language use, the competence of an individual to use multiple languages
or the language situation in an entire nation or society (Clyne, p. 2003).
Bilingualism means the ability to use two or more languages effectively.
For instance, in the South African context, until 1994, bilingualism
meant being able to speak English and Afrikaans fluently. Generally,
two types of bilingualism are distinguished: societal and individual bi-
lingualism. Societal bilingualism occurs when, in a given society, two or
more languages are spoken. In this sense, nearly all societies are bilin-
gual, but they can differ with regard to the degree of the form of bilin-
gualism.

A basic distinction between bilingualism and multilingualism is at the

individual and societal levels. At the individual level, bilingualism and
multilingualism refer to the speaker’s competence or proficiency in the
use of two languages, (bilingualism) and multiple languages, (multilin-
gualism). At this level, multilingualism is generally subsumed under
“bilingualism.” At the societal level, the terms bilingualism and multi-
lingualism refer to the use of two or numerous languages in a speech
community. It does not imply that all the speakers in that community are
competent in more than one language (Durk et al., 2005).

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Determine what multilingualism means.

3.2.4 Code-Switching/Code-Mixing

Both code-switching and code-mixing are sociolinguistic phenomena

that are unavoidable in any bilingual/multilingual society. Code-
switching is the use of two languages within the same conversation.
Hymes (1978) defines code-switching as “a common term for alternative
use of two or more languages, varieties of a language or even speech
styles.” Code-mixing, on the other hand, is the change of one language
to another within the same utterance or in the same oral/written text.
Several language scholars have undertaken various researches on these
phenomena. Poplack (1980), Myers-Scotton (1993a) and Sebba (1998)
have investigated language alternation from a grammatical perspective.
Their researches demonstrate that at the grammatical level language al-
ternation is very orderly even though its orderliness may be different
from that of the languages involved.

On the other hand, researchers such as Gumperz (1982), Auer (1984)

and Myers- Scotton (1993) argue that language alternation is a conversa-
tional strategy or, as Gumperz (1982) describes it, it is one of the “dis-
course strategies.” Nigerian researchers (Ayeomoni, 2006; Babalola &

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ENG 454 MODULE 1

Taiwo, 2008) have also examined these phenomena among Yoruba-

English bilinguals as styles of language use in childhood in Yoruba
speech community, and in contemporary hip-hop music in Nigeria re-
spectively.

3.2.5 Dialects

A dialect is defined as a regional or social variety of a language spoken

or shared by a group in a particular area, or of a social group or class. It
is distinguished by pronunciation, vocabulary, sounds and words espe-
cially in a way of speaking, which differs from the standard variety of
the language. Wolfram (2009: p. 35) states that languages are mani-
fested through the dialects of that language, and to speak a language is
to speak some dialect of that language. The social factors that correlate
with dialect diversity may range from geography to the complex notion
of cultural identity. A dialect sometimes is used to refer to a social or
geographical variety of a language, for instance English, which is not the
preferred or standard one.

3.2.6 Speech Community

A speech community could mean a group of people who use the same
variety of a language. Members of this community share a set of norms
and expectations regarding the use of language. A number of sociolin-
guists and linguistic anthropologists have defined speech community in
different ways as follows:

Gumperz (1982:24): “A system of organised diversity held

together by common norms and aspirations. Members of
such a community typically vary with respect to certain
beliefs and other aspects of behaviour. Such variation,
which seems irregular when observed at the level of the
individual, nonetheless shows systematic regularities at the
statistical level of social facts.”

Hymes (1967/72:54-55): “A community sharing rules for

the conduct and interpretation of speech, and rules for the
interpretation of at least one linguistic variety.... A neces-
sary primary term... it postulates the basis of description as
a social, rather than a linguistic, entity.”

Labov (1972:120-121): “The speech community is not de-

fined by any marked agreement in the use of language
elements, so much as by participation in a set of shared
norms. These norms may be observed in overt types of
evaluative behaviour, and by the uniformity of abstract

5
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

patterns of variation which are invariant in respect to par-

ticular levels of usage.”

Romaine (1994:22): “A speech community is a group of

people who do not necessarily share the same language,
but share a set of norms and rules for the use of language.
The boundaries between speech communities are essen-
tially social rather than linguistic... A speech community is
not necessarily co-extensive with a language community.”
Hudson (1996:28-29; 229) posits that the term “speech
community” misleads “by implying the existence of ‘real’
communities ‘out there’, which we could discover if we
only knew how... Our socio-linguistic world is not orga-
nised in terms of objective ‘speech communities’.”

3.2.7 Lingua Franca

In its etymological meaning, the term “lingua franca” developed from

Arabic lisan-al-farang – which simply functioned or represented an in-
termediary language used by speakers of Arabic with travellers from
Western Europe. Its meaning was later extended to describe a language
of commerce, a rather stable variety with little room for individual varia-
tion (House, 2003, p. 557). According to Trudgill (2003: p. 80), a lingua
franca is a language “used in communication between speakers who
have no native language in common…. Lingua franca which is used in a
large-scale institutionalised way in different parts of the world includes
Swahili in East Africa, French and English in West Africa. A pidgin
language is a particular form of lingua franca.” By inference, English is
a lingua franca in Nigeria because the indigenous languages are not mu-
tually intelligible.

3.2.8 National Language

A national language is a language, which functions as the main language

of a nation state (Trudgill, 2003, p. 91). It is also described as the domi-
nant language in a multilingual environment used for regional or even
nationwide communication (de facto national language) (Wolff, 2003, p.
320); it may be decreed to serve some of the official functions (de jure
national language).

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Is English a national language or an official language in Nigeria? Dis-

cuss.

6
ENG 454 MODULE 1

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit has helped to define our focus in this course as well as some
aspects, segments and various views and definitions about multilingual-
ism. The next unit will examine the historical underpinnings of multilin-
gualism.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt:

• what multilingualism means

• some of the key terminologies necessary for meaningful discus-
sions in multilingualism and sociolinguistics
• the two major ways in which multilingualism can be described
• the difference between bilingualism and multilingualism.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

In the light of what you have read in this unit, describe a multilingual
situation.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Auer, P. (1984) Bilingual Conversation. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Ayeomoni, M.O. (2006). “Code-Switching and code-Mixing: Style of

Language

Use in Childhood in Yoruba Speech Community.” Nordic Journal of

African Studies. 15(1): 90–99. Retrieved from
www.njas.helsinki.fi/pdf-files/vol15num1/ayeomoni.pdf

Baker, C. (2006). “Bilingualism: Definitions and Distinctions.” In:

Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. (4th ed.).
Clevedon: Buffalo, Toronto, Sydney. Multilingual Matters Li-
mited, Pp 2-19.

Babalola, E.T. & Taiwo, R. (2008). “Code-Switching in Contemporary

Nigerian Hip Hop Music.” Itupale: Online Journal of African
Studies, vol 1:
1-26. Retrieved from
www.cambridgetoafrica.org/.../Abstract_Babalola_and_Taiwo2.p
df

7
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

Clyne, M. (2007). “Multilingualism.” In: F. Coulmas (Ed.). The

Handbook of Sociolinguistics. UK: Blackwell Publishing.

Coulmas, F. (2003). Writing Systems: An Introduction to their Linguistic

Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Durk, G. F., et al. (2005). “Benefits of Linguistic Diversity and Multi-

lingualism.” Position Paper of Research Task1.2 “Cultural diver-
sity as an asset for human welfare and development.” Retrieved
from http://www.susdiv.org/uploadfiles/RT1.2_PP_Durk.

Gumperz, J. (1982). Language and Social Identity. Cambridge: Cam-

bridge University Press.

Holmes, J. (2000). An Introduction to Pidgins and Creoles. UK: Cam-

bridge University.

House, J. (2003). “English as a lingua franca: A threat to multilingual-

ism?” Journal of Sociolinguistics, 7(4): 556-578.

Hudson, R. A. (1996). Sociolinguistics. (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cam-

bridge University Press.

Hymes, D. (1972). “Models of the interaction of language and social

life.” (Revised from 1967 paper.) In: Gumperz & Hymes (Eds).
(1972). Directions in sociolinguistics: The ethnography of com-
munication. (pp 35-71). London: Blackwell.

Kachru, B. (1986). “Code-mixing, style repertoire and language varia-

tion: English in Hindu poetic creativity.” World Englishes, 8 (3).

Labov, W. (1972). Sociolinguistic Patterns. Philadelphia: University of

Pennsylvania Press.

Myers-Scotton, C. (1993). Social Motivations for Code-switching: Evi-

dence from Africa. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Poplack, S. (1980). “Sometimes I'll start a sentence in Spanish y termino

en Espanol: Toward a typology of code-switching.” Linguistics,
18, (233&234):581-618.

Rickford, J. R. (1986). “Contrast and Concord in the Characterization of

the Speech community.” Sheffield Working Papers in Language
and Linguistics, No. 3.

8
ENG 454 MODULE 1

Romaine, S. (1994). Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolin-

guistics. London: Blackwell.

Sebba, M. & Tony, W. (1998). “We, they and identity: Sequential versus
identity-related explanation in code-switching.” In: P. Auer (Ed.).
Code-Switching in Conversation: Language, Interaction and
Identity. (pp 262-286). London: Routledge.

Trudgill, P. (2003). A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford Uni-

versity Press.

Wardhaugh, R. (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. (5th ed.).

UK: Blackwell Publishing.

Wolff, H. E. (2003). “Language and Society.” In: B. Heine & D. Nurse

(Eds.). African Languages: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press.

Wolfram, W. (2009). “Dialect in society”. In: N. Coupland & A. Ja-

worski. The New Sociolinguistics Reader. New York: Palgrave
Macmillan.

9
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

UNIT 2 HISTORICAL UNDERPINNINGS OF MULTI

LINGUALISM IN NIGERIA

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Historical Antecedents
3.2 Factors that contribute to Multilingualism
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit is designed to take you through the historical antecedents and
patterns of multilingualism, and the many factors that have contributed
to it. It details some definitions of multilingualism and events in the his-
tory of Nigeria that have affected its status as a multilingual country. As
a student of multilingualism, you need to be conversant with the factors
outlined in this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• identify the historical antecedents of multilingualism in Nigeria

• describe factors that contribute to the multilingual phenomenon.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Historical Antecedents

It is impossible to understand societal multilingualism fully without suf-

ficient understanding of the historical patterns that led to its existence,
acknowledging the premise that a particular multilingual society usually
presents, and consists of, several historical patterns at the same time. Fa-
sold (1984: p. 9) opines that four of these patterns are discernible, al-
though they are not mutually exclusive. These are:

1. Migration
2. Imperialism
3. Federation
4. Border area multilingualism
10
ENG 454 MODULE 1

Adegbija (2004: p. 14) cites certain events in the Nigerian history that
are particularly central to charting the nation’s sociolinguistic image.
These events also have connections to language policies, function and
use. They are:

i. European contacts: the Portuguese who came to trade;

ii. Christian missionary activities: the missionaries came to spread
the gospel, and they also introduced western education in the
form of reading, writing, arithmetic, and gardening. They contri-
buted a lot to the multilingual phenomenon, especially through
their studies on indigenous languages and the devising of ortho-
graphies for them;
iii. The 19th century Fulani Jihad and its impact on Islamic funda-
mentalism and on the entrenchment of Arabic, especially in the
northern parts of Nigeria;
iv. The administrative and educational policies of different govern-
ments over the years: this is more pronounced particularly when
governments discard policies and implementations initiated by
previous governments;
v. The establishment of educational institutions and language-
related professional bodies and agencies, such as CESAC, NIN-
LAN,
vi. The 1966 Jacobs Report on English Language Teaching in Nige-
ria;
vii. The making of language related legal and constitutional provi-
sions;
viii. The 1960 independence;
ix. The diachronic political fluidity and instances of the adjustments
of administrative boundaries.

3.2 Factors that contribute to Multilingualism

To Cenoz and Gorter (2011), the birth and growth of multilingualism

can be the result of different factors. These factors could be colonialism,
imperialism, migration, increasing communication among countries
around the world and the need to be competent in the language of wider
communication. Others are social and cultural interests for the mainten-
ance and revival of minority languages, the inclusion of foreign lan-
guages as part of the curriculum in many countries, and religious
movements or pilgrimages, which privilege itinerancy, allows people to
move from one country to another.

11
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

Durk et al. (2005) also enumerates the following as other factors:

• Historical or political movements such as imperialism or coloni-

alism: in this case, the use of a language is spread to other coun-
tries and these results in the coexistence of different languages;
• Economic interests which result in migration: the weak econo-
mies of some nations result in movement of the population to
other countries thus, giving birth to the development of multilin-
gual and multicultural communities in the host countries;
• Increasing communications among different parts of the world
and the need to be competent in languages of wider communica-
tion: this is the case with the development of new technologies
and science. English is the main language of wider communica-
tion and millions of people who use other languages as well use
it,
• Social and cultural identity and the desire for the maintenance
and revival of minority languages: this interest creates situations
in which two or more languages co-exist and are essential in eve-
ryday communication,
• Education: second and foreign languages are part of the curricu-
lum in many countries,
• Religious movements that result in people moving to new loca-
tions.

According to Clyne in Coulmas (2007: p. 301), the term “multilingual-

ism” can refer to either the language or the competence of an individual
or to the language situation in an entire nation or society. However, at
the individual level, it is subsumed under bilingualism. In addition, Ba-
dejo (1989) defines multilingualism as the ability of an individual to use
more than one language. However, most scholars agree that when de-
scribing societies, the term multilingualism is preferred and when de-
scribing the individual, bilingualism is preferred.

English is the major medium of communication in Nigeria, and it is par-

ticularly a medium of inter-ethnic communication. Nigeria is a multi-
ethnic nation characterised by acute/dense multilingualism. It therefore
has to grapple with the challenges of multi-ethnicity and multilingual-
ism. English is the official language of the nation for its national cohe-
sion, the language of education, a school subject, and a core subject at
every level, from the primary school to the tertiary, as stipulated in the
National Policy on Education (NPE 1977, 1981 and 2004). It is a lan-
guage of creative writing, including the Nigerian film industry, adminis-
tration, science and technology, commerce, international trade and for-
eign relations and, so on. However, Bamgbose (1985) writes that despite
the functions of English in Nigeria, it is a minority language considering

12
ENG 454 MODULE 1

its numerical strength, that is, the population of its speakers. This is a
result of the high level of illiteracy in the English language.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Is English a national language or an official language in Nigeria?

Discuss.

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit has shown us some of the historical factors that produce and
contribute to the growth of multilingualism. You will learn more in the
next unit when we discuss other fundamental issues in multilingualism.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

• historical factors encourage the growth and spread of multilin-

gualism
• multilingualism can spawn as a result of historical patterns that
take place in the existence of a nation at the same time
• multilingualism can be attributed to events in the history of a na-
tion.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

List and explain the factors that have contributed to multilingualism in

Nigeria.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adegbija, E. (2004). “Language policy and planning in Nigeria.” Cur-

rent Issues in Language Planning , (3) :181-246.

Badejo, R. (1989). “Multilingualism in Sub-Saharan Africa”. African

Media Review, vol 3.

Bamgbose, A. (1985). “Language and Nation Building.” Review of Eng-

lish and Literary Studies, 2(2): 95–108.

Cernoz, J. & Gorter, D. (2011). “Multilingualism.” In: The Routledge

Handbook of Applied Linguistics. J. Simpson (Ed.). USA &
Canada: Routledge.

13
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

Clyne, M. (2007). “Multilingualism.” In: Coulmas, F. (Ed.). The

Handbook of Sociolinguistics. UK: Blackwell Publishing.

Coulmas, F. (2003). Writing Systems: An Introduction to their Linguistic

Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Durk, G. F. et al. (2005). “Benefits of linguistic diversity and multilin-

gualism”. Position Paper of Research Task1.2 “Cultural diversity
as an asset for human welfare and development.” Retrieved from
http://www.susdiv.org/uploadfiles/RT1.2_PP_Durk.pdf.

Extra, G. & Gorter, D. (2008). “ Benefits of linguistic diversity and mul-

tilingualism.” Multilingual Europe: Facts and Policies. USA,
Canada: De Gruyter Mouton.

Fasold, R. W. (1984). The Sociolinguistics of Society. Oxford: Basil

Blackwell.

Omoniyi, T. (2006). “Societal Multilingualism and Multifaithism: A So-

ciology of Language and Religious Perspective.” In: Fishman, J.
& Omoniyi, T. (Eds). Explorations in the Sociology of Language
and Religion. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing.

14
ENG 454 MODULE 1

UNIT 3 ISSUES IN MULTILINGUALISM

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Issues in Multilingualism
3.2 Differentiating between Bilingualism and Multilingualism
3.3 Levels of Multilingualism
3.4 Linguistic Diversity
3.5 Advantages and Challenges of Multilingualism
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit is designed to take you through some basic issues in multilin-
gualism. It examines some multilingual nations and their linguistic situa-
tions.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• identify salient issues in multilingualism

• describe a multilingual nation
• make meaningful comments on the linguistic diversity in Africa
• differentiate between levels of multilingualism
• list the advantages and challenges of multilingualism.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Issues in Multilingualism

Multilingualism is the ability of an individual to speak multiple lan-

guages. It is a result or form of language contact, and it arises in socie-
ties where different languages co-exist in specific pattern. It is the cur-
rent linguistic phenomenon in almost all the regions of the world. Nige-
ria is a good example of a multilingual nation.

Cenoz and Gorter (2011: p. 403) describe multilingualism as a social

phenomenon with aspects to its study: (i) individual versus social di-

15
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

mension, (ii) the number of languages involved, and (iii) the level of
proficiency in the different languages.

According to Clyne (2007), the term “multilingualism” can refer to ei-

ther the use or the competence of an individual in different languages or
to the language situation in an entire nation or society. It means using
more than one language or having “competence in more than one lan-
guage.” This allows for further refinement in the actual description to
cover different levels of use of the various languages.

Sociologists have often viewed multilingualism from three perspectives,

namely;

1. The societal
2. The individual/personal perspectives, and
3. The interactional

Clyne (2007) proposes a distinction between “official” and “de facto”

multilingualism. For instance, Switzerland is an officially multilingual
nation in that it has been declared such, but there, multilingualism is
based on a territorial principle. Public documents are written in German,
French and Italian. Multilingualism, according to Romaine (2003: p.
513), “exists within the cognitive systems of individuals, as well as in
families, communities, and countries…”

3.2 Differentiating between Bilingualism and Multilingualism

A basic distinction between bilingualism and multilingualism is recog-

nisable at the individual and societal levels. At the individual level, bi-
lingualism and multilingualism refer to the speaker’s competence to use
two or more languages. At the societal level, the terms “bilingualism”
and “multilingualism” refer to the use of two or more languages in a
speech community and it does not necessarily imply that all the lan-
guage users in that community are competent in more than two languag-
es. Bilingualism can be additive (in cases where speakers learn more
languages) or subtractive (in cases where a speaker no longer uses one
or more languages).

Multilingualism can be described in two ways as societal/national and

individual multilingualism. Clyne (2007) asserts that societal/national
multilingualism is created by contextual factors such as international
migration (as in Argentina or the US), colonialism (for example in Nige-
ria or Kenya), and international borders (for example the border between
Federal Republic of Nigeria and Republic of Benin). Fishman (1978: p.
7) posits that “societal multilingualism is in many respects the founda-
tion field out of which all of the sociology of language grows and rami-

16
ENG 454 MODULE 1

fies” because it “provides easiest access to the data of inter-work as var-

iation in languages usage and in behaviour directed toward language.”
Fishman‘s definition establishes diversity as a core notion of the society
of language.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

In what ways can you differentiate between bilingualism and multilin-

gualism?

3.3 Levels of Multilingualism

The levels of multilingualism are basically divided into individual multi-

lingualism and societal multilingualism. The existence of several lan-
guages shows that Africa is a multilingual continent. Most countries in
Africa are multilingual and their citizens are at least bilingual. However,
while some countries could be multilingual, its citizens may not be bi-
lingual. An example is Morocco, which tried to be a monolingual nation
despite its multilingual nature. Individual multilingualism is subsumed
under bilingualism because it is perceived that not many people in the
world are habitually multilingual or use more than two languages.
Ethnologue (Gordon, 2005) claims that there are 6,912 languages in the
world today and some of these languages are varieties or dialects of cer-
tain languages.

Continent Languages Count Percent

Africa 2,092 30.3

Americas 1,002 14.5
Asia 2,269 32.8
Europe 239 3.5
Pacific 1,310 19.0
Total 6,912 100.0

3.4 Linguistic Diversity

The language scenario in Africa and Europe exemplifies the prevalent

multilingual characteristic of many nations in the world. Thus, multilin-
gualism is indeed a commonplace phenomenon. The language scenario
in sub-Saharan Africa, for example, is characterised by a type of dense
multilingualism and linguistic diversity (Adegbija, 1994). The dense
multilingualism in sub-Saharan Africa is composed of indigenous, ex-
ogenous and Pidgin languages. Sub-Saharan Africa is identified as one
of the world's hotbed of linguistic diversity. The Niger-Congo language
family is the largest language family with over 1,500 languages.

17
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

According to Ethnologue, 13 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa have 50 or

more living languages. These countries are Chad (131 languages), Tan-
zania (128 languages), Ghana (79 languages), Côte d’Ivoire (78 lan-
guages), Central African Republic (71 languages), Kenya (69 languag-
es), Burkina Faso (68 languages), Congo (62 languages), Mali (57 lan-
guages) and Benin (54 languages), Cameroon (278 languages). Nigeria
is on the top of the list with 527 languages. Of those languages, 514 are
living languages, two are second languages without mother-tongue
speakers, and 11 have no known speakers. This is indicative of an ex-
treme or high degree of multilingualism in Nigeria and few other coun-
tries in sub-Saharan Africa. Thus, such dense multilingualism and mul-
tidialectalism will definitely generate dense multiculturalism, strong
language and cultural identities. These phenomena have certain implica-
tions such as wide diversity and intensity of attitudes (Adegbija, 1994).
Durk et al. (2005) argue that there is an evidence of multilingualism and
linguistic diversity in Europe. For instance, in the 48 states in Europe,
where most people speak Italian, English, French, German and Russian,
there are about 240 indigenous languages. Thus, Europe has become
increasingly multilingual through the steady influx of migrants and refu-
gees from all over the world. According to Ethnologue, these are the
number of languages in the following countries:

UK 5.035 million (12 languages), Spain 3.099 million (14 languages),

Germany 3.061 million (27 languages), France 2.651 million (23 lan-
guages), Italy 1.777 million (33 languages), Romania 1.441 million (15
languages), Russia 1.439 million (100 languages), Hungary 1.133 mil-
lion (9 languages), Belgium 1.039 million (10 languages), Serbia
704,500 (14 languages), Bulgaria 704,090 (11 languages), Croatia
650,142 (7 languages), Switzerland 618,666 (12 languages), Slovakia
538,700 (10 languages), Slovenia 488,508 (4 languages), Norway
463,900 (10 languages), Latvia 460,400 (5 languages), Finland 437,166
(12 languages), Macedonia 230,134 (9 languages). Multilingualism is
therefore a common sociolinguistic phenomenon in Europe.

3.5 Advantages and Challenges of Multilingualism

There are varying opinions about multilingualism as asset or liability in

a nation. For example, Ngubane (2003) argues “multilingualism is not a
problem. It is a resource.” He states with optimism, “multilingualism…
in South Africa will afford individuals great opportunities; opportunities
to make choices, opportunities to be empowered and opportunities to be
educated”. It is believed that the implementation of well-managed mul-
tilingualism in South Africa would influence the economic, social, edu-
cational, political and personal growth of individuals.

18
ENG 454 MODULE 1

Official multilingualism aims to foster respect for lan-

guage rights and linguistic diversity, and to promote na-
tional unity. National unity cannot be forged through do-
minance of one language by another. Such dominance
could lead to social tension and even violence, as history
has indeed shown. Respecting, accepting and accommo-
dating the language preferences of individuals will contri-
bute more to national unity than official monolingualism
(Ngubane, 2003).

Webb (in Ngubane, 2003) has identified four language-based problems

that would be solved by multilingualism. These are: restricted access to
knowledge and skills; low productivity and ineffective performance in
the workplace; inadequate political participation by the public resulting
in manipulation, discrimination, and exploitation by ruling powers
which contribute to national division and conflict; and linguistic and cul-
tural alienation. Thus, multilingualism is advantageous in the following
ways:

• it gives status to ethnic and local community languages

• it enables children to maintain links with their cultural back-
grounds and develop a close relationship with their past
• it increases people’s employment opportunities in the modern
world
• it facilitates access to the curriculum and to learning in school
• it is a unifying factor. For instance, in Nigeria, English unifies the
multilingual and multicultural groups in the country because it is
the official medium of instruction which ensures communication
between different linguistic and cultural groups
• it provides children and adults with the opportunity to share in a
wide range of intercultural experiences such as literature, enter-
tainment, religion and interests.

The Challenges of Multilingualism

i. It is divisive in the sense that people who do not speak the same
language harbour suspicion about others.
ii. Arriving at a mutually acceptable language policy, particularly
with reference to allocation of functions will likely create disaf-
fection.
iii. There are usually problems of logistics, survey and implementa-
tion of language policies.
iv. How to classify and handle minority languages so that they do
not suffer language death requires a lot of resources, foresight,
maturity and sacrifice.
v. It can easily be manipulated for political or religious purposes.

19
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

If multilingualism comes with so many problems, what problems would

a monolingual nation have?

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit has helped to sharpen our focus in this course, and you have
learnt that linguistic diversity is the bedrock of multilingualism, and that
multilingualism can be classified according to levels. We have equally
looked at various views about multilingualism, and the fact that they
have advantages and disadvantages. The next unit will give us insights
about the different aspects of multilingualism.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt:

• what multilingualism means

• the extent of linguistic diversity in the nations of the world
• the two major ways in which multilingualism can be described
• the difference between bilingualism and multilingualism
• the advantages and disadvantages of multilingualism.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

In the light of what you have read in this unit, comment on the observa-
tion that Nigeria is probably the most linguistically complex nation in
sub-Saharan Africa.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adegbija, E. (1994). Language Attitudes in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Soci-

olinguistic Overview. Australia: Multilingual Matters Limited.

Baker, C. (2006). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism.

(4th ed.). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Cenoz, J. (2009). Towards Multilingual Education. Bristol: Multilingual

Matters.

Clyne, M. (2007). “Multilingualism.” In: F. Coulmas (Ed.). The Hand-

book of Sociolinguistics. Australia: Blackwell Publishing Li-
mited.

20
ENG 454 MODULE 1

Durk, G. F. et al. (2005). “Benefits of linguistic diversity and multilin-

gualism”. Position Paper of Research Task1.2 “Cultural diversity
as an asset for human welfare and development.” Retrieved from
http://www.susdiv.org/uploadfiles/RT1.2_PP_Durk.pdf.

Fishman, J.A. (1978). Advances in the Study of Societal Multilingualism.

The Hague: Mouton.

Gordon, R. J. (2005). “Linguistic Diversity in Africa and Europe.” Lan-

guages of the World. Retrieved from
http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=nigeria
http://languages-of-the-world.blogspot.com/2011/06/linguistic-
diversity-in-africa-and.html on 15-06-2011.

Ngubane, B.S. (2003). “Future of Multilingualism in South Africa:

From Policy to Practice”. Keynote Address given at the Nation-
al Multilingualism Conference, Kopanong Conference Cen-
tre. Retrieved from http://www.polity.org.za/article/ngubane-
national-multilingualism consultative-conference on 07-07-2011.

21
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

UNIT 4 ASPECTS OF MULTILINGUALISM

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Aspects of Multilingualism
3.2 Relationship and Status of Languages
3.3 Aspects and Roles of Languages
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit discusses aspects of multilingualism. It examines the status,

roles and relationships of languages in some multilingual nations; and
the implications of these for their linguistic situations.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define aspects of multilingualism

• identify relationship and status of languages in a multilingual
nation
• discuss the aspects and roles of some of these languages.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Aspects of Multilingualism

According to UNESCO (2003), thirty per cent of the world’s languages

are spoken in Africa; (over 2000 languages) with only eighteen per cent
spoken in Europe and the America. The issue of multiplicity of languag-
es has necessitated defining domains and functions of language in multi-
lingual and multicultural communities.

Aspects of multilingualism, simply put, are domains of language use,

the relationship between indigenous and exogenous languages; the gen-
eral attitudes towards the languages; factors which motivate the atti-
tudes, and the patterns of language choice in multilingual societies, for
example, Nigeria (Adegbija, 2004). Each language functions in certain

22
ENG 454 MODULE 1

aspects of any multilingual nation’s life such as functional, symbolic,

political, geographical and institutional aspects.

The coexistence of a large number of languages might have important

cultural, economic, and political effects on multilingual societies and
they could be crucially affected by the decisions on language policy.
Other aspects of multilingualism are the functions, contexts, and mean-
ings associated with each language. Living and promoting multilingual-
ism is essential for intercultural dialogue and cultural diversity.

3.2 Relationship and Status of Languages

On the relationship and status of the languages in multilingual and mul-

ticultural Nigeria, the de facto National Policy on Education (1977, re-
vised 1981) provides for:

(i) Mother-Tongue (MT) and/or Language of the Immediate Com-

munity (LIC) as the language of initial literacy at the pre-primary
and junior, primary levels, and of adult and non-formal educa-
tion.
(ii) The three major (national) languages - Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba
as the languages of national culture and integration
(iii) English - the official language - as the language of formal litera-
cy, the bureaucracy, secondary and higher education, the law
courts etc
(iv) Selected foreign languages especially, French and Arabic, as lan-
guages of international communication and discourse. These are
the languages for which language villages have been set up.

Emenanjo (1996) in relation to NPE:

(i) Advocates multilingualism as the national goal.

(ii) Recognises English as the de facto official language in the bu-
reaucracy and all tiers of formal education.
(iii) Treats Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba as potential national languages,
which are to be developed and used as LO (official languages)
and L2 (second language) all through the formal educational sys-
tem.
(iv) Sees all Nigerian languages as meaningful media of instruction in
initial literacy and in life-long and non-formal education.

In Nigeria, with its acute multilingualism, each language categorisation

– exogenous (English, French and German), endogenous (Hausa, Igbo
and Yoruba) and minority languages – has its functional roles and as-
pects. For example, English has the central function of uniting the na-
tion, Nigeria, because there is no mutually intelligible/common indigen-

23
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

ous Nigerian language that is wide in geographical coverage and accep-

tability to be used for communication among the diverse ethnic groups.
According to Nida and Wonderly (1971: 65):

In Nigeria, there is simply no politically neutral

language. In fact, the division into three major
regions reflects the three language poles: Hau-
sa, Yoruba and Ibo. The political survival of
Nigeria as a country would even be more se-
riously threatened than it is if any of these three
languages were promoted by the Government
as being the one national language.

Anthony Enahoro, the late Nigerian statesman (2002: pp 18-19) writes:

All the languages of Nigeria have equal

validity, or if you please, equal lack of va-
lidity, before the law and under the consti-
tution. No linguistic group has the right –
the moral right or constitutional right – to
impose his (sic) language on any other
linguistic group in the country.

This position signals unavoidable conflict and linguistic war, if any in-
digenous Nigerian language is assigned a national role.

The English language is used in various aspects of Nigeria’s multilin-

gualism – communication, symbolic, educational, institutional, policy
and national functions. The overarching functions are the unifying and
cohesive roles of the English language in multi-ethnic and multi-cultural
Nigeria. Bamgbose (1971:35) asserts that:

Of the entire heritage left behind in Nigeria by

the British at the end of colonial administra-
tion, probably, none is more important than the
English language. It is now the language of
government, business and commerce, educa-
tion, the mass media, literature, and much in-
ternal as well as external communications…

Various other indigenous languages, particularly the three major lan-

guages (Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba), are used regionally and simultaneous-
ly with English to perform certain roles, for example, television/radio
broadcasting, State House of Assemblies’ proceedings, and so on. Re-
gionally, these languages are symbolic of cultural identity and means of
communication.

24
ENG 454 MODULE 1

There are varying attitudes toward languages in Nigeria (exogenous and

indigenous languages). Adegbija (2004) argues that indigenous lan-
guages are perceived loved as vehicles of nationalism, symbols of Nige-
ria’s independence, and tools of cultural development and enrichment.
These indigenous languages are conceived as superior to English among
Nigerians (respondents). Attitudes towards English could be love-hate
relationships. Adegbite (2003) writes on the shift of attitudes towards
indigenous languages among Nigerians.

3.3 Aspects and Roles of Languages

Analysing aspects of multilingualism in the Republic of Congo, Leitch

(2005) points out that it is imperative to distinguish the functional, sym-
bolic, institutional, policy-related (political), and geographical aspects of
each language in a multilingual system - village or ethnic language, Lin-
gala and French. Each language has distinctive functions or roles. He
presents a breakdown of aspects of multilingualism and various roles of
each of the languages as follows:

French

1. Communication

French serves the vital communication function of uniting the country,

which is ethnically and linguistically distinct as it enables inter-regional
communication. In addition, French enables communication with the
international community and provides an appropriate medium for tech-
nical development.

2. Symbolic

There are definite associations of status, prestige, and sophistication at-

tached to French usage. It reflects an individual’s education and ambi-
tion. In general, the Congolese are proud of their reputation for a supe-
rior level of French usage and their strong historical ties with France.

3. Institutional

A majority of important social and political institutions are conducted in

French because of colonisation. For example, French is used in the mili-
tary, civil service, government meetings, documents, the professions,
university, primary, middle, and secondary educations, print media
(newspapers) and journalism, big business and banking.

25
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

4. Policy

French is the “official” language of Congo by governmental decree. This

policy is just a formalisation and legitimisation of historical usage pat-
terns. The use of French avoids aggravating ethnic and regional tensions
and, at the same time, provides an established written medium for record
keeping and documents.

5. Geographical

French usage has no pertinent geographical component except that the

urban centers of Brazzaville and Pointe Noire would have higher levels
of French usage and competence by virtue of the concentration of civil
servants and formal institutions.

Lingala

1. Communication

Lingala serves as an inter-ethnic lingua franca throughout all of North-

ern Congo. This is a crucial aspect of the force and attraction of Lingala.
Regardless of the absence of education and adequate French, Lingala
can be learnt and spoken by anyone who needs to communicate beyond
their ethnic group.

2. Symbolic

Lingala use has strong connotations of Africanism, nationalism, and

loyalty to the states that are important to understand. The use of Lingala
marks identification with the nation-building process and political de-
velopment of the country.

3. Institutional

Lingala has almost no institutional component in the Congo. It is used in

informal and popular institutions such as church and popular politics
where it is used to address large heterogeneous groups.

4. Policy

Lingala is one of two “national” languages of the People’s Republic of

Congo. The other, Munukutuba, plays a similar lingua-franca role in the
Kikoongo southern half of the nation. The fact that Lingala has official
status in Congo’s linguistic policy demonstrates the traditional (already
established) importance of Lingala in certain sectors of society.

26
ENG 454 MODULE 1

5. Symbolic

Ethnic language usage for the current generation of Congolese has

strong associations of identity, roots, belonging, intimacy, and ethnicity.
These associations continue despite declining ethnic language use in
some contexts. In one ethnic community close to Brazzaville, Lingala
usage extends even into the homes of younger married couples, while
the ethnic language is increasingly reserved for ethnic cultural functions
and visits to older family members.

Ennaji (1991) writes on some aspects of multilingualism in Morocco,

Algeria and Tunisia. It is noted that these countries have a common lin-
guistic situation in the sense that several languages are in use. These
languages are Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic, Dialectal Arabic, Ber-
ber, French, Spanish, and English. Each of these languages has domains
of function or operation. For example, Classical Arabic is the language
of Islam, with great tradition behind it. It has been codified; therefore, it
is the medium of a huge body of classical literature in Maghreb.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have discussed aspects of multilingualism, the different

roles, relationships and statuses that can be assigned to different lan-
guages mean. You will know more about multilingualism in the next
unit when we examine multilingual nations and linguistic issues.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

• aspects of multilingualism simply relates to domains of language

use,
• relationship and status of languages in a multilingual nation can
be identified,
• aspects can be sub-divided into domains.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

List and explain aspects of multilingualism.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adegbija, E. (2004). Multilingualism: A Nigerian Case Study. Africa

World Press: New Jersey.

27
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

Adegbite, W. (2003). “Enlightenment and attitudes of the Nigerian elite

on the roles of languages in Nigeria.” Language in Culture and
Curriculum, 16(2):185-196.

Emenanjo, E.N. (1996). “Languages and the national policy on educa-

tion: Implications and prospects.” Retrieved from
http://fafunwafoundation.tripod.com
/fafunwafoundation/id9.html.

Enahoro, A. (2002).“Towards a New Constitutional Order.” Vanguard,

July, 5, pp. 18-19.

Ennaji, M. (1991). “Aspects of Multilingualism.” International Journal

of the Sociology of Language, 87( 1).

Leitch, M. (2005). “Aspects of Multilingualism in the Lingala Zone of

Congo.” SIL International: Dallas, Texas.

Nida, E.A. & Wonderly, W.L. (1971). “Communication Roles of Lan-

guages in Multilingual Societies.” In: W.H. Whitely
(Ed.). Language Use and Social Change. (pp 57-74). London:
OUP for International African Institute.

Wolff, H. E. (2000). “Language and Society”. In: B. Heine & D. Nurse

(Eds). African Languages: An Introduction. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

28
ENG 454 MODULE 1

UNIT 5 MULTILINGUAL NATIONS AND LINGUISTIC

ISSUES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Linguistic Issues in Multilingual Nations
3.2 Major Challenges
3.3 The Problem of Choice of a National Language
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit discusses linguistic issues in multilingual nations, paying spe-

cific attention to major challenges of multilingualism, and the problems
associated with the choice of a national language.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain linguistic issues in a multilingual nation

• describe challenges that can occur in a multilingual nation
• discuss the controversy about the choice of an indigenous nation
al language in Nigeria.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Linguistic Issues in Multilingual Nations

In units one to four, we presented an overview of multilingual nations in

the world, linguistic diversity in nations, and we attempted to establish
levels of multilingualism, aspects, roles, relationship and status of lan-
guages particularly in sub-Saharan Africa and Europe. Despite the re-
sourcefulness of multilingualism and linguistic diversity, it is not devoid
of specific linguistic challenges and issues. The management and main-
tenance of linguistic diversity and multilingualism is complex and it in-
volves political, legislative, social, linguistic, psychological and admin-
istrative issues. Multilingual nations often have to grapple with prob-
lems of language contact and change, choice of national and official
language(s), language policy on education, safeguarding minority lan-
29
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

guages, language functions and roles, language curriculum design and

planning, language planning and policy; and language maintenance and
revitalisation. With specific reference to Nigeria, some of the major
challenges of multilingualism are discussed below:

3.2 Some Major Challenges of Multilingualism

Multilingualism comes with different challenges and advantages. Some

of the major challenges are listed here.

1. Lack of comprehensive and deliberate language policy in

Nigeria

In Nigeria, for example, Oyetade (2003:105) highlights different chal-

lenges and issues that are associated with language policy and planning
in Nigeria. One of the language issues has been the lack of comprehen-
sive, deliberate and planned exercise of language policy in Nigeria.
“Language policy as an organised and systematic pursuit of solution to
language problems remained largely peripheral to the mainstream of na-
tional language.” Nigeria’s language policy emerged out of national
concerns such as the development of a National Policy on Education and
the drafting of the Constitution for the country. Nigeria can only boast of
a national language policy with reference to these documents – the Na-
tional Policy on Education and the Constitution of the Federal Republic
of Nigeria.

The existing attempts at language policy making in Nigeria have only

given recognition and prominence to the three major languages – Hausa,
Igbo and Yoruba. The overt recognition includes the provision in section
1, paragraph 8 of the National Policy on Education (1981; 2004) that “in
the interest of national unity, every child should learn one of the three
major languages in addition to his own.” In addition, it is entrenched in
the 1979 Constitution in section 51 and 91, and also repeated in sections
55 and 97 of the 1999 Constitution that: “The business of the National
Assembly shall be conducted in English and in Hausa, Ibo and Yoruba
when adequate arrangements have been made therefore. The business of
the House of Assembly shall be conducted in English, but the house
may in addition to English conduct the business of the House in one or
more other languages spoken in the State as the House may by resolu-
tion…”

2. Lack of Implementation of (Language) Policy Statements

Another language issue identified in Nigeria is lack of implementation

of policy statements. Indeed, scholars (Oyedeji, 1997; Abioye, 2010)

30
ENG 454 MODULE 1

have observed a persistent pattern in government’s attitude. Abioye

(2010: p. 99) has even argued that:

Government has consistently exhibited lack of

political commitment by paying lip service to
its policies rather than actively encouraging
and backing the implementation of these. Al-
so, misplaced priorities have seriously af-
fected education in Nigeria as government
spends extravagantly on sports and politics
whereas projects and policies are poorly im-
plemented/completed, sometimes diverted,
inadequately monitored or even abandoned
and subsequently forgotten. Indeed, in most
cases, educational policies are sometimes per-
sonalized and used in scoring cheap political
goals or in settling scores.

Until now, the 1979 Constitutional provision for the use of the three
major languages in the National Assembly has not been implemented.
The English language is mainly used for the business of the National
Assembly. Minority/majority language dichotomy has generated lan-
guage or ethnic loyalty among Nigeria’s minority language speakers.
There is prevalent phobia that the recognition given to Hausa, Igbo and
Yoruba is an attempt to make the minority languages subservient to the
speakers of these dominant languages politically, socially and economi-
cally. Oyetade (2003) suggests that language policy and planning ef-
forts can be hinged on a well-articulated ideology, and all other aspects
of our national life must be in conformity with this ideology.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Write a list of linguistic challenges in Nigeria.

3.3 Controversy on the Need for an Indigenous National

Language

Another obvious language/linguistic issue in Nigeria is the problem of

the choice of a national language among various indigenous and ex-
ogenous languages in multilingual Nigeria. Nigeria’s dense multilin-
gualism, multiculturalism and multi-ethnicity pose a huge challenge in
the desire and effort to choose a national language. Due to the existing
roles of English, some people suggest English as the appropriate nation-
al language while also pointing to inadequacies noticed in Nigeria’s in-
digenous languages. Kebby (1986) argues that: “No Nigerian language

31
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

can serve scientific and technological needs ... because none is com-
plete.”

However, some Nigerians have advanced the need for an indigenous Ni-
gerian language as national language because of certain reasons: nation-
al consciousness, unity and pride. A break away with English will justi-
fy Nigeria’s claim for political independence, put an end to the elitist
society that English has created and the choice of an indigenous lan-
guage will facilitate national integration as all members of the country
speak the same national language. Olagoke (1982) argues: “There are
many Nigerians who feel strongly that the country needs a “lingua fran-
ca” other than English, not only to foster national unity but also to facili-
tate self-discovery and pride convincing the world and ourselves that we
are truly independent of Britain.”

The proposition to choose an indigenous language as a national lan-

guage is laudable, but the question is the choice of national language
among the many Nigerian languages. Attah (1987) identifies one of the
paradoxes of the national language question. He notes that while many
Nigerians express a desire for a national language other than English,
few are convinced of the need to choose a language other than their
own. The proponents of the national language therefore may be divided
into three major camps based on their preferences/choices. First are
those who want the national language to come from the major Nigerian
languages. Second are those who reject the candidacy of the major lan-
guages and opt, instead, for a minor language preferably one of these
languages – Kanuri, Fulani, Tiv and Edo. Third are those who prefer an
entirely new language created by mixing three or more of the existing
Nigerian languages so that it would be neutral and no ethnic group
would lay claim to it. Different names have been suggested for the pro-
posed new language; some people would want to call it WAZOBIA
formed by integrating the three major languages - Hausa, Igbo, and Yo-
ruba. In fact, “WA,” “ZO,” and “BIA” - Yoruba, Hausa, and Igbo words
respectively - meaning “come.” But Igbeneweka (1983) cited in Attah
(1987), who had constructed a new language by combining different lo-
cal languages in the country, would want to call it “GUOSA.”

According to Oyetade (2003), three major dimensions are usually fo-

cused upon: national integration, education and national development
(see Bamgbose 1976, 1985, 1990; Elugbe 1985; Adeniran 1993, 1995;
Oyelaran 1990; Oyetade 1992, 1993; Essien 1990; Oladejo 1991; Akin-
naso 1991; and Iwara 1993). These studies have invariably come up
with a variety of conclusions and recommendations. For instance, some
scholars have recommended the one language option for the purpose of
national integration. The languages frequently recommended have been
English, Hausa, Pidgin, Swahili, and even a purposefully “created” ar-

32
ENG 454 MODULE 1

tificial language. The assumed “benefits” of each of them and the asso-
ciated problems are discussed in Bamgbose (1985). Proponents of the
multilingual approach have supported the elevation of Hausa, Igbo and
Yoruba or as many languages as possible to the status of national lan-
guages.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What is the main issue in the controversy about a national language?

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit examined language issues associated with multilingual socie-

ties as well as the major challenges faced by multilingual countries. It
also highlighted the controversy surrounding the need for an indigenous
national language.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt about the:

• linguistic issues associated with multilingual societies

• major challenges faced by multilingual countries
• controversy surrounding the need for an indigenous national
language.

In the next unit, you will be looking at case studies of multilingual coun-
tries and their peculiarities.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Briefly explain the major problems faced by multilingual nations.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Abioye, T. (2010). “Perception of undergraduate newspaper readers on

the role of the media in literacy development”. Marang Journal
of Language & Literature 20: 97-107.

Adeniran, A. (1993). “The new educational language policy in Nigeria:

prospects and problems”. In: A. Bamgbose (Ed.). Language in
Contact and in Conflict in Africa. (pp119-146). Mimeo.

Adeniran, A. (1995). “Language education provisions in Nigeria’s na-

tional policy on education: A critique.” In: K. Owolabi. (Ed.).

33
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

Language in Nigeria: Essays in Honour of Ayo Bamgbose. Iba-

dan: Group Publishers. 189-200.

Akinnaso, F. N. (1991). “Towards the development of a multilingual

language policy in Nigeria.” Applied Linguistics, 12(1): 29–61.

Attah, M. O. (1987). “The national language problem in Nigeria”.

Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne des
Études Africaines, (21) 3: 393-401.

Baldridge, J. (1996). Reconciling Linguistic Diversity: The History and

the Future of Language Policy in India. University of Toledo
Honors Thesis. Retrieved from
http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~jason2/papers/natlang.htm

Bamgbose, A. (1976). “Language in national integration: Nigeria as a

case study”. Paper presented at the 12th West African Languag-
es Congress, University of Ife. March 15-20.

Bamgbose, A. (1985). “Language and Nation Building.” Review of

English and Literary Studies, 2(2): 95–108.

Bamgbose, A. (1990). Language and the National Question in Nigeria,

XIV, (1&2): 70-80.

Elugbe, B. (1985). “National Language and National Development.”

Review of English and Literary Studies, 2(2): 165 -178.

Essien, O. E. (1990). “The Future of Minority Languages.” In: E. N.

Emenanjo. (Ed.). pp155-168.

Federal Ministry of Information. (1981). National Policy on Education.

Lagos: Federal Government Press.

Igbeneweka, M. A. (1983). “Guosa Language as a Lingua Franca for

Nigeria.” Paper presented at LAN Conference, Benin.

Iwara, A. (1993). Nigeria and the National Language Policy Question.

Ibadan: RELS Monographs.

Kebby, M. (1986). “Nigeria has a Lingua Franca.” Sunday Times, 9 No-

vember, pp.20.

Oladejo, J. (1991). “The National Language Question in Nigeria: Is

there an answer?” Language Problems and Language Plan-
ning, 15 (3): 255-267.

34
ENG 454 MODULE 1

Olagoke, D. (1982). “Choosing a National Language for Nigeria.” JO-

LAN, I: 197- 206.

Oyedeji, L. (1997). “Literacy for Governance in Nigeria.” Keynote Ad-

dress. LRN, 7, 3- 14.
Oyelaran, O. O. (1990). “ Language Marginalisation in Nigeria and
National Development.” In: E. N. Emenanjo. Multilingualism,
Minority Languages and Language Policy in Nigeria. pp 20-30.

Oyetade, O. S. (1992). “Multilingualism and Linguistic Policies in Ni-

geria.” African Notes, XVI ( 1&2): 32-43.

Oyetade, O.S. (2003). Language Planning in Multi-Ethnic State: The

Majority/Minority Dichotomy in Nigeria. Nordic Journal of Afri-
can Studies, 12(1):105-117.

The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. (1979). Lagos:

Federal Government Press.

35
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

UNIT 6 MULTILINGUAL NATIONS: SOME CASE

STUDIES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Uganda
3.2 Ghana
3.3 India
3.4 South Africa
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the last unit, you learnt about major issues, challenges and controver-
sies faced by multilingual societies. In this unit, you will now learn
about specific multilingual nations and their peculiar linguistic situa-
tions.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• identify the language situation in each of these nations

• make a comparative analysis between these nations
• draw out lessons from which Nigeria can learn.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Multilingual Nations: Some Case Studies

Several multilingual nations face, at least, one of the language issues

identified in this module. Examples these nations are: Uganda, Ghana,
India, and South Africa.

3.1.1 Uganda

Speakers of English have dominated Anglophone East Africa for more

than a century. However, the British clearly outnumber the other speak-
ers. Specific reference will be made to Uganda while Kenya and Tanza-

36
ENG 454 MODULE 1

nia will only be mentioned in passing. Uganda is thus taken as a case

study of an Anglophone (English-speaking) East African country.

According to Ethnologue, Uganda has about 30 identified languages.

The languages can be divided into four major groups: Bantu, Sudanic,
Eastern Nilotic and Western Nilotic. The first three differ as do English,
French and Arabic.

It is interesting to note that nearly two-thirds of the people belong to the

Bantu group. A sub-division of the Bantu languages groups Luganda
and Lusogo as dialects of the same language as well as Runyankore and
Rikiga. The other languages in this group are different from the two
identified groups. Linguistic diversity had been made more complex by
invaders, although there is geographical contiguity; there are no clear-
cut boundaries between one ethnic group and another.

Luganda clearly dominates the other languages although English and

two Indian languages (Hindi and Gujerati) are spoken as well. The
speakers of Luganda are called the Baganda; they live in Buganda re-
gion, and a single member of the group is a Muganda.

In education, the Ugandan Ministry of Education uses six Ugandan lan-

guages (in the primary school) and English (in the secondary and higher
education). The official language of the Army, Police and Prison Servic-
es is Swahili. As a result, the Ministry allows the children of these
people to be taught in special schools where Swahili is used. Theoreti-
cally, English is the major language of law and administration. This im-
plies that a magistrate can always use his discretion on which language
to allow in his court.

Since Uganda is primarily an agrarian country, the information services

of the Ministry of Agriculture limit themselves (possibly due to financial
constraints) to printing information leaflets containing advice to farmers
in English and only four Ugandan languages. Radio Uganda broadcasts
programmes in 16 Ugandan languages, English and Hindustani. People
sometimes find it difficult to determine which speakers they were listen-
ing to and the languages being spoken on the air. The same applies to
the language of broadcast. It took quite a while to determine which of
the 16 Ugandan languages involved in broadcasts, was being used.

English was introduced in this country at the end of the 19th century.
There is no doubt that English is the dominant language among the lead-
ers of this country who are mostly the Baganda. English is known and
spoken however by fewer Ugandans than any of the other two languages
(Luganda and Swahili). It is learnt in school and can only be used be-
tween scholars whose languages are mutually unintelligible. While Eng-

37
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

lish is seen as the language of the elite, Swahili is seen as the lingua
franca of the poor and less educated.

In the first quarter of the century, Swahili rivalled English because (as
mentioned above), it was also taught in schools. The Buganda, who are
relatively comfortable with the position of English and Luganda, re-
garded the introduction of Swahili as a threat to their political power.
Not only that, they felt it might encourage white settlers who would take
away their lands just as it happened in Kenya. Therefore, through the
influence of the Baganda, English remained the official language. How-
ever, English and Swahili now play important roles in Uganda.

Socially, the people preferred to use their different languages. As has

been observed, the elite preferred English while the less educated pre-
ferred either Swahili or Luganda. It was observed that housewives pre-
ferred Luganda, which is the most widely spoken language. This further
implies that at home, with friends, etc, most people spoke Luganda. It
was noted that 50 per cent favoured English as their choice, the others
making their choice between Swahili and Luganda. It was observed,
however, that those who preferred Luganda were naturally Baganda.

The present language policy in Uganda (1965) is a result of colonial

hangover. A historical account has it that from the advent of the missio-
naries in 1877, the idea was to establish literacy in the languages in
which the Bible and Prayer Books were translated. Swahili was first
recommended as the language of education and administration in 1928,
but it did not go down well with the populace. Although the Phelps-
Stoke’s Report in 1924 did not mention language, it helped in renewing
interest in education. In 1937, certain recommendations were made.
These recommendations were reviewed by the Makerere Conference on
Language in 1944.

The conference agreed, among other things that “English alone deserved
recognition as the inevitable lingua franca of the future.” It then recom-
mended that English be used as a medium of instruction from the se-
venth year of primary education onwards. In 1952, it was recommended
that if teachers of English could be found, English should be introduced
at an early age, more so when simplified readers for beginners, and so
on, were available. In the end, some private schools sprang up where
English is used right from the first year. The question now arises: “in a
country where primary education is inevitably the terminal education for
a vast majority, is it necessary to teach English when the learners would
not be in a position to use this language?”

It is thus clear that English, no doubt, plays an important role in law,

education, administration and agriculture in Uganda. It serves as the ve-

38
ENG 454 MODULE 1

hicle of all higher learning. Indeed, for too many people in this country,
English is a step on the ladder of social stratification. It is the line of
demarcation between the elite and the less educated. The vast majority
of Ugandans are described as citizens with “ill-conceived and inade-
quate language instruction” (Gorman, 1970: p. 147). This means that
they cannot express themselves fully either in the educated or in the illi-
terate society. This is probably because the importance of English is
over-stressed. The uncertainty of the future of indigenous languages
make people cling to English sometimes, with ferocious tenacity.

The Aborigines expelled most of the white settlers in Uganda in the 60’s
and 70s. They were expelled when it was discovered that the indigenes
were losing their land to the foreigners. Swahili is gradually losing its
popularity even in Tanzania where it was pronounced a national lan-
guage de jure because of the recognition of the pragmatic value of Eng-
lish as an international language. How many people would speak and
understand Swahili in, say, Scotland, for instance? Even India regretted
trying to eliminate English.

3.1.2 Ghana

Ethnologue lists of 79 languages in Ghana. As is the case in many ex-

colonies in Africa, the official language of Ghana is English. Nine lan-
guages have the status of government- sponsored languages – they are
Akan, Dagaara/Wale, Dagbaru, Dangme, Ewe, Ga Gonja, Kasem, and
Nzema. However, two dialects of Akan, Twi and Fante, although not
government- sponsored, are also widely spoken in Ghana. The govern-
ment-sponsored languages are supported by the Bureau of Ghana Lan-
guages, which was established in 1951 and publishes materials in them.
During the period when Ghanaian languages were used in primary edu-
cation, these languages were used. In May 2002, Ghana promulgated a
law, which mandated the use of English language as the medium of in-
struction for the first three years of schooling. This new policy has at-
tracted a lot of criticism from a section of academics, politicians, educa-
tors/traditional rulers, and the general populace. Ghana has been a
strong advocate of the African personality since Nkrumah’s era.

The promulgation of the use of English as the medium of instruction in

education and the abandoning of her indigenous languages in education
is therefore in opposition to this ideology. Unlike most Francophone
countries, which had French forced on them as medium of instruction,
through the Brazzaville Conference of 1944 and forbade the use of local
languages in schools (Djite, 2000), Ghana had the British lay a solid
foundation for the use of the indigenous languages as a medium of in-
struction at the lower primary level. However, Ghana’s recent turn to-
wards the francophone model is saddening and baffling.

39
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

The previous policy of using a Ghanaian language as medium of instruc-

tion in the lower primary level was abused, especially in rural schools.
Teachers never spoke English in class even in primary six. Also,

• Students are unable to speak and write good English sentences

even by the time they complete the senior secondary schools
(high school).
• The multilingual situation in the country especially in urban
schools has made instruction in a Ghanaian language very diffi-
cult. The source added that a study conducted by the Ministry of
Education showed that 50 to 60 percent of children in each class
in the urban area speak a different language.
• There is a lack of materials in the Ghanaian languages to be used
in teaching and lack of Ghanaian language teachers specifically
trained to teach content subject in Ghanaian language.
• The minister pointed out that English is the lingua franca of the
state and that all effort must be put in to ensure that children ac-
quire the right level of competence in both the spoken and written
forms of the language.

The challenges faced by the Ghanaian language planners represent the

harsh realities on the ground. The most problematic of the challenges
raised, which seems insurmountable but can be dealt with when there is
proper planning, is the multilingual nature of the nation and its class-
rooms. The linguistic diversity of Ghanaian classrooms should not be
seen as a threat to mother tongue instruction and unity in the classroom
but as something that supports and strengthens their goal as educators.
It must be noted that mother tongue education is a right as well as a need
for every child (Pattanayals, 1986). Ghana cannot deny its citizens’ lan-
guage rights and claim to give them fundamental human rights.

Rights without language rights are vacuous: language rights + human

rights = linguistic human rights (Owu-Ewie, 2005). Denying the Gha-
naian child the use of his/her native language in education is committing
the crime of “linguistic genocide” in education (Skutnabb-Kangars,
2000). Furthermore, with regard to lack of text books as a challenge
against the use of indigenous languages, this is very unfortunate be-
cause, prior to this recent policy, the 10 Ghanaian languages, which
have officially been recognised by the government and used in schools,
are studied as undergraduate and graduate courses. For example, the
University of Ghana, Legon and the University of Cape Coast, offer
graduate degree programs in Akan (Twi and Fante), Ga and Ewe, while
the University of Education, Winneba offers undergraduate courses in
Akan (Twi and Fante), Ewe, Nzema, Ga, Ga-Adanybe, and so on. As
far back as the 1930s, Twi, Fante, Ga, and Ewe were General Certifi-
cate/ Ordinary Level (GCE ‘O’ Level) Examination subjects.

40
ENG 454 MODULE 1

3.1.3 India

India, besides Nigeria, is another dense or acute and complex

multilingual nation in the world, and it also shares the same colonial
experience with Nigeria. There are approximately more than 1,000
languages in India. Since India’s independence in 1947, the language
question has become an increasingly sensitive one among Indians - the
question of a language to serve as either official or national language.
According to Ehusani (2005: p. 7):

The major aspect of the territorial and

administrative unification of India was the
integration of more than 560 large and small
princely states, which occupied nearly 40 per
cent of the territory of colonial India, and had
a proliferation of languages. And language
problems were the most divisive issues in the
first 20 years of independent India -- one
language problem was that of which would be
the official language of the country. It was, of
course, accepted by the Indian leaders that
India was a multi-lingual country and it had to
remain so. The Constitution, therefore,
recognised all the major languages as India's
national languages. But it also decided that
Hindi would be India's official language, with
English being used for official purposes till
1965 when it would be replaced by Hindi.

Many Indian nationalists originally intended that Hindi would replace

English as a medium of communication. But this intention was greeted
by several struggles and protests by the Dravida Munnetra Kazagham
(DMK), a political party which helped to organise the Madras State
Anti-Hindi Conference on January 17, 1965 (Baldridge, 1996; U.S.
English Foundation, 2006). After different struggles – political, violent
and passive – the central government decided to allow the state
governments to choose their own languages and then recognise them
officially.

Baldridge (1996) avers that Hindi seemed the clearest choice after
independence. English, despite its prominence and distribution
throughout the nation, was not acceptable for several reasons. English
was to many a symbol of slavery. Fasold (1984: p. 182) argues “the
former colonial language is an absolutely atrocious choice as a national
language. Nothing could be a worse symbol of a new nation’s self-

41
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

awareness than the language of a country from which it had just

achieved independence.”

More importantly, a foreign tongue such as English would not

contribute to the national identity in the way that an indigenous one
could. Even though Hindi was, perhaps, the most natural choice, there
were many blocks to its achieving success as the national language. One
of these was the high position of English – a position it has retained until
today despite the plan to phase it out of all government communications
by 1965. English is important internationally and, as a world language,
with the many advantages conferred upon those who could speak it, the
study of English continued with even greater vigour than before.

3.1.4 South Africa

For about a decade and a half, the linguistic setting in South Africa has
been greatly influenced by social and political factors. With the eradica-
tion of apartheid in the region, South Africans strove for fairness in lan-
guage policies and practices. During the apartheid, English and Afri-
kaans were the only official languages, but with a drive for equity in all
spheres-language inclusive-South Africa today, has an unparalleled
record of 11 official languages-made up of nine Bantu languages in ad-
dition to English and Afrikaans. In the face of this multilingualism how-
ever, English has continued to play a major role as it has been well in-
corporated into the South African society to serve as the language of in-
struction in most secondary schools and higher institutions, as well as
the language of the mass media and the language of commerce.

It is worthy to note that English is dancing to the tunes of the cultural

milieu of South Africans; just as Tamils in Canagarajah’s (1999) study
have appropriated English ‘to dynamically negotiate meaning, identity,
and status in contextually suitable and socially strategic ways.’ Peirce
(1989) notes that even during apartheid, there was the struggle for
people’s English—a struggle to claim rights to the language in ways that
would increase rather than compromise opportunities for societal trans-
formation.

The project in South Africa was open to both native English speakers
and English language learners and they had the opportunity to consider
how the multi-literacies framework could validate the diversity of litera-
cy in South Africa, whether oral or written, urban or rural, performative
or electronic. One student, for example, developed a workbook on oral
storytelling practices for Tsonga-speaking children in which students
had to compare and contrast different English translations of a well-
known Tsonga oral narrative.

42
ENG 454 MODULE 1

It can therefore be concluded that in the face of her linguistic diversity,

South Africa has in the process of appropriating English, validated the
diversity of speakers, genres and multimodalities in the society.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Among all these nations, whose language policy would you consider
best or appears more effective and efficient?

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit has introduced you to three multilingual nations used as case
studies, how they have handled their language problems. You are also
able to examine the similarities and differences that they share in each
nation. You can also see the importance of English in these nations.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt:

• the peculiarities of multilingualism in each of these countries

• the similarities in each of these nations
• how you can make a comparative analysis between these nations
• the lessons Nigeria can learn from these nations.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Highlight the different challenges of these nations mentioned

above and suggest solutions to these problems identified.
2. What lessons do you think Nigeria can learn from these nations?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Badejo, R. (1989). “Multilingualism in Sub-Saharan Africa.” African

Media Review, Vol 3. (Online Version).

Baldridge, J. (1996). “Reconciling Linguistic Diversity: The History

and the Future of Language Policy in India.” Language in
India. Retrieved from http://www.ling.upenn.edu/ ja-
son2/papers/natlang.htm on 09-08-1998

Canagarajah, A. S. (1999). Resisting Linguistic Imperialism in English

Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Clyne, M. (2007). “Multilingualism.” In: F. Coulmas. (Ed.). The Hand-

book of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Blackwell.
43
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

De klerk, V. & Gough, D. (2004). “Black South African English.”

Retrieved from www.benkhumalo-seegelken.de. 20- 08- 2011

Djite, P. G. (2000). “Language Planning in Cote d’Ivoire: We Do Not

Study for Academia, But for Real Life.” Current Issues in Lan-
guage Planning, 1 (1): 11-46.

Ehusani, G. Fr. (2005). “Language and the Nigerian Project.” Paper pre-
sented at the 2nd National Conference of the School of Languag-
es, Federal College of Education, Okene, May 3.

Fasold, R. W. (1984). The Sociolinguistics of Society. Oxford: Basil

Blackwell.

Durk, G. F., et al. (2005). “Benefits of linguistic diversity and multi-

lingualism”. Position Paper of Research Task1.2 “Cultural diver-
sity as an asset for human welfare and development.” Retrieved
from http://www.susdiv.org/uploadfiles/RT1.2_PP_Durk.pdf.

Lupke, F. (2010). “Multilingualism and language contact in West

Africa: towards a holistic perspective”. Retrieved from
www.jbc-journal.org on 27-9-2011

Owu-Ewie,C. (2006). “The Language Policy of Education in Ghana: A

Critical Look at the English-only Language Policy of Educa-
tion.” Selected Proceedings of the 35th Annual Conference on
African Linguistics. J. Mugane et al. (Eds). (pp 76-85). Some-
rville, MA:Cascadilla Proceedings Project.

Oyetade, A. & Luke, V. F. (2007). “Sierra Leone Krio and the Quest for
National Integration.” 29th September, 2011.

Peirce, L.V. (1989). “Teaching Strategies for Developing Oral Language

Skills”. In A Forum Anthology Volume IV. Selected Articles
from the English Teaching Forum 1984- 1988. January, pp. 41-7.
Washington DC: United States Information Agency, English
Language Programs Division, Bureau of Educational and
Cultural Affairs.

Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2000). “Language Rights: Problems and Chal-

lenges in Recent

Human Rights Instruments.” In Japanese. In Nobutaka, Miura and Kei-

suke, Kasuya (Eds). Les impérialismes linguistiques/ Linguistic
imperialism (in Japa nese).Tokyo: Fujiwara-Shoten Publishers,
293-314.

44
ENG 454 MODULE 2

MODULE 2

Unit 1 Language Planning and Policy: Preliminaries

Unit 2 Different Aspects of Language Planning and Policy
Unit 3 Objectives, Goals and Ideologies of Language Planning
and Policy
Unit 4 Language Planning and Policy Issues
Unit 5 Prestige and Multiglossic nature of languages
Unit 6 Official Orthographies

UNIT 1 LANGUAGE PLANNING AND POLICY:

PRELIMINARIES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definitions of Language Planning and Policy (LPP)
3.2 The Nature of Language Policy
3.3 Stages in Language Planning
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit examines different definitions of language policy and planning

in multilingual communities. It also highlights the different stages of
language planning.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define language planning and policy

• describe language planning and policy
• identify the nature of language policy
• discuss some different stages in language planning and policy.

45
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Preli minaries of Language Policy and Planning

3.1.1 Definitions of Language Planning and Policy (LPP)

Scholars use the terms “language planning and policy” and “language
policy and planning” sometimes interchangeably. In this course, we
adopt the same strategy. My argument is premised on the fact that
planning usually precedes policy formulation and a policy also needs
planning for effective implementation. Thus, according to Haugen
(1969: p.701), language planning “includes the normative work of
language academies and committees, all forms of what is commonly
known as language cultivation and all proposals for language reform or
standardisation.”

Jernudd and Das Gupta (1971:p. 211) define language planning as a

“political and administrative activity for solving language problems in
society.” Gorman (1973: p.73) defines the term “language planning” as
“measures taken to select, codify and in some cases, to elaborate
orthographic, grammatical, lexical, or semantic features of a language
and to disseminate the corpus agreed upon.”

For Fishman (1974: p. 79), the term “language planning” refers to the
“organised pursuit of solutions to language problems, typically at the
national level.” Weinstein (1980: p. 55) argues that language planning
can be defined as “a government authorised long term sustained and
conscious effort to alter a language itself or to change a language’s
functions in a society for the purpose of solving communication
problems.” According to Karam (1994: p. 105) language planning is “an
activity which attempts to solve a language problem, usually on a
national scale, and which focuses on either language form or language
use or both.”

Trughill (2003) sees it as activities carried out by governmental, official

or other influential bodies that are aimed at establishing which language
varieties are used in a particular community, and subsequently at
directing or influencing which language varieties are to be used for
which purposes in that particular community, and what the linguistic
characteristics of those varieties are to be.

Romaine (2003) opines that language planning and policy is the attempt
to manage linguistic and cultural contacts and potential conflicts
resulting from managing or mismanaging multilingualism within the
framework of agencies of the modern nation-state.
It has been argued that:

46
ENG 454 MODULE 2

The field of language planning, as its name

suggests, has concentrated its efforts on the
description and practice of planned language
development. This is after all its raison d'être, to
provide future oriented, problem-solving
language-change strategies to meet particular
language needs. This orientation means that
language planning is one of the key descriptive
topics in applied linguistics, bringing together as
it does theory from a variety of disciplines and
putting that into practice (Richard & Bauldorf,
1997:82).

Language planning in multilingual nations needs to be properly defined

and described because it concerns human beings, their behaviour,
attitudes, emotions, and their relationships with one another (Adegbija,
2004). Due to the importance of language planning, Du Plessis (1994:
p. 284) argues that status planning is an aspect of language planning and
management, with “people planning.”

The formulation and implementation of language planning and policy in

many multilingual nations such as Nigeria have been integral
parts/elements of social and educational policies. Questions of national
and official language selection, of orthographic selection and spelling
standardisation of language use in government, judiciary and education,
standardisation and modernisation of language are the functions of
language planning and policy. Reagan (2006) notes that language
planning and policy activities are not limited to spoken languages, and
that LPP has a growing significance in sign languages and a broad
framework for their development and implementation.

Cobarrubias (1989) argues that despite the conceptual difference

between corpus and status planning, the two interact with each other.
The allocation of new language functions (status planning) often
requires changes in the linguistic system (corpus planning) such as
development of new styles and lexical items. To exemplify the
interaction between corpus and status planning, Deumert (2003) cites
the example of the adoption of Hebrew as medium of instruction in
Palestine, which necessitates expansion the expansion of vocabulary of
Classical Hebrew in order to provide terms for the teaching of modern
school subjects such as chemistry, physics and biology (Rubin, 1989).

Fishman (1987: p. 409) sees language planning as: “authoritative

allocation of resources to the attainment of language status and language
corpus goal, whether in connection with new functions that are aspired
to, or in connection with old functions that need to be discharged more

47
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

adequately.” “Language planning refers to deliberate efforts to influence

the behaviour of others with respect to the acquisition, structure, or
functional allocation of their language codes (Cooper 1989: p. 45).”
Reagan (2006: p.157) opines that language planning is an “applied
sociolinguistic activity with great potential to function either as a tool
for empowerment and liberation or as a means of oppression and
domination”, and that each of these functions manifests in every sphere
of human life.

The American linguist, Einar Haugen in the late 1950s introduced the
term “language planning.” It refers to all conscious efforts that aim at
changing the linguistic behaviour of a speech community. It can as well
include anything “from proposing a new word to a new language”
(Haugen, 1987, p. 627). Language planning is sometimes used
interchangeably with language policy. It has been argued that language
policy refers “to the more general linguistic, political and social goals
underlying the actual language planning process” (Deumert, 2003, p.
385).

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Look critically at the arguments presented above and give your own
definition of language planning.

3.2 The Nature of Language Policy

Emenanjo (2002) describes a policy as a general declaration of intent,

for the implementation of a mission statement about a vision for
something, about anything, and for everything. A policy may or may not
be found in any corpus juris, text(s) or document(s). In relation to this
perspective, definition of policy, a language policy is about human
language, its status, its use and usage and its overall management in any
polity. It is a policy about who uses or adopts what language, when,
where, why and how, in any polity no matter its ethnic or racial make-
up…

Language policy is thus a deliberate effort to mandate specific language

behaviours in particular contexts. Such policies can, and do, involve
decision about language development and allocation, language use,
language rights, and a host of other important issues. This simply means
an official and deliberate allocation of roles to languages in a
multilingual speech community.

48
ENG 454 MODULE 2

3.3 Stages in Language Planning

Bamgbose (1983a) refers to stages in language planning as fact-finding,

policy decision, implementation and evaluation, and he sees this as ‘the
canonical model of language planning’; suggesting that it needs to be
revised to reflect the reality of language development activities in many
developing countries where ‘planning’ sometimes takes place without
real planning.

Conversely, Adegbija (1989) proposes five stages in language planning.

First, there is the spadework and preparation stage (during which fact-
finding is done and policy formulated). Second, there is the mass
mobilisation and enlightenment stage, during which the plan is
advertised, the citizenry is educated about it and familiarised with it.
Third, there is the implementation stage, which handles the details of the
language policy. Fourth, there is the evaluation stage, a continuous
process for monitoring the effectiveness, problems and prospects of the
policy from the perspectives of the set objectives. Finally, there is the
review stage, also seen as a continuous process in which changes,
informed by findings in the evaluation stage, are effected from time to
time as the situation demands. He identifies the following contexts as
pertinent to managers of language resources: the language context, the
socio-political context, the psychological context, the
administrative/governmental context, and the educational.

It has been argued that, in multilingual environments, at least the

following aspects of public life and domains of language use deserve
special language planning attention: the national languages, the
languages of nations or official languages, the languages of intercultural
or interethnic communication, the languages of international
communication, and, most importantly the languages of education
(Adegbija, 2004, p. 187).

In the Nigerian context, the language planning for education has

received most attention, perhaps because this domain also affects other
domains for which language planning is required. For instance, it
impinges on language planning for official language use or nationism, a
role which English has played in Nigeria since colonial times. Attempts
have also been made to cultivate Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo into national
languages through language planning, but those attempts lag in
implementation and have not enhanced the success of the policy. As far
as planning for international purposes is concerned, the policy has not
overtly stated so, but English has naturally played and still plays this
role. Language policy in Nigeria has not also overtly indicated planning
for inter-ethnic communication, but major community languages have
served in such a capacity in most States.

49
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

Thus, Ufomata (1999: p. 315) has argued that:

If indeed, linguistic ecology refers to the

communicative behaviours of a group, as
well as the physical and social contexts in
which their communication occurs … then
Nigeria presents a classic example of a
complex linguistic ecology. The number of
languages spoken within Nigeria is put at
between 150 and 427. With such an
extremely complex multilingualism,
policies need to be carefully formulated to
take into account language attitudes of
members of the community. They also
need to take cognizance of all the
functions, including symbolic ones that
various languages perform within that
society.

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit has examined the preliminaries of LPP, the different stages, its
scope and how it can be reflected. It has shown you that language policy
is a deliberate effort, based on the survey of language planners. The next
unit will focus on the different aspects of language planning and policy.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt:

• the definition of LPP

• the stages of LPP
• the nature of Language Policy.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Differentiate between language planning and language policy.

2. Examine the stages of LPP.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adegbija, E. (2004). “Language Policy and Planning in Nigeria.”

Current Issues in Language Planning, 5(3): 181-246.

Adekunle, M. (1995). English in Nigeria: Attitudes, Policy and

Communicative Realities. New Englishes: A West African
50
ENG 454 MODULE 2

Perspective. Ayo Bamgbose, Ayo Banjo & Andrew Thomas

(Eds). Nigeria: Mosuro Press.

Cobarrubias, J. (1983). “Ethical Issues in Status Planning.” In: J.

Cobarrubias & J.A. Fishman (Eds). Progress in Language
Planning: International Perspectives. (pp 41-85). Mouton
Publishers.

Cooper, R. L. (1989). Language Planning and Social Change. New

York: Cambridge University Press.

Deumert, A. (2004). “Language Planning.” In: R. Mesthrie (Ed.).

Introducing Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University
Press.

Du Plessis, T. (1994/2006). “From monolingual to bilingual higher

education: The repositioning of historically Afrikaans-
medium universities in South Africa.” Language Policy, 5(1):
87-113.

Emenanjo, E. N. (2002). “Language Policies and Cultural Identities.”

Paper Presented at World Congress on Language Policies,
Barcelona, 16-20 April. Available online at
www.linguapax.org/congres/plenaries/Emanege.html

Fishman, J. (1974). Advances in Language Planning. The Hague:

Mouton.

Gorman, T. P. (1970). Language in education in Eastern Africa.

Nairobi, Kenya: Oxford University Press.

Haarmann, H. (1990). “Language planning in the light of a general

theory of language: A methodological framework.” IJSL,
86:103-26.

Haugen, E. (1966) Language conflict and language planning: the case

of Modern Norwegian. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.

Haugen, E. (1968). Language Planning in Modern Norway. In: Fishman

(Ed.). pp. 673-687.

Karam, F. X. (1974). “Toward a definition of language planning.” In: J.

A. Fishman (Ed.). Advances in Language Planning. The
Hague: Mouton.

51
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

Kloss, H. (1969). Research Possibilities on Group Bilingualism: A

Report. Quebec: International Center for Research on
Bilingualism.

Nahir, M. (1984). Language Planning Goals: A Classification. Language

Problems and Language Planning, 8: 294-327.

Reagan, T. (2006).The Explanatory Power of Critical Language Studies:

Linguistics with an Attitude. Critical Inquiry in Language
Studies, 3,(1): 1-22.

Ricento, T.K. & Hornberger, N. H. (1996). “Unpeeling the Onion:

Language Planning and Policy and the ELT Profession.” TESOL
Quarterly, 30 (3):401-425.

Richard, B. Jr. & Bauldorf, B. (1997). “Foundations of Language Policy

and Planning.” Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 14: 82-89.

Robert, B. K. & Richard, B. B. (1997). Language Planning from

Practice to Theory. Multilingual Matters.

Romaine, S. (2005). “Language Contact Studies.” In: Ammon, U.,

Dittmar, N., Mattheier, K. J., and Trudgill, P. (Eds).
Sociolinguistics-Soziolinguistik. An International Handbook of
the Science of Language and Society. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
pp. 49-58.

Stewart, W. A. (1968). Sociolinguistic Typology of Multilingualism.

Readings in the Sociology of Language. J. Fishman. (Ed). The
Hague: Mouton Publishers.

Trudgill, P. (2003). A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Ufomata, T. (1999). “Major and Minor Languages in Complex

Linguistic Ecologies: the Nigerian experience.” International
Journal of Educational Development. 19, 315–322.

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ENG 454 MODULE 2

UNIT 2 DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF LANGUAGE

PLANNING AND POLICY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Different Aspects of Language Planning and Policy
3.1.1 Language-in-Education
3.2 Process of Language Planning and Policy
3.3 Spheres of LPP
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit (unit one), you learnt the definitions, stages and
nature of language planning and policy. This unit describes aspects,
process and spheres of language planning and policy.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define aspects of language policy and planning

• describe the process of language planning
• discuss the spheres of language planning and policy
• identify language choice with aspects of LPP.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Different Aspects of Language Planning and Policy

3.1.1 Language-in-Education

One of the aspects of LPP is language-in-education. Ingram (1990: p.

53) defines language-in-education as the ideals, goals and content of
language policy that can be achieved within realisable extent, within the
educational system.

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ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

Liddicoat (2004:155) has observed that:

Even though language policy documents do refer to questions of

method, few academic studies of language planning and policy have
treated method as a specific instance of language-in-education planning.
A notable exception is the work of Kaplan and Baldauf (1997, p. 2002),
who divide language-in-education policy into a number of areas of
focus:

a) access policy: policies regarding the designation of languages to

be studied and of the levels of education at which language will
be studied;
b) personnel policy: policies regarding teacher recruitment,
professional learning and standards;
c) curriculum and community policy: policies regarding what will
be taught and how the teaching will be organised, including the
specification of outcomes and assessment instruments;
d) methods and materials policy: policies regarding prescriptions of
methodology and set texts for language study;
e) resourcing policy: policies regarding the level of funding to be
provided for languages in the education system; and
f) evaluation policy: policies regarding how the impact of language
in education policy will be measured and how the effectiveness
of policy implementation will be gauged.

So far, in Nigeria, sections of the National Policy on Education and the

1999 Constitution is the only language policy document in circulation.
This means that Nigeria is yet to fashion out a workable language
policy.

3.1.2 Language Choice

Language choice is another aspect of LPP. What is language choice?

Fitch and Hopper (1983:115-6) observe that:

(a) language choice decisions are often emotional to participants in

conversations and such choices play a role in group inclusion;
(b) language choice is primarily used to include or exclude others,
and more often the latter;
(c) language choice decisions often evoke strong evaluative and
emotional reactions;
(d) attitude towards the language choice decision of others often take
the form of cultural and linguistic stereotypes.

Language choice could be examined both at individual and societal

levels.

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ENG 454 MODULE 2

Individual Level of Language Choice

Every individual considers their competence in the various languages in

their choice of language. Therefore, there is a conscious effort and
decision to choose a language that is very suitable for every occasion
and situation, while also taking into consideration the attitude of the
addressee or interactant to the language he/she can speak. Adegbija
(2004) argues that at individual level of choosing a language variety, the
concept of ‘language choice’ is typically and frequently applied in
sociolinguistic literature in multilingual contexts. Scotton and Ury
(1977), cited in Adegbija (2004), observe that multilingual individuals
do evaluate communicative situations thereby choosing amongst
available codes on the account of intelligibility, semantic needs,
sociolinguistic norm and other factors.

There exist several studies/researches on the choice of language in

certain communicative situations. For example, Fergusson (1959)
identifies three factors that are crucial determinants of language choice
in a multilingual context. These are:

(a) the social group to which one belongs (education, for instance,
affects one’s social standing and normally has a remarkable
impact on language usage);
(b) the situation in which one finds oneself while the communication
is occurring (language usage at a funeral, for instance, is different
from language usage at a birthday party);
(c) the topic one is discussing (most topics have their distinct
registers).

At the micro-level, Milroy’s (1980) study of social networks in Belfast

reveals that occupational affiliations and family ties can have a
remarkable impact on the individual language choice.

Using data from ethnographic studies of the use of French and English
in Ontario and Quebec (Canada) in a variety of settings (hospital,
factory, school, and so on.) over a period of 12 years (1978–1990),
Heller (1992) describes language choice as a political strategy,
especially as a strategy of ethnic mobilisation. She further states that
code switching must be understood in terms of individual
communicative repertoires and community speech economies,
particularly as these are tied to a political economic analysis of the
relationship between the availability and use of linguistic varieties.
Heller (1995) writes that individuals use language choices and code-
switching to collaborate with or resist symbolic domination.

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ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

Lanca et al. (1994) investigate language use among 103 Portuguese

immigrants or first generation Canadians of Portuguese descent who
completed a questionnaire in their preferred language (English, French,
or Portuguese) to assess their modes of acculturation, self reported
ethnic identity, self-esteem, individualistic and collectivistic tendencies,
and self-reported competence in speaking and reading English, French,
and Portuguese. The results of the research indicated that language
preference was associated with ethnic identity.

Kasuya (1998) examines the degree of parents’ consistency in their

language choice and the promotion of their children's active
bilingualism and kinds of discourse strategies Japanese-speaking parents
provide when children use English (the societal language). The result of
the study reveals that Japanese parent's consistency in using Japanese
with the child appeared to be related to the child's choice of Japanese
and in addition, a discourse strategy whereby parents made their
preference for the use of Japanese quite explicit, had the highest success
rate in relation to the child’s subsequent choice of Japanese

3.2 The Process of Language Planning

Haugen (1966, 1989) writes that the process of language planning

consists of four stages:

1. Selection
2. Codification
3. Elaboration
4. Implementation

Language planning activities begin with selection, which means

preference for a language or its varieties among others, and promoting
the preferred one. Language policy is a deliberate effort to mandate
specific language behaviours in particular contexts. Such policies can,
and do, involve decisions about language development and allocation,
language use, language rights, and a host of other important issues. This
simply means allocation of roles and functions to languages in a
multilingual speech community. For instance, English has been
allocated official functions in Nigeria, since it is used in all
government/official transactions, in spite of the fact that the country has
about 400 languages. Thus, English represents the norm that has been
selected and accepted. Wardhaugh (2006: p. 34) points out that “the
chosen norm inevitably becomes associated with power and the rejected
alternatives with lack of power. Not surprisingly, it usually happens that
a variety associated with the elite is chosen.”

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ENG 454 MODULE 2

Codification refers to the standardisation process whereby that language

has been codified to some extent. Thus, the language has been reduced
to writing in the form of an accepted orthography/letters of the alphabet,
accepted rules for the use of grammar, pronunciation, syntax,
dictionaries, primers and a few literatures. This means that, to a large
extent, there is an agreement about what is acceptable and what is not in
the language. Thus, it brings together competing orthographies, and one
is eventually picked as a standard or frame of reference. Again, this
represents the norm. A standardised variety of a language can be used as
the identity of the speakers and can also differentiate between the High
status and Low status languages.

Elaboration of the vocabulary and functions follows the first and second
steps. This means going beyond everyday usage to do direct translations,
borrow, coin and accommodate new words, expressions and
terminologies in that language, especially in the fields of science and
technology. It would also involve “the development of pedagogical
materials for all levels of formal education” (Wolff, 2000, p. 334).

The final stage is the implementation of the first three stages in the
process. How does this take place? Is it immediate or gradual? This
stage will determine, to a large extent, how these changes will affect
language use in a speech community. For instance, if government
creates a lot of awareness by promoting and sponsoring such changes,
thereby enhancing the prestige and status and also giving official
recognition to this stage, it should be successful.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Which of the aspects of LPP is the most problematic in a country like

Nigeria?

3.3 Spheres of LPP

Reagan (2006) states that language policies are reflected in the

following:

1. the political sphere: the language of political debate and

discourse, etc;
2. the judicial sphere: the language of law, as well as the language
used by the police and courts;
3. the religious sphere: the language used for worship, as well as the
language in which key religious texts are written;
4. the cultural sphere;
5. the commercial and economic sphere; the language of business
and industry;

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ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

6. the educational sphere: the language of instruction, additional

language studied by pupils; and
7. the interpersonal and familial sphere: the language used in the
home, with relatives, and so on.

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit has examined the aspects, process and spheres of language
planning and policy. The next unit will focus on the different objectives,
goals, ideologies and types of language planning and policy.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt:

• scholars opinions about the different aspects of LPP

• the spheres of LPP are reflected in different segments such as
political, economic, and so on,
• Haugen’s (1966, 1989) process of LPP is central to planning.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Examine Haugen’s (1966, 1989) process of LPP and discuss how this
can be applied in Nigeria.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adegbija, E. (2004). “Language Policy and Planning in Nigeria”.

Current Issues in Language Planning, 5(3):181-246.

Cobarrubias, J. (1983). “Ethical Issues in Status Planning”. In: J.

Cobarrubias & J.A. Fishman (Eds). Progress in language
planning: International perspectives. (pp 41-85.). Mouton
Publishers.

Cooper, R. L. (1989). Language Planning and Social Change. New

York: Cambridge University Press.

Deumert, A. (2004). “Language Planning”. In: R. Mesthrie (Ed.).

Introducing Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University
Press.

Haarmann, H. (1990). “Language Planning in the Light of a General

Theory of Language: A Methodological Framework”. IJSL,
86:103-26.

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ENG 454 MODULE 2

Haugen, E. (1966). Language conflict and language planning: the case

of Modern Norwegian. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.

Haugen, E. (1968). Language planning in modern Norway. In: J.A.

Fishman (Ed.). Readings in the Sociology of Language.( pp 673-
687).The Hague: Mouton.

Heller, M. (1995). “The Politics of Code-switching and Language.”

Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Matters, 13: 123-142.

Kaplan, R. B. & Baldauf, R. B. Jnr. (1997). Language Planning: From

Practice to Theory. Clevedon, UK : Multilingual Matters.

Kaplan, R. B. & Baldauf, R. B. Jnr. (2002). Language and Language-

in- Education Planning in the Pacific Basin. Dordrecht: Kluwer.

Kasuya, H. (1998). Determinants of Language Choice in Bilingual

Children: The Role of Input. 2 (3), (November) 327-346.

Kloss, H. (1969). Research Possibilities on Group Bilingualism: A

Report. Quebec: International Center for Research on
Bilingualism.

Liddicoat, A. (2004). “Language Policy and Methodology.” IJES, 4 (1):

153-171.

Milroy, L. (1980). Language and Social Networks. (2nd ed.). Oxford:

Blackwell.

Nahir, M. (1984). “Language Planning Goals: A

classification.”Language Problems and Language Planning, 8:
294-327.

Reagan, T. (2006). “The Explanatory Power of Critical Language

Studies: Linguistics with an Attitude.”Critical Inquiry in
Language Studies, 3 (1): 1-22.

Robert, B. K. & Richard, B. B. (1997). Language planning from

practice to theory. Multilingual Matters.

Ricento, T.K. & Hornberger, N.H. (1996). “Unpeeling the Onion:

Language Planning and Policy and the ELT Profession”.
TESOL Quarterly, 30 (3): 401-425.

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ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

Stewart, W. A. (1968). “Sociolinguistic Typology of Multilingualism”.

Readings in the Sociology of Language. In: J. Fishman. (Ed.).
The Hague: Mouton Publishers.

Trudgill, P. (2003). A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford University

Press.

Wardhaugh, R. (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. (5th ed.).

UK: Blackwell Publishing.

Wolff, H. E. (2003). “Language and Society”. In: Heine, B. and Nurse,

D. (Eds). African Languages: An Introduction. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

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ENG 454 MODULE 2

UNIT 3 OBJECTIVES, GOALS AND IDEOLOGIES OF

LANGUAGE PLANNING AND POLICY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Objectives and Goals of Language Planning and Policy
3.2 Meso Level of Planning
3.3 Ideologies of LPP
3.4 Types of Language Planning Activities
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit is a continuation of the previous one. It takes the discussion on

language planning further by looking at its objectives, types and goals in
addition to its ideologies.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• identify the goals and objectives of language planning

• state the underlying ideologies of language planning that would
enable it to solve language problems
• differentiate between types of language planning activities.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Objectives and Goals of Language Planning and Policy

Cooper (1989:182) observes:

That language planning should serve so many covert goals is not

surprising. Language is the fundamental institution of society, not
only because it is the first institution experienced by the
individual but also because all other institutions are built upon its
regulatory patterns… To plan language is to plan society. A
satisfactory theory of language planning awaits a satisfactory
theory of social change (my emphasis).

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Nahir (1984) earlier suggests specific goals and functions of language

planning with sub-categories. The same scholar later identifies eleven
Language Planning Goals (Nahir, 2003):

1. Language Purification – prescription of usage to preserve the

“linguistic purity,” protect language from foreign influences, and
guard against language deviation from within.
2. Language Revival – the attempt to turn a language with few or no
surviving native speakers back into a normal means of
communications.
3. Language Reform – deliberate change in specific aspects of
language, like orthography, spelling, or grammar, in order to
facilitate use.
4. Language Standardisation – the attempt to garner prestige for a
regional language or dialect, transforming it into one that is
accepted as the major language, or standard language, of a region.
5. Language Spread – the attempt to increase the number of
speakers of one language at the expense of another.
6. Lexical Modernisation – word creation or adaptation.
7. Terminology Unification – development of unified terminologies,
primarily in technical domains.
8. Stylistic Simplification – simplification of language usage in
lexicon, grammar, and style
9. Interlingual Communication – facilitation of linguistic
communication between members of distinct speech
communities.
10. Language Maintenance – preservation of the use of a group’s
native language as a first or second language where pressures
threaten or cause a decline in the status of the language.
11. Auxiliary-Code Standardisation – standardisation of marginal,
auxiliary aspects of language such as signs for the deaf, place
names, or rules of transliteration and transcription.

The table below provides an overview of some of the types of

objectives, goals and functions to be found in language planning.

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Summary of Language Planning Goals

Macro Level Alternative Formulations Examples

Language Purification
External purification
Internal purification
Language Revival Language revival Hebrew
Restoration
Language regenesis
Language revival
Revitalisation
Revival
Language reform Turkish
Language standardisation Spelling and script
standardisation Swahili
Language spread
Lexical Modernisation Term planning
Swedish
Terminological Discourse planning
Interlingual communication

Worldwide IC
Auxiliary languages
English LWC
Regional IC Regional identity
Regional LWC National identity
Cognate languages IC

Language Maintenance
Dominant LM
Ethnic LM
Auxiliary code standardisation

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Considering the peculiar multilingual situation in Nigeria, what would

you recommend as language planning goals?

3.2 Meso Level Planning

This level, according to Kaplan and Bauldorf (1997:240), is more

limited in scope and is often aimed at a specific group within the
society, such as schools, libraries, and so on.

Administration: Training and certification of officials and professionals

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ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

Administration: Legal provision for one

The Legal Domain

Education equity: Pedagogical issues
Education equity: Language rights/identity
Education elite formation/control
Mass communication
Educational equity: Language handicap
Social equity: Minority language access
Interlanguage translation: Training for professions, business, law, and so
on.

3.3 Ideologies of Language Planning

Both implicit and explicit goals and objectives of LPP are ideological.
There are fundamental and inherent ideologies related to LPP activities.
Tollesfon (1991: pp 207-208) explains the inherent ideology in LPP
activities as follows:

Language policy is a form disciplinary power.

Its success depends on in parts on the ability of
the state to structure the institutions of society
the differentiation of the individuals into
“insiders” and “outsiders”… To a large degree,
this occurs through the close association
between language nationalism. By making
language a mechanism for the expression of
nationalism, the state can manipulate feeling of
security and belonging…the state uses
language policy to discipline and control its
workers by establishing language-based
limitations on education, employment, and
political participation. This is one sense in
which language policy is inherently ideological.

The government authority saddled with the responsibility always

conceives an ideology for such language planning venture. LPP
activities promote several agenda of the government on languages in a
country and their roles. Ideologies therefore, underlie status planning.
Cobarrubias (1983) identifies four ideologies of language planning as:
linguistic assimilation, linguistic pluralism, vernacularisation and
internationalisation.

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ENG 454 MODULE 2

1. Linguistic Assimilation

This is a language ideology which tends to favour monolingual models

of society. It involves the rejection and replacement of other languages
in the society, at least in the public sphere. It tends to encourage a
belief in the public sphere and the superiority of the dominant language
in a society; in practice, it often results in the denial of language rights
of speakers of languages other than the dominant language.

2. Linguistic Pluralism

However, the ideology of linguistic pluralism emphasises the language

rights of minority groups and, in general also supports language
diversity in society. It exists in a variety of forms, ranging from
relatively weak toleration of diversity to strong support for multiple
languages. It also supports granting of official status to two or more
languages in a society. Examples of country in which official language
status is granted to more than one language include Nigeria – English,
Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba are official languages in Nigeria. It helps to
solve language related problems in developing nations to avoid
domination of less powerful languages by powerful ones.

3. Vernacularisation

This ideology entails the selection of one or more indigenous

languages in a society to serve in an official capacity. The selection
involves language engineering which focuses on educational sphere
with the production of textbooks, curricular materials, matriculation
examinations, and so on.

4. Internationalisation

It involves the selection of a language of wider communication, such

as English or French, for use as a country’s official language. This is a
common practice in developing nations/countries and it reflects the
colonial past experiences of a nation, for example Nigeria and other
African nations.

3.4 Types of Language Planning

Kloss (1968 & 1969) distinguishes two types of language planning:

status and corpus planning. Recently, two more dimensions of language
planning have been identified, and these are prestige and acquisition
planning.

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ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

Status Planning

Status planning refers to the allocation of new functions to a language. It

is primarily undertaken by administrators, politicians and people in the
government authority. Language planners distinguish many functions of
a given language. Such functions are as follows. Stewart (1968) outlines
10 functional domains in language planning.

1. Official - An official language “function[s] as a legally

appropriate language for all politically and culturally
representative purposes on a nationwide basis.” Often, the official
function of a language is specified in a constitution. For instance,
English in Nigeria.
2. Provincial - A provincial language functions as an official
language for a geographic area smaller than a nation, typically a
province or region (for example Hausa in core Northern Nigeria,
Yoruba in the Southwest and French in Quebec).
3. Wider communication - A language of wider communication is a
language that may be official or provincial, but more importantly,
function as a medium of communication across language
boundaries within a nation (for example Hindi in India; Swahili
language in East Africa, Pidgin in Nigeria).
4. International - An international language functions as a medium
of communication across national boundaries (for example
English, and to some extent, Yoruba in Republic of Benin and
Hausa in Ghana).
5. Capital - A capital language functions as a prominent language in
and around a national capital (for example Dutch and French in
Brussels).
6. Group - A group language functions as a conventional language
among the members of a single cultural or ethnic group (for
example Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo in Nigeria and Hebrew amongst
the Jews).
7. Educational - An educational language functions as a medium of
instruction in primary and secondary schools on a regional or
national basis (for example English in Nigeria, Urdu in West
Pakistan and Bengali in East Pakistan).
8. School subject - A school subject language is a language that is
taught as a subject in secondary school or higher education (for
example French is taught in Nigerian schools as a subject).
9. Literary - A literary language functions as a language for literary
or scholarly purposes (for example Ancient Greek).
10. Religious - A religious language functions as a language for the
ritual purposes of a particular religion (for example Latin for the
Latin Rite within the Roman Catholic Church and Arabic for the
reading of the Qur'an).

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ENG 454 MODULE 2

Corpus Planning

1. Graphisation refers to development, selection and modification of

scripts and orthographic conventions for a language. The use of
writing in a speech community can have lasting sociocultural
effects, which include easier transmission of material through
generations, communication with larger numbers of people, and a
standard against which varieties of spoken language are often
compared.
2. Standardisation is the process by which one variety of a language
takes precedence over other social and regional dialects of a
language. This variety comes to be understood as supra-dialectal
and the ‘best’ form of the language. The choice of which
language takes precedence has important societal consequences,
as it confers privilege upon speakers whose spoken and written
dialect conforms closest to the chosen standard. The standard that
is chosen as the norm is generally spoken by the most powerful
social group within the society, and is imposed upon the less
powerful groups as the form to emulate.
3. Modernisation is a form of language planning that occurs when a
language needs to expand its resources to meet functions.
Modernisation often occurs when a language undergoes a shift in
status, such as when a country gains independence from a
colonial power or when there is a change in the language
education policy. The most significant force in modernisation is
the expansion of the lexicon, which allows the language to
discuss topics in modern semantic domains. Language planners
generally focus on creating new lists and glossaries to describe
new technical terms, but it is also necessary to ensure that the
new terms are consistently used by the appropriate sectors within
society.

Acquisition Planning

Acquisition planning involves a national, state or local government

system aims and goals to influence aspects of a language such as its
status, distribution and literacy through education. Acquisition planning
is integrated into a larger language planning process in which the
statuses of languages are evaluated, corpuses are revised and the
changes are finally introduced to society on a national, state or local
level through education systems. Government, communities, non-
governmental organisations or ministries of education’s efforts to spread
and promote the learning of a language are instances of acquisition
planning. The activities of institutions such as the British Council, the
Goethe Institute are general towards promoting the learning of English
and German respectively. The Bureau of Education and Cultural Affairs,

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ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

Office of English Language Programs also promotes the learning and

use of Standard American English (SAE). Maori community in New
Zealand promotes the acquisition of Maori.

Prestige Planning

Prestige planning is psychological. It is directed towards preparing a

favorable psychological background which is very significant for the
success of language planning activities (Haarmann, 1990). Prestige
planning is prerequisite for status planning. A low prestige language or
variety that is targeted for high prestige needs prestige planning.

Since it is not possible to get an ideal speech community situation where

the population would be linguistically and culturally homogeneous, it is
crucial that language planning, resources and policies are adequately
managed in order to achieve the best results. Therefore, for a workable
and successful language policy, Adekunle (1995:66) suggests the
following, among others:

(i) correct information about the sociolinguistic habits of the target

population and knowledge of the social basis for language policy
(ii) the involvement and support of the target population in decision-
making
(iii) a clear articulation of the objectives of the policy
(iv) a thorough examination of the method and processes of
implementation, its probable consequences and possible remedies
(v) provision for the evaluation of its success.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The objectives, goals and ideologies of language policy and planning

point to the fact that it is crucial that language planning, resources and
policies are adequately managed in order to achieve the best results.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit has discussed imperatives in language planning, which are

essentially achievable objectives, laudable goals and ideologies, and
proper implementation in order to achieve a successful language policy.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Having gone through the unit, briefly explain the different types of
language planning and their relevance to successful language
management.

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ENG 454 MODULE 2

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adekunle, M. (1995). English in Nigeria: Attitudes, Policy and

Communicative Realities. New Englishes: A West African
Perspective. Ayo Bamgbose, Ayo Banjo & Andrew Thomas
(Eds). Nigeria: Mosuro Press.

Cooper, R. L. (1989). Language Planning and Social Change. New

York: Cambridge University Press.

Cobarrubias, J. (1983). “Ethical Issues in Status Planning.” In: J.

Cobarrubias & J.A. Fishman (Eds). Progress in Language
Planning: International Perspectives. Mouton Publishers. 41-85.

Deumert, A. (2004). Language Planning. In: R. Mesthrie (Ed.).

Introducing Sociolinguistis. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University
Press.

Haarmann, H. (1990). Language Planning in the Light of a General

Theory of Language: A Methodological Framework. IJSL,
86, 103-26.

Haugen, E. (1966) Language Conflict and Language Planning: The

Case of Modern Norwegian. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.

Haugen, E. (1968). “Language Planning in Modern Norway.” In: J.

Fishman (Ed.). (pp 673-687).

Kaplan, B. R. & Baldauf, R. B. Jr. (1997). Language Planning from

Practice to Theory. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Kloss, H. (1969). Research Possibilities on Group Bilingualism: A

Report. Quebec: International Center for Research on
Bilingualism.

Nahir, M. (1984). “Language Planning Goals: A classification”.

Language Problems and Language Planning, 8, 294-327.

Nahir, M. (2003). “Language Planning Goals: A Classification.”

Sociolinguistics: The Essential Readings. C. B. Paulston & G. R.
Tucker (Eds). Oxford: Blackwell.

Robert, B. K. & Richard, B. B. (1997). Language Planning from

Practice to Theory. Multilingual Matters.

69
ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

Ricento, T.K., & Hornberger, N.H. (1996). “Unpeeling the Onion:

Language Planning and Policy and the ELT Profession”. TESOL
Quarterly, 30 (3):401-425.

Stewart, W. A. (1968). “Sociolinguistic Typology of Multilingualism.”

Readings in the Sociology of Language. J. Fishman. (Ed.). The
Hague: Mouton Publishers.

Tollefson, J. W. (1991). Planning Language Planning Inequality.

London: Longman.

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ENG 454 MODULE 2

UNIT 4 LANGUAGE PLANNING AND POLICY ISSUES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Stages of Language Planning
3.2 Framework of Language Policies in Africa
3.3 Types of Language Policies
3.4 Challenges of Language Planning Policy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit is a continuation of the previous one. It takes the discussion on

language planning further by looking at its objectives, types and goals in
addition to its ideologies.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• identify the stages and types of language planning

• discuss the framework of language planning that would enable it
to solve language problems
• highlight the challenges of LPP.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Stages of Language Planning

Language planning issues (status and corpus planning) are often

discussed theoretically in the Sociolinguistics class. It would be
interesting to have a practical and field experience of the process of
language codification/graphisation. It is also often difficult to locate the
roles of the linguist in a nation’s socio-political affairs as adviser and
expert on language related matters. Language planning transcends mere
description of language use in contexts and genres, for example, in the
media.

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Ideally, language planning would take place in stages as follows:

(i) Sociolinguistic Survey: this involves the gathering of facts on the

number of languages available, their functions, the orthographies,
the challenges of teaching them, their standards and so on.
(ii) Setting of Goals: this involves a definition of what one hopes to
achieve by teaching these languages and the strategies that have
been put in place for teaching them. Also, the teaching outcome
has to be predicted
(iii) The Actual Implementation: this looks at the challenges faced
while the languages are being taught. Do the children like it? Do
teachers have enough materials? How are the children tested?
(iv) Getting Feedback: this is mainly gotten from the teachers either
through questionnaires on achievements and challenges of
teaching that language, the teachers’ observations, number of
teachers available, students’ performances and general reactions.

3.2 The Framework of Language Policies in the West

African Region

A language policy involves determining, with precision, the

methodology and the means and resources to be used. But for
successful implementation, it is essential to make good institutional
arrangements and laws and to take other measures to enable the
decisions related to the language policies to be successfully
implemented. Thus, in language planning, policy and decision making
in West Africa, three foci are involved.

• The Individual: very often language planning is largely the result

of efforts by individuals like linguists, researchers and teachers,
outside the framework of formal organisations.
• Formal Organisation or Institutions: decisions about language
planning and education matters are often influenced or
determined by formal organisations or institution, religions,
churches, schools, professional associations, printing and
publishing houses and companies. Those decisions concern both
status and corpus planning.
• The Government: many decisions concerning language status,
language use and usage are initiated by governments. They are
formulated by government agencies and made prescriptive by the
appropriate political and administrative authorities.

In our analysis of the language situation and language policy in the West
Africa Region, we are naturally inclined to focus on public policy,
which is, as Dye and Robey’s (1983) point out, “finding out what
governments do, why they do it, and what difference it makes.”

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However, a balanced and relevant analysis should include what

individuals, pressure groups, formal organisations and institutions also
do, why they do it, and what the outcome of the action is with reference
to the language situation in West Africa.

3.3 Types of Language Policies

Noss (1971) identifies three types of policy, namely:

(i) Official language policy: this relates to the languages

reorganised by the government for specific purposes – for
example in Nigeria we have Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba while in
Ghana we have the six government sponsored languages.
(ii) Educational Language Policy: this relates to the languages
recognised by education authorities for use as media of
instruction and subjects of study at the existing levels of
education for example, the Nigerian 1989 National Policy on
Education.
(iii) General Language Policy: this relates to unofficial government
recognition or tolerance of languages used in mass
communication, business and contact with foreigners. For
example in Nigeria and Ghana, families use the indigenous
languages in order to preserve their cultures. Also in Nigeria,
Nigerian Pidgin English and Standard English are used in the
mass media. Politicians also find the use of indigenous languages
useful in their campaigns.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

From what you have read so far, which type of policy exists in Nigeria?

3.4 Challenges of Language Policy and Planning in Nigeria

1. Marginalisation of Minority Languages

In the various attempts at language policy and planning in Nigeria,

recognition has been accorded to the major languages, and to some
extent, languages of state importance, to the detriment of those in the
minority category. Such overt recognition includes the provision in
section 1, paragraph 8 of the national policy on education (1981) that in
the interest of national unity, every child should learn one of the three
major languages in addition to his own. This recognition is also
entrenched in the 1979 Constitution in section 51 also 91 and repeated in
section 55 and 97 of the 1999 Constitution that:

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(iv) The business of the national assembly shall be conducted in

English and in Hausa, Ibo and Yoruba when adequate
arrangements have been made therefore.
(v) The business of the House of Assembly shall be conducted in
English, but the house may, in addition to English, conduct the
business of the house in one or more other languages spoken in
the state as the house may by resolution approve.
(vi) Ethnic loyalty of Nigeria’s minority language speakers:
governments’ pronouncements with regard to the status of the
three major languages have awakened the language loyalty or
ethnic loyalty of Nigeria’s minority language speakers. They
have risen to resist what they regard as attempts to make them
socially, economically and politically subservient to the speakers
of the dominant languages. It has been argued (Beardsmore,
1980) that next to religion, language loyalty overrides all other
questions that impinge on Nigerian life, uniting conflicting
ideologies and drawing together social classes with contradictory
interests.
(vii) Unstable Government: the incessant cabinet reshuffle in Nigeria
has made it difficult for a lasting decision to be made concerning
the language policy in Nigeria as language planners come and go
with each new regime.
(viii) Non-Implementation of Language Policy: up till now, the
constitutional provision for the use of the three major languages
in the National Assemblies has not been implemented. This has
been partly attributed to the abrupt interruption of democratic rule
by the 1983 military take-over but more importantly, this lack of
will to implement the provision arises from the circumstances in
which it was enacted. It reads: “Government shall promote the
learning of indigenous languages” section 19(4).
(ix) Also, the provision in the national policy of education that every
Nigerian child should be encouraged to learn one of the major
languages in addition to his own has not been implemented. This
might not be unconnected with the belief of the minority speakers
that the recommendation is an imposition. Thus, non-
implementation is a way to certify their opposition.
(x) Minority languages are not developed: many of the minority
languages craving for a place in the language policy are not
developed in terms of being codified, as such, there are no
textbooks and teachers for such languages.
(xi) Lack of funds to carry out a quantitative and qualitative language
survey in
Nigeria.

There is the need to know the actual number of languages and dialects
that we have in the country in order for language planners to make

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authentic recommendations but the government has not given attention

to this aspect of our national affairs.

(xii) Poor media input in language matters: Sometimes ago, it was

customary for newscasters on national television to symbolically
greet their viewers “goodnight” in the three major Nigerian
languages at the end of the 9 o’clock network news. Today, this
practice has been abolished because the media fell to the
pressures from speakers of minority languages.

The probable way forward for Nigeria, according to Bamgbose (1992) is

that posing the language problem in Nigeria in terms of a
majority/minority dichotomy is an exaggeration because there is no
justification for such a dichotomy, due to state creation, which has
thrown several languages into prominence. Thus, we will suggest that
speakers of other languages like Edo, Somaika, Egun, Okun, Nupe,
Igala, Ijaw, should encourage their children to study these languages so
that first, the languages will not suffer language death; and in the future,
these children can develop the languages that are not yet codified or
standardised.

In addition, scholars, linguists and educationists should shift their focus

away from a concern with the problems and prospects of the
implementation of the language provisions of the 1979 Constitution and
of the national policy on education as revised in 1981, to drawing the
attention of the Nigerian government to the need for a consciously and
systematically drawn language policy.

Comparing Nigerian and Ghanaian Language Planning Efforts, one

would observe that, although both countries have made concerted efforts
to have a deliberate language policy, there is no general language policy.
However, the situation in Ghana as regards government’s interest in the
indigenous languages is better than that of Nigeria because of the
existence of the nine government-sponsored languages. In both
countries, nonetheless, implementation of the language policies is a
major challenge.

While Nigeria has spelt out in the NPE (in theory) that the use of
indigenous languages in the early stage of primary education would be
encouraged, Ghana has completely abolished the use of their indigenous
languages in education.

From the outset, Ghana had the British lay a solid foundation for the use
of the indigenous languages as media of instruction at the lower primary
level…

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4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit has dwelt on the stages and the different types of language
planning, the workable framework and challenges of language planning.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit has discussed imperatives in the formulation of language

planning and policy; it has proffered a workable framework and has
examined some challenges that may arise in the process.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

What are the implications of the identified challenges of language

planning in Nigeria?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Bamgbose, A. (1982/1992). “Standard Nigerian English: Issues of

Identification.” In: B. Kachru (Ed.). The Other Tongue: English
Across Cultures. (2nd ed.). (pp. 148–160).Urbana, IL:
University of Illinois Press, Beardsmore.

B. H. (1980). “Bilingualism in Belgium.” Journal of Multilingual and

Multicultural Development, 1 (2):145-154.

Dye, T. R. & Robey, J. S. (1983). “Politics versus Economic

Development of the Literature on Policy Determination.” In:
Thomas R. Dye & Virginia Grayfields. (Eds). The Determinants
of Public Policy. Lexington: Lexington Books - D. Health 6 Co.
pp.3-l 7.

Noss, R. B. (1971). “Politics and language policy in Southeast Asia.”

Language Sciences, (16): 25-32.

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UNIT 5 PRESTIGE AND MULTIGLOSSIC NATURE OF

LANGUAGES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Prestige of a Language
3.2 Determining Factors of Language Functions
3.2.1 Prestige and Status
3.2.2 Levels of Development
3.2.3 Historical and Political Profile
3.2.4 Institutional Policies and Planlessness
3.2.5 Numerical Strength
3.3 Multiglossic Nature of These Languages
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A language has prestige due to certain functions it performs. The

multiglossic nature of these functions and their relevance are discussed
in this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the term “prestige and status of a language”

• identify the factors that contribute to the allocation of language
functions in a multilingual society.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Prestige of a Language

The prestige of a language is enhanced by the specific number of

functions it performs in a multilingual context. For example, the English
language in Nigeria and some other countries such as South Africa has a
number of functions, which invariably enhances its prestige and the high
preference for it in certain domains. According to Kachru’s (1996: p. 58)
framework, English has interpersonal, regulative, instrumental and
innovative/imaginative functions. The instrumental function refers to the
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use of English as a symbol of elitism and modernity, as a link language

between speakers of various languages in a multilingual context; the
instrumental function basically is concerned with the use of English in a
country’s educational system; the regulative function concerns its use
for the regulation of conduct in such domain as the legal system and
administration; and the innovative function entails the use of English in
various literary genres.

Adegbija (2004) notes that at the individual level of multilingualism,

the roles and functions assigned to a language in particular contexts is
inseparable from people’s perception and its suitability for the occasion,
the subject matter, the participants, the intention of the communicative
encounter, and interpersonal goals relating to identity, solidarity,
exclusion and committing oneself. In addition, language functions at this
level keep changing; the importance or salience of languages in
particular contexts are neither stable nor fixed.

At the societal level, the functions of language seem fixed. These roles
or functions include nationalist and nationist roles relating to official
language, national language, education language, media language,
language of wider communication (LWC), international functions,
school subject functions and judiciary functions. This is related to
national identity, solidarity and integration and cohesion among the
citizens of a multilingual context and the machinery for the smooth
running of a government (Bamgbose 1991, Ferguson 1959, 1968;
Ferguson & Das Gupta, 1968; Fishman 1967, 1968a, 1972, 1978). In a
multilingual nation such as Nigeria, there is a variety of functional
manifestation at different levels and hierarchies such as in
administration, education, commerce, media, science and technology
(national, regional and local levels). Some languages also graduate in
functions and roles at several levels of usage, societal and individual.
There is “multiglossic” situation, which is a widening extension of
Ferguson’s (1959) “diglossia” (Adegbija, 2004). Hary (2000) defines
“multiglossia” as a linguistic state in which different varieties of a
language exist side by side in a language community and are used under
different circumstances or with various functions. In addition, it may
refer to the use of different varieties of a language for distinctively
separate purposes.

Hellinger and Babman (2001) assert that in Morocco, for example,

Moroccan Arabic is in multiglossic relationship with other varieties of
Arabic: (i) Classical Arabic is used for liturgical purposes, mainly in the
reading of the Holy Koran (ii) Standard Arabic is used in the press, on
the radio and television, and one of the languages of instruction
alongside French. (iii) Educated Moroccan Arabic is used by educated
Moroccans in formal spoken situation.

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3.2 The Determining Factors of Language Functions in a

Multilingual Context

There are factors, which determine language functions in a multilingual

context. These are:

3.2.1 Prestige and Status

The status and prestige of a language determines its roles and functions.
A prestigious language is assigned prestigious functions. During status
planning process, the status of a language might be enhanced or elevated
to perform certain prestigious functions. The functional allocation is
tantamount to the perceived prestige, both at the individual and societal
levels. For example, the English language in Nigeria is a high prestige
language used in education, judiciary, administration, governance,
politics, and foreign relations, etc. This prestige is shown in the Nigerian
National Policy on Education (2004).

The policy provides for:

(i) Mother-Tongue (MT) and\or Language of the Immediate

Community (LIC) as the language of initial literacy at the pre-
primary and junior, primary levels, and of adult and non-formal
education.
(ii) The three major (national) languages - Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba –
as the languages of national culture and integration.
(iii) English - the official language - as the language of formal
literacy, the bureaucracy, secondary and higher education, the
law courts, and so on.
(iv) Selected foreign languages especially, French, and Arabic, as the
languages of international communication and discourse. These
are the languages for which language villages have been set up.

Although unstated, yet implied, the NPE policy/statement on languages:

(i) advocates multilingualism as the national goal

(ii) recognises English as the de facto official language in the
bureaucracy and all tiers of formal education
(iii) treats Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba as potential national languages
which are to be developed and used as L1 and L2 all through the
formal educational system
(iv) regards all Nigerian languages as meaningful media of instruction
in initial literacy, and in life-long and non-formal education.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Determine the prestige and status of your language in your country. Do

this objectively.

3.2.2 Levels of Development

Development here refers to standardisation or modernisation and

graphitisation of a language to determine its functions and prestige.
Other measures such as availability of dictionaries and linguistic
descriptions, lexical expansion, metalanguage or register for various
domains of modern life, school subjects and literature are vital in
enhancing the functions of a language. For example, Yoruba, Igbo,
Hausa and Efik are the only school subjects among many Nigerian
indigenous languages because of their development.

3.2.3 Historical and Political Profile

Languages with a historical and political tradition tend to attract greater

functions than other languages that are endowed as they are. For
example, the international functions of English in the world today is
directly related to the political power-brokering of the combined force or
alliance of the native speakers of English, namely United States of
America, Canada and Britain.

3.2.4 Institutional Policies and Planlessness

Institutional policies of government ministries, organs or agencies,

cultural and religious organisation, language development centers,
universities and other educational institutions and the media contribute
to the determination of language functions in a multilingual nation such
as Nigeria. For example, in Nigeria the institutional support enjoyed by
Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba has increased their salience at the societal level,
at least. And at the individual level, it is stated in the Nigerian National
Policy on Education (cf. NPE, Revised 1985, 2004) that every citizen
should learn at least one of the national languages.

3.2.5 Numerical Strength

The number of speakers of a language enhances its functions and

prestige. This principle, according to Adegbija (2004), seems to be true
in all multilingual nations around the word. In Nigeria, for example, the
national functions allocated to Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba are directly
related to the population of their speakers.

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3.3 Multiglossic Nature of Language Functions

In multilingual Nigeria, languages are categorised into three: exoglossic

languages (English, Arabic and French); the indigenous languages, and
Pidgin or contact language, and there is a hierarchical distribution of
language functions among the various languages in the country at the
federal, state, and local government levels. Besides the function of
English as an official language in every state, other languages also
function, depending on the geographical areas. Other factors which
determine language functions are role-relationship, the speech partners
or interlocutors, the social venue, the interaction type and the medium
(Putz, 1991). For example, English is used as the language of education,
the mass media, international diplomacy, the judiciary, but it is possible
any other language or mother tongue features in these settings.

The interlocutors and nature of their interaction determine this situation.

This shows the chameleon-like nature of languages in a multilingual
context. Nigerian indigenous languages are also employed to express
ethnic solidarity, local interactions, religious worship and media
broadcast on local or state radio and television stations. Multiglossic
nature of language functions is examined in certain domains in Nigeria;
these include government, the media, commerce and religion.

Government

English is a major language in government parastatals as the official

medium of communication. Information, announcements and
documents including instructions are produced first in English, before
some of them are later translated into the regional language or language
of the immediate environment.

Commerce

English is the official language of business and commerce because

transactions are conducted usually in English. However, in some cases
such as in some parts of Delta, Edo, Rivers, Ebonyi, and Bayelsa states
of Nigeria, Nigerian Pidgin is regarded as the official language of
business and commerce in semi-formal contexts.

The Media

The official language of the media in Nigeria is basically English. This

can be seen in the number of newspapers published in English in
Nigeria. Only very few newspapers are published in the indigenous
languages, for example Alaroye; Gaskiya Tafi Kwabo etc. Official

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broadcasts such as Presidential broadcasts are first aired in English

before they are translated into other Nigerian languages.

3.3.4 Religion

The colonialists spoke English and they brought The Bible and other
Christian literature also written in English. Gradually, other forms of
literature were translated into major Nigerian languages. Also, as a
result of Pentecostalism, churches that conduct their services in English
appear to far outnumber the ones using indigenous languages, and they
are more popular, attracting a lot of youths.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Factors that determine language functions equally contribute to the

prestige of that language, while exhibiting the multiglossic nature of
these language functions.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit has examined what contributes to the prestige of a language,

the multiglossic nature of language functions and the several factors that
determine language functions in a multilingual situation.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Write short explanatory notes on:

(i) Exoglossic languages

(ii) The indigenous languages
(ii) Pidgin or contact language.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adegbija, E. (2004). Multilingualism: A Nigerian Case Study. Africa

World Press: New Jersey.

Bamgbose, A. (1991). Language and the Nation: The Language

Question in Sub-Sahara Africa. Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press.

Ferguson, C. A. (1959). “Diglossia.” Word, 15: 325–340.

Ferguson, C. A. (1968). “Language Development.” In: Charles A.

Ferguson & Thom Huebner (1996). Sociolinguistic

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Perspectives: Papers on Language in Society, 1959-1994.

Oxford University Press US, pp 40-47.

Fishman, J. A. (1968a). Language Problems of Developing Nations.

New York: Wiley.

Fishman, J. A. (1968b). Readings in the Sociology of Language. The

Hague, Paris: Mouton.

Fishman, J. A. (1972). The Sociology of Language: An Interdisciplinary

Social Science Approach to Language in Society. Rowley, Mass:
Newbury House.

Fishman, J. A. (1978). Advances in the Study of Societal

Multilingualism. The Hague: Mouton.

Fishman, J. A., Ferguson, C.A. & Das Gupta, J. (Eds). (1968). Language
Problems of Developing Nations. New York/London: Wiley.

Hary, B.H. (2000). Multiglossia in Judeo-Arabic. Brill.

Hellinger, M. & BuBmann, H. (Eds.) (2001). Gender Across

Languages: The Linguistic Representation of Women and Men.
Vol. 1. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamin’s Publishing
Company.

Kachru, B. (1996). Language Research in Multilingual India. The Book

Review XIX (8):14-15.

Kachru, B. B., Kachru, Y., Nelson, C. L. (2006). The Handbook of

World Englishes. Blackwell Publishing Limited.

Putz, M. (1991). “Language maintenance and language shift in the

speech behavior of German-Australian migrants in Canberra.”
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 12 (6):
477-492.

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UNIT 6 OFFICIAL ORTHOGRAPHIES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Orthography
3.2 Standard/Official Orthographies of Nigerian Languages
3.3 Standard Orthographies of Major Nigerian Languages and
Controversies
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A language has recognised orthographies. The standard/official

orthographies of the three major Nigerian languages and their relevance
are discussed in this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the term “orthographies”

• identify the factors that contribute to the standardisation of
orthographies
• highlight the controversies surrounding the standardisation of
these orthographies.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Orthography

The orthography of a language refers to the agreed letters used to

represent the sounds of the language – the letters being collectively
known as the alphabet of the language. The orthography also refers to
the agreed rules for spelling or writing the language. The spelling rules
deal with issues such as capitalisation, punctuation, tone marking, word
division, and compound words (Ohiri-Aniche, 2008). According to
Ezikeojiaku (2002: p. 282):

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Orthography is a very sensitive aspect of

language planning which requires expert
knowledge. A system of orthography for
any language may be described as a way
which the owners of a language choose to
represent letters of the alphabets (sic) of
such a language. It is a graphic system of
representing the sounds of the language.

Because of the recognition of the three major languages—Hausa, Igbo

and Yoruba by the National Policy on Education (1989 & 2004) in
Nigeria, there has been an increase in the production and publication of
educational materials, texts and literature in the three major languages.
However, Hausa and Yoruba scholars and writers have advanced in the
development of teaching and reading materials than their counterparts in
the Igbo language.

This could be traced to the arguments that have overtime arisen on the
standard/official orthographies of some Nigerian languages.

Beyond the linguistic considerations, there are other factors – social,

historical, psychological, and political issues in making decisions about
the system of writing for a language. However linguistically and
technically sound orthography might be, acceptance by the people for
whom it is designed determines its eventual and effective use (Grenoble
& Whaley, 2006). They give important suggestions as follows: (i) the
involvement of local leaders and native speakers must be integrally
involved in the process of developing an orthography, (ii) an
orthography must be acceptable to authorities such as familial or clan
heads and civil leaders who have some sort of influence over the
educational practices of a community, (iii) other factors such as
sociopolitical considerations, ethnolinguistic factors, economic and
technological variables can play important roles in the choice of the
orthography of a language, and (iv) the writing system to adopt at least
one among the four types of writing systems: logographic, alphabetic,
semi-syllabic, and consonantal.

1. Alphabetic writing systems use single symbols to represent

individual phonological segments. In Western Europe, the Roman
and Cyrillic alphabets are common alphabetic systems in use.
2. Consonantal system is a sub-type of alphabetic writing which
uses symbols to represent systems in use.
3. Semi-syllabic writing systems use single symbols to represent
syllables. Brahmi script in India is the oldest of these scripts and
it has spread through Asia. Other developed syllabic scripts

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Cherokee (North America), Vai (India), Djuka (Suriname), and

the Ol Chike syllabary for Santali (India).
4. Logographic systems make use of graphic signs or logograms to
represent words or morphemes. Chinese is the most widely
recognised logographic system today. Japanese and Vietnamese
also make use of logographic symbols borrowed from China.

3.2 Standard/Official Orthographies of Nigerian Languages

Standard/official orthography is a fully developed, time-tested

orthography that is widely used and accepted by the language
community. Standard orthographies are sine qua non in language
planning processes. Without orthographies other aspects of language
engneering or modernisation (material production, metalanguage, and so
on) which are crucial to language planning process seem rather
impossible.

As observed by Emenanjo (1990:91 cited in Adegbija, 2004), only 44

languages among many languages in Nigeria have standard
orthographies: 14 of these were published by the Language
Development Centre, 28 for the Rivers State language under the control
of the Rivers Readers Projects; and four for the Niger State languages;
14 for the former Bendel State languages (now Delta and Edo States).
The Language Development Centre has produced more orthographies
for 33 Nigerian languages in six manuals (Adegbija, 2007). A few
individual and communal efforts, for example Oko-Osanyin
Orthography Project (Adegbija, 1992) have yielded tremendous results
in the production of orthographies for small-group or minority
languages.

This number indicates that many Nigerian indigenous languages are yet
to be standardized, since hitherto developmental attention in Nigeria has
been focused on only Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo, and, at times, on a few
other languages because of their population/size including Edo, Efik,
Fulfulde, Ijaw, Kanuri Tiv. There have been various developments
which are concentrated on these few languages (Adegbija, 2004). For
example, a glossary of technical terminologies for primary schools in
Nigeria; primary school first language curriculum for Hausa, Igbo and
Yoruba designed by the National Educational and Research
Development Council (NERDC 1982/1983) and Braille terminologies
were prepared in Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba (NERDC 1981/1984).

The nexus between mother tongue literacy and orthography has been
identified. Contemporary language literacy programme is fraught with
many challenges and constraints, such as the lack of orthography for a
large number of Nigerian indigenous languages. The prospect for mass

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literacy therefore is not feasible unless the Federal Government of

Nigeria directs its efforts to developing orthography and literature in
many unstandardised indigenous languages (Okedara & Okedara, 1992).
The lack of orthographies of many indigenous Nigerian languages will
definitely deny many people, particularly in the rural communities, a
very significant opportunity to receive literacy education in their first
languages.

Baker (2001) and Cummins (2000) have stated the benefits of literacy in
L1 before L2 as follows: use of a familiar language to teach beginning
literacy facilitates an understanding of sound-symbol or meaning-
symbol correspondence; content area instruction is provided in the L1,
the learning of new concepts is not postponed until children become
competent in the L2; the affective domain, involving confidence, self-
esteem and identity, is strengthened by use of the L1, increasing
motivation and initiative as well as creativity; L1 classrooms allow
children to be themselves and develop their personalities as well as their
intellects, unlike submersion classrooms where they are forced to sit
silently or repeat mechanically, leading to frustration and ultimately
repetition, failure and dropout, etc.

Recent effort by the Centre for Black and African Arts and Civilisation
(CBAAC) is a good venture to harmonize the orthographies for the four
major languages spoken in Cameroun, Benin and Niger Republic. The
core of the harmonisation effort is to reduce the influence of foreign
languages. In the Next Magazine, May 6th, 2011, Professor Tunde
Babawale commented: “It is disturbing to note that African languages
no longer enjoy places of pride in most homes and schools. Children are
encouraged to use foreign language in most homes and our schools also
pejoratively label our indigenous language as vernacular.” Also the
Director, Centre for Advanced Studies of African Society (CASAS),
Kwesi Prah, says: “We must know, incontrovertibly, that without our
languages, we are not going anywhere. Unless we realise that, if we
want to see progress on the African continent, then we must develop our
languages. We must develop our language, orthography; take advantage
of the resource” (2011: p. 34).

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Trace the development of the orthography of your language.

3.3 Standard Orthographies of Major Nigerian Languages

and Controversies

The Igbo language, for example, is constantly plagued by deviations

from the official Igbo (Onwu) orthography. These controversies have

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stalled the development of the language (Emenyonu, 2001). Aniche

(2007) also notes that these deviations are gradually dragging Igbo
orthography into a state of anarchy, because a widely accepted standard
may no longer exist.

Since the beginning of official publications in the language in the 1850s,

three key orthographies – “Standard Alphabet”, the “Africa
Orthography” and the “Official (Oÿnwuÿ) Orthography” – have been
used to write Igbo. In 1973, the Society for the Promotion of Igbo
Language and Culture (SPILC) established the Igbo Standardisation
Committee (ISC), which in no small measure helped in the
standardisation of Igbo orthography until 1990 when both the SPILC
and its ISC were phased out.

Overtime, the “Onwu orthography” – a product of a committee set up

by the then Eastern Region, with Dr. S.E. Onwu, an Igbo indigene as its
head – has assumed the role of the Igbo official orthography and is being
used in government publications, newspapers and the media. Even in the
educational sector, it is approved by the West African Examinations
Council (WAEC), the National Examination Council (NECO) and the
Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB); and is used in the
students’/pupils’ core texts.

The Onwu Orthography is made up of 28 consonant and eight vowel

letters:

A b ch d e f g gb gh gw h ii j k kp kw l m n n nw ny o Q p r s sh t u � v w
yz

However, this orthography too is not without criticisms (in the use of
different symbols and tonal notations in dictionaries) and deviations (in
spelling rules). The SPILC, through the ISC platform, produced the first
volume of its “Recommendations of the Igbo Standardisation
Committee in 1976”, the outcomes of the seminar themed,
“Standardisation of the Igbo Language, Literature and Culture.” These
recommendations, amongst other issues focused on the alphabet,
spelling rules, purism and dialect, borrowing/loan words, tones and
technical vocabulary in Igbo language. Yet, the debates on the standard
orthography for Igbo are still on (Emenyonu, 2001).

The Igbo alphabet and the Yoruba alphabet were introduced about 1842
by the early Christian missionaries. In comparison however, the
standardisation of Yoruba orthography has not spawned any debates,
even though its standardisation does not in any way mean that the
sectional dialects are liable to die. Iconic in the development of Yoruba
orthography is Bishop Samuel Ajayi Crowther who, with other Christian

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missionaries, set the pace for the Yoruba writing system. This writing
system has been revised several times, and the first novel in the Yoruba
language was published in 1928.

The current orthography of Yoruba derives from Bamgbose’s (1965)

study, along with the report of the Yoruba Orthography Committee
(1966). It is still largely similar to the older orthography and it employs
the Latin alphabet modified by the use of the digraph ⟨gb⟩ and certain
diacritics, including the traditional vertical line set under the letters (e ),
(o ), and (s ). In many publications, the line is replaced by a dot (t;),
(Q), and so on.

Yoruba Alphabet

A B D E E F G GB H I J
K L M N O 0 P R S T
U W Y

The orthographical standardisation and harmonisation of Hausa

language did not also cause any rancour. The first phase of Hausa
orthographic standardisation began with Vischer's “Rules for Hausa
Spelling,” and culminated in the 30s. In 1934 the Reverend G.P. Bargery
published his seminal work “A Hausa-English Dictionary and English-
Hausa Vocabulary,” which contains about 40,000 entries and indicates,
for the first time in a consistent manner, vowel length and tonal
structure. The second phase of Hausa standardisation efforts may be
associated with the founding of the Hausa Language Board in 1955.

Its goals were to unify the spelling of Hausa words and loans from other
languages and to be the consultant on all matters regarding the Hausa
language. There was harmonisation of Bamako system used in Niger as
a result of Bamako UNESCO meeting of experts and GASIYA-standard
in Nigeria in 1980. The Nigerian standard was accepted by both
countries (Wolff, 1991).

4.0 CONCLUSION

Orthography, an essential part of standardisation, is a specialist’s

prerogative. Acceptance of this orthography is crucial. Orthography,
once accepted, remains constant.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have examined standardisation efforts and processes

with specific focus on orthographies of some Nigerian languages.

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Identify the features of official orthographies, using relevant examples.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adegbija, E. (1992d). “The Graphization of a Small-Group Language: A

Case Study of Oko.” International Journal of Sociology of
Language, 102: 153-173.

Adegbija, E. (2004). Multilingualism: A Nigerian Case Study. USA,

New Jersey: Africa World Press, Inc.

Adegbija, E. (2007). “Language Policy and Planning in Nigeria.” In:

Kaplan, R.B. (Ed.). Language Planning and Policy in Africa.
Algeria, Cote D'Ivoire, Nigeria.

Baker, C. (2001). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism.

(3rd ed.). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Bamgbose, A. (1965). Yoruba Orthography. Ibadan: Ibadan University

Press.

Cummins, J. (2000). Language, Power and Pedagogy: Bilingual

Children in the Crossfire. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Emenyonu, E. N. (2001). “Achebe and the Problematics of Writing in

Indigenous Languages.” Retrieved from
http://www.kintespace.com/kp_emenyonu.html

Emenanjo, E. N. (1990). Multilingualism, Minority Languages and

Language Policy in Nigeria. Agbor: Central Books
Limited in Collaboration with the Linguistic Society of Nigeria.

Ezikeojiaku, P. A. (2002). “The Role of Government in Indigenous

Language Development in Nigeria: A Micro Study of the Igbo
Speaking States”. In: Perspectives on Applied Linguistics in
Language & Literature. Adebayo Lawal, Ifeoma Isiugo-Abanihe
& Isaac N. Ohia (Eds). Ibadan: Stirling-Horden Publishers.

Okedara, J. T. & Okedara, C. A. (1992). Mother-Tongue Literacy in

Nigeria.World Literacy in the Year 2000. 520: 91-102.

Ohiri-Aniche, C. (2008). “Stemming the tide of centrifugal forces in

Igbo orthography.” Dialect Anthropology, 31:423–436.

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ENG 454 MODULE 2

Grenoble, L. & Whaley, L. (2006). “Orthography.” In: Saving

Languages: An Introduction to Language Revitalization.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 137-159.

Wolff, H. E. (1991). “Standardisation and Varieties of Written Hausa

(West Africa).” Standardisation of National Language,
Symposium on Language Standardisation, 2-3 February.

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MODULE 3

Unit 1 Language Management and Engineering

Unit 2 Language Situation and Language Management
Unit 3 Language Attitude
Unit 4 Minority Language Groups: Plight and Destiny
Unit 5 National Languages: Social, Cultural and Political
Implications

UNIT 1 LANGUAGE MANAGEMENT AND

ENGINEERING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Language Engineering
3.2 Language Management
3.3 Objectives/Strategies of Language Management
3.4 Levels of Language Management
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

You will observe that in the last unit, Module 2 Unit 6, you learnt about
standard orthographies and the controversies inherent in the process of
standardisation. In continuation, in this unit, you will learn about the
nature and scope of language engineering and language management as
imperatives in a multilingual and multicultural setting.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the nature of language engineering and language

management
• discuss the relevance of language engineering and language
management in a multilingual society.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Language Engineering

Language engineering involves the creation of natural language

processing systems whose cost and outputs are measurable and
predictable as well as establishment of language regulators, such as
formal or informal agencies, committees, societies or academies as
language regulators to design or develop new structures to meet
contemporary needs.

It is a distinct field contrasted to natural language processing and

computational linguistics. A recent trend of language engineering is the
use of Semantic Web technologies for the creation, archival, processing,
and retrieval of machine processable language data.

Springer (1956: pp 46&54), in Gadysa and Gabana (2011), argues that

language engineering is used ‘with reference to the efforts of
graphisation and of standardisation of the semi-standardised language in
the Soviet Union.’

For Alisjahbana (1961), language engineering is seen as the “conscious

guidance of development within the larger context of social, cultural,
and technological change”. Alisjahbana (1972:14) also uses the term to
refer to “the transfer of past experiences of codification of the European
Languages – in the areas of spelling, vocabulary, and grammar – the
newly developing languages by deliberate and rational planning.”

Thus, language engineering refers to applying scientific principles to the

design, construction and maintenance of tools to help deal with
information that has been expressed in natural languages (the languages
that people use for communicating with one another). The tools can be
of varying kinds: many are computer systems to help with such tasks as
translation, language teaching, and abstracting and indexing,
information extraction and so on. Language engineering also leads to
more intangible "tools" such as graphic presentation, development of
orthography, standardisation, dictionaries and thesauri, guidelines for
authors, and methods for the teaching foreign languages.

According to Adedun and Shodipe (2011), “The term ‘language

engineering’ refers to the potential of a language to express new and
emerging ideas, notions or concepts.” Capo (1990:1) defines language
engineering as “that domain of applied linguistics concerned with the
design and implementation of strategies (that is, conscious and
deliberate steps) toward the rehabilitation and optimal utilisation of
individual languages.”

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ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

Language engineering is, therefore, a conscious attempt to influence the

form of a language, and this implies three phenomena that are related to
lexical change (Ammon, 2005: p. 26). These are:

1. Standardisation of pronunciation, spelling and the meaning of

words.
2. Creation of new names from organisations whose acronyms
create easily pronounceable words and are semantically related to
the organisation‘s aims.
3. Public use of language (for example in politics or journalism).

Adedun and Shodipe argue further “Languages are constantly

engineered to meet the challenges of everyday communication often
necessitated by changes in the social, economic or political life of a
speech community.” Dadzie (2004) notes that every human language is
subject to change and several factors responsible for this may range
from the historical to the cultural and the linguistic. The English
language, for example, underwent significant changes as a result of
various invasions of the British Isle by Angles, Jutes, Saxons, Normans,
Danes and the French. These incursions have tremendously influenced
the language so much that the English, which was spoken in the ninth
century, has no resemblance to the present day English.

The Nigerian situation typifies what obtains in many Anglophone West

African countries where English gained “superiority” over the Nigerian
indigenous languages as an official lingua franca. It is acquired as a
means of responding to several sociolinguistic needs which include the
use of English as a medium of education, language of politics,
administration, commerce and even religion. Some indigenisation and
creolisation must occur as the language reflects its new environment and
expresses ideas and concepts hitherto impossible to express in the
language. This situation makes language engineering sine qua non
(Adedun, 2005).

There are a number of areas where the impact is significant:

• competing in a global market

• providing information for business, administration and consumers
• offering services directly through tele-business
• supporting electronic commerce
• enabling effective communication
• ensuring easier accessibility and participation
• improving opportunities for education and self development
• enhancing entertainment, leisure and creativity.

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ENG 454 MODULE 3

3.2 Language Management

The term “language management” was introduced into sociolinguistic

literature by Jernudd and Neustupny (1987) in their contribution to a
conference in Quebec, Canada. The theory originated from the
“language theory” (Neustupny, 1978) developed in the 1970s and 1980s,
mainly by Neustupny and Jernudd, and it grew as an extension of
language planning theory.

Spolsky (2009) argues that the third component of language policy is

language management. To Spolsky, language management accounts for
language choices. Secondly, language management provides examples
of efforts to impose language practices on a lower domain.

Generally, management refers to a set of activities undertaken to ensure

the goals of association are achieved in an effective and efficient way.
Language management refers to the actions and strategies devised to
achieve language policy objectives (Webb, 2002). A language
management approach to language planning can be described as a top-
down process.

Language management can be performed at two levels: simple and

organised managements. Simple management is the management of
problems as they occur in individual communication acts; for example,
the problem of spelling a particular word or the problem of how to
redress the use of an expression that a speaker has just uttered but now
considers as not sufficiently polite. Language management within a
family often relies on simple correction in discourse, which may be
connected to ideologies of ethnicity. This example was noticed in some
German families during the post-war period in the Czech Republic,
according to Nekvapil (2003a). In principle, management theory states
that language problem originates from simple management and is
transferred to organised management.

Organised Management

Spolsky (2009) asserts that organised language management ranges

from the micro (family) to the macro (nation-state) level. The most
obvious form of organised language management is a law established by
a nation-state (or other polity authorised to make laws) determining
some aspect of official language use. This, for example, could be a
requirement to use a specific language as language of instruction in
schools and business and government agencies. The decision of the
Roman Catholic Church at Vatican II to change the policy that Latin
should be the language for mass is another good example of organised
language management. Language management also applies to specific

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domains such as family domain and efforts by immigrant parents to

maintain their language. All these are seen as part of language
management.

Language reform is an example of a highly organised language

management process (Neustupny & Nekvapil, 2003). However,
organised management is not a summary of simple management acts.
Language reform takes place, both formally and informally, in many
languages given official status in the modern world. Language reform
includes lexical and orthographic reform as well as occasional syntactic
reform. It is known as essentially corpus planning. The reform of the
written Chinese in the People’s Republic of China, reforms of Ibo and
other indigenous languages in Nigeria.

3.3 Objectives/Strategies of Language Management

There is a list of rules or strategies to arrest all communicative problems

within a community. Having been reformed, these features are called
objects of language management (Neustupny 1987; 1997). These are:

1. Participant strategies

These determine participant and networks in communication process.

These strategies are noted, evaluated, and adjustment may be carried out
when management occurs.

2. Variety strategies

Variation strategies govern the use of language varieties and variables –

what languages are spoken and what problems affect these languages
and their individual rules.

3. Situational strategies

These strategies examine recurring sets of the use of language, problems

and characteristics for language domains (daily life, family, friendship,
education, work, and public and culture domain).

4. Content strategies

They select the content of communication and problems which occur

when they do not function satisfactorily.

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5. Form strategies

These strategies determine the form of communication, the form of

routine components, or the order of components.

6. Channel strategies

Channel strategies govern the various channels through which

communication can be turned into surface structures. These are
problems of the spoken and written media which overlap with the
problem of varieties.

3.4 Levels of Language Management

Language management emphasises management at a number of levels:

the individual, associations, and social organisations, the media, and
economic bodies, educational and international organisations. For
example, the Czech Republic management of language takes place at all
these levels (Nekvapil, 2002a; 2006b).

Language problem theories manifest in a space similar to theory of

language management, though they may use different terms in different
social systems (language acquisition, language therapy, literary
criticism, critical discourse analysis, and so on).

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Why is language engineering and management necessary?

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit has examined the issues that surround language engineering
and language management. It has also identified objectives, levels and
strategies of language management that can be of benefit in a
multilingual nation.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit has dwelt on language engineering and language management

as crucial aspects of language planning in a multilingual society.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Using any Anglophone African country, explain the concept of

language engineering.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adedun, E. A. & Shodipe, M. (2011). Variation and Language

Engineering in Yoruba-English Code Switchings.

Ammon, U. (2005). “Pluricentric and Divided Languages.” In :U.

Ammon; N. Dittmar; K.J. Mattheier & P. Trugill (Eds).
Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of
Language and Society. Berlin & New York: Walter de Gruyter.

Dadzie, A.B.K. (2004). “The Concept of Nigerian English.” In: A.B.K.

Dadzie & Segun Awonusi (Eds). Nigerian English: Influences
and Characteristics. Lagos: Concept Publications.

Jernudd, B.H. & Neustupný, J.V. (1987). Language Plannning: For

Whom? In: L. Ladefoged (Ed.). Proceedings of the International
Colloquium on Language Planning. Québec: Les Press de
L´Université Laval, 69-84.

Neustupný, J.V. (1978). Post-structural Approaches to Language.

Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press.

Nekvapil, J. (2000a): Language Management in a Changing Society:

Sociolinguistic Marks from the Czech Republic. In: B. Panzer
(Ed.), Die sprachliche Situation in der Slavia zehn Jahre nach
der Wende. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 165-177.

Nekvapil, J. (2000b). “On the Formation of Interpretive

Sociolinguistics.” Sociolinguistica, 14:33-36.

Neustupný, J.V. & Nekvapil, J. (2003). “Language Management in the

Czech Republic.” Current Issues in Language Planning,
4:181-366.

Nekvapil, J. (2004). “Language Biographies and Management

Summaries.” In: H. Murao ka (Ed.). Language Management in
Contact Situations. Vol. III. Report on the Research Projects No.
104. Chiba: Chiba University, Graduate School of Social
Sciences and Humanities, 9-33.

Reagan, T. G. (2010). Language Policy and Planning for Sign

Languages. Gallaudet University Press: District of Columbia,
USA.

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Spolsky, B. (2009). Language Management. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

Web, V.N. (2002). Language in South Africa. The role of Language in

Transformation, Reconstruction and Development.
Amsterdam: Benjamin’s.

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UNIT 2 LANGUAGE SITUATION IN NIGERIA

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Language Situation in Nigeria
3.2 Types of Languages in Nigeria
3.3 Language Hierarchy in Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit explains the nature and scope of language situation, language
engineering and language management as imperatives in a multilingual
and multicultural setting.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the nature of language situation and language

management
• discuss the relevance of language situation, types of languages
and language hierarchy in Nigeria.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Language Situation in Nigeria

In a recent UNESCO report (2010), it is observed that ‘Africa is the only

continent where the majority of children start school using a foreign
language’ (Quane & Glanz, 2010: 4). According to Adegbija (2004: 37),
Nigeria is an intriguing maximally multilingual scenario, which presents
a case of linguistic and cultural diversity par excellence. He further
states that multilingualism in Nigeria is certainly more complex and
intricate than in multilingual European countries such as Belgium,
Switzerland, or Sweden.

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3.2 Types of Languages in Nigeria

Akinnaso (1991) asserts that Nigeria is multilingual. Therefore, the

language situation is complex; and a description of Nigeria's language
situation calls for a multi-layered analysis to reveal its complexity in a
peculiar linguistic landscape. First, there are three major types of
languages in Nigeria: (1) indigenous languages, (2) exogenous
languages, and (3) a neutral language, namely, Pidgin English. Adegbija
(2004:46) identifies the three main categories of languages being used in
Nigeria. They are as follows:

(a) Indigenous or native languages: about 450; Hausa, Yoruba

and Igbo have been constitutionally recognised as “major”.
This recognition has given these languages a kind of
celebrity status among Nigeria’s numerous languages.
(b) Exogenous or non-indigenous languages: chief among these
is English. Others are French and Arabic. Other languages
like German and Russian have a rather restricted functional
scope.
(c) Pidgin: principally represented by Nigerian Pidgin English,
with a dual status of being at once indigenous and
exogenous. There are, however, different views on its actual
status.

An endogenous language is one that is used as a mother tongue in a

community and may or may not be used for institutional purposes. An
exogenous language is “one that is used as an official, institutionalised
language but has no speech community in the political entity using it
officially” (Josiane & Michel, 2000:29). There are examples of
exogenous languages in Nigeria. They are Arabic, French and English.
Arabic is the first among these languages to arrive in Nigeria and it was
accompanied by Islam and trans-Saharan trade in the northern territory
of present-day Nigeria in the ninth century AD.

Arabic is the language of Islamic religion, judiciary and political

administration, social and commercial interactions, and of literacy and
scholarly activities. Predominantly, it is the language of Islamic
worship and Quranic pedagogy, worship, prayers and Medersa (higher
school and university) in Nigeria (Ogunbiyi 1987; Ogunbiyi &
Akinnaso, 1990; Akinnaso, 1991; Adegbija, 2004). Adegbija (2004:55)
argues that: “Arabic is an elitist minority language because most
common people only know a few Arabic sentences, memorized in
Koranic schools, whose meanings are soon forgotten thereafter. Very
few can actually read or write Arabic.” Akinnaso (1991) observes that
the decline in the status and functions of Arabic was caused by the
increasing status and functions of English. English is the de facto and de

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jure official language of Nigeria because of its functions as the language

of government, bureaucracy, education, commerce, mass
communication, international trade, politics and science and technology.

French lacks historical roots and a range of functions unlike Arabic and
English. It has the lowest number of users and the least appeal to
learners. Its uses and functions are limited to diplomatic and educational
contexts and border communication with Nigeria’s neighbouring
Francophone countries such as Chad, Togo, Niger, Benin and
Cameroon. Its impact on the nation has not increased despite the
declaration by the Sani Abacha regime that French be recognised as
Nigeria’s second official language. Other foreign languages such as
German, Russian, Spanish and Portuguese have also not risen to
prominence in Nigeria, except in diplomatic contacts and relations.

Pidgin English is a neutral language. It is Nigeria’s lingua franca in

informal domains. It has developed from its origins in the early days of
the contact between Nigeria and Europe to the stage of creolisation,
trade language, and to the most popular medium of inter-group
communication in various heterogeneous communities throughout
Nigeria. It is widely used in public institutions, service centres, print
and electronic media – regular newspaper columns, news broadcasts,
and various entertainment programmes and comedies.

Pidgin English is used in advertisements on billboards, in newspapers,

radio and television all over the country. It is a principal language of
commerce which has now been creolised in Sapele and Warri and other
parts of Delta State. It is a lingua franca among the youth and academia
in an informal setting in Nigerian universities and non-western educated
Nigerian masses (see Omamor 1983, Agheyisi 1984, and Akinnaso
1991).

There are various arguments on the description of Pidgin English.

Adegbija (2004) sees Pidgin English as a hybrid Nigerian language.
Akinnaso (1991) describes it as an exogenous language. Omodiagbe
(1992:21) says: “Pidgin is an offshoot of the “pure” English of the early
missionaries and colonial administrators. It is the product of necessity
and pragmatism, as well as a robust salute to the malleability and
adaptability of the English Language”. Oladejo (1991) describes Pidgin
English or Nigerian Pidgin as “the only truly neutral indigenous
Nigerian language.”

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Critically examine the language situation in Nigeria.

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3.3 Language Hierarchy

At a different level, languages in Nigeria show different orders of

hierarchical relationship and reveal shifting, contrastive and overlapping
characteristics, functions and status. If taken into consideration factors
such as degree of official recognition, prestige, contexts, and range of
use; the three classifications of languages described above can be
patterned into five-tier system of language hierarchy. While it is true
that some of the languages perform certain exclusive functions and there
are instances or occurrences and overlapping functions.

Akinnaso (1991) gives an insight into languages in Nigeria – their

hierarchy and ranks as follows:

‘Official’ language: English

‘National’ languages: Hausa, Igbo, and Yoruba
‘Regional’ languages: Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, Fulfulde. Efik,
Kanuri, Tiv, Ijaw, Edo, Nupe, (Igala, Idoma)
‘Local’ minority languages: Over 380 languages
‘Neutral’ lingua franca: Pidgin English

Adegbija’s (2004: 50) classification shows the overlapping functions of

languages in Nigeria and “fading or shifting” hierarchical functions as
well as their changes in status with the creation of new states in the
country.

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An Illustrative Graduated Functional and Status Saliency of

Languages in Nigeria

Fig.2.1: Graduated Functional and Status Saliency of Languages in

Nigeria

Negash in Coleman (2011: p. 12) claims that:

The most important contribution which English

has made in Africa is in education. However, this
contribution has been challenged because of the
limiting effect which it has had historically on the
use of the indigenous languages, especially in
primary education (Batibo, 2007). Many writers
(for example, Clegg 2007 and Williams 2011)
argue strongly for adopting the mother tongue as
the medium of instruction, especially in early
childhood education, because it facilitates
cognitive, communicative and social skills
development.

This means the nation needs to adequately and effectively manage the
language situation in the country.

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4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit has examined the issues that surround the language situation
in the country, the types of languages in Nigeria, the hierarchy that
defines these and how these languages can be managed.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit has dwelt on language situation, types and hierarchy as a

crucial aspect of language planning, management and engineering in a
multilingual society.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Explain how the language situation in Nigeria can affect national

development. Use another Anglophone country to explain the language
situation.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adegbija, E. (2004). Multilingualism: A Nigerian Case Study. Africa

World Press: New Jersey.

Akinnaso, F. N. (1991). “Toward the Development of a Multilingual

Language Policy in Nigeria.” Oxford Journals of Humanities
and Applied Linguistics, 12 (1): 29-61.

Batibo, H. M. (2007). Language decline and death in Africa- causes,

consequences and challenges. NAWA Journal of Language and
Communication, June, pp171-175.

Josiane, F. M. & Michel, H.B. (2000). Bilingualism and Bilinguality.

Cambridge University Press: United Kingdom.

Ogunbiyi, I. A. (1987). “Of Non-Muslim Cultivators and Propagators of

Arabic Language.” Inaugural Lecture delivered at the Lagos State
University on Tuesday, January 13. Lagos: Lagos State
University Information Unit.

Oladejo, J. (1991). “The National Language Question in Nigeria: Is

there an Answer?” Language Problems and Lang Planning, 15
(3): 255-267.

Akinnaso, F. N. & Ogunbiyi, I. A. (1990). “The place of Arabic in

Language Education and Language Planning in Nigeria”.
Language Problems and Language Planning 14:1 -19.

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Ouane, A. & Glanz, C. (2010).Why and How Africa should Invest in

African languages and Multilingual Education: An evidence- and
practice-based policy advocacy brief UNESCO Institute for
Lifelong Learning: Hamburg, Germany.

Williams, E. (2011). “Language Policy, Politics and Development in

Africa.” In: H. Coleman (Ed.). Dreams and Realities: Developing
Countries and the English Language. Chapter 3. British Council.

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UNIT 3 LANGUAGE ATTITUDE IN MULTILINGUAL

NATIONS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Language Attitudes in Multilingual Nations
3.2 Implications of Language Attitude
3.3 Varying Attitudes towards Exoglossic and Indigenous
Languages in Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit examines language attitude in multilingual nations, particularly

attitude to minority and majority languages as well as the implications
for national planning and development.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• differentiate between minority and major languages

• describe language attitude towards specific languages
• identify the implications of language attitude for national
development.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Language Attitudes in Multilingual Nations

Garrett et al. (2003), state that the concept of attitude is a major point of
interest in sociolinguistics. Social psychology, language attitude
research and linguists interested in the socio-psychological aspects of
language must be fully aware of the psychological complexity of
attitudes (Baker 1992: p. 8 cited in Redinger, 2010). An attitude is a
“psychological tendency” which calls attention to the fact that attitudes
constitute a speaker- internal concept which explicates a speaker’s
attribution of various degrees of “goodness” or “badness” to a given
entity (Eagley & Chaiken, 1993:1-3).

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Crystal (1992) sees language attitudes as the feelings people have about
their own language variety or the languages or language varieties of
others. Eastman (1983: p. 30) avows that language attitudes arise when
“one social group comes in contact with a second social group
possessing a different language and each group then develops ideas
about the other group’s language vis-à-vis its own.” Similarly, Trudgill
(2003: p.73) opines that language attitudes are “the attitudes which
people have towards different languages, dialects, accents and their
speakers.”

Speakers of a language or its varieties express their pride and identity

through the language. Mukhuba (2005) gives an example of the Zulus of
South Africa who take so much pride in their culture and language so
much that they have developed a negative attitude towards other South
African languages. They are so uncompromising in their attitude
towards other languages that the need for jobs has not changed their
perspective of second language acquisition.

Holmes (1992) expresses three levels of attitudes towards a social group

or ethnic group: attitudes towards a social or ethnic group; attitudes
towards the language of that group and attitude towards individual
speakers of that language. Attitudes of people of different social groups
have affected other social-cultural institutions or pattern of social
characterization such as language. An attitude towards a group is carried
over to the language of that group. Holmes claims that attitudes affect
intelligibility. People find it easier to understand languages and dialects
spoken by people they like or admire. Examples of these attitudes are
given below:

• women talk too much

• children can’t speak or write properly anymore
• black children are verbally deprived
• everyone has an accent except me.

Agheyisi and Fishman (1970) assert that reports and studies which
pertain to language attitudes fall into three major categories:

• those dealing with language-oriented or language-directed

attitudes;
• those dealing with community-wide stereotyped impressions
towards particular languages or language varieties (and, in some
cases, their speakers, functions, and so on);
• those concerned with the implementation of different types of
language.

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The first category is concerned with rating and evaluation of language or

language varieties as “poor or rich”, “balanced or reduced”, “beautiful
or ugly”, “smooth and sweet sounding or harsh”, etc.. The second
category focuses on the social significance of language or varieties of
language, attitude towards speakers of situationally peculiar or
appropriate language varieties, attitudes towards speakers of different
languages in multilingual settings, among others. And the third category
is concerned with all kinds of language behaviour, or behaviour towards
language, resulting from, at least in part, specific attitudes or beliefs. In
this category, there are major topics such as language choice and usage,
language reinforcement and planning, language learning, and so on.

3.2 Implications of Language Attitudes

1. Language attitudes usually entail positive or negative attitudes to

the speakers of the particular language or dialect.
2. There is evidence that language attitudes influence sound change.
3. Language attitudes may influence how teachers deal with pupils.
4. Attitudes about language may affect second language learning.
5. Language attitudes may affect whether or not varieties are
mutually intelligible

Adegbija (2004) identified various shapers of language attitude in a

dense multilingual nation like Nigeria. He argued that the following five
factors shape language attitude:

1. Language Provenance/Origin

The historical root of the language in question determines the attitude

towards it. For example, the English language in Nigeria tends to
generate ambivalent/contrasting attitude: love-hate attitude. It may be
perceived by some Nigerians as a symbol of subjugation, colonialism,
economic exploitation and domination by the British colonialists. This
love-hate attitude attends to the language of ex-colonialists in
multilingual communities in Africa, Asia and Latin America. However,
the English language might be loved because of its political significance.
It functions as a language of nationism in inter-ethnic communication,
administration and education.

2. Language Juridical Status

Language juridical status resembles the constitutional language function,

that is, the specific status of a language. For instance, in Nigeria English,
Yoruba, Hausa and Igbo are official languages. The English language is
being favoured because of its de facto functions.

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3. Language Development State

The positive attitude toward a language in a multilingual nation could be

influenced by the language development state. A more modernised,
elaborated, and codified language with broad/adequate lexical expansion
and a sizeable pool of literature tends to attract higher status, functions
and national roles unlike less developed languages. Hausa, Igbo and
Yoruba languages in Nigeria are more developed than other Nigerian
languages; this therefore, enhances positive attitudes towards them.

4. Native-speaker Stereotype

Language is an index of identity and belonging. The general impression

or stereotype about the native speaker of certain languages might
influence the attitudes towards the language. If a group of speakers of a
language is disliked, definitely the language might suffer same.
Adegbija (2004) cited an example of many Kenyans who are reluctant to
learn Kikuyu because of its native speakers’ supposed bossy,
exploitative and domineering tendencies, particularly in the area of
commerce. In Israel, very few are interested in learning German
language because of their experience during Nazi holocaust agenda –
anti-Semitism – where millions of Jews were killed in cold blood.

5. Depth of Religious Commitment

The extent of religious commitment or involvement can also shape

language attitudes either negatively or positively. The Arabic language
in which the Holy Quran is written in Nigeria is associated with Islam.
Strong adherents to Islamic faith tend to demonstrate a great positive
attitude to Arabic language. The English language tends to be identified
with Christianity because English-speaking missionaries introduced the
religion to Nigeria. There is likely to be a possible association between
Jewish religion and the Hebrew language and most probably Hinduism
and Hindi.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Critically examine language attitudes as demonstrated in Nigeria by

many of its citizens in terms of their religious, social and geographical
affiliations.

3.3 Varying Attitudes towards Exoglossic and Indigenous

Languages in Nigeria

What is an exoglossic language? There are three notable exoglossic

languages in Nigeria – English, French and Arabic. Languages such as

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German, Spanish and Russian, have limited domains of usage and

influence in that they are mainly used in their respective embassies and
chambers of commerce and most often for utilitarian purposes and goals.

(i) English is the most functional and paramount language among

other exoglossic languages in Nigeria, both from the
societal/national and individual perspectives. It is Nigeria’s
official language alongside Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo. It is the
language of inter-ethnic communication and administration, the
media, higher education, foreign relations, commerce and
agencies.

These functions have entrenched positive attitudes towards the language

and a continuous anxiety to use the language by all and sundry in the
Nigerian multilingual context. It is perceived as a necessary credential in
social climbing and power brokering processes. Adegbite (2010)
observes that scholars such as Adegbija (1994); Bamgbose (2001); and
Oyetade (2001), have identified several reasons for the attitudes of
Nigerians to languages in Nigeria. Some of the reasons highlighted are:
colonialism, elitism, mobility and job prospects, the level of language
development, and lack of knowledge of the workings of language.

For political integration and national cohesion, the English language is

used as a neutral language by various ethnic groups to avoid ethnic
wrangling and likely conflict that may ensue in case any of Nigeria’s
indigenous languages is given priority over the others. There is a
continuous fear of ethnic, social, political and cultural domination while
the minority groups resent the dominance of the three major languages.
Job security is a factor that determines attitudes toward teaching and
learning of indigenous languages in Nigeria. The calls for the
development of the Nigerian indigenous languages have been
ferociously condemned by Nigerian English language teachers to protect
their job. Obemeata (2002: p. 2) cited in Adegbite (2010) presents views
of educated Nigerians on negative attitudes towards the indigenous
languages as follows:

• children have no advantage in being taught in the mother tongue

as the mother tongue has a negative effect on intelligent test
performance of the children
• mother tongue learning does not lead to educational development
and it does not seem to contribute to an improvement in the
quality of education in the country
• mother tongue interferes negatively with the learning and usage
of the English language
• the language project of NERDC (that is, developing indigenous
languages) may, after all, be a colossal waste of resources.

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However, sometimes, there could be ambivalent attitude towards the

English language – love-hate attitude. The historical root of the language
and the lingering evidence/artifact of Nigeria’s colonial experience
evoke feelings of hatred for the language. Its neutral nature and role in
social and political cohesion of Nigeria makes it de facto primus inter
pares.

(ii) Arabic in Nigeria is said to be characterised by ambivalence

(Adegbija, 2004). Among Moslems, Arabic is God’s language
par excellence. Moslems greet one another in the language to
create belongingness and show their solidarity, religious identity
and affiliation in different contexts, settings and occasions. To
Christians, it is a language of a rival religious group. Non-
Moslems exhibit a variety of attitudes towards the language,
ranging from indifference to silent resistance and open hostility.
(iii) French is mainly loved amongst its teachers and students in
Nigeria. Its functions are notable in interpersonal and diplomatic
contacts and relationships with Nigeria’s neighbours in Benin,
Togo and Cameroun and probably with other French speaking
countries beyond West Africa.

3.4 Attitudes towards the Indigenous Languages

Adegbite (2010) claims that the consequence of negative attitudes

towards indigenous language is evident in the long existence of negative
factors of underdevelopment – related language problems such as
language inactivity or death, illiteracy and underdevelopment of
education, communication, politics and the society as a whole. Even
though the first Nigerian newspaper, Iwe Irohin fun Awon Ara Egba ati
Yoruba (newspaper for the Egba and the Yoruba people) was published
in Yoruba by the Rev. Henry Townsend in Abeokuta on 3 December,
1859, it is difficult to find papers in the indigenous languages on the
news-stands now. Even when the NPE states that Yoruba, Hausa or Igbo
should be taught at the secondary school level, the problem of lack of
adequate supply of teachers in these three languages exists. This is
because students prefer to study the more “prestigious” or lucrative
courses such as medicine, law, architecture, pharmacy, ICT, computer
engineering etc, to the detriment of indigenous languages.

The ADB (2006) ranks Nigeria as the third nation on earth with the
highest number of poor people and one of the least industrialised
countries in the world. This is connected to the low level of literacy in
the country, which has strong links with inadequate language planning
and policies. Indeed, Abioye (2010) observes that decisive steps in
language and literacy efforts provide an index for national as well as
international advancement in capacity building, socioeconomic,

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political, technological, and even global advancement. Without these,

our goals for social transformation and sustainable human development
cannot be actualised. Literacy in any language (mother tongue or “father
tongue”) is thus to be preferred to illiteracy.

Then, there is a high prestige status attached to the use of English in

communication. This impression was created by the elite group who
flaunted their knowledge and dexterity of English by the use of high-
sounding vocabulary/words. People who cannot speak English in
different domains are seen as belonging to the lower class in the society.
This has become so pronounced that even at home, parents who have a
mutually intelligible language speak English to their children rather than
the indigenous language. Thus, semi-literates trying to copy the elite
group, also speak English to their children, no matter how
ungrammatical; since they see the ability to speak English as a step on
the rung of the ladder of social mobility. But this may not have been the
original intention, because it has been observed that after independence,
some African leaders, including those in Nigeria, chose English over
their indigenous languages, in order ‘to de-emphasise ethnicity and
build up a sense of nationhood’ (Phillipson, 1996: p. 162).

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit has examined what language attitude is, various attitudes and
the implications of the different language attitudes.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

• language attitude is basically a psychological tendency that has to

do with factors that shape attitude
• such factors include religion, stereotypes, origin or even
geographical contiguity
• some of the implications of these attitudes are that people may
not want to learn a language; it may interfere with the way
learners perceive a particular teacher, and it may have religious
undertones
• attitude can be positive or negative.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Differentiate between major and minority languages.

2. Identify at least three attitudes to language and the implications
of these attitudes for national development.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Abioye, T. (2010). “Perception of undergraduate newspaper readers on

the role of the media in literacy development.” Marang Journal
of Language and Literature, 20: 97-107.

Adegbija, E. (2004). Multilingualism: A Nigerian Case Study.

NJ,Trenton: Africa World Press.

Adegbite, A. B. (2010). English Language Usage, Uses and Misuses in

a Non-host Second Language Context, Nigeria. Unpublished
Inaugural Lecture Series 231, OAU, Ile-Ife.

Agheyisi, R. & Fishman, J. A. (1970). “Language and Attitude Studies:

A Survey of Brief Methodological Approaches.”
Anthropological Linguistics, 12(5): 137-157.

Baker, C. (1992). Attitudes and Language. Clevedon: Multilingual

Matters Limited.

Bamgbose, A. (2001). “Language Policy in Nigeria: challenges,

Opportunities and Constraints”. Keynote Address Presented at
the Nigerian Millennium Sociolinguistics Conference, University
of Lagos, Lagos. August 16-18.

Crystal, D. (1992). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language.

Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.

Eagley, A.H. & Chaiken, S. (1993). The Psychology of Attitudes.

London: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

Eastman, C.M. (1983). Language Planning: An Introduction. San

Francisco: Chandler and Sharp.

Garrett, P., Coupland, N., & Williams, A. (2003) Investigating

Language Attitudes Social Meanings of Dialect, Ethnicity and
Performance. Cardiff: University of Wales Press.

Holmes, J. (1992). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. London:

Longman.

Language Attitude. Retrieved from

http://www.english.wisc.edu/rfyoung/336/attitudes.pdf on 07-07-
2011.

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Mukhuba, T.T. (2005). Bilingualism, Language Attitudes, Language

Policy and language Planning: A Sociolinguistic Perspective.
Journal of Language and Learning, 3(2). Accessed online:
www.jllonline.co.uk/journal/jllearn/3_2/mukhuba.pdf

Oyetade, S. O. (2001). “Attitude to foreign language use and indigenous

languages in Nigeria.” In: H. Igboanusi (Ed.). Language Attitude
and Language Conflict in West Africa.( pp 14-29). Ibadan:
Enicrownfit.

Phillipson, R. (1996). “Linguistic Imperialism: African Perspectives.”

ELT Journal, 50(2):160-167.

Rendinger, D. (2010). “Language Attitudes and Code-switching

Behaviour in a Multilingual Educational Context: The Case of
Luxembourg.” Unpublished PhD. Thesis. The University of
York, Canada.

Trudgill, P. (2003). A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

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UNIT 4 MINORITY LANGUAGE GROUPS: PLIGHT

AND DESTINY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Minority Languages
3.2 Parameters for the Classification of Minority Languages
3.3 Problems of Minority Languages
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit focuses on the definition and description of minority

languages, the parameters that define these, and their challenges.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define minority languages

• determine the parameters and classification of minority languages
• identify some problems of minority languages
• suggest solutions to some of these problems

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Minority Languages

Different euphemisms have been employed to give positive connotation

to the pejorative term “minority languages.” Some measure of manifest
or latent disadvantage is embedded in the word as “…most usages of
minority refer to group(s) or collection of people who are not adequately
represented in the mainstream of socio-cultural, economic and political
life of their society” (Abochol, 2011). He states further that:

The statuses of minority and majority are

contextual and sometimes historical. Furthermore,
the concepts, minority and majority have
quantitative, economic, social and cultural
dimensions. For example, a majority may refer to
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a group with small numerical population relative

to another or other groups. But it sometimes
conveys power-relation, and therefore refers to a
group or groups relative to more powerful groups
in society.

Minor Nigerian languages are those languages that are not in the major
category. The major languages are in two groups; the foremost are
Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba, closely followed by; Igala, Edo, Fulfulde,
Izon, Kanuri, Efik, Nupe and Tiv. The major group of languages is made
up of the developed and developing languages. The former is
characterized by long traditions of writing “well established
orthographies, standard written varieties, large and varied corpora of
written literature, and sophisticated and dynamic metalanguage”
systems. Thus, the term “minority language” is used here to describe
“languages that have no standardised orthographies (if they do have
orthographies at all), standard varieties, written literature and
metalanguages” (Emenanjo, 1990; Bleambo, 1999).

According to Thornberry et al. (2004), in their report on minority

languages in Europe, the term “minority language” refers to “languages
that are traditionally used within a given territory of a state by nationals
of that state who form a group numerically smaller than the rest of the
state’s population and which is different from the official language(s) of
that state” (p. 141).

3.2 Parameters for the Classification of Minority Languages

To Pandharipande (2004), a very broad definition of minority provided

by the United Nations captures the salient features of minority
languages: “The term minority includes only those non-dominant groups
in a population which possess and wish to preserve stable, ethnic,
religious or linguistic traditions or characteristics different from those of
the rest of the population.” The two features, “non-dominant” and
“different from the rest of the population”, are generally shared by the
minority languages of India. In a number of cases, the factors that are
responsible for rapid attrition of minority languages are: (a) language
policies; (b) modernisation; (c) speakers’ attitudes towards their
languages; (d) separation of the link between language and identity or a
change in the speech community’s perception of its identity.

According to BBC English (2011), minority languages can be said refer

to: (i) regional, indigenous languages spoken in certain areas, also called
autochthonous languages, such as Welsh, Breton or Basque; languages
that have come from other areas of Europe, such as Turkish spoken in
the UK, or Estonian spoken in Sweden. (ii) a language spoken by a

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ENG 454 MULTILINGUALISM

majority of the population in a particular area may be a minority

language when looked at in a wider geopolitical context. (iii) the
languages spoken by migrant communities from a different country are
also known as community languages. The largest number of community
languages in Europe can be found in the United Kingdom. Over 300
languages are currently spoken in London schools. Some of the most
established of these are Bengali, Gujarati, Punjabi, Cantonese, Mandarin
and Hokkien.

Vallejo and Dooly (2009) identify the plights of minority language

groups in Europe and the key areas that can signify inequality in
education may be: functional literacy levels, exclusion and/or expulsion
rates, rates of continuing education in post-compulsory leaving age and
participation in higher education, employment rates after education,
institutional segregation and evidence of social exclusion. All these
interrelated factors attribute to inequality in education of members of
minority language groups.

Fifty percent of the world’s out-of-school children live

in communities where the language of schooling is
rarely, if ever, used at home. This underscores the
biggest challenge to achieving Education for All
(EFA): a legacy of non-productive practices that lead
to low levels of learning and high levels of dropout
and repetition. In these circumstances, an increase in
resources, although necessary, would not be sufficient
to produce universal completion of a good-quality
primary school programme (World Bank, 2005).

3.3 Problems of Minority Language Groups

Vallejo and Dooly (2009) point out specific disadvantages of minority

language groups in education. To their disadvantage, the students are
usually assessed in the school’s language of instruction, not their mother
tongues, resulting in lower placement and difficulties in the acquisition
of other subject content. Secondly, studies have demonstrated that track
placement is often inappropriate and minority language students are
systematically placed in lower-level courses regardless of their academic
ability. The placement practices can result in uneven representation of
language minority students in lower level courses and lack of access to
academic content courses.

It is thus, possible that minority language students have a higher

representation in vocational courses or special education courses and
even a higher rate of school drop-out. This effect has been directly
related to lack of access to core curriculum areas and/or high percentage

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of school learning time spent on learning the vehicular language at the

expense of their grade level curricular areas. The assessment of general
academic progress can also lead to educational inequality for minority
language students. Teachers generally use assessment practices designed
for the majority language group to monitor overall language
development.

Garland (2011) identifies a number of factors that could bedevil

minority languages such as globalization, commerce, popular culture
and telecommunications:

The increasing mobility of people, goods,

and information has driven a powerful
trend toward cultural uniformity and the
extinction of local languages. But
languages that have young people,
business, and government on their side are
alive and thriving.
Globalized economies and media are
changing the face of culture around the
globe, reducing the number of languages
that humans speak. As the world economy
becomes more integrated, a common
tongue has become more important than
ever to promote commerce, and that puts
speakers of regional dialects and minority
languages at a distinct disadvantage. In
addition, telecommunications has pressured
languages to become more standardized,
further squeezing local variations of
language.

Over the past 500 years, as nation-states

developed and became more centralized,
regional dialects and minority languages
have been dominated by the centrist
dialects of the ruling parties. Cornish has
given way to English, Breton to French,
Bavarian to High German, and Fu-jian-wa
to Cantonese. Linguists concur that
minority languages all over the world are
giving way to more dominant languages,
such as English, Mandarin, and Spanish,
among others. The realities of commerce
and the seductive power of world pop
culture are placing pressure on speakers of

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minority languages to learn majority

languages or suffer the consequences:
greater difficulty doing business, less
access to information, etc.

He further notes that these pressures are resulting in a rapid death of

languages around the world. For instance, about 3,000 of the world's
languages are predicted to disappear in the next 100 years. The United
Nations Environment Program states that there are 5,000 to7, 000
spoken languages in the world; and 4,000 to 5,000 of these are
indigenous languages used by native tribes. More than 2,500 are in
danger of immediate extinction, and many more are losing their link
with the natural world, becoming museum pieces rather than living
languages. Definitely, for example, the knowledge about unique
medicines and treatments used by aboriginal groups could be lost
forever if the language used to transmit that information is banned by a
majority culture.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

How would you describe a minority language?

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit has described the minority language phenomenon, looking at

how these languages came to be classified as such, and the challenges
faced by this language group.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

• some languages are classified as minority

• the classification is based on such criteria as: level of
development, functions, number of speakers etc
• this group has real challenges like delayed development,
language extinction, and so on.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Based on the contents of this unit, do the following:

1. Classify your language into either majority or minority.

2. Give reasons for this classification.
3. Suggest ways by which the problems of the minority can be
alleviated.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Abochol, S. I. (2011). Minority Languages in the Millennium

Development Goals in Nigeria: A Sociolinguistic Dimension.
Retrieved online 4 January, 2011.

Adegbija, E. (1997). “The Identity, Survival, and Promotion of Minority

Languages in Nigeria.” International Journal of the Sociology
of Language, 125(1): 5–28.

BBC English, Languages across Europe (2011).

http://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/european_languages/definitions.
shtml

Bleambo, P. K. (1990). “Languages in Adamawa State”. In: Language

Endangerment and Empowerment in Nigeria: Theory and
Reality. Vol. 1. Aba: NINLAN, 1999. Print.

Capo, H.B. (1990). Comparative linguistics and language engineering

in Africa. In: E. N. Emenanjo (Ed.). Multilingualism,
Minority Languages and Language Policy in Nigeria. Agbor:
Central Books Limited in Collaboration with the Linguistics
Association of Nigeria.

Garland, E. (2011). Can Minority Languages Be Saved? Globalisation

vs. Culture
http://www.omniglot.com/language/articles/minority_languages.p
hp

Pandharipande, R.V. (2002). “Issues in minority languages in India,

Protecting Endangered Minority Languages: Sociolinguistic
Perspectives. International Journal in Multicultural Societies
(IJMS), (4) 2: 213-234.

Vallejo, C. & Dooly, M. (2009). Educational Policies that Address

Social Inequality. Thematic Report: Linguistic Minorities.

Thornberry, P. & Esténabez, M. A. (2004.) Minority Rights in Europe.

Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing.

World Bank (2005). “In Their Own Language Education for All.”
Education Notes. June.

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UNIT 5 NATIONAL LANGUAGES: SOCIAL,

CULTURAL AND POLITICAL IMPLICATIONS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is a National Language?
3.2 The Problem of Choice of a National Language
3.3 Criteria for Choice of a National Language
3.4 Social, Cultural and Political Implications
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit touches on the issue of a national language, what it is, the
factors contributing to the choice of a national language and some of the
social, cultural and political implications of the choice of particular
national languages.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define a national language

• state the relevance of a national language
• examine the social, cultural and political implications of a
national language for a sustained national development.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 What is a National Language?

Baldrige (1996) posits that “a national language is that which enjoys use
throughout an entire nation in the political, social, and cultural realms. It
also functions as a national symbol”. He argues that it is not uncommon
for a national language to also be an official language, but it is less
likely that an official language will be a national language.

Akindele and Adegbite (1999) define a national language as a language

on which the government has conferred authority as the language of a
number of ethnic groups in a given geo-socio-political area. This
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language is deliberately chosen as a symbol of oneness, unity and

achievement of independence in an erstwhile colonial situation and for
the sake of nationhood. The language, as a matter of necessity, has a
vast geographical distribution across the entire strata of the society in its
use and acceptance. For instance, the English language is a national
language in United States of America, England and Canada.

Awonusi (1985: p.26) suggests the following reasons why a national

language is needed: to foster unity in a nation; to enhance and promote
communicative competence “in officialese” or bureaucratic language, to
promote socio-economic as well as commercial activities and to express
national pride and independence. For example, Hebrew in Israel is seen
as “a symbol around which national sentiment could be mobilized”
especially in the early days of its promotion by Eliezer Yehuda, a
Russian Jew. National pride is best expressed in the national language
because the latter carries with it the sentiments and the thought
processes that would otherwise not be captured when one uses a foreign
language (Villacorta, 1991: p. 34).

Fasold (1984:7) views national language as:

(a) the emblem of national oneness and identity;

(b) widely used for some everyday purposes;
(c) widely and fluently used within the country;
(d) the major candidate for such a role since there is no equally
qualified alternative language within the country;
(e) acceptable as a symbol of authenticity; having a link with the
glorious past; fall under the second interpretation of “national”
identified above (Fishman et al., 1968).

Also, Fasold (1988b:185) cited in Adegbija (2004) describes the

importance of national language as follows:

It’s good as a means of creating social cohesion at the

level of the whole country; an apparent near-requisite for
national development. But at the same time a national
language is a symbol of national identity and of a nation’s
distinction from other countries.

3.2 The Problem of Choice of a National Language

Another obvious language/linguistic issue in Nigeria is the problem of

the choice of a national language among various indigenous and
exogenous languages in multilingual Nigeria. Nigeria’s dense
multilingualism, multiculturalism and multi-ethnicity pose a huge
challenge in the desire and effort to choose a national language. Due to

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the existing roles of English, some people suggest English as the

appropriate national language while also pointing inadequacies noticed
in Nigeria’s indigenous languages. Kebby (1986) argues that: “No
Nigerian language can serve scientific and technological needs ...
because none is complete.” And the neutrality of English will deny any
claim of ownership of national language by any ethnic group in the
country.

However, some Nigerians have advanced the need for an indigenous

Nigerian language as national language because of certain reasons:
national consciousness, unity and pride. A break away with English will
justify Nigeria’s claim for political independence; put an end to the
elitist society that English has created and the choice of an indigenous
language will facilitate national integration as all members of the
country speak the same national language. Olagoke (1982) argues:
“There are many Nigerians who feel strongly that the country needs a
"lingua franca" other than English, not only to foster national unity but
also to facilitate self-discovery and pride convincing the world and
ourselves that we are truly independent of Britain.”

By way of recap, the proposition to choose an indigenous language as

national language is laudable, but the problem is the choice of national
language among many Nigerian languages. Attah (1987) identifies one
of the paradoxes of the national language question. He writes that while
many Nigerians express a desire for a national language other than
English, few are convinced of the need to choose a language other than
their own. The proponents of the national language therefore may be
divided into three major camps based on their preferences/choices. First
are those who want the national language to come from the major
Nigerian languages. Second are those who reject the candidacy of the
major languages and opt instead for a minor language, preferably one of
these languages – Kanuri, Fulani, Tiv and Edo. Third are those who
prefer an entirely new language created by mixing three or more of the
existing Nigerian languages so that it would be neutral and no ethnic
group would lay claim to it. Different names have been suggested for the
proposed new language; some people would want to call it WAZOBIA,
formed by integrating the three major languages - Hausa, Igbo, and
Yoruba. In fact, “WA,” “ZO,” and “BIA” - Yoruba, Hausa, and Igbo
words respectively - meaning “come.” But Igbeneweka (1983) cited in
Attah (1987), who had constructed a new language by combining
different local languages in the country, would want to call it
“GUOSA.”

Gnamba (1986) cited in International Institute for Capacity Building in

Africa (2000) observes that the development of all peoples hinges on the
development of their languages. “Economically powerful nations

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naturally wish to expand their languages as natural and normal vehicles

of their thought, their cultural values, and their ideologies that they may
want or even force other peoples to adopt.” The cultural and social
values and ideologies of a nation or people are transmitted from
generation to generation through language. Language unites and
guarantees national unity. Language is one of the engines that drive the
whole nation toward progress and development. It can also be observed
that global development goes hand in hand with language development.
For instance, the most developed nations are those whose languages
have developed the capacity to deal with the details and dynamism
needed for development. Examples of such countries are Japan, Canada
and United States of America.

3.3 Criteria for Choice of a National Language

Adegbija (2004: p. 191) states the following as likely crucial criteria for
the choice of a national language: being indigenous; a wide geographic
spread and being spoken by a large percentage of the population; having
the potential to represent or symbolize the national heritage, constituting
a rallying point for unity and national identity; being acceptable to a
large majority of the citizenry; being pride – worthy and representing the
spirit of the nation. The importance of these features prompt language
planning, particularly in multilingual societies. Elugbe (1990) also
shares the opinion that a national language should have a nation-wide
geographic spread. Its use as a national language must tend to reinforce
national unity.

3.4 Social, Political and Cultural Implications of a National

Language

A national language serves as a major symbol of unity and attachment

by bridging immediate loyalties with transcendent ones… Language
provides a continuity and scope without which a sense of overarching
nationality could not be constructed; it provides concrete emotionally
significant products that the individual received from previous
generations and will pass on to the future ones and that, in the present,
link him to a widely dispersed position.

A language may strengthen sentimental attachment to the national group

by enhancing not only the continuity but also the authenticity of the
national tradition. It is the vehicle for transmitting the sacred documents
of the people in which its history and mission are spelled out. It is used
to encode and concretise the cultural products of a people that can be
studied in their own right.

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A national language makes it easier to develop political, economic, and

social institutions that might serve the entire population. This helps the
government to plan with greater scope and efficiency. The existence of
several language groups may necessitate separate administrative units,
both to avoid language difficulties and minimisation of suspicion of
discrimination. A common language also facilitates the development of
an educational system that offers opportunities for participation to all
segments of the population. As pointedly noted by Mazrui (2002:4):

... No country has ascended a first rank

technologically and economic power by
excessive dependence on foreign languages.
Japan rose to dazzling industrial heights by
scientificating the Japanese language and making
it the medium of its own industrialization…. Can
Africa ever take-off technologically if it remains
so overwhelmingly dependent on European
languages for discourse on advance learning?
Can Africa look to the future if it is not
adequately sensitive to the cultural past?

Perhaps, no argument is more salient in support of Mazrui’s position as

that of House (2003: p. 559) who makes a distinction between languages
for communication and languages for identification. She posits that if
nations have these two categories of languages, language problems will
be highly reduced. What this means is that in the case of Nigeria, the
language of communication would be English, while languages of
identity would be our indigenous languages; both language categories
having different and or sometimes, overlapping functions.

Weinstein (1990) states that in Canada, United States and other

countries, language has been considered as a matter of government
decision-making in order to bring about change in the company of other
factors such as the spread of democratic ideas; the idea of mass
participation; the independence of colonial territories as the result or the
source of nationalism; increased urbanisation and urban occupations
which demand high communications skills; industrialisation; the
expansion of education; the growth of bureaucracies; and a sharpened
sense of national identity which has influenced leaders of oppressed to
crave and demand their special identity. Language stands as one of the
distinguishing symbols of these groups or nations. Many people around
the world believe and they are convinced that choice of language as a
symbol of political identity and an instrument in schools, the media, and
the civil service to improve their material and political well being.
Weinstein (1990) also argues that a national language can help in
building new loyalties and alter patterns of access. For example,

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Nationalist Movements in Morocco, Algeria, and Tanzania had to

combat external forces promoting colonial languages in their respective
countries.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have discussed why we need a national language, the

problem of choice, some of the criteria for this choice as well as the
various implications for national development.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

• a national language is a symbol of unity and oneness

• it is crucial for a nation to have a national language
• there are problems associated with the choice of a national
language
• there are social, economic and political implications for this
issue.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Critically examine the views presented in this unit. What is the way
forward for Nigeria?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adegbija, E. (2004). Language Policy and Planning in Nigeria. Current

Issues in Language Planning. 5 (3): 181-246.

Akindele, F. & Adegbite, W. (1999). Sociology & Politics of English in

Nigeria: An Introduction. Ile-Ife: OAU Press.

Attah, M. O. (1987). “The National Language Problem in Nigeria”.

Canadian Journal of African Studies, 21(3): 393-401.

Awonusi, S. (1985). Linguistic Hegemony and the Plight of Minority

Languages in Nigeria. An Inaugural Lecture. University of
Lagos.

Baldridge, J. (1996). Reconciling Linguistic Diversity: The History and

the Future of Language Policy in India. Available at Language In
India, May 2002, and at http://www.ling.upenn.edu/
jason2/papers/natlang.htm [9 August 1998].

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De Saint Robert, P. (1986). Lettre ouverte a ceux qui en pordent leur

francais. Paris: Al bin Michel.

Elugbe, B. O. (1990). “National Language and National Development”.

In: Multiligualism, Minority Languages and Language Policy.
E. Emenanjo (Ed.). Pp10-19.

Fasold, R. W. (1984).The Sociolinguistics of Society. Oxford: Basil

Blackwell.

Fasold, R. (1988). “What National Languages are Good For”. In:

Coulmas (Ed.). With Forked Tongues: What Are National
Languages Good For? Singapore: Karoma Publishers.

House, J. (2003). English as a Lingua Franca: A Threat to

Multilingualism? Journal of Sociolinguistics, 7(4):556-578.

Igbeneweka, M. A. (1983). “Guosa Language as a Lingua Franca for

Nigeria.” Paper presented at LAN Conference, Benin.

Kebby, M. (1986). “Nigeria has a Lingua Franca”. Sunday Times, 9

November, pp20.

Mazrui, A. (2002). The Asmara Declaration on African Languages: A

Critical Reappraisal. A keynote address delivered at the Annual
Conference on African Linguistics. Ohio, Ohio University,
Athens.

Olagoke, D. (1982). “Choosing a national language for Nigeria.”

JOLAN, I: 197-206.

Villacorta, W. V. (1991). “The Politics of Language in the Third World:

Toward theory building”. International Journal of the Sociology
of Language,,88 (1): p33-44.

Weinstein, B. (1990). Language Policy and Political Development.

Ablex Publishing Corporation.

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