GWCET, NAGPUR Embedded System (8SEM IT)

Amar Sewa Mandal

Govindrao Wanjari College of Engineering and Technology
148,149 Salai Godhani, Hudkeshwar Road, Nagpur
Department of Information Technology
………………………………………………………………………….....

UNIT -I
INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEM
  
1. INTRODUCTION 
This chapter introduces the reader to the world of embedded systems. Everything
that we look around us today is electronic. The days are gone where almost
everything was manual. Now even the food that we eat is cooked with the
assistance of a microchip (oven) and the ease at which we wash our clothes is due
to the washing machine. This world of electronic items is made up of embedded
system. In this chapter we will understand the basics of embedded system right
from its definition.
 2. DEFINITION OF AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM
An embedded system is a combination of 3 things:
Hardware
Software
Mechanical Components
                        And it is supposed to do one specific task only.
Example 1: Washing Machine
A washing machine from an embedded systems point of view has: 
Hardware: Buttons, Display & buzzer, electronic circuitry.
Software: It has a chip on the circuit that holds the software which drives
controls & monitors the various operations possible. 
Mechanical Components: the internals of a washing machine which
actually wash the clothes control the input and output of water, the
chassis itself.
 

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Example 2: Air Conditioner

An Air Conditioner from an embedded systems point of view has:
  Hardware: Remote, Display & buzzer, Infrared Sensors, electronic
circuitry. 
Software: It has a chip on the circuit that holds the software which drives
controls & monitors the various operations possible. The software monitors the
external temperature through the sensors and then releases the coolant or
suppresses it.
Mechanical Components: the internals of an air conditioner the motor,
the chassis, the outlet, etc 
An embedded system is designed to do a specific job only. Example: a washing
machine can only wash clothes, an air conditioner can control the temperature
in the room in which it is placed. 
The hardware & mechanical components will consist all the physically visible
things that are used for input, output, etc.
An embedded system will always have a chip (either microprocessor or
microcontroller) that has the code or software which drives the system.
APPLICATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM 
The application areas and the products in the embedded domain are countless. 
 Consumer Electronics: Camcorders, Cameras.
 Household appliances: Washing machine, Refrigerator.
 Automotive industry: Anti-lock breaking system(ABS), engine control.
 Home automation & security systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, fire alarms.
 Telecom: Cellular phones, telephone switches.
 Computer peripherals: Printers, scanners.
 Computer networking systems: Network routers and switches.
 Healthcare: EEG, ECG machines.
 Banking & Retail: Automatic teller machines, point of sales.
 Card Readers: Barcode, smart card readers.

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3. EMBEDDED  SYSTEM  &  GENERAL  PURPOSE COMPUTER

The Embedded System and the General purpose computer are at two
extremes. The embedded system is designed to perform a specific task whereas as
per definition the general purpose computer is meant for general use. It can be
used for playing games, watching movies, creating software, work on documents
or spreadsheets etc.
 Difference between Computer and Embedded System are as follows:

General Purpose Computer Embedded Systems

It is designed using a microprocessor It is mostly designed using a

as the main processing unit. microcontroller as the main processing
unit.

It contains a large memory It uses semiconductor memories,but

semiconductor memories like cache does not require secondary memories
and RAM. it also contains secondary like hard disk,CD.lt sometime has
storage like hard disks etc. special memory called flash memory.

It is designed such that it can cater to It is designed such that it can cater to a
multiple tasks as per requirement. particular predefined task.

It is mostly costlier compared to the It is cheaper compared to a computer.

embedded systems

It requires huge number of peripheral It is cheaper as it requires less no of

devices and their controllers peripheral devices and their controllers
are microcontroller chip itself.

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General Purpose Computer Embedded Systems

The Operating system and other The operating system(mostly RTOS i.e
software for the general purpose Real Time Operating System) and other
computers, are normally complicated software occupy less memory space.
and occupy more memory space

4. HISTORY OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

Embedded systems date back to the 1960s. Charles Stark Draper developed an
integrated circuit in 1961 to reduce the size and weight of the Apollo Guidance
Computer, the digital system installed on the Apollo Command Module and Lunar
Module. The first computer to use ICs, it helped astronauts collect real-time flight
data.
In 1965, Autonetics, now a part of Boeing, developed the D-17B, the computer
used in the Minuteman I missile guidance system. It is widely recognized as the
first mass-produced embedded system. When the Minuteman II went into
production in 1966, the D-17B was replaced with the NS-17 missile guidance
system, known for its high-volume use of integrated circuits. In 1968, the first
embedded system for a vehicle was released; the Volkswagen 1600 used a
microprocessor to control its electronic fuel injection system.
By the late 1960s and early 1970s, the price of integrated circuits dropped and
usage surged. The first microcontroller was developed by Texas Instruments in
1971. The TMS1000 series, which became commercially available in 1974,
contained a 4-bit processor, read-only memory (ROM) and random-access memory
(RAM), and it cost around $2 apiece in bulk orders.

Also, in 1971, Intel released what is widely recognized as the first commercially
available processor, the 4004. The 4-bit microprocessor was designed for use in
calculators and small electronics, though it required eternal memory and support
chips. The 8-bit Intel 8008, released in 1972, had 16 KB of memory; the Intel 8080
followed in 1974 with 64 KB of memory. The 8080's successor, the x86 series, was
released in 1978 and is still largely in use today.

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In 1987, the first embedded operating system, the real-time VxWorks, was released
by Wind River, followed by Microsoft's Windows Embedded CE in 1996. By the
late 1990s, the first embedded Linux products began to appear. Today, Linux is
used in almost all embedded devices.
THE EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN PROCESS
 Overview of the embedded system design process aimed at two objectives. First,it
will give us an introduction to the various steps in embedded system design before
we delve into them in more detail. Second, it will allow us to consider the
design methodology itself.Figure 1.1 summarizes the major steps in the embedded
system design process.In this top–down view,we start with the
system requirements in the next step comes Specification.

Figure 1. Steps in Design process

Top–down Design—we will begin with the most abstract description of the system
and conclude with concrete details. The alternative is a bottom–up view in which
we start with components to build a system. Bottom–up design steps are shown in
the figure as dashed-line arrows. We need bottom–up design because we do not
have perfect insight into how later stages of the design process will turn out.
During the design process we have to consider the major goals of the design such
as 
■ manufacturing cost; 
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■ performance (both overall speed and deadlines); and 

■ power consumption. 
Design steps are detailed below:  
A.Requirements: 
Requirements may be functional or nonfunctional. We must capture the
basic functions of the embedded system, but functional description is often not
sufficient. Typical nonfunctional requirements include: 
1. Performance: The speed of the system is often a major consideration both for
the usability of the system and for its ultimate cost. Performance may be a
combination of soft performance metrics such as approximate time to perform a
user-level function and hard deadlines by which a particular operation must be
completed. 
2. Cost: The target cost or purchase price for the system is almost always a
consideration. Cost typically has two major components: 
o   Manufacturing cost includes the cost of components and assembly; 
o NonRecurring engineering (NRE) costs include the personnel and other
costs of designing the system. 
3.     Physical size and weight: The physical aspects of the final system can
vary greatly depending upon the application. e.g) An industrial control
system for an assembly line may be designed to fit into a standard-size rack
with no strict limitations on weight. But a handheld device typically has
tight requirements on both size and weight that can ripple through the entire
system design. 
Power consumption: Power, of course, is important in battery-powered systems
and is often important in other applications as well. Power can be specified in the
requirements stage in terms of battery life. 
mock-up. The mock-up may use canned data to simulate functionality in a
restricted  demonstration, and it may be executed on a PC or a workstation. But
it should give the  customer a good idea of how the system will be used and
how the user can react to it. Physical,nonfunctional models of devices can also
give customers a better idea of characteristics such as size and weight.
 
e.g) Requirements analysis of a GPS moving map 

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The moving map is a handheld device that displays for the user a map of the terrain
around the user’s current position; the map display changes as the user and the map
device change position. 
The moving map obtains its position from the GPS, a satellite-based navigation
system. 
Ø     The moving map display might look something like the following figure

 ■  Functionality: This system is designed for highway driving and similar uses,

not nautical or aviation uses that require more specialized databases and functions.
The system should show major roads and other landmarks available in standard
topographic databases. 
■ User interface: The screen should have at least 400_600 pixel resolution. The
device should be controlled by no more than three buttons. 
■ Performance: The map should scroll smoothly. Upon power-up, a display should
take no more than one second to appear, and the system should be able to verify its
position and display the current map within 15 s. 
■ Cost: The selling cost (street price) of the unit should be no more than $100. 
■ Physical size and weight: The device should fit comfortably in the palm of the
hand. 
■ Power consumption: The device should run for at least eight hours on four AA
batteries.

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Figure 2. Requirements chart
 2 B.  Specification 
The specification is more precise—it serves as the contract between the customer
and the architects. The specification should be understandable enough so that
someone can verify that it meets system requirements and overall expectations of
the customer. It should also be unambiguous. the specification must be carefully
written so that it accurately reflects the customer’s requirements and does so in a
way that can be clearly followed during design. A specification of the GPS system
would include several components:
  Data received from the GPS satellite constellation.
  Map Data
  User Interface
Operations that must be performed to satisfy customer requests. Background
actions required to keep the system running, such as operating the GPS receiver.
UML, a language for describing specifications 
C. Architecture Design 
The specification does not say how the system does things, only what the system
does. Describing how the system implements those functions is the purpose of the
architecture. Figure 1.3 shows a sample system architecture in the form of a block
diagram that shows major operations and data flows among them.

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Figure 3. GPS system data flow and operations

Many implementation details should we refine that system block diagram into two
block diagrams: one for hardware and another for software. These two more
refined block diagrams are shown in Figure 1.4.The hardware block diagram
clearly shows that we have one central CPU surrounded by memory and I/O
devices. In particular, we have chosen to use two memories: a frame buffer for the
pixels to be displayed and a separate program/data memory for general use by the
CPU .

 
D. Designing Hardware and Software Components 
The component design effort builds those components in conformance to the
architecture and specification. The components will in general include both
hardware—FPGAs, boards, and so on—and software modules. Some of the
components will be ready-made. In the moving map, the GPS receiver is a good
example of a specialized component that will nonetheless be a predesigned,
standard component. We can also make use of standard software modules. One
good example is the topographic database. 
E. System Integration 
The components built are put together and see how the system works. If we debug
only a few modules at a time, we are more likely to uncover the simple bugs and
able to easily recognize them. Only by fixing the simple bugs early will we be able
to uncover the more complex or obscure bugs.

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CLASSIFICATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

The classification of embedded system is based on following criteria's: 
On generation
On complexity & performance
On deterministic behaviour
On triggering
 
On generation
First generation(1G):
Built around 8bit microprocessor & microcontroller.
Simple in hardware circuit & firmware developed.
Examples: Digital telephone keypads. 
Second generation(2G):
Built around 16-bit µp & 8-bit µc.
They are more complex & powerful than 1G µp & µc.
Examples: SCADA systems 
Third generation(3G):
Built around 32-bit µp & 16-bit µc.
Concepts like Digital Signal Processors(DSPs), Application Specific
Integrated Circuits(ASICs) evolved. 
Examples: Robotics, Media, etc. 
Fourth generation:
Built around 64-bit µp & 32-bit µc.
The concept of System on Chips (SoC), Multicore Processors evolved.
Highly complex & very powerful.
Examples: Smart Phones.
 
On complexity & performance
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1. Small-scale:
Simple in application need
Performance not time-critical.
Built around low performance & low cost 8 or 16 bit µp/µc. 
Example: an electronic toy
 
Medium-scale:
Slightly complex in hardware & firmware requirement. 
Built around medium performance & low cost 16 or 32 bit µp/µc.
Usually contain operating system. 
Examples: Industrial machines.
         Large-scale:
Highly complex hardware & firmware.
Built around 32 or 64 bit RISC µp/µc or PLDs or Multicore Processors. 
Response is time-critical.
Examples: Mission critical applications. 
On deterministic behaviour 
This classification is applicable for “Real Time” systems.
The task execution behaviour for an embedded system may be
deterministic or non-deterministic. 
Based on execution behaviour Real Time embedded systems are divided
into Hard and Soft. 
On triggering
Embedded systems which are “Reactive” in nature can be based on
triggering. 
Reactive systems can be:
Event triggered
Time triggered.

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 Examples of embedded systems

Embedded systems are used in a wide range of technologies across an array
of industries. Some examples include:

 Automobiles. Modern cars commonly consist of many computers

(sometimes as many as 100), or embedded systems, designed to perform
different tasks within the vehicle. Some of these systems perform basic
utility functions and others provide entertainment or user-facing functions.
Some embedded systems in consumer vehicles include cruise control,
backup sensors, suspension control, navigation systems and airbag
systems.

 Mobile phones. These consist of many embedded systems, including GUI

software and hardware, operating systems (OSes), cameras, microphones,
and USB (Universal Serial Bus) I/O (input/output) modules.

 Industrial machines. They can contain embedded systems, like sensors,

and can be embedded systems themselves. Industrial machines often
have embedded automation systems that perform specific monitoring and
control functions.

 Medical equipment. These may contain embedded systems like sensors

and control mechanisms. Medical equipment, such as industrial machines,
also must be very user-friendly so that human health isn't jeopardized by
preventable machine mistakes. This means they'll often include a more
complex OS and GUI designed for an appropriate UI.

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 Real Life Examples of Embedded System

COMPLEX SYSTEMS AND PROCESSORS

What is an embedded computer system? Loosely defined, it is any device that
includes a programmable computer but is not itself intended to be a general-
purpose computer. Thus, a PC is not itself an embedded computing system,
although PCs are often used to build embedded computing systems. But a fax
machine or a clock built from a microprocessor is an embedded computing system.
This means that embedded computing system design is a useful skill for many
types of product design. Automobiles, cell phones, and even household appliances
make extensive use of microprocessors. Designers in many fields must be able to
identify where microprocessors can be used, design a hardware platform with I/O
devices that can support the required tasks, and implement software that performs
the required processing.

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Computer engineering, like mechanical design or thermodynamics, is a

fundamental discipline that can be applied in many different domains. But of
course, embedded computing system design does not stand alone.
Many of the challenges encountered in the design of an embedded computing
system are not computer engineering—for example,they may be mechanical or
analog electrical problems. In this book we are primarily interested in the
embedded computer itself, so we will concentrate on the hardware and software
that enable the desired functions in the final product.
Embedding Computers
 Computers have been embedded into applications since the earliest days of
computing. One example is the Whirlwind, a computer designed at MIT in the late
1940s and early 1950s. Whirlwind was also the first computer designed to
support real-time operation and was originally conceived as a mechanism for
controlling an aircraft simulator.
Even though it was extremely large physically compared to today’s computers
(e.g., it contained over 4,000 vacuum tubes), its complete design from components
to system was attuned to the needs of real-time embedded computing.
The utility of computers in replacing mechanical or human controllers was evident
from the very beginning of the computer era—for example, computers were
proposed to control chemical processes in the late 1940s.
A microprocessor is a single-chip CPU. Very large scale integration (VLSI) stet
the acronym is the name technology has allowed us to put a complete CPU on a
single chip since 1970s, but those CPUs were very simple.
The first microprocessor, the Intel 4004, was designed for an embedded
application, namely, a calculator. The calculator was not a general-purpose
computer—it merely provided basic arithmetic functions. However, Ted Hoff of
Intel realized that a general-purpose computer programmed properly could
implement the required function, and that the computer-on-a-chip could then be
reprogrammed for use in other products as well.
 Since integrated circuit design was (and still is) an expensive and time consuming
process, the ability to reuse the hardware design by changing the software was a
key breakthrough.
The HP-35 was the first handheld calculator to perform transcendental functions
[Whi72]. It was introduced in 1972, so it used several chips to implement the CPU,
rather than a single-chip microprocessor.

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However, the ability to write programs to perform math rather than having to
design digital circuits to perform operations like trigonometric functions was
critical to the successful design of the calculator.
Automobile designers started making use of the microprocessor soon after single-
chip CPUs became available.

The most important and sophisticated use of microprocessors in automobiles was

to control the engine: determining when spark plugs fire, controlling the fuel/air
mixture, and so on. There was a trend toward electronics in automobiles in general
—electronic devices could be used to replace the mechanical distributor.

But the big push toward microprocessor-based engine control came from two
nearly simultaneous developments: The oil shock of the 1970s caused consumers
to place much higher value on fuel economy, and fears of pollution resulted in laws
restricting automobile engine emissions.

The combination of low fuel consumption and low emissions is very difficult to
achieve; to meet these goals without compromising engine performance,
automobile manufacturers turned to sophisticated control algorithms that could be
implemented only with microprocessors.

Microprocessors come in many different levels of sophistication; they are usually

classified by their word size. An 8-bit microcontroller is designed for low-cost
applications and includes on-board memory and I/O devices; a 16-bit
microcontroller is often used for more sophisticated applications that may require
either longer word lengths or off-chip I/O and memory; and a 32-
bit RISC microprocessor offers very high performance for computation-intensive
applications.

Given the wide variety of microprocessor types available, it should be no surprise

that microprocessors are used in many ways. There are many household uses of
microprocessors. The typical microwave oven has at least one microprocessor to
control oven operation.

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Many houses have advanced thermostat systems, which change the temperature
level at various times during the day. The modern camera is a prime example of
the powerful features that can be added under microprocessor control.

Digital television makes extensive use of embedded processors. In some cases,

specialized CPUs are designed to execute important algorithms—an example is the
CPU designed for audio processing in the SGS Thomson chip set for DirecTV
[Lie98]. This processor is designed to efficiently implement programs for digital
audio decoding.
 
A programmable CPU was used rather than a hardwired unit for two reasons: First,
it made the system easier to design and debug; and second, it allowed the
possibility of upgrades and using the CPU for other purposes.

A high-end automobile may have 100 microprocessors, but even inexpensive cars
today use 40 microprocessors. Some of these microprocessors do very simple
things such as detect whether seat belts are in use. Others control critical functions
such as the ignition and braking systems.
 
BMW 850i brake and stability control system:
 
The BMW 850i was introduced with a sophisticated system for controlling the
wheels of the car. An antilock brake system (ABS) reduces skidding by pumping
the brakes.

An automatic stability control (ASC +T) system intervenes with the engine during
maneuvering to improve the car’s stability. These systems actively control critical
systems of the car; as control systems, they require inputs from and output to the
automobile.

Let’s first look at the ABS. The purpose of an ABS is to temporarily release the
brake on a wheel when it rotates too slowly—when a wheel stops turning, the car
starts skidding and becomes hard to control. It sits between the hydraulic pump,

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which provides power to the brakes, and the brakes themselves as seen in the
following diagram. This hookup allows the ABS system to modulate the brakes in
order to keep the wheels from locking.
The ABS system uses sensors on each wheel to measure the speed of the wheel.
The wheel speeds are used by the ABS system to determine how to vary the
hydraulic fluid pressure to prevent the wheels from skidding.

T he ASC + T system’s job is to control the engine power and the brake to improve
the car’s stability during maneuvers.
The ASC+T controls four different systems: throttle, ignition timing, differential
brake, and (on automatic transmission cars) gear shifting.
The ASC + T can be turned off by the driver, which can be important when
operating with tire snow chains.
The ABS and ASC+ T must clearly communicate because the ASC + T interacts
with the brake system. Since the ABS was introduced several years earlier than the
ASC + T, it was important to be able to interface ASC + T to the existing ABS
module, as well as to other existing electronic modules. 
The engine and control management units include the electronically controlled
throttle, digital engine management, and electronic transmission control. The ASC
+ T control unit has two microprocessors on two printed circuit boards, one of
which concentrates on logic-relevant components and the other on performance-
specific components.
 
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Characteristics of Embedded Computing Applications

 
Embedded computing is in many ways much more demanding than the sort of
programs that you may have written for PCs or workstations. Functionality is
important in both general-purpose computing and embedded computing, but
embedded applications must meet many other constraints as well.
 On the one hand, embedded computing systems have to provide sophisticated
functionality:

 Complex algorithms: The operations performed by the microprocessor may be

very sophisticated. For example, the microprocessor that controls an automobile
engine must perform complicated filtering functions to optimize the performance
of the car while minimizing pollution and fuel utilization.

 User interface: Microprocessors are frequently used to control complex user

interfaces that may include multiple menus and many options. The moving maps in
Global Positioning System (GPS) navigation are good examples of sophisticated
user interfaces.
 To make things more difficult, embedded computing operations must often be
performed to meet deadlines:
 
Real time: Many embedded computing systems have to perform in real time— if
the data is not ready by a certain deadline, the system breaks. In some cases, failure
to meet a deadline is unsafe and can even endanger lives. In other cases, missing a
deadline does not create safety problems but does create unhappy customers—
missed deadlines in printers, for example, can result in scrambled pages.
 
Multirate: Not only must operations be completed by deadlines, but many
embedded computing systems have several real-time activities going on at the
same time. They may simultaneously control some operations that run at slow rates
and others that run at high rates. Multimedia applications are prime examples
of multirate behavior. The audio and video portions of a multimedia stream run at
very different rates, but they must remain closely synchronized. Failure to meet a

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deadline on either the audio or video portions spoils the perception of the entire
presentation.
 Costs of various sorts are also very important:
Manufacturing cost: The total cost of building the system is very important in
many cases. Manufacturing cost is determined by many factors, including the type
of microprocessor used, the amount of memory required, and the types of I/O
devices.
 
Power and energy: Power consumption directly affects the cost of the hardware,
since a larger power supply may be necessary. Energy consumption affects battery
life, which is important in many applications, as well as heat consumption, which
can be important even in desktop applications.

How does an embedded system work?

Embedded systems always function as part of a complete device -- that's what's
meant by the term embedded. They are low-cost, low-power-consuming, small
computers that are embedded in other mechanical or electrical systems. Generally,
they comprise a processor, power supply, and memory and communication ports.
Embedded systems use the communication ports to transmit data between the
processor and peripheral devices -- often, other embedded systems -- using a
communication protocol. The processor interprets this data with the help of
minimal software stored on the memory. The software is usually highly specific to
the function that the embedded system serves.

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A photo of an embedded system motherboard with attached cables.

The processor may be a microprocessor or microcontroller. Microcontrollers are

simply microprocessors with peripheral interfaces and integrated memory
included. Microprocessors use separate integrated circuits for memory and
peripherals instead of including them on the chip. Both can be used, but
microprocessors typically require more support circuitry than microcontrollers
because there is less integrated into the microprocessor. The term system on a chip
(SoC) is often used. SoCs include multiple processors and interfaces on a single
chip. They are often used for high-volume embedded systems. Some example SoC
types are the application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) and the field-
programmable gate array (FPGA).

Often, embedded systems are used in real-time operating environments and use
a real-time operating system (RTOS) to communicate with the hardware. Near-
real-time approaches are suitable at higher levels of chip capability, defined by
designers who have increasingly decided the systems are generally fast enough and
the tasks tolerant of slight variations in reaction. In these instances, stripped-down
versions of the Linux operating system are commonly deployed, although other
OSes have been pared down to run on embedded systems, including Embedded
Java and Windows IoT (formerly Windows Embedded).

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Characteristics of embedded systems

The main characteristic of embedded systems is that they are task-specific.

Additionally, embedded systems can include the following characteristics:

 typically, consist of hardware, software and firmware;

 can be embedded in a larger system to perform a specific function, as they are
built for specialized tasks within the system, not various tasks;
 can be either microprocessor-based or microcontroller-based -- both are
integrated circuits that give the system compute power;
 are often used for sensing and real-time computing in internet of things (IoT)
devices, which are devices that are internet-connected and do not require a user
to operate;
 can vary in complexity and in function, which affects the type of software,
firmware and hardware they use; and
 are often required to perform their function under a time constraint to keep the
larger system functioning properly.
Structure of embedded systems
Embedded systems vary in complexity but, generally, consist of three main
elements:

 Hardware. The hardware of embedded systems is based around

microprocessors and microcontrollers. Microprocessors are very similar to
microcontrollers and, typically, refer to a CPU (central processing unit) that is
integrated with other basic computing components such as memory chips and
digital signal processors (DSPs). Microcontrollers have those components built
into one chip.

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 Software and firmware. Software for embedded systems can vary in

complexity. However, industrial-grade microcontrollers and embedded IoT
systems usually run very simple software that requires little memory.
 Real-time operating system. These are not always included in embedded
systems, especially smaller-scale systems. RTOSes define how the system
works by supervising the software and setting rules during program execution.

In terms of hardware, a basic embedded system would consist of the following

elements:

 Sensors convert physical sense data into an electrical signal.

 Analog-to-digital (A-D) converters change an analog electrical signal into a
digital one.
 Processors process digital signals and store them in memory.
 Digital-to-analog (D-A) converters change the digital data from the processor
into analog data.
 Actuators compare actual output to memory-stored output and choose the
correct one.

The sensor reads external inputs, the converters make that input readable to the
processor, and the processor turns that information into useful output for the
embedded system.

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A
diagram of the basic structure and flow of information in embedded systems.

 CHARACTERISTICS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

Following are some of the characteristics of an embedded system that
make it different from a general purpose computer: 
Application and Domain specific
An embedded system is designed for a specific purpose only. It will not do
any other task.
Ex. A washing machine can only wash, it cannot cook
Certain embedded systems are specific to a domain: ex. A hearing aid is an
application that belongs to the domain of signal processing. 
Reactive and Real time
Certain Embedded systems are designed to react to the events that occur in
the nearby environment. These events also occur real-time.
 
Ex. An air conditioner adjusts its mechanical parts as soon as it gets a signal
from its sensors to increase or decrease the temperature when the user
operates it using a remote control.
 
An embedded system uses Sensors to take inputs and has actuators to bring
out the required functionality.
 
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GWCET, NAGPUR Embedded System (8SEM IT)

Operation in harsh environment

 Certain embedded systems are designed to operate in harsh environments like very
high temperature of the deserts or very low temperature of the mountains or
extreme rains.
 These embedded systems have to be capable of sustaining the environmental
conditions it is designed to operate in. 
Distributed
Certain embedded systems are part of a larger system and thus form
components of a distributed system. 
These components are independent of each other but have to work together
for the larger system to function properly. 
Ex. A car has many embedded systems controlled to its dash board. Each
one is an independent embedded system yet the entire car can be said to
function properly only if all the systems work together.
 
Small size and weight
 An embedded system that is compact in size and has light weight will be desirable
or more popular than one that is bulky and heavy. 
Ex. Currently available cell phones. The cell phones that have the maximum
features are popular but also their size and weight is an important
characteristic. 
For convenience users prefer mobile phones than phablets. (phone + tablet
pc) 
Power concerns 
It is desirable that the power utilization and heat dissipation of any embedded
system be low.
If more heat is dissipated then additional units like heat sinks or cooling fans
need to be added to the circuit. 
If more power is required then a battery of higher power or more batteries
need to be accommodated in the embedded system. 
 

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GWCET, NAGPUR Embedded System (8SEM IT)

3. QUALITY  ATTRIBUTES  OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

These are the attributes that together form the deciding factor about the
quality of an embedded system. 
There are two types of quality attributes are:- 
Operational Quality Attributes. 
These are attributes related to operation or functioning of an embedded
system. The way an embedded system operates affects its overall quality. 
Non-Operational Quality Attributes. 
These are attributes not related to operation or functioning of an embedded
system. The way an embedded system operates affects its overall quality. 
These are the attributes that are associated with the embedded system before
it can be put in operation. 
Operational Attributes
Response 
Response is a measure of quickness of the system.
It gives you an idea about how fast your system is tracking the input
variables.
Most of the embedded system demand fast response which should be
real-time. 
Throughput
 Throughput deals with the efficiency of system.
It can be defined as rate of production or process of a defined process
over a stated
period of time.
In case of card reader like the ones used in buses, throughput means how
much transaction the reader can perform in a minute or hour or day.
 

Reliability 

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GWCET, NAGPUR Embedded System (8SEM IT)

Reliability is a measure of how much percentage you rely upon the proper
functioning of the system . 
Mean Time between failures and Mean Time To Repair are terms used in
defining system reliability.
Mean Time between failures can be defined as the average time the
system is functioning before a failure occurs. 
Mean time to repair can be defined as the average time the system has
spent in repairs.
 
Maintainability
 
Maintainability deals with support and maintenance to the end user or a
client in case of technical issues and product failures or on the basis of a
routine system checkup 
It can be classified into two types :- 
Scheduled or Periodic Maintenance
o This is the maintenance that is required regularly after a periodic time interval.
Example :
Periodic Cleaning of Air Conditioners
Refilling of printer cartridges. 
2. Maintenance to unexpected failure
 
This involves the maintenance due to a sudden breakdown in
the functioning of the system.
Example: 
Air conditioner not powering on
Printer not taking paper in spite of a full paper stack

Security
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GWCET, NAGPUR Embedded System (8SEM IT)

   Confidentiality,  Integrity and Availability are three  corner stones

of  information security. 
Confidentiality deals with protection data from unauthorized disclosure.
Integrity gives protection from unauthorized modification.
Availability gives protection from unauthorized user
Certain Embedded systems have to make sure they conform to the security
measures.
Ex. An Electronic Safety Deposit Locker can be used only with a pin
number like a password. 
Safety 
Safety deals with the possible damage that can happen to the operating
person and environment due to the breakdown of an embedded system or
due to the emission of hazardous materials from the embedded products.
 
A safety analysis is a must in product engineering to evaluate the anticipated
damage and determine the best course of action to bring down the
consequence of damages to an acceptable level.
 
Non Operational Attributes 
Testability and Debug-ability 
 It deals with how easily one can test his/her design, application and by which
mean he/she can test it.
 In hardware testing the peripherals and total hardware function in designed
manner
  Firmware testing is functioning in expected way
 Debug-ability is means of debugging the product as such for figuring out the
probable sources that create unexpected behavior in the total system
 

Evolvability

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GWCET, NAGPUR Embedded System (8SEM IT)

  For embedded system, the qualitative attribute “Evolvability” refer to ease with
which the embedded product can be modified to take advantage of new firmware
or hardware technology. 
Portability 
  Portability is measured of “system Independence”.
 An embedded product can be called portable if it is capable of performing its
operation as it is intended to do in various
environments irrespective of different processor and or controller and
embedded operating systems. 
Time to prototype and market 
Time to Market is the time elapsed between the conceptualization of a
product and time at which the product is ready for selling or use
  Product prototyping help in reducing time to market.
Prototyping is an informal kind of rapid product development in which
important feature of the under consider are develop.
In order to shorten the time to prototype, make use of all possible option like
use of reuse, off the self component etc. 
Per unit and total cost 
Cost is an important factor which needs to be carefully monitored. Proper
market study and cost benefit analysis should be carried out before taking
decision on the per unit cost of the embedded product. 
When the product is introduced in the market, for the initial period the sales
and revenue will be low
  There won’t be much competition when the product sales and revenue increase.
During the maturing phase, the growth will be steady and revenue reaches
highest point and at retirement time there will be a drop in sales volume.

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