Hydrology

Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Lesson 2
Weather and Hydrology
TOPICS
1. Thermal circulation
2. Humidity
3. Wind
4. Precipitation
5. Evaporation
6. Evapotranspiration
7. Water Balance

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
 Understand different weather terminology and how its influences the hydrology
 Understand the effects of thermal circulation to the hydrological characteristics and
phenomena
 Solve problems involving humidity, wind, precipitation, evaporation and water balance
 Familiarize with the different climatic conditions affecting temperature, humidity and wind

The hydrologic characteristics of a region are determined largely by its climate and its geological
structure. Among the climatic factors that establish the hydrologic feature of a region are the amount and
distribution of precipitation; the occurrence of snow and ice; and the effects of wind, temperature, and
humidity on evaporation and snowmelt. Consequently, the design and operation of hydraulic projects involve
meteorological considerations. Hydrologic problems in which meteorology plays an important role include
determination of probable maximum precipitation and optimum snowmelt condition for spillway design,
forecasts of precipitation and snowmelt for reservoir operation, and determination of probable maximum
wind over water surfaces for evaluating resulting waves in connection with the design of dam and levees.
Obviously, the hydrologist should have some understanding of the meteorological processes determining a
regional climate.

TOPIC 1: Thermal Circulation

The circulation of the atmosphere is dictated, as a first approximation, by the difference in heating
between the tropics and the poles. The difference in surface heating leads differences in pressure above the
surface. This in turn leads to air movement from the warmer cell to cooler. The corresponding change in
surface pressure resulting from the redistribution of molecules leads to a pressure differential in the opposite
direction at the surface. The direct thermal circulation thus created exchanges air between warm and cold
regions. Thermal circulation is generated by pressure gradients produced from differential heating. If the
earth were a nonrotating sphere, a purely thermal circulation would result. The equator receives more solar
radiation than the higher latitudes. Equatorial air, being warmer, is lighter and tends to rise. As it rises, it is
replaced by cooler air from higher latitudes. The only way the air from the higher latitudes can be replaced is
from above-by the pole ward flow of air rising from the equator.
(See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PFxpJkMXhwg)

 Warm air leads to higher pressure in the air

 Air moves from higher pressure to lower pressure areas
and tend to increase the surface pressure over the cool
place
 Thermal circulation moves from cool place to warm place
near the surface

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 Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Factor modifying the thermal circulation

The earth rotates from west to east and a point at the equator move at about 1500 ft/s while one at 60°
lat. moves at one-half this speed. From the principle of conservation of angular momentum, it follows that a
parcel of air at rest relative to the earth's surface at the equator would attain a theoretical eastward velocity
of 2250 ft/s (relative to the earth' surface) if moved northward to 60° lat. Conversely, if a parcel of air at the
North Pole were moved southward to 60° lat., it would reach a theoretical westward velocity of 750 ft/s.
However, wind speeds of this magnitude are never observed in nature because of friction. The force that
would be required to produce these changes in velocity is known as the Coriolis force. This apparent force
always acts to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

Atmospheric circulation

 The rising equatorial air acquires an eastward component as it moves northward.

 At about 30° lat., it tends to subside because of cooling. The subsiding air splits into two currents,
one moving southward as the northeast trade winds and the second continuing northward and
eastward.
 In the polar cell, loss of heat in the lower layers results in subsidence, the subsiding air spreading
southward and westward. As it moves southward the air is warmed, and at about 60° lat. it rises and
returns pole ward as a south westerly current aloft.
 In the middle cell the south westerly current in the lower layers meets the southern edge of the polar
cell and is forced upward over the colder westward-moving air. This circulation would result in an
accumulation of air in the polar cell were it not for outbreaks of excess polar air southward
 The idealized circulation implies belts of low pressure {surface) at the equator and at about 60° lat.
where warmer air is rising. High pressure would be expected at about 300 lat. and at the poles. This
pressure pattern is greatly distorted by the effects of water and land masses. These effects are the
results of differences in the specific heats, reflectivity, and mixing properties of water and land and of
the existence of barriers to air flow.
 Heat gains and losses are distributed through relatively great depths in large bodies of water by
mixing, while land is affected only near the surface.
 Land-surface temperatures are far less equable than those of the surface of large bodies of water.
This condition is further emphasized by the lower specific heat of the soil and its higher albedo,
especially in winter when snow cover reflects most of the incident radiation back to space. In winter
there is a tendency for the accumulation of cold dense air over land masses and warm air over the
oceans; the situation is reversed during summer.

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 Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Migratory Systems
The semi-permanent features of the general, or mean, circulation are statistical and at any time may
be distorted or displaced by transitory or migratory systems. Both semi-permanent and transitory features
are classified as cyclones or anticyclones. A cyclone is a circular area of low atmospheric pressure in which
the winds blow counter clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. Tropical cyclones form at low latitudes and
may develop into violent hurricanes or typhoons with winds exceeding 75 mph over areas as large as 200
mi in diameter. Extra-tropical cyclones form along fronts, the boundaries between warm and cold air mass
such cyclones are usually larger than tropical cyclone and may produce precipitation over thousands of
square miles. An anticyclone is an area of relatively high pressure in which the winds tend to blow spirally
outward in a clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere.
(See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UKL9NIxLIIE)

Measurement of temperature
In order to measure temperature properly, the thermometers must be placed where air circulation is
relatively unobstructed and yet they must be protected from the direct rays of the sun and from precipitation.
1. A thermometer measures the degree of hotness or coldness of a given substance. It operates on
the principle of thermal expansion of the material used, e.g., liquids like mercury and alcohol, metallic
materials, etc. Mercury is one of the liquids very sensitive to changes of temperature. When the
substance to be measured is warm, mercury expands and raises in the capillary tube and the
mercury contracts when it cools.

2. In order to measure the temperature range, a set of maximum and minimum thermometers are used.
A maximum thermometer has a constriction above the bulb that permits the mercury to rise in the
capillary tube but does not allow it to descend the capillary tube unless the thermometer is reset. The
highest point that the mercury reaches indicates the maximum temperature for the period. The
minimum thermometer, on the other hand, gives the lowest temperature. It uses colored alcohol
(because of its low freezing point). It is placed at an angle of about 20° from the horizontal. The black
float called index needle is pulled downslope to the lowest temperature of the day by two forces; a)
the surface tension at the top of the alcohol column and b) the force of gravity.

3. A thermograph is an instrument that records air temperature continuously on graphing paper. It

usually consists of a cylinder made to revolve once each week by means of clockworks inside. A
sheet of graph paper is fastened on the outside. A pen-point that rests on the paper traces the
temperature curve, according to the expansion and contraction of a sensitive metallic coil or strip
corresponding to the reading of a thermometer.

Terminologies:
 The mean daily temperature is the average of the daily maximum and minimum temperatures. It
yields a value usually less than a degree above the true daily average. Once-daily temperature
observation is usually made about 7am or 5pm. Temperature are published as of the date of the
reading even though the maximum or minimum may have occurred on the proceeding day. Mean
temperatures computed from evening readings tend to be slightly higher than the midnight readings.

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 Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

 The normal daily temperature is the average daily mean temperature for a given date computed for a
specific 30-yr period.
 The daily range in temperature is the difference between the highest and lowest temperatures
recorded on a particular day.
 The mean monthly temperature is the average of the mean monthly maximum and minimum
temperatures.
 The mean annual temperature is the average of the monthly means for the year.
 The degree day is a departure of one degree for one day in the mean daily temperature from a
specified base temperature. For snowmelt computations, the number of degree days for a day is equal
to the mean daily temperature minus the base temperature, all negative differences being taken as
zero. The number of degree days in a month or other time interval is the total of the daily values.
Published degree-day values are for heating purposes and are based on departures below 65°F.
 The lapse rate, or vertical temperature gradient, is the rate of change of temperature with height in the
free atmosphere. The mean lapse rate is a decrease of about 3.6 F° per 1000 ft increase in height.
The greatest variations in lapse rate are found in the layer of air just above the land surface. The earth
radiates heat energy to space at a relatively constant rate which is a function of its absolute
temperature. Incoming radiation at night is less than the outgoing, and the temperature of the earth's
surface and of the air immediately above it decreases.
 The temperature inversion refers to the increase in temperature due to altitude. This condition
usually occurs on still, clear nights because there is little turbulent mixing of air and because outgoing
radiation is unhampered by clouds. Temperature inversions are also observed at higher levels when
warm air currents overrun colder air.

Geographic distribution of temperature

In general, temperature tends to be highest at low latitudes and to decrease pole ward. However, this
trend is greatly distorted by the influence of land and water masses, topography, and vegetation. In the
interior of large islands and continents, temperatures are higher in summer and lower in winter than on
coasts at corresponding latitudes. Temperatures at high elevations are lower than at low level, and southern
slopes have warmer temperatures than northern slopes. The average rate of decrease of surface air temp
rate with height is usually between 3 and 5 F° per 1000 ft. Forested areas have higher daily minimum and
lower daily maximum temperatures than do barren areas. The mean temperature in a forested area may be
2 to 4 F° lower than that in comparable open country, the difference being greater in the summer. The heat
from a large city, which may roughly equal one-third of the total radiation reaching it, produces local
distortions in the temperature. The mean annual temperature of cities averages about 2 F° higher than that
of the surrounding region, most of the difference resulting from higher daily minima in the cities. On still,
clear nights, when radiation cooling is particularly effective, the temperature on the ground may be as much
as 15 F° lower than that at an elevation of 100 ft. A slight gradient in the opposite direction is observed on
windy or cloudy nights. Daytime maxima tend to be lower at rooftop level than at the ground. In general, the
average temperature from roof exposures is slightly lower than that on the ground.
(See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I8HlBL2dbzg)

Time variation of temperature

In continental region the warmest and coldest points of the annual temperature cycle lag behind the
solstices by about one month. At oceanic stations the lag is nearer two months, and the temperature
difference between warmest and coldest months is much less. The daily variation of temperature lags
slightly behind the daily variation of solar radiation. The temperature begins to rise shortly after sunrise,
reaches a peak 1 to 3 hours (about 1/2hr at oceanic stations) after the sun has reached its highest altitude,
and falls through the night to a minimum about sunrise. The daily range of temperature is affected by the
state of the sky. On cloudy days the maximum temperature is lower because of reduced insolation, and the
minimum is higher because of reduced outgoing radiation. The daily range is also smaller over oceans.

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 Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

TOPIC 2: Humidity

The process by which liquid water is converted into vapour is called vaporization or evaporation.
Molecules of water having sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the attractive forces tending to hold them
within the body of liquid water are projected through the water surface. Since kinetic energy increases and
surface tension decreases as temperature rises, the rate of evaporation increases with temperature. Most
atmospheric vapour is the product of evaporation from water surfaces. Molecules may leave a snow or ice
surface in the same manner as they leave n. liquid. The process whereby the solid is transformed directly to
the vapour state, and vice versa, is called sublimation. In any mixture of gases, each gas exerts a partial
pressure independent of the other gases.

The maximum amount of water vapour that can exist in any given space is a function of
temperature and is independent of the coexistence of other gases. When the maximum amount of water
vapour for a given temperature is contained in a given space, the space is said to be saturated. The more
common expression "the air is saturated" is not strictly correct. The pressure exerted by the vapour in a
saturated space is called the saturation vapour pressure, which, for all practical purposes, is the
maximum vapour pressure possible at a given temperature.

The process by which vapour changes to the liquid or solid state is called condensation. In a
space in contact with a water surface, condensation and vaporization always go on simultaneously. If the
space is not saturated, the rate of vaporization will exceed the rate of condensation, resulting in a net
evaporation. If the space is saturated, the rates of vaporization and condensation balance, provided that
the water and air temperatures are the same. Since the saturation vapour pressure over ice is less than that
over water at the same temperature, the introduction of ice into a space saturated with respect to liquid
water at the same or higher temperature will result in condensation of the vapour on the ice. This is an
important factor in the production of heavy rain. Vaporization removes heat from the liquid being vaporized,
while condensation adds heat. The latent heat of vaporization is the amount of heat absorbed by a unit
mass of a substance, without change in temperature, while passing from the liquid to the vapour state. The
change from vapour to the liquid state releases an equivalent amount of heat known as the latent heat of
condensation.

Atmospheric water mostly exists as a gas, or vapour but briefly and locally it becomes a liquid in
rainfall and in water droplets in clouds or it becomes a solid in snowfall, in hail and in ice crystals in clouds.
The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere is less than 1 part in 100,000 of all the waters of the earth,
but it plays a vital role in the hydrologic cycle.
Vapour transport in air through a hydrologic system can be described by the Reynolds transport
𝑑𝐵
theorem letting the extensive property 𝐵 be the mass of the water vapour. The intensive property 𝛽 = 𝑑𝑚
is the mass of water vapour per unit mass of moist air; called as specific humidity, 𝑞𝑣 and equals the ratio of
the densities of water vapour (𝜌𝑣 )and moist air ( 𝜌𝑎 ).
𝝆𝒗
𝒒𝒗 =
𝝆𝒂
𝑑𝐵
By the laws of conservation of mass, 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣 , the rate at which water vapour is being added to
the system. For evaporation from a water surface, 𝑚𝑣 is positive and represents the mass flow rate of
evaporation; conversely for condensation, 𝑚𝑣 is negative and represents the rate at which the vapour is
being removed from the system. The Reynolds transport equation for this system is the continuity equation
for vapour transport:
0 0
𝑑
𝑚𝑣 = ∭ 𝑞𝑣 𝜌𝑎 𝑑∀ + ∬ 𝑞𝑣 𝜌𝑎 𝑉𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡
𝑐.𝑣 𝑐.𝑠
Vapour Pressure
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure states that the pressure exerted by a gas (its vapour pressure) is
independent of the presence of other gases, the vapour pressure, e of the water vapour is given by the ideal
gas law:
𝒆 = 𝝆𝒗 𝑹𝒗 𝑻
Where:
𝑇 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝑣 = 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟

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 Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

If the total pressure exerted by the moist air is 𝑝, then 𝑝 − 𝑒 is the partial pressure due to the dry air:

𝒑 − 𝒆 = 𝝆𝒅 𝑹𝒅 𝑻

Where:
𝜌𝑑 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝐽
𝑅𝑑 = 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟, 287
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾
𝜌𝑑 = 𝜌𝑑 + 𝜌𝑣
𝑅𝑑
𝑅𝑣 =
0.622
Then:
𝑣 𝜌
𝑝 = [𝜌𝑑 + (0.622 )] 𝑅𝑑 𝑇

Specific humidity, 𝑞𝑣 can be approximated as:

𝒆
𝒒𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟐
𝒑
And can be written in terms of the gas constant for moist air, 𝑅𝑎 as:

𝒑 = 𝝆𝒂 𝑹𝒂 𝑻

The relationship between the gas constant for moist air and dry air is given by:
𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑑 ( 1 + 0.608𝑞𝑣 )
𝐽
𝑅𝑎 = 287 ( 1 + 0.608𝑞𝑣 )
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾

The gas constant of moist air increases with specific humidity, but even for a large specific humidity
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
(𝑞𝑣 = 0.03 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑖𝑟),the difference between the gas constant for moist and dry air air is
only about 2 percent.

For a given air temperature, there is a maximum moisture content the air can hold, and the
corresponding vapour pressure is called as the saturation vapour pressure, 𝑒𝑠 . Over the water surface the
saturation vapour pressure is related to the air temperature and can be approximated as:
𝟏𝟕. 𝟐𝟕𝑻
𝒆𝒔 = 𝟔𝟏𝟏 𝐞𝐱𝐩 ( )
𝟐𝟑𝟕. 𝟐 + 𝑻
𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑃𝑎
The gradient ∆ = ( ℃ ) of the saturated vapour pressure curve is found by differentiating:
𝑑𝑇

4098𝑒𝑠
∆= (237.3+𝑇)2

The relative humidity 𝑅ℎ is the ratio of the actual vapour pressure to its saturation value at a given
air temperature:
𝒆
𝑹𝒉 =
𝒆𝒔
The temperature at which air would just become saturated at a specific humidity is called as the
dew-point temperature, 𝑇𝑑

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 Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Example:
At a climate station, air pressure is measured as 100kP, air temperature as 20ºC and the wet-bulb
or dew point temperature is 16ºC. Calculate the corresponding vapour pressure, relative humidity, specific
humidity and air density:

Solution:
1. Saturated vapour pressure at 𝑇 = 20℃
17.27𝑇
𝑒𝑠 = 611 exp ( )
237.2 + 𝑇
17.27 ∗ 20
𝑒𝑠 = 611 exp ( )
237.2 + 20
𝒆𝒔 = 𝟐𝟑𝟑𝟗 𝑷𝒂

2. actual vapour pressure considering dew point temperature of 𝑇𝑑 = 16℃

17.27𝑇𝑑
𝑒 = 611 exp ( )
237.2 + 𝑇𝑑
17.27 ∗ 16
𝑒 = 611 exp ( )
237.2 + 16
𝒆 = 𝟏𝟖𝟏𝟗𝑷𝒂

3. Relative humidity
𝑒
𝑅ℎ =
𝑒𝑠
1819𝑃𝑎
𝑅ℎ =
2339𝑃𝑎
𝑹𝒉 = 𝟕𝟖. %

4. Specific humidity
𝑒
𝑞𝑣 = 0.622
𝑝
1819𝑃𝑎
𝑞𝑣 = 0.622
1000𝑃𝑎
100𝑘𝑃𝑎 ∗
1𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝒒𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟑 𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝒌𝒈

5. Air density
𝐽
𝑅𝑎 = 287 ( 1 + 0.608𝑞𝑣 )
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾
𝐽
𝑅𝑎 = 287 [ 1 + 0.608(0.0113)]
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾
𝑱
𝑹𝒂 = 𝟐𝟖𝟗
𝒌𝒈. 𝑲
Then:
𝑝
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑎 𝑅𝑎 𝑇 𝜌𝑎 =
𝑅𝑎 𝑇
1000𝑃𝑎
100𝑘𝑃𝑎 ∗
𝜌𝑎 = 1𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝐽
(289 𝑘𝑔. 𝐾) (20 + 273)
𝒌𝒈
𝝆𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖 𝟑
𝒎

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 Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Water vapour in a static atmospheric column

Two laws govern the properties of water vapour in a static column, the ideal gas law:
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑎 𝑅𝑎 𝑇

And the hydrostatic pressure law:

𝑑𝑝
= −𝜌𝑎 𝑔
𝑑𝑧

The variation of air temperature with altitude

described as:
𝑑𝑇
= −𝛼
𝑑𝑧

Where 𝛼 = 𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝑝
From: 𝜌𝑎 =
𝑅𝑎 𝑇
And:
𝑑𝑝
= −𝜌𝑎 𝑔
𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑝 𝑝𝑔
= −
𝑑𝑧 𝑅𝑎 𝑇

Re-arranging the equation, becomes:

𝑑𝑝 𝑔 𝑑𝑝 𝑔
= − 𝑅 𝑇 𝑑𝑧 since: 𝑑𝑧 = − 𝑝 = − 𝑅 𝑇 𝑑𝑧
𝑝 𝑎 𝑎
Then:
𝑑𝑝 𝑔 𝑑𝑇
= −𝑅 𝑑𝑧 and 𝑑𝑧 = −
𝑝 𝑎𝑇 𝛼

𝑑𝑝 𝑔 𝑑𝑇
= −𝑅 (− )
𝑝 𝑎𝑇 𝛼

Integrating both sides between two levels 1 and 2 in the atmosphere gives:
𝑝2 𝑔 𝑇2
ln ( ) = ( ) ln ( )
𝑝1 𝛼𝑅𝑎 𝑇1
Or:
𝑔
𝑇 𝛼𝑅𝑎
𝑝2 = 𝑝1 (𝑇2 )
1

Temperature variation between altitudes 𝑧1 and 𝑧2

𝑻𝟐 = 𝑻𝟏 − 𝜶(𝒛𝟐 − 𝒛𝟏 )

Precipitable Water
The amount of moisture in an atmospheric column is called precipitable water. Consider an element of height
𝑑𝑧 in column of horizontal cross sectional area𝐴. The mass of air in the element is 𝜌𝑎 𝐴𝑑𝑧 and the mass of water
contained in the air is 𝑞𝑣 𝜌𝑎 𝐴𝑑𝑧. The total mass of precipitable water in the column between the elevations 𝑧1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2
is:
𝑧
𝑚𝑝 = ∫𝑧 2 𝑞𝑣 𝜌𝑎 𝐴𝑑𝑧
1

The integral is calculated using intervals of height∆𝑧, each with an incremental mass of precipitable water:
∆𝑚𝑝 = 𝑞̅𝑣 𝜌̅𝑎 𝐴∆𝑧

Where: 𝑞̅𝑣 𝜌̅𝑎 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

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 Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Example 1:
Calculate the precipitable water in a saturated air column 10km above 1𝑚2 of ground surface. The surface
pressure is 101.3 kPa, the surface air temperature is 30℃, and the lapse rate is 6.5℃/𝑘𝑚

Solution:
For the first increment:
∆𝑧 = 2𝑘𝑚 = 2000𝑚
𝑧1 = 0𝑚
𝑇1 = 30℃ = 30 + 273 = 303𝐾
𝑧2 = 2000𝑚
℃ ℃
𝛼 = 6.5 = 0.0065
𝑘𝑚 𝑚
Using:
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 − 𝛼(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
℃
𝑇2 = 30 − 0.0065 (2000 − 0)
𝑚
𝑇1 = 17℃
𝑻𝟏 = 𝟏𝟕 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑 = 𝟐𝟗𝟎𝑲
𝑔 9.81
Air pressure is given at 2000m and 𝛼𝑅𝑎
= ℃ 𝐽 = 5.26
0.0065𝑚 (287 𝑘𝑔.𝐾)
𝑔
𝑇2 𝛼𝑅𝑎
𝑝2 = 𝑝1 ( )
𝑇1
290 5.26
𝑝2 = 101.3 ( )
303
𝒑𝟐 = 𝟖𝟎. 𝟒𝒌𝑷𝒂

Air density:
𝑝
𝜌𝑎 =
𝑅𝑎 𝑇
101.3𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝜌𝑎 = 𝐽
(287 𝑘𝑔. 𝐾) (303𝐾)
𝒌𝒈
𝝆𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟔 𝟑
𝒎
𝑘𝑔
Similar calculation for the air density at 0.97 3 at 2000m; then the average density over the 2km increment is
𝑚
1.16+0.97 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝜌̅𝑎 = 2 𝑚3
= 1.07 𝑚3

Saturated vapour pressure at 𝑇 = 30℃

17.27𝑇
𝑒𝑠 = 611 exp ( )
237.2 + 𝑇
17.27 ∗ 30
𝑒𝑠 = 611 exp ( )
237.2 + 30
𝒆𝒔 = 𝟒𝟐𝟒𝟕 𝑷𝒂

The corresponding value at 2000m where at 𝑇 = 17℃ 𝑖𝑠 𝑒 = 1.94𝑘𝑃𝑎. Specific humidity at the ground
surface
𝑒
𝑞𝑣 = 0.622
𝑝
4224𝑃𝑎
𝑞𝑣 = 0.622
101,300𝑃𝑎
𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝒒𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔 𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝒌𝒈
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
The corresponding value at 2000m is 𝑞𝑣 = 0.015 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
. Then the average value of specific humidity is:
0.026+0.015 𝑘𝑔
𝑞̅𝑣 = = 0.0205 , then the mass of the precipitable water:
2 𝑘𝑔

∆𝑚𝑝 = 𝑞̅𝑣 𝜌̅𝑎 𝐴∆𝑧

𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
∆𝑚𝑝 = (0.0205 ) (1.07 3 ) (1)(2000𝑚)
𝑘𝑔 𝑚
∆𝒎𝒑 = 𝟒𝟑. 𝟕 𝒌𝒈

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 Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Precipitable water in saturated air column

saturated
air vapour specific incremental
Elevation Temperature pressure density pressure humidity average over increment mass % of total mass
𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑎 , 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑚3 𝑞𝑣 , 𝑞̅𝑣 , 𝜌̅𝑎 ,
𝑚 ℃ K 𝑝, 𝑃𝑎 𝑒, 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑚3 ∆𝑚, 𝑘𝑔
0 30 303 101,300 1.16489 4247.534454 0.026080616
2000 17 290 80433.078 0.966395 1939.244389 0.014996442 0.020538529 1.065642637 43.773465 56.80000391
4000 4 277 63192.3934 0.794883 813.6239537 0.008008465 0.011502454 0.880639069 20.25902051 26.28789939
6000 -9 264 49074.725 0.647697 309.1986345 0.003918953 0.005963709 0.721290059 8.603128504 11.16333223
8000 -22 251 37627.4679 0.522335 104.5407046 0.001728108 0.00282353 0.585016273 3.30362254 4.286747078
10000 -35 238 28445.6599 0.416445 30.74508044 0.00067228 0.001200194 0.469389913 1.126717654 1.462017392
77.06595421

Problems:
1. At a climate station, the following measurements are made: air pressure= 101 𝑘𝑃𝑎, ait temperature: 25℃ and dew –point temperature of 20℃. Calculate the corresponding vapour pressure, relative
humidity, specific humidity and air density.
℃
2. Calculate the precipitable water (mm) in a 14km high saturated atmospheric column if the surface conditions are temperature at 20℃, pressure = 101.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎 and the lapse rate is 6.5 𝑘𝑚

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Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Measurement of humidity
In general, measurements of humidity in the surface layers of the atmosphere are made with a psychrometer,
which consists of two thermometers, one with it bulb covered by a jacket of clean muslin saturated with water. The
thermometers are ventilated by whirling or by use of a fan. Because of the cooling effect of evaporation, the
moistened, or wet-bulb, thermometer reads lower than the dry, the difference in degrees being known as the wet-bulb
depression. The air temperature and wet-bulb depression are used to obtain various expressions of humidity by
reference to special tables.

The hair hygrograph is a hair hygrometer operating a pen marking a trace

on a chart wrapped around a revolving drum. The hygrothermograph,
combining the features of both the hair hygrograph and the thermograph,
records both relative humidity and temperature on one chart. A dew-point
hygrometer, which measures dew point directly and is used mostly for laboratory
purposes, consists of a highly polished metal vessel containing a suitable liquid which
is cooled by any of several methods. The temperature of the liquid at the time
condensation begins to occur on the exterior of the metal vessel is the dew- point.

The spectroscopic hygrometer measures the selective

absorption of light in certain bands of the spectrum by water vapour. With the
sun as a light source, it has been used to measure total atmospheric
moisture. Measurement of humidity is one of the least accurate
instrumental procedures in meteorology. The standard psychrometer
invites many observational errors. The two thermometers double the
chance of misreading. At low temperatures, misreading by a few tenths of a
degree can lead to absurd results.

Geographic distribution of humidity

Atmospheric moisture tends to decrease with increasing latitude, but relative humidity, being an inverse
function of temperature, tends to increase. Atmospheric moisture is greatest over oceans and d creases with
distance inland. It also decreases with elevation and is greater over vegetation than over barren soil
Time variation in humidity
Like temperature, atmospheric moisture is at a maximum in summer and at a minimum in winter Relative
humidity, however, varies in reverse. The diurnal variation of atmospheric moisture is normally small, except where
land and sea breezes bring air of differing characteristics. Near the ground surface, condensation of dew at night and
re-evaporation during the day may result in minimum moisture content near sunrise and a maximum by noon.
Relative humidity, of course, behaves in a manner opposite to that of temperature, being at a maximum in the early
morning and at a minimum in the afternoon.

TOPIC 3: Precipitation

Precipitation includes rainfall, snowfall and other processes by which water falls to the land surface. In order
for precipitation to occur at the earth’s surface:
 a moisture source must be available;
 moist air must undergo lifting and resultant cooling;
 a phase change must occur with resulting condensation onto small nuclei in the air
 Droplets must grow large enough to overcome drag and evaporation to reach the ground.

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Precipitation is often classified according to conditions that generate vertical air motion. Figure below shows
the three main mechanisms:
1. Convective , due to intense heating of air at the ground, which leads to expansion and vertical rise of
air;
2. Cyclonic, associated with the movement of large air-mass systems, as in the case of warm or cold
fronts; and
3. Orographic, due to mechanical lifting of moist air masses over the windward side of mountain ranges.

Mechanism of Precipitation

Condensation of water vapor into cloud droplets occurs due to cooling of moist air to a temperature below
the saturation point for water vapor. This is most commonly achieved through vertical lifting to levels where pressure
and temperature are lower. A large portion of the atmospheric mass lies within 18,000 ft of the surface and contains
most of the clouds and moisture. Condensation can be caused by (1) adiabatic cooling (no heat loss to
surroundings), (2) mixing of air masses having different temperatures, (3) cooling by advection of cold air masses,
and (4) cooling by radiation. Adiabatic cooling is by far the most important producer of appreciable precipitation.

Distribution of rainfall in the Philippines

Small condensation nuclei must be present for the formation of cloud droplets. Such nuclei come from many
sources, such as ocean salt, dust from clay soils, industrial combustion products, and volcanoes, and they range in
size from 0.1 m to 10 m. Cloud droplets originally average 0.01 mm in diameter, and it is only when they exceed 0.5
mm that significant precipitation occurs. It may take hours for a small raindrop (1 mm) to grow on a condensation
nucleus. As vapor-laden air rises, it cools as it expands; and as saturation occurs, water vapor begins to condense
on the most active nuclei. The principal mechanism for the supply of water to the growing droplet in early stages is
diffusion of water-vapor molecules down the vapor-pressure gradient toward the droplet surface. As the droplets
increase in mass, they begin to move relative to the overall cloud. However, other processes must support the growth
of droplets of sufficient size (0.5–3.0 mm) to overcome air resistance and to fall as precipitation. These include the

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Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

coalescence process and the ice-crystal process. The coalescence process is considered dominant in summer
shower precipitation. As water droplets fall, the smaller ones are overtaken by larger ones, and droplet size is
increased through collision. This can produce significant precipitation, especially in warm cumulus clouds in tropical
regions. The ice-crystal process attracts condensation on freezing nuclei because of lower vapor pressures. The ice
crystals grow in size through contact with other particles, and collisions cause snowflakes to form.

The formation of precipitation in clouds is illustrated below. As the air rises and cools, water condenses from
the vapour to the liquid state. If the temperature is below the freezing point, then ice crystals are formed.
Condensation requires a seed called condensation nucleus around which the water molecules can attach or nucleate
themselves. Particles of dust floating in air can act as condensation nuclei; particles containing ions are effective
nuclei because the ions electrostatically attract the polar bonded water molecules. Ions in the atmosphere include
particles of salt derived from evaporated sea spray, sulphur and nitrogen compounds resulting from combustion. The
diameters of these particles range from10−3 𝑡𝑜 10𝜇𝑚, and the particles ate known as aerosols. For comparison,
the size of an atom is about10−4 𝜇𝑚, so the smallest aerosols may be composed of just a few hundred atoms (see
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jPttPFSJl_k).

Water droplets in clouds are formed by nucleation on vapour on aerosols, and then go through, any condensation-
evaporation cycles as they circulate in the cloud, until they aggregate into
large enough drops to fall through the cloud base

Cloud seeding
Cloud seeding is the process of artificially nucleating clouds to induce precipitation, Silver iodide is common
nucleating agent and is spread from aircraft in which the silver iodide solution is evaporated with a propane flame to
produce particles. While there have been many experiments wherein cloud seeding was considered to have induced
precipitation, the greater variability of meteorological processes involved in producing precipitation make it difficult to
achieve consistent results.
(See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bU4z8ZiX_eA).

Terminal velocity
There are three acting on the falling raindrop: a raindrop force: 𝐹𝑔 due to its weight, a buoyancy force: 𝐹𝑏 due to its
displacement of air by drop; and a drag force, 𝐹𝑑 due to friction between the drop and the surrounding air. If the drop
𝜋
is a sphere of diameter D, the volume is 𝑉 = 6 𝐷3 , so the weight force is:
𝜋
𝐹𝑔 = 𝜌𝑤 𝑔 𝐷3
6
The buoyancy force is;

𝜋
𝐹𝑏 = 𝜌𝑎 𝑔 𝐷3
6

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Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

The friction drag force is:

𝑉2
𝐹𝑑 = 𝑐𝑑 𝜌𝑎 𝐴 2
Where:
𝜌𝑤 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜌𝑎 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝐶𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑠𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝜋
𝐴 = 4 𝐷2
𝑉 = 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

If the drop is release from rest it will accelerate until it reaches its terminal velocity, 𝑉𝑡 at which the three
forces are balanced. In this condition,
𝐹𝑑 = 𝐹𝑔 − 𝐹𝑏
𝑉2 𝜋 𝜋
Then: 𝑐𝑑 𝜌𝑎 𝐴 = 𝜌𝑤 𝑔 6 𝐷3 − 𝜌𝑎 𝑔 6 𝐷3
2

Solving for the velocity;

𝟏/𝟐
𝟒𝒈𝑫 𝝆𝒘
𝑽𝒕 = [ ( − 𝟏)]
𝟑𝑪𝒅 𝝆𝒂
The assumption of a spherical raindrop shape is valid for drops up to 1mm in diameter. Beyond the size, the
drops become flattened on the bottom and more oval in cross section; then they are characterized by the equivalent
diameter of a spherical raindrop having the same volume as the actual drop. Raindrops can range up to 6mm in
diameter, but drops larger than3mm are unusual, especially in a low intensity rainfall.
For tiny droplets in clouds, up to 0.1mm diameter, the drag force is specified by Stoke’s Law for which the
24 𝜌 𝑉𝐷
drag coefficient is 𝐶𝑑 = 𝑅 , where 𝑅𝑒 is the Reynolds number 𝑎𝜇 with 𝜇𝑎 , being the air viscosity. Falling
𝑒 𝑎
raindrops are beyond the range of Stoke’s La; values of 𝐶𝑑 developed experimentally by observation of raindrops.
Drag coefficients for spherical raindrops of diameter, D at standard atmospheric pressure of 101.3kPa and 20℃ air temperature
Drop diameter (D, mm) 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

Drag coefficient, 𝐶𝑑 4.2 1.66 1.07 0.815 0.671 0.517 0.503 0.559 0.660

Example:
Calculate the terminal velocity with 𝐶𝑑 = 0.671 at 20℃, 𝜌𝑤 = 998𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 and 𝜌𝑎 = 1.2𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 at
pressure of 101.3kPa.

Solution:
1/2
4𝑔𝐷 𝜌𝑤
𝑉𝑡 = [ ( − 1)]
3𝐶𝑑 𝜌𝑎
1/2
4(9.81)(0.001) 998
𝑉𝑡 = [ ( − 1)]
3(0.671) 1.20
𝒎
𝑽𝒕 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟐𝟑𝟗𝟖
𝒔

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Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Thunderstorm Cell Model

The mechanism underlying the air mass lifting and precipitation are illustrated by considering a schematic
model of thunderstorm cell. The thunderstorm is visualized as a vertical column made up of three parts, an inflow
region near the ground where warm, moist air is drawn into the cell, an uplift region in the middle where moisture
condenses as air rises, producing precipitation and an outflow region in the upper atmosphere where outflow of
cooler, dryer air occurs. Outside the cell column, the outflow air may descend over a wide area, pick up the moisture
and re-enter the cell at the bottom. The entire pattern called as convective cell circulation is driven by vast amount of
heat energy released by condensing moisture in the uplift region. Observations of cumulonimbus clouds producing
thunderstorm indicate that the elevation of the top of the convective cell ranges from 8km to 16km (5 to 10mi) in the
atmosphere. (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zUNEFefftt8).

A convective thunderstorm cell visualized as cylindrical column of

diameter D having inflow, uplift and outflow regions

The thunderstorm is analysed using the continuity equation for

water vapour:
0 ̇ 0
𝑑
𝑚𝑣 = ∭ 𝑞𝑣 𝜌𝑎 𝑑∀ + ∬ 𝑞𝑣 𝜌𝑎 𝑉𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡
𝑐.𝑣 𝑐.𝑠

If precipitation of intensity, i (in./h or cm/h) is falling on area A beneath the storm cell, the mass flow rate leaving the
cell is 𝑚𝑣 = −𝜌𝑤 𝑖𝐴, where 𝜌𝑤 , is the density of liquid water. Under the assumption of the steady flow the time
derivative term is zero, and the mass flow rates of water vapour entering and leaving the cell is:
0 0

𝑚𝑣 = ∬ 𝑞𝑣 𝜌𝑎 𝑉𝑑𝐴 − ∬ 𝑞𝑣 𝜌𝑎 𝑉𝑑𝐴 −
2 1

The cell is a cylinder diameter D and air enters through the height increment ∆𝑧1 and leaves through the height
increment∆𝑧2 . If air density and specific humidity are assumed constant within each increment:
𝜌𝑤 𝑖𝐴 = (𝑞𝑣 𝜌𝑎 𝑉)1 𝜋𝐷∆𝑧1 − (𝑞𝑣 𝜌𝑎 𝑉)2 𝜋𝐷∆𝑧2
A continuity equation;
0
0 = ∬𝑐.𝑠 𝜌𝑑 𝑉𝑑𝐴

Where 𝜌𝑑 , is the density of dry air, expressed as 𝜌𝑑 = 𝜌𝑎 (1 − 𝑞𝑣 )

0 = [𝜌𝑎 (1 − 𝑞𝑣 )𝑉∆𝑧]2 𝜋𝐷 − [𝜌𝑎 (1 − 𝑞𝑣 )𝑉∆𝑧]1 𝜋𝐷
1−𝑞
Or; (𝜌𝑎 𝑉∆𝑧)2 = (𝜌𝑎 𝑉∆𝑧)1 ( 𝑣1 )
1−𝑞 21

𝜋 2
And considering𝐴 = 4
𝐷 , then

4𝜌𝑎1 𝑉1 ∆𝑧1 𝑞𝑣1 −𝑞𝑣2

𝑖= ( 1−𝑞 )
𝜌𝑤 𝐷 𝑣2

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Example:
A thunderstorm cell 5km in diameter has a cloud base of 1.5km, and surface conditions recorded nearby
indicate saturated air condition with air temperature of30℃, pressure of 101.3kPa and wind speed of1 𝑚/𝑠.
Assuming a lapse rate of 7.5℃/𝑘𝑚 and average outflow elevation of 10km, calculate the precipitation intensity from
this storm. Also determine what proportion of the incoming moisture is precipitated as air passes through the storm
cell and calculate the rate of release of latent heat through moisture condensation in the column.

Temperature air Air vapour

Elevation, pressure, density, pressure, specific humidity,
𝑘𝑚 ℃ R 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑔
0 30 303 101.3 1.16 4.24 0.0261
1.5 19 292 85.6 1.02 2.2 0.016
10 -45 228 27.7 0.42 0.01 0.002

Solution:
Given:
𝑚
𝑉1 = 1 𝑠
∆𝑧1 = 1500𝑚
𝜌𝑤 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝐷 = 5000𝑚
𝛼 = 0.0075℃/𝑚
𝑞𝑣2 = 0.0002𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑔 from the table

1.16 + 1.02
𝜌𝑎1 =
2
𝜌𝑎1 = 1.09𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

0.0261 + 0.0160
𝑞𝑣1 =
2
𝑘𝑔
𝑞𝑣1 = 0.02105
𝑘𝑔
Then:
4𝜌𝑎1 𝑉1 ∆𝑧1 𝑞𝑣1 − 𝑞𝑣2
𝑖= ( )
𝜌𝑤 𝐷 1 − 𝑞𝑣2
1.09𝑘𝑔 𝑚
4( 3 )(1 𝑠 ) (1500𝑚) 0.02105 − 0.0002
𝑖= 𝑚 ( )
1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 (5000𝑚) 1 − 0.0002
𝑖 = 2.7277 𝑥 10−5 𝑚/𝑠
𝒊 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏𝟗𝟖 𝒄𝒎/𝒉

The mass flow rate is determined by:

𝑚̇𝑝 = 𝜌𝑤 𝑖𝐴
𝜋
𝑚̇𝑝 = 𝜌𝑤 𝑖 𝐷2
4
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝜋
𝑚̇𝑝 = 1000 3 (2.7277 𝑥 10−5 )( )(5000𝑚)2
𝑚 𝑠 4
𝑚̇𝑝 = 535,582.6426 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

The mass flow rate of incoming moisture:

𝑚̇ 𝑣 = (𝜌𝑎 𝑞𝑣 𝑉∆𝑧)1 𝜋𝐷
1.09𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝑚̇ 𝑣 = ( ) (0.021 ) (1 ) (1500𝑚)0 𝜋(5000𝑚)
𝑚3 𝑘𝑔 𝑠
1.09𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝑚̇ 𝑣 = ( 3 ) (0.021 ) (1 ) (1500𝑚)0 𝜋(5000𝑚)
𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝑠
𝑚̇ 𝑣 = 539,332.9188𝑘𝑔/𝑠

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Proportion of incoming moisture precipitated:

𝑚̇ 𝑝 535,582.6426 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
=
𝑚̇ 𝑣 539,332.9188𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝒎̇ 𝒑
= 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟑𝟎𝟓
𝒎̇ 𝒗

Rate of release of latent heat due to moisture condensation

𝐽
(use 𝑙𝑣 = 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 2.5 𝑥 106 𝑘𝑔
𝐽 𝑘𝑔
𝑙𝑣 𝑚̇𝑝 = 2.5 𝑥 106 (535,582.6426 )
𝑘𝑔 𝑠
𝐽
𝑙𝑣 𝑚̇𝑝 = 1.335 𝑥 1012
𝑠
𝒍𝒗 𝒎̇ 𝒑 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 𝑾

Variability of precipitation
Precipitation varies in space and time according to the general pattern of atmospheric circulation and local
factors. The average over a number of years of observations of a weather variable is called a normal value.

Rainfall
Rainstorms vary greatly in space and time. They can be
represented by isohyetal maps; an isohyet is a contour of
constant rainfall. Isohyetal maps are produced by
interpolating rainfall data at gage points. A gage record
consists of a set of rainfall depths recorded for successive
increments in time. A rainfall hyetograph is a plot of rainfall
depth or intensity as a function of time.

Example:
Given is a rain gage record consists of rainfall depths recorded for 150 minutes. Compute the cumulative
rainfall and maximum depths and intensities for 30 min, 1 hour and 2 hours intervals.

Time (min) Rainfall (in)

0 0.00
5 0.02
10 0.34
15 0.10
20 0.04
25 0.19
30 0.48
35 0.50
40 0.50
45 0.51
50 0.16
55 0.31
60 0.66
65 0.36
70 0.39
75 0.36
80 0.54
85 0.76
90 0.51
95 0.44
100 0.25
105 0.25
110 0.22
115 0.15
120 0.09
125 0.09
130 0.12
135 0.03
140 0.01
145 0.02
150 0.01

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Solution:
Time Rainfall Cumulative rainfall
(min) (in) (in) 30 min 1 hr 2 hr
0 0.00 0.00
5 0.02 0.02
10 0.34 0.36
15 0.10 0.46
20 0.04 0.50
25 0.19 0.69
30 0.48 1.17 1.17
35 0.50 1.67 1.65
40 0.50 2.17 1.81
45 0.51 2.68 2.22
50 0.16 2.84 2.34
55 0.31 3.15 2.46
60 0.66 3.81 2.64 3.81
65 0.36 4.17 2.50 4.15
70 0.39 4.56 2.39 4.20
75 0.36 4.92 2.24 4.46
80 0.54 5.46 2.62 4.96
85 0.76 6.22 3.07 5.53
90 0.51 6.73 2.92 5.56
95 0.44 7.17 3.00 5.50
100 0.25 7.42 2.86 5.25
105 0.25 7.67 2.75 4.99
110 0.22 7.89 2.43 5.05
115 0.15 8.04 1.82 4.89
120 0.09 8.13 1.40 4.32 8.13
125 0.09 8.22 1.05 4.05 8.20
130 0.12 8.34 0.92 3.78 7.98
135 0.03 8.37 0.70 3.45 7.91
140 0.01 8.38 0.49 2.92 7.88
145 0.02 8.40 0.36 2.18 7.71
150 0.01 8.41 0.28 1.68 7.24
max depth 0.76 3.07 5.56 8.20
Max. Intensity (in/hr) 9.17 6.14 5.56 4.10

Incremental Rainfall hyetograph

0.80
0.70
incremental rainfall, (in)

0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
time, (min)

Cumulative Rainfall hyetograph

9.00
8.00
7.00
cumulative rainfall (in)

6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
-1.00 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
time (min)

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Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Areal rainfall
The arithmetic mean method is the simplest method of determining areal average rainfall. It involves
averaging the rainfall depths recorded at a number of gages. This method is satisfactory if the gages are uniformly
distributed over the area and the individual gage measurements do not vary greatly about the mean.
𝑛
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃2 + … … 𝑃𝑛 1
𝑃̅ = = ∑ 𝑃𝑖
𝑛 𝑛
1

Where:
𝑃̅ = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃𝑛 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

While, the Thiessen method assumes that at any point in the watershed, the rainfall is the same as that of
the nearest gage so the depth recorded at a given gage is applied out to a distance halfway to the next station in any
direction. The relative weights for each gage is determined from the corresponding areas of application in a Thiessen
polygon network, the boundaries of the polygons being formed by the perpendicular bisector of the lines joining
adjacent gages. If there are J gages, and the area within the watershed assigned to each is 𝐴𝑗 and 𝑃𝑗 is the rainfall
recorded at the 𝑗𝑡ℎ gage, the areal average precipitation for the watershed is:
𝐽
1
𝑃̅ = ∑ 𝐴𝑗 𝑃𝑗
𝐴
𝑗=1

Steps in Thiessen Method:

1. Draw a straight lines connecting two stations

2. Draw a perpendicular bisector between the 2 stations

and extend until it meets with another bisector within the
area

19 | P a g e
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Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

𝑃𝑗 (𝑖𝑛) 𝐴𝑗 (𝑚𝑖 2 ) 𝐴𝑗 /𝐴 𝑇 𝐴𝑗
𝑃𝑗 ( )
𝐴𝑇
2.0 1.5 0.06329 0.12658
1.8 7.2 0.30379 0.54682
1.2 5.2 0.21940 0.26328
1.0 9.8 0.41350 0.4135
23.7 1.35018

̅ = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟓𝟎𝟏𝟖 𝒊𝒏
𝑷
Isohyetal Method
An isohyet is a line joining points of equal rainfall magnitude. In this method, stations locations and amounts
are plotted on a suitable map and contours of equal precipitation are then drawn. The average precipitation for an
area is computed by weighting the average precipitations between successive isohyets by the area between the
isohyets, total these products, and dividing by the total area as:
𝑃 + 𝑃 𝑃 + 𝑃 𝑃 + 𝑃
𝐴1 ( 1 2 2 ) + 𝐴2 ( 2 2 3 ) + 𝐴3 ( 3 2 4 ) + ⋯ .
𝑃̅ =
𝐴𝑇
Where:
𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 = 𝑖𝑠𝑜ℎ𝑦𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜ℎ𝑦𝑒𝑡𝑠
𝑃̅ = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Steps:
1. Draw isohytes or contours of equal precipitation

2. Compute the average rainfall between each pair of isohytes

𝑃𝑖 (𝑖𝑛) 𝐴𝑖 (𝑚𝑖 2 ) 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑉 = 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐴𝑖

2.0 5.0 1.9 9.50

1.8 9.8 1.5 14.70

1.2 3.1 1.1 3.41

1.0 5.6 0.5 2.80

23.5 30.41

𝑃1 + 𝑃2 𝑃 + 𝑃 𝑃 + 𝑃
𝐴1 ( 2 ) + 𝐴2 ( 2 2 3 ) + 𝐴3 ( 3 2 4 ) + ⋯ .
𝑃̅ =
𝐴𝑇
9.5 + 14.70 + 3.41 + 2.80
𝑃̅ =
23.5
̅ = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟗𝟒𝟎𝟒𝒊𝒏
𝑷

20 | P a g e
 Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Example:
Find the average precipitation for the given rain gauges below using
isohyetal method.

1
Solution:
2
3

𝑃𝑖 (𝑖𝑛) 𝐴𝑖 (𝑚𝑖 2 ) 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑉 = 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐴𝑖

5 13 2.5 32.50

4 77 4.50 346.5

3 116 3.50 406.00

2 196 2.50 490.00

1 193 1.50 289.50

<1 31 0.50 15.50

626 1580.00

𝑃1 + 𝑃2 𝑃 + 𝑃 𝑃 + 𝑃
𝐴1 ( 2 ) + 𝐴2 ( 2 2 3 ) + 𝐴3 ( 3 2 4 ) + ⋯ .
𝑃̅ =
𝐴𝑇
32.50 + 346.50 + 406.00 + 490.00 + 289.50 + 15.50
𝑃̅ =
626
̅ = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟐𝟑𝟗𝟔𝒊𝒏
𝑷

TOPIC 4: Evaporation

The two main factors influencing the evaporation from an open water surface re the supply of energy to
provide the latent heat of vaporization and the ability to transport the vapour away from the evaporative surface.
Solar radiation is the main source of heat energy. The ability to transport vapour away from the evaporative surface
depends on the wind velocity over the surface and the specific humidity gradient in the air above it.
Evaporation from the land surface comprises evaporation directly from the soil and vegetation surface, and
transpiration through plant leaves, in which water is extracted by the plant’s roots, transported upwards through its
stem and diffused into the atmosphere through tiny openings in the leaves stomata. The process of evaporation from
the land surface and transpiration from vegetation are collectively termed evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration is
influenced by the two factors described previously for open water evaporation, and also by the supply of moisture.
The potential evapotranspiration is the evapotranspiration that would occur from a well vegetated surface when
moisture supply is not limiting, and this is calculated on a way similar to that for open water evaporation.

21 | P a g e
 Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Energy Balance Method

To develop continuity and energy equations applicable for evaporation, consider evaporation from an
evaporation pan. An evaporation pan is a circular tank, in which the rate of evaporation is measured by the rate of fall
of the water surface. A control surface is drawn around the pan enclosing both the water in the pan and the air above
it.

Continuity
Because the control volume contains water in both the liquid and vapour phases, the integral continuity
equation must be written separately for the two phases. For the liquid phase, the extensive property is 𝐵 =
𝑑𝐵
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑; 𝛽 = 1, 𝜌 = 𝜌𝑊 , and 𝑑𝑡 = −𝑚𝑣 which is the mass flow rate of evaporation. The continuity
equation for the liquid phase is:

0 ̇ 0
𝑑
−𝑚𝑣 = ∭ 𝜌𝑤 𝑑∀ + ∬ 𝜌𝑤 𝑉𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡
𝑐.𝑣 𝑐.𝑠

The pan has impermeable sides, so there is no flow of liquid water across the control surface
0 𝑑 𝑑ℎ
and∬𝑞 𝜌𝑤 𝑉𝑑𝐴 = 0. The rate of change of storage within the system is given(𝑑𝑡) ∭ 𝜌𝑤 𝑑∀ = 𝜌𝑊 𝐴 ( 𝑑𝑡 ) ,
where 𝐴 is the cross sectional area of the pan and ℎ is the depth of water in it.
𝑑ℎ
−𝑚𝑣 = 𝜌𝑤 𝐴 ( )
𝑑𝑡
Or:
𝑚̇𝑣 = 𝜌𝑤 𝐴𝐸
𝑑ℎ
𝐸 = − 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑑𝑡

For the vapour phase,

𝑑𝐵
𝐵 − 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟; 𝛽 = 𝑞𝑣 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝜌 = 𝜌𝑎 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑚𝑣 , 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠:
0 0
𝑑
𝑚̇𝑣 = ∭ 𝑞𝑉 𝜌𝑎 𝑑∀ + ∬ 𝑞𝑉 𝜌𝑎 𝑉𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡
𝑐.𝑣 𝑐.𝑠

for a steady flow of air over the evaporation pan, the time derivative of water vapiur within the cntrol volume
is zero. Thus after substituting for 𝑚̇𝑣 becomes:
0

𝜌𝑤 𝐴𝐸 = ∬ 𝑞𝑉 𝜌𝑎 𝑉𝑑𝐴
𝑐.𝑠

Which is the continuity equation for n evaporation pan, considering bith water and water vapour. In a more general
sense, it can be used to define the evaporation and evapotranspiration rate from any surface when written in the form
of:
0
1
𝐸= ∬ 𝑞𝑉 𝜌𝑎 𝑉𝑑𝐴
𝜌𝑤 𝐴
𝑐.𝑠

Where E is the equivalent deoth of water evaporated per unit time (in/day or mm/day)

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Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Energy
The heat energy balance of a hydrologic system, as expressed can be applied to the water in the control
volume:
0 0
𝑑𝐻 𝑑𝑊 𝑑 1 1
− = ∭ (𝑒𝑢 + 𝑉 2 + 𝑔𝑧) 𝜌𝑑∀ + ∬ (𝑒𝑢 + 𝑉 2 + 𝑔𝑧) 𝜌𝑉𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 2
𝑐.𝑣 𝑐.𝑠

Where
𝑑𝐻
= the rate of heat is input to the system from external sources
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑊
= rate of work done by the system (zero in this case),
𝑑𝑡
𝑒𝑢 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

because V = 0 for the water in the evaporation pan, and the rate of change of its elevation, z, is very small and the
equation can be simplified to:
0
𝑑𝐻 𝑑 1
= ∭ (+ 𝑉 2 + 𝑔𝑧) 𝑒𝑢 𝜌𝑤 𝑑∀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑐.𝑣

Considering a unit area of water surface, the source of heat energy is net radiation flux, 𝑅𝑛 , measured in watts per
meter squared; the water supplies a sensible heat flux 𝐻𝑠 to the air stream and a ground heat flux G to the ground
𝑑𝐻
surface, so = 𝑅𝑛 − 𝐻𝑠 − 𝐺. It is assumed that the temperature of the water within the control volume is the
𝑑𝑡
change in the internal energy of the water evaporated, which is equal 𝐼𝑣 𝑚𝑣 , where 𝐼𝑣 is the latent heat of
vaporization. Then:
𝑹 𝒏 − 𝑯 𝒔 − 𝑮 = 𝑰 𝒗 𝒎𝒗

By substituting for 𝑚𝑣 with 𝐴 = 1𝑚2 , then E:

𝟏
𝑬= (𝑹𝒏 − 𝑯𝒔 − 𝑮)
𝑰𝒗 𝝆 𝒘

which is the energy balance equation for evaporation. If the sensible heat flux 𝐻𝑠 and the ground heat flux G are both
zero, then evaporation, E can be calculated as the rate at which all the incoming net radiation is absorbed by
evaporation.
𝑹𝒏
𝑬𝒓 = 𝑰𝒗 𝝆 𝒘

Example:
Calculate the energy balance method for evaporation rate from open water surface if the net radiations is
200 𝑊/𝑚2 and their air temperature is 25℃, assuming no sensible heat or ground heat flux.

Solution:
Latent heat of vaporization at is 25℃,
2441𝑘𝐽
𝐼𝑣 = 2500 − 2.36(25) = 𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑤 = 997 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑅𝑛
𝐸𝑟 =
𝐼𝑣 𝜌𝑤
200 𝐽𝑚/𝑚2
𝐸𝑟 =
2441𝐽 𝑘𝑔
∗ (1000)(997 3 )
𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝐸𝑟 = 8.2180 𝑥 10−8 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚 1000𝑚𝑚 3600𝑠 24 ℎ𝑟
𝐸𝑟 = 8.2180 𝑥 10−8 ∗ ∗ ∗
𝑠 1𝑚 1ℎ𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑬𝒓 = 𝟕. 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟒 𝒎𝒎/𝒅𝒂𝒚

23 | P a g e
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Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Aerodynamic Method:
The second factor controlling the evaporation rate from an open water surface is the ability to transport
vapour away from the surface. The transport rate is governed by the humidity gradient in the air near the surface and
the wind speed across the surface.

Evaporation from open water surface

In the control volume shown above: consider a horizontal plane of unit area located at height z above the surface.
The vapour flux,𝑚, passing upward by convection through this plane is given by the equation:
𝑑𝑞
𝑚̇𝑣 = −𝜌𝑎 𝐾𝑤 𝑑𝑧𝑣
Where: 𝐾𝑤 = 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡

The momentum flux upward through the plans is given by the equation:
𝑑𝑢
𝜏 = 𝜌𝑎 𝐾𝑚
𝑑𝑧

Suppose the wind velocity: 𝑢1 and the specific humidity: 𝑞𝑣1 are measured at elevation 𝑧1 and 𝑢2 and 𝑞𝑣2 at
elevation 𝑧2 , the elevations being sufficiently closer to the transport rates 𝑚̇𝑣 and𝜏 are constant between them. The
ratio of the resulting equations is now then:
𝑚̇𝑣 𝐾 (𝑞 −𝑞 )
= − 𝐾𝑤 (𝑢𝑣2 −𝑢𝑣1)
𝜏 𝑚 2 1
𝐾 (𝑞𝑣2 −𝑞𝑣1 )
𝑚̇𝑣 = − 𝜏𝐾𝑤
𝑚 (𝑢2 −𝑢1 )

The wind velocity in the boundary layer near the earth’s surface (up to about 50m) is well described by the
logarithmic profile law:
𝑢 1 𝑧
= 𝑘 ln (𝑧 )
𝑢′ 0
Where:
𝜏
𝑢′ = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = √𝜌
𝑎

𝑘 = 𝐾𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑢𝑠𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 0.40)

𝑧0 = 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

𝑢′ 𝑧2 𝑧1
𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = [𝑙𝑛 ( ) − 𝑙𝑛 ( )]
𝑘 𝑧0 𝑧0
𝑢′ 𝑧2
= [𝑙𝑛 ( )]
𝑘 𝑧1
𝑘(𝑢2 −𝑢1 ) 𝜏
and 𝑢′ = 𝑧 but 𝑢′ = √𝜌 , then:
𝑙𝑛( 2 ) 𝑎
𝑧1
2
𝑘(𝑢2 −𝑢1 )
𝜏 = 𝜌𝑎 [ 𝑧 ] ; substituting the results:
𝑙𝑛(𝑧2 )
1
𝑲𝒘 𝒌𝟐 (𝒒𝒗𝟐 − 𝒒𝒗𝟏 )(𝒖𝟐 − 𝒖𝟏 )
𝒎̇𝒗 = 𝑻𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒏𝒕𝒉𝒘𝒂𝒊𝒕𝒆
𝒛 𝟐
𝑲𝒎 ⌊𝒍𝒏 (𝒛𝟐 )⌋
𝟏
− 𝑯𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒛𝒎𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕
𝐾
Where: 𝐾𝑤 = 1.0
𝑚

24 | P a g e
 Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Assuming that the wind velocity 𝑢1 = 0 at the roughness height of 𝑧1 = 𝑧0 and that the air is saturated
𝑒
with moisture and 𝑞𝑣 = 0.622 𝑝 , the measurement of vapour pressure can be substituted for those of specific
humidity. At height𝑧2 , the vapour pressure is𝑒𝑎 , the ambient pressure in the air, and the vapour pressure
corresponding to the ambient air temperature.
0.622𝑘 2 𝜌𝑎 (𝑒𝑎𝑠 − 𝑒𝑎 )𝑢2
𝑚̇𝑣 =
𝑧 2
𝑝 ⌊𝑙𝑛 (𝑧2 )⌋
0

𝑚̇𝑣 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝜌𝑤 𝐸𝑎

𝐿
𝐸𝑎 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ( )
𝑇
Then:
𝐸𝑎 = 𝐵 (𝑒𝑎𝑠 − 𝑒𝑎 )
0.622𝑘 2 𝜌𝑎 𝑢2
Where: 𝐵 = 𝑧 2
𝑝𝜌𝑤 ⌊𝑙𝑛(𝑧2)⌋
0

Example:
Calculate the evaporation rate from an open surface water by the aerodynamic method with air
temperature25℃, relative humidity is 40 percent, air pressure is 101.3 kPa and wind speed is 3m/s, all measured
height 2m above the water surface. Assume a roughness height 𝑧0 = 0.03𝑐𝑚

Solution:
𝑘𝑔
The vapour transfer coefficient B is given by the equation above; using 𝑘 = 0.40, 𝜌𝑎 = 1.19 for air at
𝑚3
𝑘𝑔
25℃ and 𝜌𝑤 = 997 𝑚3
:
0.622𝑘 2 𝜌𝑎 𝑢2
𝐵=
𝑧 2
𝑝𝜌𝑤 ⌊𝑙𝑛 (𝑧2 )⌋
0
𝑘𝑔 𝑚
0.622(0.40)2 (1.19
) (3 𝑠 )
𝑚3
𝐵= 2
𝐾𝑁 𝑁 𝑘𝑔 2
(101.3 2 ) (1000 𝐾𝑁 ) (997 3 ) ⌊𝑙𝑛 (0.0003)⌋
𝑚 𝑚
−11
𝑚
𝐵 = 4.5377 𝑥 10
𝑃𝑎 ∗ 𝑠

using 𝑒𝑎𝑠 = 3167 𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑡 25℃

𝑒𝑎 = 𝑅ℎ 𝑒𝑎𝑠 = 0.4 (3167) = 1267 𝑃𝑎
𝐸𝑎 = 𝐵 (𝑒𝑎𝑠 − 𝑒𝑎 )
𝑚
𝐸𝑎 = (4.5377 𝑥 10−11 ) (3167 𝑃𝑎 − 1267𝑃𝑎)
𝑃𝑎 ∗ 𝑠
𝑚
𝐸𝑎 = 8.6215 𝑥 10−8
𝑠
−8
𝑚 1000𝑚𝑚 3600𝑠 24 ℎ𝑟
𝐸𝑎 = 8.6215 𝑥 10 ∗ ∗ ∗
𝑠 1𝑚 1ℎ𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝒎𝒎
𝑬𝒂 = 𝟕. 𝟒𝟒𝟗
𝒅𝒂𝒚

Combined Aerodynamic and Energy Balance Method:

Evaporation may be computed by the aerodynamic method when energy supply is limited and by the energy
balance method when vapour transport is not limiting. In the energy balance method, the sensory heat flux 𝐻𝑠 is
difficult to quantify. But since the heat is transferred by convection through the air overlying the water surface, and
the water vapour is similarly transferred by convection, it can be assumed that the vapour heat flux, 𝐼𝑣 𝑚𝑣 and the
sensible heat flux transfer 𝐻𝑠 are proportional, the proportionality constant being called as the Bowen ratio, 𝛽 (Bowe,
1926)
𝑯𝒔
𝜷=
𝑰 𝒗 𝒎𝒗
The energy balance equation with ground heat flux G = 0 and can be written as:

𝑹𝒏 = 𝑰𝒗 𝒎𝒗 ( 𝟏 + 𝜷)

25 | P a g e
 Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

The Bowen ratio can be calculated by coupling the transport equations for vapour and heat. The transport equation
for vapour and heat are:
𝑑𝑞
𝑚̇𝑣 = −𝜌𝑎 𝐾𝑤 𝑑𝑧𝑣𝑖
𝑑𝑇
𝐻𝑠 = −𝜌𝑎 𝐶𝑝 𝐾ℎ 𝑑𝑧
Where:
𝐶𝑝 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐾ℎ = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝐻𝑠 𝐶𝑝 𝐾ℎ (𝑇2 −𝑇1 )
=
𝑚̇𝑣 𝐾𝑤 (𝑞𝑣1 −𝑞𝑣2 )

𝑒
Dividing by 𝐼𝑣 and using 𝑞𝑣 = 0.622 𝑝
𝐶𝑝 𝐾ℎ (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝛽=
0.622𝐼𝑣 𝐾𝑤 (𝑒2 − 𝑒1 )

or:
𝑇 −𝑇
𝛽 = 𝛾 (𝑒2−𝑒1 )
2 1

Where 𝛾 = 𝑝𝑠𝑦𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝐶𝑝 𝐾ℎ 𝑝
𝛾=
0.622𝐼𝑣 𝐾𝑤
𝐾ℎ
And = 1.0
𝐾𝑤

If the two levels 1 and 2 are taken at the evaporative surface and in the overlying air stream, respectively, it
can be shown that the evaporation rate, 𝐸𝑟 computed from the rate of net radiation and the evaporation rate
computed from the aerodynamic methods, the weighted estimate evaporation rate E is:
∆ 𝛾
𝐸 = ∆+𝛾 𝐸𝑟 + ∆+ 𝛾 𝐸𝑎 − 𝑷𝒆𝒏𝒎𝒂𝒏 (𝟏𝟗𝟒𝟖)𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆
Where:
𝛾 = 𝑝𝑠𝑦𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
∆ = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑇𝑎

Priestley-Taylor evaporation equation:

∆
𝐸 = 𝛼 ∆+ 𝛾 𝐸𝑟
Where: 𝛼 = 1.3

Example:
Use the combination method to calculate the evaporation rate from an open water surface to net radiation of
𝑊
200 𝑚2 , air temperature of 25℃, relative humidity of 40 percent and wind speed of 3 m/s , all recorded at height 2m
and atmospheric pressure of 101.3 kPa.

Solution:
From the previous calculations of evaporation rate:
𝑚𝑚
𝐸𝑟 = 7.10 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚𝑚
𝐸𝑎 = 7.45 (𝑎𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑)
𝑑𝑎𝑦
Constants:
𝐽
𝐶𝑝 = 1005
𝑘𝑔.𝐾
𝐾ℎ
= 1.0
𝐾𝑤
𝐽
𝐼𝑣 = 2441 𝑥 103 𝑎𝑡 25℃
𝑘𝑔

26 | P a g e
 Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Then:
𝐶𝑝 𝐾ℎ 𝑝
𝛾= 0.622𝐼𝑣 𝐾𝑤
𝐽 𝐾𝑁 1000𝑁
(1005 𝑘𝑔. 𝐾 ) (1.0)(101.3 2 ∗ 1𝐾𝑁 )
𝑚
𝛾=
𝐽
0.622 (2441 𝑥 103 )
𝑘𝑔
𝑷𝒂
𝜸 = 𝟔𝟕. 𝟎𝟓𝟐
℃

Since 𝑒𝑎𝑠 = 𝑒𝑠 = 3167 𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑡 25℃

4098𝑒𝑠
∆ = (237.3+𝑇) 2

𝑁
4098 (3167 2 )
∆= 𝑚
(237.3 + 25)2
𝑷𝒂
∆ = 𝟏𝟖𝟖. 𝟔𝟑𝟓𝟓
℃

Combined aerodynamic method and energy balance method

∆ 𝛾
𝐸= 𝐸𝑟 + 𝐸
∆+𝛾 ∆+ 𝛾 𝑎
𝑃𝑎 𝑃𝑎
188.6355 𝑚𝑚 67.052 𝑚𝑚
𝐸= ℃ (7.1004 )+ ℃ (7.449 )
𝑃𝑎 𝑃𝑎 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑃𝑎 𝑃𝑎 𝑑𝑎𝑦
188.6355 ℃ + 67.052 ℃ 188. 6355 ℃ + 67.052 ℃

𝒎𝒎
𝑬 = 𝟕. 𝟏𝟗𝟏𝟖
𝒅𝒂𝒚

Example 2:
𝑊
Using the Priestley Method to calculate the evaporation rate for a water body with net radiation 200 𝑚2 and
air temperature25℃.

Solution:
𝛼 = 1.3
𝑚𝑚
𝐸𝑟 = 7.10
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑃𝑎
∆ = 188.7 ℃
𝑃𝑎
𝛾 = 67.1
℃
∆
𝐸= 𝛼 𝐸
∆+ 𝛾 𝑟
𝑃𝑎
188.6355 ℃ 𝑚𝑚
𝐸 = (1.3) (7.1004 )
𝑃𝑎 𝑃𝑎 𝑑𝑎𝑦
188.6355 + 67.052
℃ ℃
𝒎𝒎
𝑬 = 𝟔. 𝟖𝟎𝟗𝟗
𝒅𝒂𝒚

TOPIC 5: Evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration is the combination of evaporation from the soil surface and transpiration from vegetation.
The same factors governing open water evaporation also governs evapotranspiration: energy supply and vapour
transport. Comparisons of computed and measured values of evapotranspiration have been made at many locations
by the American Society of Civil Engineers (1973) and by Dorenbos and Pruitt (1977) and recommend:
𝒖
𝑩 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟕 ( 𝟏 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎)

27 | P a g e
 Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Where:
𝑚𝑚
𝐵 = 𝑑𝑎𝑦.𝑃𝑎
𝑢 = 24 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑢𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 2𝑚

The potential evapotranspiration of another crop growing under the same conditions as the reference crop is
calculated by multiplying the reference crop evapotranspiration 𝐸𝑡𝑟 by a crop coefficient, 𝑘𝑐 , the value at which
changes with the stage of growth of crop. The actual evapotranspiration 𝐸𝑡 is found by multiplying the potential
evapotranspiration by a soil coefficient𝑘𝑠 ( 0 ≤ 𝑘𝑠 ≤ 1):
𝑬𝒕 = 𝒌𝒔 𝒌𝒄 𝑬𝒕𝒓
Where:
𝑘𝑐 = 0.20 ≤ 𝑘𝑐 ≤ 1.3

For well-watered soil with little vegetation, is approximately 0.35. As the vegetation develops, 𝑘𝑐 increases
to maximum value, which can be greater than 1 for crops with large vegetative cover such as corn, which transpire at
a greater rate than grass. As the crop matures or ripens, its moisture requirements diminish. The precise shape of
the crop coefficient curve varies with the agricultural practices of a region, such as the times of plowing and harvest.
Some vegetation, such as orchids or permanent ground cover, may not exhibit all the growth stages.

Example:

Given the table below for the crop coefficients of corn,

calculate the actual evapotranspiration from this crop assuming a well-
watered soil.

Month April May June July August Sept Oct Total (mm)
𝑚𝑚
𝐸𝑟 ( )
𝑑𝑎𝑦 4.14 5.45 5.82 6.60 5.94 4.05 2.34 34.34
𝑘𝑐 0.38 0.38 0.69 1.00 1.00 0.78 0.55
𝑚𝑚
𝐸𝑡 ( )
𝑑𝑎𝑦 1.57 2.07 4.02 6.60 5.94 3.16 1.29 24.65

The 24.65 evapotranspiration is 71.78% of the value of grass cover

TOPIC 6: The Water Balance

The basic components of the hydrologic cycle include precipitation, evaporation, evapotranspiration,
infiltration, overland flow, stream flow, and ground water flow. The movement of water (rainfall and runoff) through
various phases of the hydrologic cycle varies greatly in time and space, giving rise to extremes of floods or droughts.
The magnitude and the frequency of occurrence of these extremes are of great interest to the engineering hydrologist
from a design and operations standpoint. In some cases, it is possible to perform a water budget calculation in order
to predict changes in storage to be expected based on inputs and outputs from the system.

For any hydrologic system, a water budget can be developed to account for various flow pathways and
storage components. The hydrologic continuity equation for any system is:
𝑑𝑆
𝐼−𝑄 =
𝑑𝑡
Where:
𝐿3
𝐼 = 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 ( 𝑡 )
𝐿3
𝑄 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 ( 𝑡 )
𝑑𝑆 𝐿3
= 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑑𝑡 𝑡

28 | P a g e
 Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

The simplest system is an impervious inclined plane, confined on all four sides with a single outlet. A small
urban parking lot follows such a model, and as rainfall accumulates on the surface, the surface detention, or storage,
slowly increases and eventually becomes outflow from the system. Neglecting evaporation for the period of input,
and assuming a long rainfall time period, all input rainfall eventually becomes outflow from the area, but delayed
somewhat in time. The difference between inflow to the parking lot and outflow at any time represents the change in
storage. Thus, the total storage volume that is eventually released from the area is equal to the accumulated
difference in inflow volume and outflow volume, or∫(𝐼 − 𝑄)∆𝑡.

The same concept can be applied to small basins or large watersheds. Note that urban watersheds include
both natural and man-made elements. For a given time period, a conceptual mathematical model for the budget for
the urban hydrologic cycle shown would become, in units of depth (in. or mm) over the basin:

𝑃 − 𝑅 − 𝐺 − 𝐸 − 𝑇 = ∆𝑆

where
𝑃 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,
𝑅 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓,
𝐺 = 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤,
𝐸 = 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,
𝑇 = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,
∆𝑆 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑.

A runoff coefficient can be defined as the ratio 𝑅/𝑃 for any watershed. Note that infiltration I is a loss from
the surface system and a gain to ground water, and thus cancels out of the overall budget above. Also, the units of
inches (or mm) represent a volume of water when multiplied by the surface area of the watershed. If a water body
receives inflow for a period of time, the change in water depth due to the inflow can be easily calculated. There are
two ways of denoting the volume of water that is added, either as a flow rate for a specified time or as a water depth
across an area. The following equation results:

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = (𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒)(𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒) = (𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ)(𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎)

Example:
𝑓𝑡 3 𝑓𝑡 3
For a given month, a 300-acre lake has 15 𝑠 of inflow, 13 𝑠 of outflow, and a total storage increase of
16 ac-ft. A USGS gage next to the lake recorded a total of 1.3 in. precipitation for the lake for the month. Assuming
that infiltration loss is insignificant for the lake, determine the evaporation loss, in inches, over the lake for the month.

Solution:
𝑃 − 𝑅 − 𝐺 − 𝐸 − 𝑇 = ∆𝑆
𝐸 = (𝐼 − 𝑄) + 𝑃 − ∆𝑆

𝑓𝑡3 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒 12𝑖𝑛 3600𝑠 24ℎ𝑟 30𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠

15 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗1 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ
𝑠 43560𝑓𝑡2 1𝑓𝑡 1ℎ𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 1 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ
𝐼= 300 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒
𝐼 = 35.7024𝑖𝑛

𝑓𝑡3 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒 12𝑖𝑛 3600𝑠 24ℎ𝑟 30𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠

13 𝑠 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 𝑑𝑎𝑦 ∗1 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ∗1 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ
43560𝑓𝑡2 1𝑓𝑡 1ℎ𝑟
𝑄= 300 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒
𝑄 = 30.9421𝑖𝑛
𝑃 = 1.3𝑖𝑛
12𝑖𝑛
(16 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒 − 𝑓𝑡) (
1𝑓𝑡 )
∆𝑆 =
300 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒
∆𝑆 = 0.64𝑖𝑛

Then:
𝐸 = (𝐼 − 𝑄) + 𝑃 − ∆𝑆
𝐸 = (35.7024𝑖𝑛 − 30.9421𝑖𝑛) + 1.3𝑖𝑛 − 0.64𝑖𝑛
𝑬 = 𝟓. 𝟒𝟐𝟎𝟑𝒊𝒏

29 | P a g e
 Hydrology
Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Example:
A swimming pool (20𝑓𝑡 𝑥 20𝑓𝑡 𝑥 5 𝑡) has a small leak at the
bottom. You are given measurements of rainfall, evaporation, and water
level on a daily basis for 10 days. As an engineer, use the water balance to
𝑓𝑡 3
determine the average daily leakage out of the swimming pool in .
𝑑𝑎𝑦
Assume the pool is exactly 5𝑓𝑡 (60 inches) deep at the end of day 1.

Solution:
The water-balance equation becomes:
𝑄 = 𝑃 − 𝐸 − ∆𝑆
From the table:
∆𝑆 = 52𝑖𝑛 − 60𝑖𝑛 = −8𝑖𝑛
𝑃 = 1.0𝑖𝑛 + 2.0𝑖𝑛 + 4.0𝑖𝑛 = 7.0𝑖𝑛
𝐸 = 0.5𝑖𝑛 (7) = 3.5𝑖𝑛

𝑄 = 𝑃 − 𝐸 − ∆𝑆
𝑄 = 7.0𝑖𝑛 − 3.5𝑖𝑛 − (−8𝑖𝑛)
𝑄 = 11.5𝑖𝑛
𝑓𝑡
11.5𝑖𝑛 ∗ 12𝑖𝑛 ∗ 20𝑓𝑡 ∗ 20𝑓𝑡
𝑄=
10𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
𝒇𝒕𝟑
𝑸 = 𝟑𝟖. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝒅𝒂𝒚

Example
Four rain gages located within four corners at (0,0), (0, 13), (14, 13) and (14,0) have the following
coordinates and recorded rainfalls. All coordinates are expresses in miles. Compute the average rainfall in the area
by Thiessen Method.

Solution:
1. Plot the given four corners and location of the rain gages

2. Connect the rain gage locations and draw the bisectors

7,11
12,10
2,9

P
Q

6,2

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Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

3. Using the Cartesian coordinates of the circumcenter

B
A
For point P
𝐷 = 2 [(𝐴𝑥 (𝐵𝑦 − 𝐶𝑦 ) + 𝐵𝑥 (𝐶𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 ) + 𝐶𝑥 (𝐴𝑦 − 𝐵𝑦 )]
𝐷 = 2 [(2(11 − 2) + 7(2 − 9) + 6(9 − 11)]
C
𝐷 = −86

𝑃𝑥 = [(𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 )(𝐵𝑦 − 𝐶𝑦 ) + (𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 )(𝐶𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 ) + (𝐶𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 )(𝐴𝑦 − 𝐵𝑦 ) ]/𝐷

𝑃𝑥 = [(22 + 92 )(11 − 2) + (72 + 112 )(2 − 9) + (62 + 22 )(9 − 11) ]/(−86)
𝑷𝒙 = 𝟓. 𝟖𝟕𝟐𝟏

𝑃𝑦 = [(𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 )(𝐶𝑥 − 𝐵𝑥 ) + (𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 )(𝐴𝑥 − 𝐶𝑥 ) + (𝐶𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 )(𝐵𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 ) ]/𝐷

𝑃𝑦 = [(22 + 92 )(6 − 7) + (72 + 112 )(2 − 6) + (62 + 22 )(7 − 2) ]/(−86)
𝑷𝒚 = 𝟔. 𝟓𝟔

A
B

For point P

𝐷 = 2 [(𝐴𝑥 (𝐵𝑦 − 𝐶𝑦 ) + 𝐵𝑥 (𝐶𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 ) + 𝐶𝑥 (𝐴𝑦 − 𝐵𝑦 )]

𝐷 = 2 [(7(10 − 2) + 12(2 − 11) + 6(11 − 10)]
𝐷 = −92

𝑄𝑥 = [(𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 )(𝐵𝑦 − 𝐶𝑦 ) + (𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 )(𝐶𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 ) + (𝐶𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 )(𝐴𝑦 − 𝐵𝑦 ) ]/𝐷

𝑄𝑥 = [(72 + 112 )(10 − 2) + (122 + 102 )(2 − 11) + (62 + 22 )(11 − 10) ]/(−92)
𝑸𝒙 = 𝟖. 𝟔𝟓𝟐𝟏

𝑄𝑦 = [(𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 )(𝐶𝑥 − 𝐵𝑥 ) + (𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 )(𝐴𝑥 − 𝐶𝑥 ) + (𝐶𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑦 2 )(𝐵𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 ) ]/𝐷

𝑄𝑦 = [(72 + 112 )(6 − 12) + (122 + 102 )(7 − 6) + (62 + 22 )(12 − 7) ]/(−92)
𝑸𝒚 = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟔𝟎𝟗

(𝑋0 + 𝑋1 )
4. Compute for the area: ∆𝐴 = (𝑦0 − 𝑦1 )
2

for 𝑨𝟏

x y Area
0 13
4.50 13 0.00
5.87 6.56 33.3914
0 3 10.4486
0 13 0
𝑨𝟏 43.84

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Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

for 𝐴2

x y Area
4.50 13
12 13 0.00
8.65 6.26 69.5905
5.87 6.56 -2.178
4.5 13 -33.3914
𝐴2 34.0211

for 𝐴3

x y Area
12 13
14 13 0.00
14 3 140.00
8.65 6.26 -36.9195
12 13 -69.5905
𝐴3 33.49

for 𝐴34

x y Area
5.87 6.56
8.65 6.26 2.178
14 3 36.9195
14 0 42.00
0 0 0
0 3 0
5.87 6.56 -10.4486
𝐴4 70.6489

Location of rain gages Precipitation (in) Areas, 𝑚𝑖 2 𝐴𝑖 𝑃𝑖

2,9 0.59 43.84 25.8656
7,11 0.79 34.021 26.8767
12,10 0.94 33.49 31.4806
6,2 1.69 70.6489 119.3966
181.999 203.6195
𝑛
1
𝑃̅ = ∑ 𝐴𝑖 𝑃𝑖
𝐴
𝑖=1
𝑚𝑖 2
203.6195 𝑖𝑛
𝑃̅ =
181.999 𝑚𝑖 2
̅
𝑷 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟗𝒊𝒏

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Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

Activity 2:

1. A parcel of air at the equator is at rest relative to the earth’s surface. Considering the effects of air motion of the
conservation of angular momentum, calculate the theoretical eastward velocity of the air relative to the earth’s
surface if the parcel is moved at to30° 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ. Mean radius of earth= 6371km

𝑐𝑚2
2. The gas constant R has the value 2.87 𝑥 106 𝑠2 𝐾 for dry air, when pressure is in mb. Using the ideal gas law,
find the density of dry air at 25℃ with a pressure of 1150 mb. Find the density of moist air at the same
pressure and temperature if the relative humidity is 65%.

3. At a weather station, the air pressure was measured to be 95.1 kPa, the air temperature was 22℃, and the
dew point temperature was 118℃. Calculate the corresponding vapor pressure, relative humidity, specific
humidity, and air density. First compute 𝑒 and 𝑒𝑠

4. Calculate the vapour pressure, air pressure, specific humidity and air density at elevation 1500m of the surface
conditions are as specified and the lapse rate is 9℃/𝑘𝑚.

5. Calculate the perceptible water (mm) in a 10-k high saturated atmospheric column is the surface conditions
are temperature = 20℃, pressure = 101.3kPa and the lapse rate is 6.5℃/𝑘𝑚

6. An air current moving vertically upward at 5 m/s carries a raindrop of various sizes. Calculate the velocity of a
2mm diameter drop and determine whether it is rising or falling. Assume standard atmospheric pressure and air
𝑘𝑔
temperature20℃. Air density = 1.20 𝑚3 .

7. The shape of a drainage basin can be approximated by a polygon whose vertices are located at the following
coordinates: (5,5)(-5, 5), (-5, -5), (0, 10) and (5, -5). The rainfall amounts of a storm were recorded by a number
of rain gages situated within and nearby the basins as follows:

Gage number Coordinates Recorded Rainfall (mm)

1 (-7, 4) 62
2 (3, 4) 59
3 (-2, 5) 41
4 (-10, 11) 39
5 (-3, -10) 105
6 (-7, -7) 96
7 (2, -3) 60
8 (2, -10) 41
9 (0, 0) 81

All coordinates are expressed in kilometres determine the average rainfall on the basin by a)
arithmetic mean; b) Thiessen method and c) Isohyetal method. Hints: Begin by drawing a polygon around
gage 9 then draw around gages 2, 3, 5 and 7. For the isoheytal method, draw the isohytes with maximum
rainfall on a ridge running southwest to northeast through (-3, -3)
8. Compute by the Priestley-Taylor method the evaporation rate in mm/day from a lake on a winter day when the
𝑊 𝑊
air temperature is 5℃ and the net radiation is 50 𝑚2 , and on a summer day when the net radiation is 250 𝑚2 ,
and the temperature is 30℃

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Engr. Michelle D. Enriquez

9. A small urban watershed has four rainfall gages

as shown. Total rainfall recorded at each gage
during a storm event is listed in the table below.
Compute the mean areal rainfall for this storm
using (a) arithmetic averaging and (b) the
Thiessen method.

𝑊
10. For Cairo, Egypt, in July, average net radiation is 185 𝑚2 ,, air temperature is 28.5℃, relative humidity is 55
percent and the wind speed is 2.7 m/s at a height of 2m calculate the open water evaporation rate in mm/day
using the energy method (𝐸𝑟 ), the aerodynamic method (𝐸𝑎 ) and the combination method and the Priestley-
Taylor method. Assume the atmospheric pressure is 1010.3kPa and 𝑧0 = 0.03𝑐𝑚

11. A lake with a surface area of 750 acres was monitored over a period of time. During a one-month period, the
𝑓𝑡 3 𝑓𝑡 3
inflow was 35 𝑠 , the outflow was28 𝑠 , and a 1.5-in. seepage loss was measured. During the same month,
the total precipitation was 4.8 in. Evaporation loss was estimated as 6.0 in. Estimate the storage change for this
lake during the month.

12. In a given year, a watershed with an area of 2000 km2 received 120 cm of precipitation. The average rate of
𝑚3
flow measured in a gage at the outlet of the watershed was 30 𝑠 . Estimate the water losses due to the
combined effects of evaporation, transpiration, and infiltration due to ground water. How much runoff reached
the river for the year (in cm)?

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