LEA Review

Soil Science
Physical Properties of Soil and Water

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Topic outline
Physical Properties of Soil and Soil Water
Importance
Soil Texture
Soil textural fractions
Soil texture determination
Textural classes
Significance of soil texture
Soil management related to soil texture
Soil Structure
Formation of aggregates
Classification of soil structure
Types of soil structure
Classes of soil structure
Grades of soil structure
Soil management related to soil structure
Importance of soil structure to plants
Topic outline
Physical Properties of Soil and Soil Water
Soil Color
Significance of soil color
Effect of color on other soil conditions
Determination of soil color
Soil Weight and Volume Parameters
Soil densities
Particle density
Bulk density
Soil porosity
Soil Consistency
Soil Water
Importance and properties
Soil moisture concepts
Topic outline
Physical Properties of Soil and Soil Water
Soil water content
Energy status of soil water
Relationships between soil water content and suction
Critical moisture levels in soils
Soil moisture measurements
Physical and biological classification of soil water
Relationship between water utilization and soil fertility
Soil Aeration
Composition of soil air
Factors affecting soil air composition
Gaseous exchange in soil
Soil Temperature
Factors controlling soil temperature
Importance of soil temperature
 Pre-test Questions
Soil particles which have the best holding ability for nutrient is
called
a. Silt
b. Sand
c. Clay
d. Sandy loam
 Pre-test Questions
A soil with a bulk density of 1.3 g/cm3 and a particle density of 2.6
g/cm3 will have a porosity of
a. 50
b. .5
c. .05
d. 50%
 Pre-test Questions
The squeezing together of soil particular by the weight of farm
and construction equipment, vehicles and animal and foot traffic
reduces the average pore size and total air space which results
to what of soil?
a. Soil Compaction
b. Soil reaction
c. Soil Consociation
d. Soil Monolith
 Pre-test Questions
It is the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay
a. Soil structure
b. Soil texture
c. Soil moisture
d. Soil porosity
 Pre-test Questions
An ideal soil characteristics for plant growth which facilitate the
penetration through the soil mass of plant roots seeking plant
food is called
a. Fertility
b. Depth
c. Moisture
d. Porosity
 Pre-test Questions
Measure the volume of the soil that holds air and water and
usually expressed in percentage of soil volume not occupied by
solid materials is called
a. Soil texture
b. Soil permeability
c. Soil Porosity
d. Soil consistency
 Pre-test Questions
The upper diameter size limit of sand particle is
a. 0.02 mm
b. 2.0 mm
c. 0.2 mm
d. 0.002 mm
 Pre-test Questions
An air-dried soil weighs 15 grams. After oven-drying, the weight
became 12.5 grams. What is the moisture content of the soil.
a. 30%
b. 20%
c. 40%
d. 10%
 Pre-test Questions
Type of structure with the fastest rate of infiltration
a. Prism-like
b. Platy
c. Block-like
d. Columnar
 Pre-test Questions
By looking following bulk density of soil which of the following
indicate high porosity?
a. 1.2 g/cm3
b. 1.0 g/cm3
c. 1.6 g/cm3
d. 2.0 g/cm3
 Pre-test Questions
Which of the following soils have the highest porosity?
a. Fine-textured soils
b. Paddy soils
c. Coarse-textured soils
d. Rocky soils
 Pre-test Questions
This refers to the physical condition of the soil as it relates to
plant growth.
a. Soil Texture
b. Soil Moisture
c. Soil consistency
d. Soil porosity
 Pre-test Questions
It describes the darkness and lightness of soil color.
a. Hue
b. Chroma
c. Value
d. Intensity
 Pre-test Questions
These are the pore spaces meant to retain moisture.
a. Macropores
b. Mesopores
c. Medium pores
d. Micropores
 Pre-test Questions
It is the strength with which soil materials are held together or the
resistance of soils to deformation and rupture.
a. Soil consistency
b. Soil plasticity
c. Aggregation
d. Soil structure
 Soil Physics
I
m
On how the soil is to be used
p
o
To what extent the soil is to be
r used
t
a By what means the soil is to be
used
n
c As structural material As medium for
e (dams, highways) and plant growth
foundations (buildings)
 Soil as a porous medium

The soil is a porous medium of inorganic particles,

organic matter, air and water. The multiple
connections of tiny openings in the soil is a
characteristics of a porous medium. Thus,
movement and retention of fluids (air and water)
in soil can be complicated phenomena influenced
not only by the properties of the fluid but also by
the geometry of the pores. The limiting amount of
fluid is determined by the total soil porosity.
  What is Soil Texture?

 The look and feel of a soil

 Relates to the coarseness of fineness of the
essential or dominant component of the soil
 Involves the size of individual mineral particles
 specifically refers to the relative proportions of
various-sized particles in a given soil, namely; sand,
silt and clay
  What is Soil Texture?

 The size of particles in mineral soil is not

readily subject to change. Thus, a sandy soil
remains sandy, and a clay soil remains clayey.
 Since the proportion of each size group in a
given soil (the texture) cannot be easily altered,
it is considered a basic property of a soil.
  What is Soil Texture?

 Groups of mineral particles of a soil are referred

to as separate:
 Soil Textural Fraction
 Each separate includes particles belonging to a certain
range of sizes. Each of it is clearly part of a total so that
they are often referred to as fractions, such as:

Sand fraction
 Sand
2mm to 0.02mm
feels gritty
rounded or angular in shape
non-cohesive (does not stick together in a mass unless it is very wet)
 low specific surface area
 has less nutrients for plants than the smaller particles
 voids between sand particles promote free drainage and entry of air
 holds little water and prone to drought
 Silt
0.02mm to 0.002mm
 quartz is often the dominant mineral in silt since other minerals
have weathered away
 does not feel gritty
 floury feel -smooth
 wet silt does not exhibit stickiness, plasticity, malleability
 Clay
<0.002mm
 flat palettes or tiny flakes
 small clay particles are colloids
 large surface area (spoonful = football field)
 wet clay is very sticky and is plastic or it can be molded readily into a
shape or rod
 easily formed into long ribbons
 Clay
shrink-swell
 pore spaces are very small and convoluted
 movement of water and air are very slow
 water holding capacity is very high
 tremendous capacity to adsorb water (not all available for plants
 chemical adsorption is large
 Soil Textural Fraction
 There are a number of systems that classify soil separates into
different size ranges.
 Two of these are used more widely in agriculture and they are the
following:
1. USDA (United States Department of Agriculture)
2. ISSS (International Soil Science Society)
 The two systems differ in the range of size of silt particles and in
the number of classification of the sand fraction.
 The term size when referring to soil particles signifies an “effective
diameter”.
 Classification of soil particles according to size by four systems.
0.002 0.006 0.02 0.06 0.2 0.6 2.0

British Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium Coarse

Standards Clay Gravel
Institution
Silt Sand

International Sand
Society of Soil Clay Silt Gravel
Science Fine Coarse

0.002 0.02 0.2 2.0

0.002 0.05 0.10 0.25 0.5 1.0 2.0

United States Very Fine Med. Coarse Very

fine coarse
Department of Clay Silt Gravel
Agriculture
Sand
United States Sand
Public Roads Clay Silt Gravel
Administration Fine Coarse

0.005 0.05 0.25 2.0

Particle diameter (mm, log scale)

 Up close –Sand
particles

Up close –Clay
particles
 Rock fragments and mineral
particles classified by size
Common Size
Diameter Feel
Name Description
Gravel, Very coarse Larger than 2 Rocky
stone mm
Sand Coarse 0.02 mm to 2 Gritty
mm
Silt Fine 0.002 mm to Smooth,
0.02 mm silky
Clay Very fine Smaller than Sticky,
0.002 mm plastic
 General characteristics associated with the soil separates
Rating
Characteristics Sand Silt Clay
Resistance to pH changes Low Medium High
(buffering capacity)
Total surface area (TSA) Small Limited/Medium Large
Drainage rate High Slow to medium Very slow
(removal of excess water)
Water holding capacity Low Moderate High
(ability to hold water)
Aeration (exchange of gases) Good Moderate Poor
and water movement
Chemical activity Little Little to moderate Very active
Cation exchange capacity (CEC) Poor Medium to high High
(ability to store plant nutrients)
Compactibility Low Medium High
(susceptibility to compaction)
The relationship between the surface area of a given
mass of material and the size of its particles
Total Surface Area
 Total Surface Area
Where:
Total no. of particles (TNP) = V V = volume of
d3 container
d = diameter of
Surface area (SA)/particle =  d2 soil particle
 = 3.1416

Total surface area (TSA) = TNP x SA/particle

 Calculate the total surface area exposed by a
1cm3 soil composed mainly of particles with
diameter of 0.2mm=0.02cm (sand).

TNP = V = 1 cm3 = 1 cm3

d3 (0.02cm)3 8x10-6cm3
= 0.125x106
= 125,000 particles

SA/particle =  d2 = 3.1416(0.2mm)2 = 3.1416(0.04 mm2)

= 0.125664 mm2
TSA = (125,000 particles)(0.125664 mm2)
= 15,708 mm2
 Calculate the total surface area exposed by a
1cm3 soil composed mainly of particles with
diameter of 0.02mm=0.002cm (silt).

TNP = V = 1 cm3 = 1 cm3

d3 (0.002cm)3 8x10-9cm3
= 0.125x109
= 125,000,000 particles
SA/particle =  d2 = 3.1416(0.02mm)2 = 3.1416(4x10-4
mm2)
= 1.25664x10-3 mm2
TSA = (125,000,000 particles)(0.00125664 mm2)
= 157,080 mm2
 Calculate the total surface area exposed by a
1cm3 soil composed mainly of particles with
diameter of 0.002mm=0.0002cm (largest clay).

TNP = V = 1 cm3 = 1 cm3

d3 (0.0002cm)3 8x10-12cm3
= 1.25x1011
= 125,000,000,000 particles

SA/particle =  d2 = 3.1416(0.002mm)2 = 3.1416(4x10-6 mm2)

= 1.25664x10-5 mm2 or 0.0000125664 mm2

TSA = (125,000,000,000particles)(0.0000125664mm2)
= 1,570,800 mm2
 Methods of Soil Texture Determination
* Field methods (qualitative)
1. Feel method 2. Roll method
* Laboratory methods (quantitative)
3. Mechanical analysis (particle size analysis)
a. Sieve method
i. hydrometer method
b. Sedimentation method
ii. pipette method
 Feel method
This involves rubbing a sample of the soil,
usually in a moist to wet condition, between the
thumb and fingers. The way a wet soil “slicks out”
 that is, develops a continuous ribbon when
pressed between the thumb and fingers 
indicates the amount of clay present. The longer
and smoother the ribbon formed, the higher the
clay content.
 Roll method
This involves moistening a small amount of
soil, kneading it and shaping it into a ball. The ball
will be rolled between the palm and made into a
ring.
 Roll method
Characteristic Textural class
No roll forms Coarse-textured Sand
Short roll forms Moderately coarse- Sandy loam
textured soil
Roll forms but Moderately Loam, silt loam
breaks when coarse-textured
shaped into ring soil with more fine
particles
Ring cracks along Moderately fine- Clay loam, sandy clay
the outer edge textured soil loam, silty clay loam
Ring is smooth Fine-textured soil Silty clay, sandy clay,
clay
 Mechanical or particle size analysis
In all types of quantitative mechanical analysis, two
steps are necessary. These are:

1) Separation of all particles from each other or

complete dispersion into ultimate particles.

No matter what method of mechanical analysis is

used, it can only be accurate if the dispersion is
complete.
 Mechanical or particle size analysis
2) Measuring the amount of each size group in the
sample.

Once the soil sample is dispersed, several methods can be

used to measure the proportions of each particle size
fraction.

Generally, the coarser fractions are separated by sieving

and the finer ones by settling in a viscous medium.
 A. Sieve method
 makes use of a nest of sieves with different size
openings
 used to separate out the very fine sand and larger
particles from the finer particles
 the principle is simply that discrete soil particles
remaining on given sieve belong to the separate
whose sizes is between the size of openings of that
sieve and the one above it.
 A. Sieve method
 the sieves correspond to the desired particle size
separation.
 the weight of each separate is then measured
 difficulty arises in using screens to separate
progressively smaller particles of silt and clay
 sieving appears to be common and practical
method of separation for sand particles
A. Sieve method
 A. Sieve method
 the sieves correspond to the desired particle size
separation.
 the weight of each separate is then measured
 difficulty arises in using screens to separate
progressively smaller particles of silt and clay
 sieving appears to be common and practical
method of separation for sand particles
 B. Sedimentation method
 sedimentation principle adopts a medium wherein
particles can settle in the suspension
 under isothermal condition; the rate of such
settlement depends upon the size, shape and
density of particles and viscosity of the medium
 in a water medium for instance, large particles
travel faster than smaller ones of the same density
and settle out of suspension
 B. Sedimentation method
 the concentration of each size is determined based
on the fact that bigger particles settle faster than
the smaller particles or the velocity of settling vary
with the size of the particles
 in air medium, this can’t be determined since there
is no means of measurement (not accessible)
 in evacuated medium or in a vacuum, particles of
different sizes drop at the same rate, thus we can
not separate the particles
 B. Sedimentation method
 In 1851, Sir George Stoke formulated the law
governing the settling of rigid spherical particles in
a viscous medium and it is known as the Stoke’s
law.
 “Resistance offered by a liquid to a falling rigid spherical
particle varies with the radius of the particle and not with
its surface”
 On the other hand, the rate of fall (velocity) or
downward force is proportional to its weight or
particle diameter.
 B. Sedimentation method
Stoke’s law is mathematically expressed as:
Where: V = velocity (cm/min)
V = K d2 d = effective diameter (mm)
K = constant (cm/mm2-min)

And since, S = V t Where: S = distance; t = time

then, t = S = S
V Kd2
 K is a constant characteristic of the particle, the
liquid and temperature of the suspension.

Temp K Temp K
(oC) (cm/mm2-min) (oC) (cm/mm2-min)
25 6,000
31 6,900
26 6,200
32 7,050
27 6,350
33 7,200
28 6,450
34 7,350
29 6,600
35 7,500
30 6,750
 Sample calculation 1:
 Size limit between sand and silt = 0.02 mm
 Temperature is 25oC for which K = 6,000 cm/mm2-min
V = K d2
= 6,000 cm/mm2-min (0.02mm)2
= 6,000 cm/mm2-min (0.0004mm2)
= 2.4 cm/min
 For a distance or depth of 10 cm:
t = S
V
= 10 cm/2.4 cm/min
= 4.17 min
≈ 4 min
 Sample calculation 2:
 Size limit between silt and clay = 0.002 mm
 Temperature is 25oC for which K = 6,000 cm/mm2-min

V = K d2
= 6,000 cm/mm2-min (0.002mm)2
= 6,000 cm/mm2-min (0.000004mm2)
= 0.024 cm/min
 For a distance or depth of 10 cm:
t= S
V
= 10 cm/0.024 cm/min
= 416.7 min
= 6.94 hrs ≈ 7 hrs
The techniques of determining particle size
distribution in soils based on sedimentation
principles are:

1) Pipette method

Used a pipette to draw

samples of known volume
from a given depth in the
suspension at regular time
after sedimentation is begun.
The techniques of determining particle size distribution
in soils based on sedimentation principles are:

2) Hydrometer method

Hydrometer is used to measure

the density of the suspension at
a given depth as a function of
time.
 Hydrometer Method
% soil separate = CHR x 100
weight of soil

% silt & clay = CHR at 4min x 100

Where:
weight of soil
CHR = corrected
hydrometer
% clay = CHR at 7hrs x 100
reading
weight of soil

% silt = CHR at 4min - CHR at 7hrs x 100

weight of soil
= % silt & clay - % clay

% sand = 100 - % silt & clay

 Sample calculation
Using a 25g soil sample in hydrometer method of soil
texture determination, the following results are obtained:
Reading
Parameter 4min 7hrs
Observed hydrometer reading (OHR), g/L
Soil suspension (OHRs) 22 14
Blank solution (OHRb) 0 -1
Temperature reading (oC)
Soil suspension (Ts) 28 29
Blank solution (Tb) 27 29
Correction factor (CF) ? ?
Corrected hydrometer reading ? ?
(CHR)
 Solution
CF = OHRb + 0.36 (Ts – Tb)

CF at 4min = 0 + 0.36 (28 – 27) = 0 + 0.36(1) = 0.36

CF at 7hrs = -1 + 0.36 (29 – 29) = -1 + 0.36(0) = -1

CHR = OHRs – CF
CHR at 4min = 22 – 0.36 = 21.64
CHR at 7hrs = 14 – (-1) = 14 + 1 = 15

% silt & clay = 21.64 x 100 = 86.56%

25
 Solution

% clay = 15 x 100 = 60%

25

% silt = 86.56  60 = 26.56%

% sand = 100  86.56 = 13.44%

Soil textural class name:

Soil
Textural
Triangle
 Textural Classes

Soil textural class names are used:

1) To convey an idea of the textural makeup of soils; and

2) To give an indication of their physical properties
 USDA

ISSS
 Textural Classes
 Three broad groups of these classes are recognized and
within each group specific class names have been
devised.
 Additional texture class names are based on these three
basic groups.
The basic group name always comes last in the class
name.
Example: loamy sand is in the sand group, and sandy
loam is in the loam group.
 Sand group
contains at least 70% or more by weight of sand

often referred to as coarse-textured soils

loose and single-grained

individual grains can readily be seen or felt

the two specific classes are: sand (S) and loamy sand (LS)
 Clay group
includes all soils that contain 40% or more clay
these are called fine-textured soils
 difficult to till due to their plasticity and stickiness
textural classes under this group are: sandy clay (SC), silty
clay (SiC) and clay (C)
 Loam group
A mixture of sand, silt and clay particles that exhibit
light and heavy properties in about equal proportions
easy to till soil is called light soil while a soil difficult to till
is called heavy soil)
texture range from moderately coarse to moderately fine
includes: sandy loam (SL), loam (L), silt loam (SiL),
clay loam (CL), sandy clay loam (SCL) and silty clay
loam (SiCL)
 General terms used to describe soil texture in relation to basic
textural class names (Brady and Weil, 1999)
Common Amount of Basic soil textural class
names soil Texture names
separates
Sandy soil >70% sand Coarse Sands, Loamy sands

Moderately Sandy loam, Fine

Loamy = %sand, coarse sandy loam
soils silt and
Medium Very fine sandy loam,
clay
Loam, Silt loam, Silt
Moderately Sandy clay loam, Silty
fine clay loam, Clay loam

Clayey >40% clay Fine Sandy clay, Silty clay,

soils Clay
 Significance of Soil Texture
1. Influences water
holding capacity and
infiltration rate.
Coarse-textured soil, high
infiltration and percolation
rate, low WHC
Fine-textured soil, low
infiltration and percolation
rate, high WHC
 Significance of Soil Texture
2. Soil texture also influences the soil's inherent fertility

Fine-textured soils have high nutrient supplying power

than coarse-textured soils

More ions can be adsorbed by a gram of clay particles

than by a gram of sand or silt particles, because the clay
particles provide a much greater surface area for
adsorption
 Significance of Soil Texture
3. Soil texture has an impact on soil temperature
 Water content in the soil dictates the changes in soil
temperature
 Difference in the specific heat of water

4. Soil texture affects aeration and drainage.

 Fine-textured soils are poorly drained and poorly
aerated than coarse-textured soils.
 Soil Structure
The arrangement and orientation of primary soil particles
(sand, silt and clay) and pores in the soil into compound
aggregates and aggregates into soil mass.

Aggregates are groups of soil particles held together by

organic matter or chemical forces.

Pores are the spaces in the soil.

 Formation of aggregates
 Clay particle interactions
 Alternate wetting and drying
 Swelling and shrinking
 Freezing
 Cultivation
 Biological factors (roots, fungal hyphae, soil fauna and humus)
 Chemical factors (cation effects and bonds through oxides of Fe and
Al, silicates and CaCO3)
Formation and arrangement of aggregates
 Factors affecting soil aggregation
 Cementing materials
a. Organic matter c. Microbial gums
b. Lime d. Fine clay bridges
 Microbial activity
 Seasonal variations
 Soil water content variations
 Cultivations
 Conditions that should be met for a soil
to have structure
1. There should be an aggregation

2. There is a definite pattern of arrangement

Note: “If any of the two conditions is not met, soil is

structureless”
 Structureless soils
1. Single grained
 no aggregation; no regular pattern of arrangement
 typically represented by sandy soil

2. Massive
 no definite pattern of arrangement of the repeating
units
 represented by paddy soil
 Bases for field description of soil structure
1. Shaped of aggregate
 Types of soil structure

2. Size of aggregates
 Classes of soil structure

3. Durability of aggregates
 Grades of soil structure
 Types of Soil Structure
A classification of soil structure based on the shape of
the aggregates or peds and their arrangement in profile

1. Spheroidal
2. Blocky
3. Platy
4. Prismatic
 Spheroidal (granular and crumb subtype)
 includes rounded peds or aggregates whose
diameter is not more than 1cm
lie loosely and are readily shaken apart
the aggregates are called granules and the pattern of
arrangement as granular
Crumb when the granules are especially porous
 Spheroidal (granular and crumb subtype)
 characteristics of many surface soils, especially those
high in organic matter and are especially prominent
in grassland soils
 Platelike (Platy)
aggregates are arranged in relatively thin horizontal
plates, leaflets or lenses

most noticeable in the surface layer of virgin soils but

may characterize the subsoil horizons as well

platy type is often inherited from the parent materials,

especially those laid down by water or ice
Platelike (Platy)
 Types
2) Platelike (Platy)
 Prism-like (prismatic and columnar subtype)
vertically oriented aggregates or pillars which vary
in length with different soils
commonly occur in subsoil horizons in arid and
semiarid regions
when the tops are rounded, the term columnar is
used
Prismatic when the tops of the prisms are still plane
level and clean cut,
Prism-like (prismatic and columnar subtype)
 Blocklike (angular and sub-angular subtype)
aggregates have been reduced to blocks, irregularly
six-faced, with their three dimensions more or less
equal
usually confined to the subsoils, commonly of the
humid regions
the stage of development and other characteristics
have much to do with soil drainage, aeration and root
penetration
 Blocklike (angular and sub-angular subtype)
when the edges of the cubes are sharp and the
rectangular face distinct, the sub-type is designated
angular blocky

 when some rounding has occurred, the aggregates

are referred to as sub-angular blocky
Blocklike (angular and sub-angular subtype)
 Classes of Soil Structure
A grouping of soil structure units or peds on the basis
from the very fine to very coarse.
 Classes of Soil Structure
Type
Class
Platelike Prismlike Blocklike Spheroidal

Very fine < 1 mm < 10 mm < 5 mm < 1 mm

Fine 1 - 2 mm 10 - 20 mm 5 - 10 mm 1 - 2 mm
Medium 2 - 5 mm 10 - 50 mm 10 - 20 mm 2 - 5 mm

Coarse 5 - 10 mm 50 - 100 mm 20 - 50 mm 5 - 10 mm
Very coarse > 10 mm > 100 mm > 50 mm > 10 mm
 Grades of Soil Structure
Refers to grouping or classification of soil structure on
the basis of inter and intra-aggregate adhesion,
cohesion or stability within the profile.
Grades of Soil Structure
 Describing a soil structure
A description of soil structure may then be given in the order

Grade class Type

Example:

 a soil with weak, medium angular blocky structure

G C T

Aggregate size = 8 mm  a soil with strong,

Grade: 3 coarse granular
Type: Granular
structure
 Evaluation of soil structure
Based on:

1. Extent of aggregation
2. Stability of aggregates (most commonly used)
3. Nature of soil pores
 Physical significance of soil structure
1. Porosity of the soil
 The arrangement or packing of the particles would
determine the size of the soil pore spaces

a) Open packing (cubical)

b) Moderate packing
(orthorhombic)
c) Close packing
(rhombohedral)
 Physical significance of soil structure
2. Bulk density
 The lower the total porosity of the soil, the higher
is its bulk density.
3. Infiltration rates
 Infiltration in compact soils is slower than in
porous soils.
4. Aeration
 Permeability of the soil to air is low in compact
soils but high in porous soils.
Spheroidal Prismlike Blocklike Platelike
 A good structure implies that soil has
Relatively high porosity, its pore spaces dominated by
the medium and large pores;

High hydraulic conductivity and air permeability with

aggregates of medium and large sizes;

That the above conditions persist or are stable after the

action of water and/or manipulation of soil.
 Agricultural significance of soil structure:
1. Soil-air-water relationship
 distribution of pore spaces in the soil which in turn
would influence air and water movement

2. Microbial activity
 affect the bacterial activities such as nitrification and
mineralization processes
 Soil Color

 The most obvious characteristics of soil and frequently

used to describe soil than any other.
 Indicator of the climatic condition during soil genesis
 Deducing soil productivity
 Soil Color
Practically all colors occur in soils. This includes
white, red, brown, gray, yellow, and black. Even bluish
and greenish tinges occur

Predominantly soil colors are not pure but frequently,

mixtures of two or three colors such as gray, brown
and rusts that may occur in patches called mottling
 Sources of Soil colors
 Humus is black or brown or yellow depending upon the
degree of hydration;
 Reduced iron is blue-green;
 Quartz is mostly white;
 Limestones are white, gray or sometimes olive-green;
 Feldspars have different colors with red dominating;
 Clays are gray, white or red which is determined by the
type and amount of iron coatings.
 Significance of soil color
a. Color can serve to tell much about a soil
 the darker a soil, the higher its productivity due to the amount
of organic matter present

 light color frequently results from the predominance of quartz

 light color is frequently the result of leaching of iron from the

soil and plant nutrients

 warm climate brings about a red soil colors, especially if the

soils are well drained
 Significance of soil color
b. Infer different chemical reactions taking place

 Mottled colors in soils indicate intermittent reduction and

oxidation and point to temporary access of water and a
consequent lack of aeration

 light-colored patches in the soil are low in iron and

manganese, while the dark ones show where iron or
manganese has been precipitated
 Significance of soil color
c. Extremely vital in the classification of soils

d. Guide to the climatic soil group, to the parent

material or to the physiographic location
 Soils in humid temperate and cold zones are
predominantly grayish.

 Red and yellow soils are mostly found in the tropics and
subtropics
 Effect of colors on other soil conditions
 Effect on the heat balance
 light color reflect, dark color absorb light/heat

 Affects temperature and moisture of the soil, and

indirectly plant growth, microbial activity, and soil
structure

 Only color of the surface can have an effect on other

soil conditions
 Determination of soil color
 Munsell color chart

The three basic factors which are the components of color

•Hue
• Value
• Chroma
 Determination of soil color
Hue

 Refers to the dominant spectral color and is related to

wavelength of light.

 The hue notation of a color indicates its relation to red,

yellow, green, blue, and purple

 The symbol for hue is letter abbreviation preceded by

number from 0 to 10.
 Determination of soil color
Hue

As the number increases, the color becomes more yellow

and less red
 Determination of soil color
Hue

 As the number increases, the color becomes more

yellow and less red.

 It is seen at the upper part of the Munsell.

 Determination of soil color
Value

 Expresses apparent degree of lightness or darkness of

the dominant color.

 It refers to the gradation of white or black.

 The symbol for the notation value is number from 0 to 10,
0 for absolute black and 10 for absolute white.
 Determination of soil color
Value

 It is located at the left side of the munsell.

 Determination of soil color
Chroma

 Defines the gradation of purity of color or the intensity or

brightness of a color.

 It may also refers the strength of dominant spectral color.

 The symbol for the notation chroma is number from 0 to

20 but normally in soil 20 is not reached.
 Determination of soil color
Chroma

 It is located at the bottom of the page.

 Soil Weight and Volume Parameters
Soil densities
a. Bulk density
b. Particle density
Soil porosity
 Bulk Density
 Refers to the rate of the mass of dry soil or dry
weight of soil to its bulk or total volume
Dry weight refers to the weight of the soil dried at 105
to 110oC for at least 24 hours
Bulk or total volume refers to the combined volume of
the soil solids and pore space.
 Bulk Density
 Mathematically, it is expressed as:

ρb = Ms / Vt

where, ρb is the bulk density of the soil,

Ms is the mass of dry soil
Vt is the total soil volume

The bulk density of most soil usually ranges from 1.0 to

1.6 g/cm3
 Bulk Density
 Bulk density does not remain constant for a given soil. It
varies with:

a. Organic matter content

 Bulk density decreases with increasing organic matter content

 Very light weight of organic matter that increases soil porosity

 Granulating effect of organic matter as compared to inorganic

materials
 Bulk Density
 Bulk density does not remain constant for a given soil. It
varies with:

b. Soil porosity
 Bulk density decreases with increasing porosity of the soil
c. Soil depth
 Bulk density increases with the depth of the soil.
d. Soil texture
 Fine-textured soils generally have lower bulk density than
coarse-textured soils
 Bulk Density
 Bulk density does not remain constant for a given soil. It
varies with:

e. Tillage practices
 surface soil which is subject to tillage operations tends to
have granular (porous) structure, hence, a low bulk density.

 Use of heavy equipment would compact the soil, resulting

to reduced pore spaces and high bulk density reaching 1.9
g/cm3 or more
 Characteristics of soil with low bulk density
 Rapid infiltration and percolation of water.
 Adequate water retention due to their high organic
matter content.
 Highly permeable (a permeable soil allows ready
penetration of air, water and plant roots).
 Well drained
 Characteristics of soil with low bulk density
 Soils with low bulk density values (less than 1.0g/cm3) have pore
space volumes that constitute more than 50% of the total volume

 High bulk density values (greater than 1.6g/cm3) would indicate

limited soil aeration, very slow water movement, poor drainage,
impedance to root growth and presence of soil crust that
critically retards seed germination

 high bulk density becomes a major advantage in flooded paddy

soils where the hardpan prevents water from percolating into the
deeper layers
 Particle Density
 the dry weight of the soil per unit volume of soil solids
alone.

Mathematically, it is expressed as:

ρp = Ms / Vs
where, ρp is the particle density of the soil,
Ms is the mass of dry soil
Vs is the volume of soil solids
 Factors affecting particle density
a. Organic matter content
 The greater the organic matter, the lower the particle
density value

b. Mineralogical composition
 Soils derived from heavy minerals tend to have higher
particle density values

Note: The particle density of most mineral soils usually varies within
a narrow range of 2.6 to 2.75 g/cm3.
 Soil Porosity
 It is the portion of the soil not occupied by the solid
components and filled up by water and gases.

Several classes of pore space

1. Coarse or large pores
2. Medium pores
3. Fine or small pores
 Soil Porosity
Coarse or large pores

 These are pores whose width are larger than 10µm.

 Facilitate the passage of excess water in drainage
 Allow gaseous exchange with the atmosphere (soil
aeration)
 Provide space in which plant roots can grow and
develop.
 Soil Porosity
Medium pores

 These are pores with widths ranging from 0.2 to 10µm.

 Retain water with an energy of retention enough for
plants to take up the retained water.
 Act as storage for the available water.
 Soil Porosity
Fine or small pores

 These are pores with width smaller than 0.2µm.

 Retain water very strongly and the energy is high for
plants to be able to make use of the retained water.
 Soil Porosity
“A desirable pore size distribution in soil is one where the
total pore volume is approximately divided equally
between the coarse, medium and fine pores”
 Total Porosity
 The proportion of the total pore space volume to the
bulk or total volume of soil.

Mathematically expressed as:

%PS = Vp / Vt x 100

where, PS is pore space or porosity,

Vp is the volume of pore space
Vt is bulk or total volume of soil
 Total Porosity
 The ratio of the bulk density to the particle density multiplied by
100 gives the percentage of the soil volume that is occupied by
the soil solids:
%Solid = ρb / ρp x 100
 Since percent pore space and percent solid space make up the
total soil volume, then:
%PS = 100 - % solid
 and since percent solid is the ratio of bulk density to particle
density multiplied by 100, then:

%PS = 100 - (ρb / ρp x 100) or PS = (1 - ρb / ρp) x 100

A 200g moist soil contains 20% moisture content
with Vs= 70cm3 and Vp= 50cm3. Compute for the
following.

a. ODW
b. Bulk density
c. Particle density
d. Percent pore space
e. Percent solid
Solution:

a. ODW = FW-WƟm = 200g – 40 g

= 160 g

b. ρb = Ms / Vt = 160g / 120cm3 = 1.33 g/cm3

c. ρp = Ms / Vs = 160g / 70cm3 = 2.29 g/cm3

d. %PS = Vp / Vt = 50cm3 /120cm3 x 100 = 41.67%

e. %Solid = 100 - %PS = 100 - 41.67 = 58.33%

= ρb /ρp x 100 =1.33 / 2.29 x 100 = 58.10%
 Soil Consistency
 Refers to the physical condition of a soil at a given water
content
 Also used to designate the manifestation of the physical
forces of cohesion and adhesion acting within the soil at
various moisture contents
 Soil Consistency
 How consistent a body can remain under stress, or to what extent
it can maintain its shape when subjected to forces tending to
cause deformation.

 The major determinant factor of soil consistency is the soil’s

degree of wetness generally expressed as the mass of water
present per unit mass of solids.
 Forms of soil consistency
Harsh consistency
 consistency when the soil is dry
 a dry soil is relatively hard and brittle and exhibit a high
degree of cohesiveness for internal cementation and a
high resistance to tillage.
Friable consistency
 consistency of the soil when moist
 it can be tilled to best advantage with the least investment
or energy
 prescribes the physical condition of the soil suitable for
plowing
 Forms of soil consistency
Plastic consistency
 consistency that allows molding of a soil to any shape
without breaking
 tends to be molded (puddled) into lumps, which upon drying
become extremely hard
Sticky consistency
 consistency when the soil is wet (almost at saturation)
 If tilled, soil becomes a muddy paste.
 Forms of soil consistency
Viscous consistency

 consistency of the soil when fluid (more than the saturation.

 Stickiness vs Plasticity
Stickiness is the ability of soil materials to adhere to
other objects

Plasticity is the ability of soil materials to change shape

but not volume, continuously under the influence of a
constant pressure and to retain the impressed shape when
the pressure is removed
 Soil Water
 Important components of the soil that fills the part of the
pores between solid particles

 affects many physical and chemical reactions of the soil as

well as plant growth
 Properties of Water
1. Polarity

 Attraction to ions and

electrically charged clay
particles

 Dissolution of salts
 Properties of Water
2. Hydrogen bonding

 hydrogen atoms act as connecting linkage between

water molecules

 accounts for the polymerization and lattice structure of

water and for the relatively high boiling point, specific
heat and viscosity of water
 Properties of Water
3. Cohesion and Adhesion

 attraction between like molecules (cohesion)

 attraction between unlike molecules (adhesion)

 these forces make it possible for the soil solids to retain

water and control its movement and utilization
 Properties of Water
4. Surface tension

 a phenomenon commonly evidenced at liquid-air

interfaces and results from the greater attraction of
water molecules for each other than for the air above

 the net effect is an inward force at the surface, which

causes water to behave as if its surface were covered
with a stretched elastic membrane
Surface tension
 Methods is measuring soil water
1. Soil moisture content
 amount of water present in the soil (usually described as a
percentage)

2. Soil moisture potential

 how easy or difficult can the water be removed from the soil
or how hard the plant root has to work to extract water from
the soil (tension)
 Soil moisture content
 It is considered as the capacity factor, which tells us
how much water is present in the soil
 The amount of water present in the soil can be
expressed through:
a. relative to the mass or weight of soil,
b. the total volume of soil,
c. the depth of soil
d. the volume of pore spaces
 Soil moisture content
1) Moisture content by weight
(amount of water relative to the mass of the soil)

Mw FW - ODW
Ɵm = = = g water/g soil
Ms ODW

Where, Ɵm is the moisture content relative to the mass or

weight of the soil; Mw is the mass of water and Ms is the mass of
dry soil or oven dried weight of soil, which is the weight of soil
after oven drying at 105 to 110oC for at least 24 hours.
 Soil moisture content
2) Moisture content by volume
(amount of water relative to the total volume of soil)

Vw ρb
Ɵv = = Ɵm x = cm3 water/ cm3 soil
Vt ρw

Where, Ɵv is the moisture content relative to the volume of the

soil; Vw is the volume of water computed on the basis of water
removed until oven dryness and Vt is the total volume of soil.
 Soil moisture content
3) Height of water
(amount of water relative to the depth of soil)

Hw = Ɵv x hs

Where, Hw is the depth or height of water and hs is the depth of

soil.
 Soil moisture content
4) Degree of saturation
(amount of water relative to the volume of pore
spaces)

Vw θv
%S = x 100 or %S = x 100
Vp PS

Where, %S is the degree of saturation, Vw is the volume of

water and Vp is the volume of pore spaces in the soil.
A 100cm3 moist soil with ρb = 1.33
g/cm3 and ρp = 2.59 g/cm3 weighed
180g. After oven drying its weight was
reduced to 150g.
Calculate the following:
a.Ɵm
b.Ɵv
c.Hw considering a soil depth of 20cm
d.% Solid
e.% PS
f.% Saturation
 Solution:
a. Ɵm = FW – ODW = 180g - 150g
ODW 150g
= 0.2 g H2O/g soil or 20%

b. Ɵv = Ɵm x ρb = 0.2 x 1.33 = 0.266 cm3 H2O/cm3 soil

ρw 1.0

c. Hw = Ɵv x depth = 0.266 x 20cm = 5.32 cm

d. %Solid = ρb / ρp x 100 = 1.33 / 2.59 x 100 = 51.35%

e. %PS = 100 - %Solid = 100 – 51.35 = 48.65%

= (1- ρb /ρp ) x 100 = (1- 1.33/2.59) x 100 = 48.65%

f. %Saturation = Ɵv / PS x 100 = 0.266 / 0.4865 x 100

= 54.68%
 Soil water potential
 It is considered as the intensity factor, which tells us
how easy can the water be removed from the soil.
 The retention and movement of water in soils, its
uptake and translocation in plants and its loss to the
atmosphere are all energy-related phenomena
 Energy status of soil water
 Different kinds of energy are involved including potential,
kinetic and electrical
 To characterize the energy status of water, the term
“free energy” is used
 Free energy is a sort of summation of all other forms of
energy
 The movement is from a zone where the free energy of
water is high to one where the free energy is low
 Factors affecting the Free energy of water
a) Matric force
 attraction of the soil solids (matrix) for water
 markedly reduce the free energy of adsorbed molecules and
even those held by cohesion.

b) Osmotic force
 attraction of ions and other solutes for water
 this force also tends to reduce the free energy of soil solution

c) Gravitational force
 force acting on soil water, which tends to pull the water
downward
 it is the difference in free energy level (high to low), which
causes water to flow.
 Total soil water potential
 The sum of the contribution of the various forces (four
components) acting on soil water.

Mathematically, it is given as:

Ψt = Ψ g + Ψp + Ψm + Ψo
Where, Ψt is the total soil water potential, Ψg is the
gravitational potential, Ψp is pressure potential, Ψm is the
matric potential and Ψo is the osmotic potential.
 Gravitational potential
 In a soil profile the gravitational potential (Ψg) of water
near the soil surface is always higher than Ψg in the
subsoil.

 As a result of heavy precipitation or irrigation, therefore,

the difference in Ψg causes downward flow of water
deeper into the soil profile.
 Pressure potential
 A potential that is due either to the weight of water at a
point under consideration or to gas pressure which is
different from that which exists at a reference position

 Weight of water column above a molecule (reference

point)
 Matric potential
 Cohesion and adhesion (attraction) of water to the soil
matrix, provides a matric force (i.e. adsorption and
capillarity) which reduces free energy (movement) of
water particles near surfaces.

 Consequently, matric potentials are always negative.

 Osmotic potential
 Osmotic potential (Ψm) is attributable to the attraction
between a water molecule and various ions (e.g. cations)
and solutes (e.g. soluble salts) in the soil solution
 Presence of large amounts of soluble salts results in
osmotic potentials (Ψm) that reduce soil water potential.
 This makes it difficult for plants to remove soil water
even though water may be present.
 This is known as physiological drought and is why
plants wilt and appear stunted in saline soil profiles
 Osmotic and matric potentials are negative.
This is due to the fact that both the osmotic and
attractive forces responsible for these two
potentials reduce the free energy level of soil
water.

 Consequently, these negative potentials are

referred to as “suction or tension”, indicating
that they are responsible for the soil ability to
attract the adsorbed pure water.

 The terms suction and tension have the

advantage over potentials in that they are
expressed in positive rather than negative units.
Suction or the force that retain water in the
soil can be expressed in a number of ways:

a. Height in centimeters of a unit water column

whose weight is balanced by the suction under
consideration. The greater the height, the greater
the suction in the water, the lesser is the amount
of water present.
b. pF value refers to the logarithm of the centimeter
height of a unit water column.
c. Bars or atmosphere unit of a pressure of water
equivalent to its suction. One atmosphere is
approximately equal to one bar. It is also equal to
1000 cm.
 Approximate equivalent to the common means of
expressing energy levels of the soil water:

Height of unit
column of pF Atmosphere(bar)
water (cm)
10 1.00 0.01
100 2.00 0.10
1000 3.00 1.00
10000 4.00 10.00
15000 4.18 15.00
31000 4.50 31.00
100000 5.00 100.00
 Soil moisture characteristic curve
 It is the relationship between soil moisture content and
soil water suction or tension.

 Usually obtained by slowly drying completely saturated

soils.
 Relationship between Soil Moisture
Content and Suction
 For all soils, the ease of difficulty with which water is
released from the soil can be characterized by the slope
of the soil moisture characteristic curve and is known
as the water capacity.

 When the slope is large, very small increase in suction

releases large amount of water. The inverse holds true
when the slope approaches zero
The figure shows that
the fine-textured soils
(clay soils) hold much
water at a given
suction than the
coarse-textured soil
such as sand. At a
given moisture content,
water is held with
greater energy in clay
or fine-textured soil
than in coarse-textured
soil.
 Critical moisture levels in soil
Maximum Water Holding Capacity (MWHC)
 Water occupies all the pore spaces of the soil.
 At this point, suction is expected to be zero or near zero.
 Plants extract water with minimal effort or energy.

Field Capacity (FC)

 Maximum amount of moisture the soil can hold after drainage in a
given period of time.
 The water have moved away from the big pores (macropores)
and only the medium and small pores (micropores) contain water.
 Critical moisture levels in soil
Wilting Coefficient (WC) or Permanent Wilting Point
(PWP)
 Moisture content of the soil below which, plants growing will wilt
because the soil can no longer supply water at a sufficient rate to
maintain turgor
Since,
FC (upper limit of available water = 1/3 bar WC
lower limit of available water= 15 bars)
Hence, AW = FC – WC
Where, AW - available water
 Critical moisture levels in soil
Hygroscopic Coefficient (HC)
 Soil moisture constant representing the condition wherein water
is held so tightly and appearing as a very thin film of water
around a soil particle and may move only through vapor transfer.
 The suction of water at this condition is about 31 bars or atm
 Air-dried soil
 Movement of water in the soil
 The direction of flow is toward the lower potentials or
higher suctions.

 Most of the water in the soil moves in the liquid state but
at dry conditions, vapor movement becomes more
significant form of water transport.

 Liquid state flow takes place under either saturated or

unsaturated conditions.
 Classification of soil water
 Soil water has been classified from a physical and
biological point of view
Biological classification of soil water
 available water
 unavailable water
 super available or superfluous water
Physical classification of soil water
 capillary water
 hygroscopic water
 free or gravitational water
 Biological water
 This classification based on the availability of water to
the plant.
1. Available water
 It lies between wilting coefficient and field capacity
2. Unavailable water
 Includes the whole of the hygroscopic water plus a part of
the capillary water below the wilting point.
3. Super available or superfluous water
 It includes gravitational water plus a part of the capillary
water removed from larger interstices
 Physical water
1. Capillary water
 Water held in the capillary or medium pores in the soil
 Held between 1/3 and 31 atmosphere pressure
2. Hygroscopic water
 Held tightly on the surface of soil colloidal particle (31 atm)
 Removal from the soil requires a certain amount of energy
3. Free or Gravitational water
 Occupies the larger soil pores (macro pores) and moves into,
through or out of the soil due to the force of gravity
 Soil moisture tension at gravitational state is zero or less
than 1/3 atmosphere
 Soil Aeration
 Unrestricted exchange of gases
between soil and the atmosphere.
 It determines the rate of gas exchange,
proportion of pore spaces filled with air,
composition of soil air and the
resulting chemical oxidation or
reduction potential in the soil
environment.
Composition of soil air
 Factors affecting soil air composition
 Microbial activity
 Vegetation
 Water content
 Drainage condition
 Soil layering
 Soil texture
 Gaseous exchange in soil
Two mechanisms of gaseous exchange between soil and
atmosphere.

1. Convection or mass flow

 the entire mass of air streaming from a zone of higher
pressure to one of lower pressure
 the moving force is the gradient of the total gas pressure
2. Diffusion
 movement of individual gas whereby the moving force is
gradient of partial pressure
 Importance of soil aeration
1. Plant and root growth
 Adequate supply of oxygen in the roots enhance respiration
2. Microbial population and activity
 Respiration and metabolism
3. Formation of toxic material
 Injurious substances such as ferrous oxide, H2S and CO2
4. Development of plant disease
 Wilting and dieback
5. Water and nutrient absorption
 Soil temperature
 Heat is a form of energy while temperature is a measure
of the heat energy that a substance contains

 Soil temperature is a factor of primary importance for

many physical, chemical, and biological processes
 Soil temperature
It affects:
 Evaporation and soil aeration
 Chemical processes and reactions in the soil
 Biological processes such as seed germination,
seedling emergence, root development, and microbial
activity
 Factors affection soil temperature
1. Energy exchange processes
2. Soil moisture level
3. Vegetation
4. Soil color
5. Specific heat capacity of soil
6. Thermal conductivity of soil
(quantity of heat that flows through a unit area in a unit time
under a unit temperature gradient)
 Importance of soil temperature
1. It affects plant growth directly, that is all crops practically slow
down their growth below the soil temperature of about 90C and
above the soil temperature of above 500C.
2. Germination of different seeds requires different ranges of soil
temperature e.g. maize begins to germinate at soil temp of 7 to
100oC
3. Most of the soil organisms function best at an optimum soil
temperature of 25 to 350C
4. It also influences soil moisture content, aeration and availability
of plant nutrients
 Importance of soil temperature
5. Soil formation, weathering, soil organic matter balance and soil
chemical reactions

6. It controls the intensity of biophysical, biochemical and

microbiological processes that take place in soil.
 mineralization of organic matter
 diffusion and viscous flow
 water and nutrient absorption
 respiration
 root growth
 Pre-test Questions
Soil particles which have the best holding ability for nutrient is
called
a. Silt
b. Sand
c. Clay
d. Sandy loam
 Pre-test Questions
A soil with a bulk density of 1.3 g/cm3 and a particle density of 2.6
g/cm3 will have a porosity of
a. 50
b. .5
c. .05
d. 50%
 Pre-test Questions
The squeezing together of soil particular by the weight of farm
and construction equipment, vehicles and animal and foot traffic
reduces the average pore size and total air space which results
to what of soil?
a. Soil Compaction
b. Soil reaction
c. Soil Consociation
d. Soil Monolith
 Pre-test Questions
It is the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay
a. Soil structure
b. Soil texture
c. Soil moisture
d. Soil porosity
 Pre-test Questions
An ideal soil characteristics for plant growth which facilitate the
penetration through the soil mass of plant roots seeking plant
food is called
a. Fertility
b. Depth
c. Moisture
d. Porosity
 Pre-test Questions
Measure the volume of the soil that holds air and water and
usually expressed in percentage of soil volume not occupied by
solid materials is called
a. Soil texture
b. Soil permeability
c. Soil Porosity
d. Soil consistency
 Pre-test Questions
The upper diameter size limit of sand particle is
a. 0.02 mm
b. 2.0 mm
c. 0.2 mm
d. 0.002 mm
 Pre-test Questions
An air-dried soil weighs 15 grams. After oven-drying, the weight
became 12.5 grams. What is the moisture content of the soil.
a. 30%
b. 20%
c. 40%
d. 10%
 Pre-test Questions
Type of structure with the fastest rate of infiltration
a. Prism-like
b. Platy
c. Block-like
d. Columnar
 Pre-test Questions
By looking following bulk density of soil which of the following
indicate high porosity?
a. 1.2 g/cm3
b. 1.0 g/cm3
c. 1.6 g/cm3
d. 2.0 g/cm3
 Pre-test Questions
Which of the following soils have the highest porosity?
a. Fine-textured soils
b. Paddy soils
c. Coarse-textured soils
d. Rocky soils
 Pre-test Questions
This refers to the physical condition of the soil as it relates to
plant growth.
a. Soil Texture
b. Soil Moisture
c. Soil tilth
d. Soil porosity
 Pre-test Questions
It describes the darkness and lightness of soil color.
a. Hue
b. Chroma
c. Value
d. Intensity
 Pre-test Questions
These are the pore spaces meant to retain moisture.
a. Macropores
b. Mesopores
c. Medium pores
d. Micropores
 Pre-test Questions
It is the strength with which soil materials are held together or the
resistance of soils to deformation and rupture.
a. Soil consistency
b. Soil plasticity
c. Aggregation
d. Soil structure