ASIAN DEVELOPMENT FOUNDATION COLLEGE

Tacloban City, Leyte, Philippines

Department of Graduate Studies
Commission on Higher Education

COMPREHENSIV
E EXAMINATION
MAED-SCIENCE)
JESSIE C. DEVARAS
MAED-SCIENCE

DR. EDITHA P. JACER

INSTRUCTOR

DEVARAS, JESSIE C. MAED-SCIENCE

 PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION

1. In your own understanding, discuss the Philosophical Foundation of education and its
Philippine Philosophical Orientation in education.

Answer:

Philosophy is at the heart of curriculum development. It helps educators in formulating

beliefs, arguments, and assumptions and in making value judgments. Philosophy develops a
broad outlook, and it also helps in answering what schools are for, what subjects are
important, how students should learn, and what materials and methods should be used. Thus,
philosophy is a crucial determinant of curriculum trends and the curriculum development
process by helping clarify our thought process.

Philosophy of education is the branch of applied or practical philosophy concerned

with the nature and aims of education and the philosophical problems arising from
educational theory and practice. Because that practice is ubiquitous in and across human
societies, its social and individual manifestations so varied, and its influence so profound, the
subject is wideranging, involving issues in ethics and social/political philosophy,
epistemology, metaphysics, philosophy of mind and language, and other areas of philosophy.
Because it looks both inward to the parent discipline and outward to educational practice and
the social, legal, and institutional contexts in which it takes place, philosophy of education
concerns itself with both sides of the traditional theory/practice divide.

Education is one of the most important social institutions without which, all the other
institutions would be rendered obsolete. Apart from enlightening the masses, education plays
a vital role in the existence of peace and stability in the society and promotes harmony
between interrelating beings. It also promotes sound economic processes and political
dispensations meaning that without education, society would be in a state of absolute chaos.
This means that the betterment of the society depends on the quality of the education that
members of that society get.

In the ancient Philippines, children were given the rudiments of education. Such
education was both academic and vocation. The father trained his sons to be warriors,
hunters, fishermen, miners, lumbermen, and shipbuilders. The mother on her part trained her
daughters in cooking, gardening, serving, and other household arts.
Education is important and so is the foundation of our education system that was
shaped through time. In recent years, our country has changed and grown. The process
affected millions of Filipinos. Changes have been beneficial though. It does in the field of
our education system. Since preSpanish times, education in the Philippines has evolved. In
our fight for freedom as a race from the colonizers, education is a priority in satisfying
societal needs. We owe our language and numeracy skills to the cultures and beliefs we
learned from them. We came to believe in God Almighty till this generation, which gave us
the sense of being religious people. Yes, the colonizers left us a trace of grim past yet,
undeniably our educational system in the Philippines would not have been the same if it
weren’t because of them.
Perhaps, when it comes to the Philippines’ educational system, things are always evolving.

2. With the aid of the schema, briefly discuss the following Philosophical thoughts in
Education and drew implications in classroom instructions and management.

Answer:

Philosophy is the study of the principles of human behavior and reasoning about we really
know of the human behavior and reasoning about we really know of the universe and
ourselves. It means, philosophy is that through which man tries to understand him and the
world in which he/she views.

NATURALISM

Naturalism is the oldest philosophy in western world. The naturalists view the world
that we live in is made up of the matters, and believe that the material world, the world of
nature, is the real world. In other word nature is the source of knowledge. The human life is
the part of nature and is therefore controlled by external laws of nature. In fact, the essence
of all things is nature. The universe and man are the results of physical, mechanical and
biological forces acting upon them, which is called natural laws. The process of growth and
development in man was the result of force of energy prevailed in nature.

Man’s natural endowment, including his instincts and emotion are the guiding force of all his
conducts.

Educational Implications of Naturalism

Naturalism considers child as a gift of nature with potentialities for natural growth
according to laws of nature. The child is an active individual capable of self- development.
The aim of education is to develop the child as healthy and active personality in a natural
setting. The growth process must be natural and real without any interference from outside.
The powers of the child should be developed in natural ways by allowing the child to freely
interact with the nature. The curriculum should provide concrete and real experiences in a
natural context. The child should be exposed to a variety of sensory and physical activities.
The child learns by interacting with nature. Morality and character learned directly with the
help of natural consequences. Discipline is developed as a result of consequences of behavior
of child. The teacher plays the role of guiding the child learning from nature.
 REALISM

Realism considers the child as a dynamic and growing entity ready to face reality of
life. The laws of nature control the child. The aim of education is to prepare the child to face.
Hence the realist suggest that the curriculum should be broad based and include variety of
subjects, especially science subjects. While selecting the subjects, the learner’s background
and social demand should be considered. Realism suggests objective methods of teaching.
Importance must be given to observation, experimentation, and activities.
Realism can also be a view about the properties of reality in general, holding that
reality exists independent of the mind, as opposed to non-realist views (like some forms of
skepticism and solipsism) which question the certainty of anything beyond one's own mind.
Philosophers who profess realism often claim that truth consists in a correspondence between
cognitive representations and reality.
Realists tend to believe that whatever we believe now is only an approximation of
reality but that the accuracy and fullness of understanding can be improved. In some
contexts, realism is contrasted with idealism. Today it is more usually contrasted with anti-
realism, for example in the philosophy of science. The oldest use of the term "realism"
appears in medieval scholastic interpretations and adaptations of ancient Greek philosophy.

Educational Implications of Realism

Realism has probably had the greatest impact on educational philosophy because it is
the foundation of scientific reasoning. Realist educators encourage students to draw their
observations and conclusions from the world around them, rather than confining themselves
to an analysis of their own ideas. The modern role of a teacher—that of an organizer,
systematizes, and promoter of critical thinking—is largely founded on realist principles.
Realist educators are objective, believing in a systematic approach to order and classified
knowledge, building on previously learned information. They are less likely to encourage
their students to seek the truth in literature and ideas, instead encouraging them to seek the
truth by testing learned principles on the world around them.

The purpose of education was to prepare for complete living, the Realists believed.
Education should equip the learners with the knowledge and skills that are needed to
understand and master his physical environment so that he can live a happy and comfortable
life.

IDEALISM

Idealism is the oldest system of philosophy known to man. Its origin goes back to
ancient India in the east, and to Plato in the west. Its basic viewpoint stresses the human
spirit as the most important element in life. Idealism is concerned with supremacy of mind
and self, and views man and universe in terms of spirit or mind. Matter or objective may be
the projection or creation of mind, but ultimately real is the idea behind it. The physical
world is ephemeral and can be changed through the ideas or imagination of man. Plato, the
greatest philosopher of all ages, claimed that the ultimate reality consists of ideas. Plato and
his teacher Socrates conceived ideas as the basis of their philosophy. Socrates, an idealistic
philosopher placed importance on question-answer and dialogue as the method of acquiring
information or gaining knowledge whereas Plato emphasized on logical reasoning as the
method of gaining knowledge.

Educational Implications of Idealism

Idealism considers student as an individual with inner potentials. Education should

help the student to realize these potentials. Curriculum should consist of those knowledge
and experiences which help the student to attained development. The teacher should impart
essentials of knowledge and assist to develop moral and aesthetic values in the child. As said
earlier, idealism stresses more on the spiritual development of the child.
PRAGMATISM

Pragmatism was a school of philosophy that became popular in the United States in
the early twentieth century. This philosophy emphasized that an idea's usefulness or
practicality should be the method for measuring the merit of the idea. Today the term
"pragmatic" is used to describe things that are realistic and grounded. Instead of focusing on
possibilities, this theory states that ideas should be judged on their practical real-world
applications.
As educational philosophy began to grow throughout the twentieth century many
people applied pragmatism to education. This theory has grown in popularity in the
educational field, emphasizing that teaching students’ practical skills can be helpful to them
later in life. Because of this theory many schools have changed the way that they teach and
assess students.
Educational Implications of Pragmatism

Pragmatism considers the learner as growing biological and social being ready to
adjust to the environmental demands. The aim of education should be to prepare the child to
become an effective member of community. It should also try to develop competencies in the
child. Hence the curriculum should include those subjects and experience which are suitable
to the child’s interest and needs. The curriculum should be developing an attitude of inquiry,
facilitate artistic expression, encourage constructiveness and sustain interest in the child.
Dewey advocates “learning by doing”, which encourages the child to learn trough activities.
Dewey considers discipline as a function of the teaching- learning situation. If the learning is
made joyful and interesting, there is no need to use external rewards and punishments.

The topics students’ study in school should have practical applications to their current
or future situations or careers. While topics like math and science can help students in their
day-to-day life, proponents of the pragmatism philosophy also argue that other topics should
be included in the curriculum to help students grow. Schools should not only teach
information, but also help students grow as people.

EXISTENTIALISM

Existentialists believe that the nature of existence varies and is individualized to each
person. We are defined by our existence, and our existence is made up of our relationship to
other people and things in the world. They believe each person must choose and commit to
meaning and direction in life.
Existentialism is a philosophy that emphasizes individual existence, freedom, and
choice. It is the view that humans define their own meaning in life, and try to make rational
decisions despite existing in an irrational universe. It focuses on the question of human
existence, and the feeling that there is no purpose or explanation at the core of existence. It
holds that, as there is no God or any other transcendent force, the only way to counter this
nothingness (and hence to find meaning in life) is by embracing existence.
Thus, Existentialism believes that individuals are entirely free and must take personal
responsibility for themselves. It therefore emphasizes action, freedom and decision as
fundamental, and holds that the only way to rise above the essentially absurd condition of
humanity is by exercising our personal freedom and choice.

Educational Implications Existentialism

Education from an existentialist perspective place the primary emphasis on students’

directing their own learning. Students search for their own meaning and direction in life as
well as define what is true and what is false, what is pleasant and satisfying, what is
unpleasant and dissatisfying, and what is right or wrong. The goal of an existentialist
education is to train students to develop their own unique understanding of life.

An existentialist classroom typically involves the teachers and school laying out what
they feel is important and allowing the students to choose what they study. All students work
on different, self-selected assignments at their own pace. Teachers act as facilitators,
directing students in finding the most appropriate methods of study or materials, and are
often seen as an additional resource, alongside books, computers, television, newspapers, and
other materials that are readily available to students.

DEVARAS, JESSIE C. MAED-SCIENCE

EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS
1. One of the more effective and efficient methods of analyzing your data in connection with
your research objective is the use of statistical technique. Statistics is efficient because it
provides a systematic structure of the organization of research data. Knowledge of
appropriate statistical test would get answers to your questions. The following are some
selected statistical tools that are frequently utilized in research. Describe each statistical
tool with the explanation of their uses. You may sight example.

The Z-Test of One-sample mean

One-Sample z-Test. The One-Sample z-test is used when we want to know whether the
difference between the mean of a sample mean and the mean of a population is large enough
to be statistically significant, that is, if it is unlikely to have occurred by chance.

Example: A random sample of 29 women gained an average of 6.7 pounds. Test the
hypothesis that the average weight gain per woman for the month was over 5 pounds. The
standard deviation for all women in the group was 7.1. Z = 6.7 – 5 / (7.1/√29) = 1.289.

The t-test for the independent sample mean

The t-test for independent sample mean is used to determine if an observed difference
between the average of two of independent groups is statistically significant.

Example: statisticians often consider different samples that include pairs of siblings to be
dependent because one sibling can provide information about another sibling for some
measurements. Other studies use matched pairs.

The t-test for dependent sample mean

The t-test for dependent sample mean is used to determine if there is a significant difference
between two groups of correlated scores in terms of their

Example: Sample the blood pressures of the same people before and after they receive a
dose. The two samples are dependent because they are taken from the same people. The
people with the highest blood pressure in the first sample will likely have the highest blood
pressure in the second sample.
means.
One-way analysis of variance

The one-way analysis of variance is used to determine if there are difference among means
of three or more groups.
Example: As a crop researcher, you want to test the effect of three different fertilizer
mixtures on crop yield. You can use a one-way ANOVA to find out if there is a difference in
crop yields between the three groups.

Two-way analysis of variance

A two-way ANOVA is used to estimate how the mean of a quantitative variable changes
according to the levels of two categorical variables. Use a two-way ANOVA when you want
to know how two independent variables, in combination, affect a dependent variable.

Example: a two-way ANOVA allows a company to compare worker productivity based on

two independent variables, such as department and gender. It is utilized to observe the
interaction between the two factors. It tests the effect of two factors at the same time.

The Pearson product moment correlation

The Pearson Product Moment Correlation is employed when there are two sets of scores, and
you would like to determine if the two sets are correlated. The Pearson Product Moment
Correlation is the most widely used statistic when determining the relationship between two
variables that are continuous. By continuous we mean a variable that can take any valuable
between two points.
Example: as study time increases, the number of errors on an exam decreases. Study Time
Min. If the correlation is negative, when one variable increases, the other decreases. If there
is no relationship between the two variables, then as one variable increases, the other
variable neither increases nor decreases.
The chi-square test

A chi-squared test is a statistical hypothesis test that is valid to perform when the test
statistic is chi-squared distributed under the null hypothesis, specifically Pearson's chi-
squared test and variants thereof.

Example: The data used in calculating a chi-square statistic must be random, raw, mutually
exclusive, drawn from independent variables, and drawn from a large enough sample. For
example, the results of tossing a fair coin meet these criteria. Chi-square tests are often used
in hypothesis testing.

The Chi- Square Goodness of Fit Test

The Chi-square Goodness-of-Fit test tells if an observed frequency distribution a variable

differs significantly from an expected or theoretical distribution of frequencies. The
computation calls for data on either the nominal or ordinal.

Example: There are six different colors: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and brown.
Suppose that we are curious about the distribution of these colors and ask, do all six colors
occur in equal proportion? This is the type of question that can be answered with a goodness
of fit test.

The chi-square test of association

The Chi-Square Test for Association is used to determine if there is any association between
two variables. It is really a hypothesis test of independence. The null hypothesis is that the
two variables are not associated, i.e., independent. The alternate hypothesis is that the two
variables are associated.

Example: Educators are always looking for novel ways in which to teach statistics to
undergraduates as part of a non-statistics degree course (e.g., psychology). With current
technology, it is possible to present how-to guides for statistical programs online instead of
in a book. However, different people learn in different ways. An educator would like to
know whether gender (male/female) is associated with the preferred type of learning medium
(online vs. books). Therefore, we have two nominal variables: Gender (male/female) and
Preferred Learning Medium (online/books).

DEVARAS, JESSIE C. MAED-SCIENCE

METHODS OF RESEARCH

PERFORMANCE- BASED STRATEGY IN TEACHING BIOLOGY:

RESOURCE MATERIAL FOR GRADE 6

I. Background of the Study

High-quality elementary science education is important for establishing a good

foundation of learning in the higher grades. Instilling a wonder of and enthusiasm for
learning science that lasts a lifetime and addressing the critical need for a well-informed
citizenry and society about science is very essential. Beyond the potential scientific
advancements, there are individual benefits to learning science. This includes developing our
ability to critically ask questions, collect meaningful information, organize, and test ideas,
solve problems, and apply what we learn in our daily life. Science should be fun to learn and
teach. Students in today’s generation prefers to learn in a more meaningful and challenging
way. Teaching the process of science means going beyond the content to help students
understand how we know, what we know, and giving them the tools, they need to think
scientifically. Most importantly, it involves making explicit references to the process of
science (Lederman, 2007) and allowing students time to reflect on how they have
participated in the process (Schwartz et al., 2004). The National Science Teachers
Association (NSTA) recognizes the importance of effective elementary science education
and recommends the involvement of all education stakeholders to provide effective and
equitable instruction, materials, environment, and opportunities so that all students may
succeed. The teachers play a vital role in making these desires a success. A well-planned
teaching strategy is expected as students have different learning styles.

The Department of Education of the Philippines has implemented the K12 Curriculum
to both elementary and high school levels of Basic Education starting the school year 2012-
2013. The K 12 program in the Philippines was introduced in 2013. It was in 2013 when RA
10533 became a law. This law is known as the “Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013”.
The Philippine Educational System has undergone several developmental stages before it
reached the current educational system today. Specifically, in science, its curriculum
objectives focus on understanding and applying scientific concepts, methods and procedures,
and acquiring scientific attitudes, values, and habits. The science curriculum is divided into
blocks for each year (Earth and Space, Biology, Chemistry and Physics).

The current global health crisis poses a profound impact on the basic education system
as approximately 87% of the worlds student population, or about 1.5 billion learners, have
been affected by school closure (UNESCO 2020). The Department of Education hereby
releases the Most Essential Learning Competencies (MELCs) to be used nationwide by field
implementers. The MELCs will enable the teachers to focus instruction to the most essential
and indispensable competencies that our learners must acquire as we anticipate challenges in
the delivery of learning.

In grade six (6), Biology is taught in the Second Quarter. The Most Essential Learning
Competencies included are the following: Explain how the organs of each organ system
work together (S6LT-IIa-b-1), explain how the different organ systems work together (S6LT-
IIc-d-2), determine the distinguishing characteristics of vertebrates and invertebrates (S6MT-
IIe-f-3), discuss the interactions among living things and non-living things in tropical
rainforests, coral reefs and mangrove swamps (S6MT-IIi-j-5), and explain the need to protect
and conserve tropical rainforests, coral reefs and mangrove swamps (S6MT-IIi-j-6). With
this, teachers are challenged to make engaging, fun, and appropriate teaching strategies to
cater the needs of the students. One of this is utilizing performance based- strategy in
teaching.

Performance-based learning is when students participate in performing tasks or

activities that are meaningful and engaging. The purpose of this kind of learning is to help
students acquire and apply knowledge, practice skills, and develop independent and
collaborative work habits. The culminating activity or product for performance-based
learning is one that lets a student demonstrate evidence of understanding through a transfer
of skills (Kelly, 2019). Performance-based assessments allow teachers to access information
not available through traditional testing. Assessments must measure how well students meet
the teacher's goals or targets for the unit.

A teaching resource can take many different forms and will mean slightly different
things to every teacher, parent, and child. A teaching resource is a material that is designed to
help facilitate learning and knowledge acquisition. Instructional materials play an important
role in the teachinglearning process. Instruction is improved and learning is enriched and
become more meaningful with the use of modern instructional methods and materials. In
selecting instructional materials, it is important to consider varied student needs. The teacher
must therefore adapt the strategies of instruction to the students, rather that the students
adapting themselves to them.

Statement of the Problem

This study aims to develop a Performance-Based Strategy in Biology: Resource Material

for Grade-6 Pupils. In order to obtain all the important data and information, the research
sought to find the answer for this crucial questions as follow:

1. What is the performance-level of Grade-6 students in Biology?

2. To what extent does performance standard developed in Biology?

3. To what extent are the following strategies utilized in teaching Biology?

3.1. Performance-based Strategy

3.2. Experiential

3.3. Problem Solving

3.4. Instruction Learning Strategy

3.5. Exploration Based Strategy

4. How are the following instructional procedure undertaken by teachers in teaching

Biology? 4.1. Objective

4.2. Content Standard

4.3. Performance Standard

4.4. Procedure
 4.5. Application

4.6. Learning Practice Exercise

4.7. Assessment

4.8. Evaluation

5. What performance-based strategies in Biology resource material for Grade-6 maybe

discussed based on the findings of the study?

II. Theoretical Framework of the Study

Back in history, traditional classrooms, a teacher’s basic tool for displaying lectures
are through chalkboards which later on developed to include transparencies with an overhead
projector until the advent of computer aided learning tools which greatly transformed
instructional methods. Thus, teaching methods is greatly influenced by the available teaching
aid. Quite a significant number of universities and colleges throughout the world has been
focusing on lecture-based strategies to varying degrees in what is known as Traditional
Instructional Methods (TIM) such as lectures, practical lessons and tutorials. Different and
diverse teaching approaches have been developed for over the years, the most common of
which has been through lectures since the 5th century B.C. Traditional education methods
are wholly instructor-centered, whereas the students are expected to recite and/or memorize
specified content available in the form of written or typed lecture notes.

With the advances in teaching aid and learning objectives, teaching strategies have
experienced a significant shift to meet individual student's needs and being more interactive
and activity-based learning through collaboration techniques that would require participation
and engagement of learners. Thus, many strategies evolved as an attempt to fulfil the
objectives of the learning process, by shifting the focus from instructor-driven to
learnercentered teaching strategies. Many universities/colleges do rely on the traditional
textbook and memorization approach with poor students’ engagement. Some attempts
introduced some dynamical models for biological processes which would allow biology
students to create their own models for structures. In this paper we shall focus on which
strategies work best with biology students and assess whether specific teaching strategies
vary by biology discipline/subject or learning outcome.

III. Conceptual Framework of the Study

This study aims to determine the performance level of Grade-6 pupils in Biology with
the aim in view; designing resource material in Biology, considering how these pupils
responds to Performance-based Strategy in teaching Biology, whether it is advantageous to
them or not, how it works and what are its outcome. This study intends to find out what does
performance standard develops in Biology. Will it be able to hone skills such as creativity
and innovation, critical thinking and problem solving, communication and collaboration, etc.
Also, this research seeks to know the extent of the following strategies utilized in teaching
Biology such as, Performance-based Strategy, Experiential Learning, Problem Solving,
Instruction Learning Strategy, Exploration Based Strategy. This study will answer if these
strategies really is applicable in these times of pandemic, and what would be the result in
utilizing this type of strategy. In addition, this study also determines the instructional
procedures undertaken by teachers in teaching Biology namely: objective, content standard,
performance standard, procedure, learning practice exercise assessment and, evaluation. This
will answer how these instructional procedures are being delivered by the teachers to the
learners. Furthermore, what performance-based strategies in Biology resource material for
Grade-6 may be discussed based on the findings of the study. Questions like “What would be
its content? “ and “What would be its coverage?” will be answered.

IV. Significance of the Study

This study focused on Performance-based Strategy in teaching Biology:

a Resource Material for Grade 6. Specifically, this study will be beneficial to the following:

Respondents. The respondents will have an awareness on the importance of Performance-

based strategy in teaching biology. This can help them improve the resource materials to be
used for their pupils.

School Heads and Program Coordinators. The result of this study can help school heads
encourage their teachers to use performance- based assessments in evaluating their students
learning.

Teachers/Mentors. The result of the study can help encourage the teachers to utilize
performance-based activities in teaching according to the student’s performance.

Students. This study can help them learn from the assessment process, develop skills of self-
evaluation, and use their higher-order thinking skills to create a product or complete a task.

Parents. The result of the study will help the parents gain understanding on how
performance-based activities are helpful in developing their children’s capabilities.

Future Researchers. The findings of the study will serve as a reference material and a guide
for future researchers who wish to conduct the same experimental study or any study related
to this.

V. Scope and Delimitation of the Study

This study will be conducted to the Grade 6 Science teachers of Rawis, Elementary School-
Dulag Leyte. This research aims to determine the performance of the pupils in their science
subject. This study intends to find out what extent the performance standard is developed in
Biology. A survey questionnaire and interview will be conducted to the respondents. The
researchers seek to know the extent of the following strategies utilized in teaching Biology
such as, Performance-based Strategy, Experiential Learning, Problem Solving, Instruction
Learning Strategy, Exploration Based Strategy. This study will answer if these strategies
really is applicable in these times of pandemic, and what would be the result in utilizing this
type of strategy. In addition, this study also determines the instructional procedures
undertaken by teachers in teaching Biology namely: objective, content standard, performance
standard, procedure, learning practice exercise assessment and, evaluation. Lastly, this study
aims to develop a resource material for Grade 6 Science, specifically in the field of Biology.

VI. Definition of Terms

Performance- based strategy. Is one alternative to traditional methods of testing

student achievement that requires students to demonstrate knowledge and skills, including
the process by which they solve problems.

Performance- based learning. An on-going process that allows studentcentered

learning and progress monitoring where teachers and students collaborate and adjust their
learning where needed. The students participate in performing tasks or activities that are
meaningful and engaging.

Performance task. Is any learning activity or assessment that asks students to

perform to demonstrate their knowledge, understanding and proficiency. Performance tasks
yield a tangible product and/or performance that serve as evidence of learning.

Biology. is a branch of science that deals with living organisms and their vital
processes. Biology is taught in the second Quarter of Grade 6 Science.

Resource Material. Is a material that is designed to help facilitate learning and

knowledge acquisition.

Learning style. Set of factors, behaviors, and attitudes that facilitate learning for an
individual in each situation.
 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This section presents the conceptual literature and related studies, both local and foreign
sources, which are deemed relevant to the study.

Performance-based Strategy in Education

Teaching strategies vary from one age group to another. None of the method is the best. It
depends on the learning style of students. Primary students take more interest in the activities
performed in the class (Jalbani, 2014). Hence, performance-based strategy is effective in
delivering lesson to elementary pupils.

Performance-based learning and assessment represent a set of strategies for the acquisition
and application of knowledge, skills and work habits through the performance of tasks that
are meaningful and engaging to students (Hibbard et al., 1996). Performance assessment is
very useful in teaching and learning activities. Performance assessment can give information
that is needed by the students that helps the students to adjust their learning strategies in
order to meet their own need. For example, some students prefer to change their learning
strategy or learning behavior because it does not provide their need (Safitri, et.al., 2018).

Performance-based learning and performance-based assessment is a system of learning and

assessment that allows students to demonstrate their knowledge and skills in a learning
environment that embraces their higherorder thinking skills, as well as relating it to real-
world situations (PerformanceBased Learning and assessment, n.d.). This type of learning is
an on-going process that allows student-centered learning and progress monitoring where
teachers and students collaborate and adjust their learning where needed. When planning for
performance-based learning, keep in mind that the content and instruction does not have to
change, but instead of assessing the students’ knowledge from the content, the student is
allowed to demonstrate what they have learned. With proper preparation and planning, the
instructor has full control over what the content is and how it is taught.

Performance-based learning is being implemented at all levels of learning, from

primary and elementary to high school and higher education. Performance-based learning
can be implemented along with traditional instruction when used in a balanced setting. As
Hibbard et al. (1996) mentioned, “Performance-based learning and assessment achieve a
balanced approach by extending traditional fact-and-skill instruction” (p. 5). The traditional
learning coupled with performance learning allows for instructors to ensure that students
master content standards and student learning objectives. Although utilizing traditional
instruction along with performance-based learning can be time-consuming, and ensuring that
all standards and SLOs are being taught effectively can seem cumbersome, once the material
for allowing students to demonstrate what they have learned is created, the results and data
collected on student achievement will be much more meaningful. Specific data and actual
observations will help an instructor redirect or re-teach a student on the spot and in a timely
manner.

Performance-based assessments share the key characteristic of accurately measuring one or

more specific course standards. They are also complex, authentic, process/product-oriented,
open-ended, and timebound. Performance-based assessments have recently experienced a
reemergence in education literature and curricula. In the 1990s, performancebased
assessments became a valid alternative to traditional multiple-choice tests. In the years that
followed, legislative requirements shifted the emphasis to standardized testing, which caused
a decline in nontraditional testing methods (Darling-Hammond & Adamson, 2013).

Currently, more school districts and universities are seeking authentic measures of student
learning, and performance-based assessments have become increasingly relevant. Doran,
Tamir and Chan is of the view that in case of science teachers ' using new and modern
measurement and assessment methods throughout their teaching practices, it is believed that
they can plan sequential learning activities for their students (Doran, Tamir & Chan, 1995).

A review of the literature seems to suggest that science teaching methods differ between
primary school and high school. Many reports and studies (EC, 2007; IET, 2008; Rennies,
Goodrum & Hackling, 2001) imply that at primary school level, science teaching mostly
involves 19 pupil-centred and activitybased teaching, entailing frequent practical activities,
and providing more freedom for pupil investigations.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY
 This chapter presents the research process that will be used in this study. It discusses
how the study will be conducted as presented on the following: participants of the study,
instrument of the study, research design and procedure, and data analysis.

Research Design

The primary research method for this study is a survey questionnaire and an
achievement test given to the respondents of the research. The survey questionnaire will be
used to gather data from respondents about their attitudes, experiences, or opinions. The
achievement test will measure the knowledge, skills, and abilities attained by the Grade 6
students in their Science Subject.

Respondents of the Study

This study focuses to the Grade 6 learners of Rawis Elementary School, Luan Elementary
School and Maricum Elementary School as respondents including the Biology Teachers and
school head.

Research Locale

The researcher will conduct a pilot test in Luan Elementary School after the validation
process. The pilot testing will be conducted with two or more participants who will meet the
selection criteria to ascertain workability and comprehensibility. However, participants of the
study will not be part of the pilot test.

Research Instrument

Since the study will be using survey questionnaires and achievement test for the grade
6 learners in Rawis Elementary School. It will utilize a researchermade instrument.

The survey questionnaires will consist of questions focusing on teachers and learners
Performance-based strategy in teaching Biology; Resource Materials for grade 6. The
achievement test for the learners will be administered on a scheduled date.

Validation of the Instruments

Validation strategies will also be administered. The matrix for validators will be used
by the researcher in order to establish the validity and reliability of the instrument. General
questions will be validated by three experts as external consultants who examined the
instrument and assessed its accuracy (Lincoln & Guba, 2000). These experts should meet the
following standards: (1) faculty of the graduate school with expertise in educational
management & qualitative research, (2) expert in the field of educational administration
preferably from the Department of Education (3) coordinator of the elementary science
program of the Department of Education.
 The researcher will conduct a pilot test in other Schools of the Division of Leyte after
the validation process. However, participants of the study will not be part of the pilot test.

Data Gathering and Procedure

The process of collecting data will be done simultaneously. The questionnaires

consisting of a series of questions and prompts will be used to receive a response from
individuals administered to. Questionnaires are designed to collect data from a group of
grade 6 students. Achievement tests will also be given to measure skills and knowledge
learned in the given grade level. The result will be used to determine the level of instruction
for which a student is prepared. High achievement scores generally indicate that a level of
mastery of grade-level material has been reached, and that the student is prepared for
advanced instruction. Conversely, low achievement scores can indicate the need for further
remediation or repeating a course grade level.

After accomplishing the required forms on the conduct of data gathering from the
Office of the Graduate School and Schools Division of Leyte, the researcher will send
communication letters to the school head on the conduct of the data gathering to the potential
participants. Once the participants will give their consent, schedule will be determined and
will agree on appropriate dates.

Data Analysis

The data will be analyzed using Cross Tabulation of results. Crosstabulation (also
cross-tabulation or crosstab) is one of the most useful analytical tools and a mainstay of the
market research industry. Crosstabulation analysis, also known as contingency table analysis,
is most often used to analyze categorical (nominal measurement scale) data. The data table
can be used to present the results of the entire group of respondents, as well as results from
subgroups of survey respondents. The researchers can examine relationships within the data
that might not be readily apparent when only looking at total survey responses.

The technique of data collection in this study involves several steps, these are:

a. Copying the answer sheet in final test of the subject

b. Collecting the item test and analyzes the result of the item test to know
the validity and reliability.

c. Finally, the researchers compute the data.

Technique of Data Analysis The data to be analyzed in this study were taken from
the students’ results from the achievement test given. These students’ answer sheets were
used to analyze the quality of the test items. From this item analysis, we would know that the
item is too easy or too hard. Here, the item analysis consists of the following:
 a. Difficulty level analysis. A good test item is an item which is not too difficult or
too easy. The difficulty of the test items is the percentage of students who get the
right items. Here the index of item difficulty level (P) used Nitko formula to
analyze. Then, the writer divided the level of items difficulty (P) into three
categories (Difficult, Moderate, Easy)
b. Discrimination power analysis. The discrimination power of the test items tells
how well the item performs in separating the upper group and the lower group.
c. Analysis of reliability. In this study, the writer uses the Kuder- Richardson
formula in estimating the reliability of the test.

d. Analysis of validity. Validity refers to whether or not a test measures what it is

supposed to measure. In this study, the writer used criterion- related validity
(validity coefficient to determine whether the test items are valid or not). To find
the coefficient validity, she used the Pearson Product – Moment formula.

DEVARAS, JESSIE C. MAED-SCIENCE

ADVANCE PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES IN TEACHING SCIENCE

1. With the aid of schema, discuss the Philosophy behind the following principles of
teaching postulated various authors and draw implications to your work as a classroom
teacher
Principles of Respect for the Individual.
Kant argued that respect for persons is required due to our inherent dignity, which in turn
is due to our being rational creatures. Rational beings have the capacity to use reason in
forming decisions, and act not only in accordance with reason, but also for the sake of
reasons we believe are right (thus becoming a moral agent). According to Kant, it is the
capacity to choose right from wrong, and the responsibility that follows from possession of
such a capacity, that accords persons the Kantian sense of dignity that deserves respect. As
free and autonomous beings, we become responsible for our actions in ways that nonrational
creatures cannot be.

To treat persons with respect is to treat them as beings who are morally selfdetermining.
People must never be used simply as a means to the ends of others, but always as ends in
themselves. Respect for persons, in Kantian terms, implies that what is crucial is that a
person be free to act for the sake of reasons they believe are right. Thus, a person’s moral
agency or autonomy is violated if that decisional process is denied or subverted, even if the
person would have acted in the same way had they been given the opportunity to decide. In
such a case, a person who is denied decisional involvement is thus denied the status of moral
agent. And this, in turn, denies something essential to having moral dignity.
Respect can be defined as allowing yourself and others to do and be their best. It is the
goal of all schools to create a mutually respectful atmosphere between all individuals
involved within the school including administrators, teachers, staff members, students,
parents, & visitors. The value of respect in schools cannot be undersold. A lack of respect
can be downright detrimental, completely undermining the mission of teaching and learning.

Democracy as a way of life.

One of the major goals of education in the Philippines is to foster, promote and develop
democracy as a way of life. It implies:
a. Respect for potentialities of individual
b. Obligation of everyone to contribute to the welfare of the group of which he is a
member
c. Participation in experience which will foster social, economic, intellectual, and
physical growth
d. Right of every individual to make a choice commensurate with his intellectual
capacity and maturity.
John Dewey considered democracy not only procedural and politically technical as a
mere form of government under other institutional forms, but as a specific form and way of
life of a political community. The substance of democracy as a way of life is firstly its
ethical, cultural, and spiritual ideal, and then its procedural state and proper technology of
political power. The task of a democratic form of government is to make proper social
arrangements that include all individuals and that eliminate external arrangements of status,
birth, wealth, sex, etc., which restrict the opportunity of everyone for full selfdevelopment.
Democratic order thus contributes to human happiness very significantly. Human beings
aspire after happiness which grows in the processes of sharing experiences with others and
their common contribution to the common good. Democracy always remains a moral ideal in
the thoughts and deeds of citizens.

Providing suitable condition for the development and maintenance of a sound

personality.
It means that school life is of great importance in determining the present and the future
mental health and strength of personality of the learner. It includes therefore, the objectives
of education and the learning materials and various methods being utilized. It is an
established fact that both the content and course of personality development greatly
depend on activity, that a personality will develop through active confrontation with
the environment, with the given conditions of life.

Improving group living in the classroom.

It means that, a teacher should understand what group dynamics is all about and what
techniques must be used intelligently for group leadership. Group work can be an effective
method to motivate students, encourage active learning, and develop key critical-thinking,
communication, and decision-making skills. The benefits of group work for students are
vast. Students can learn how to plan and manage their time when working. Group work also
allows students to be exposed to a wide variety of perspectives and ideas. Most importantly,
students learn how to work with other students.
Other benefits include:
• Improved social skills including cooperation and conflict resolution skills
• Complex tasks can be broken down into smaller, more manageable steps
• Accountability
• Giving and getting feedback from peers
• Students are able to utilize individual strengths to assume roles and responsibilities for
the group

Improving the classroom environment.

A positive school atmosphere encourages student attendance, a factor that helps cure
many school woes. It also helps reduce stress in teachers and students and boosts see to it

that the physical environment of his classroom will provide a maximum degree a more

positive mindset in everyone involved. Some studies even suggest that school climate is a
key factor in student achievement and teacher retention. Teachers should of best condition
conducive to learning.

2. Over the years, the school has always been concerned with how to come up with effective
teaching learning experiences for the learner. In an attempt to attain this goal, the teacher is
expected to possess a thorough knowledge of various strategies of methods of teaching. As a
classroom teacher, briefly discuss the salient methods of teaching and discuss implications
for classroom teaching.
 Cognitive learning

Cognitive learning is a style of learning that encourages students to use their brains more
effectively. This way of learning encourages students to fully engage in the learning process
so learning, thinking, and remembering get easier and easier. Cognitive learning isn’t about
memorization or repetition. When it comes down to it, it’s all about learning how to learn.

Cognitive Learning Strategies Include:

• Encouraging active discussion about what is being taught

• Guiding students to explore and understand how ideas are connected

• Ensuring students are able to justify and explain their thinking

• Using visuals and learning tools to improve students’ understanding and recall
• Having students reflect on their learning experience
• Helping students find new or alternative solutions to problem

Cognitive learning helps students learn effectively and ensures that the concepts learned
are understood, instead of being temporarily memorized. With this learning style, your child
will have a stronger and longer-lasting understanding of educational concepts.

Cognitive skills are what separate the good learners from the so-so learners. Without
developed cognitive skills, children fall behind because they can’t integrate new information
as they are taught it. Realistically, most students move on to the next grade before they have
mastered the basic academic skills.

Cognitive Learning Helps By:

• Finding the most effective way for your child to learn—whether he or she is a visual
learner, auditory learner, kinesthetic learner, or otherwise
• Teaching your child how to take a “big picture” approach to learning to understand
how smaller thoughts fit into larger ideas
• Helping your child retain and apply new concepts successfully and with ease

Social learning

Social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the importance of

observing, modelling, and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of
others. Social learning theory considers how both environmental and cognitive factors
interact to influence human learning and behavior.

Different social contexts allow individuals to pick up new behaviors by observing what
people are doing within that environment. Social learning and social pedagogy emphasize the
dynamic interaction between people and the environment in the construction of meaning and
identity. The process of learning a new behavior starts by observing a behavior, taking the
information in and finally adopting that behavior. Examples of environmental contexts that
promote social learning are schools, media, family members and friends.
Social learning theory can be used to encourage and teach desirable behaviors in the
classroom using positive reinforcement and rewards. For example, a student who is praised
for raising their hand to speak will more than likely repeat that behavior. Additionally, other
students will follow suit and raise their hands after observing that the behavior elicited a
positive outcome. Conversely, a student who is reprimanded for an undesired behavior is less
likely to repeat that behavior, as are their peers who will also wish to avoid the negative
consequence of replicating the action.

Observational learning
Observational learning is a type of learning that happens as students observe a model.
The learner learns by observing the behaviors of others. This social model could be any one
of several people, including family members, teachers, or friends. The social model tends to
be a particularly powerful when they occupy a higher status, such as teacher or parent, and
this effect is particularly powerful among younger people. As such, children may particularly
benefit from having strong social models who model behavior for them.

Observational learning is the process of learning by watching the behaviors of others.

The targeted behavior is watched, memorized, and then mimicked. Also known as shaping
and modeling, observational learning is most common in children as they imitate behaviors
of adults. While at times, we intentionally observe experts to learn new information,
observational learning isn’t always intentional. Especially in young children. Example, A
child may learn to smoke cigarettes by watching adults. They are continually learning
through observation, whether the target behavior is desirable or not.

DEVARAS, JESSIE C. MAED-SCIENCE

EARTH SCIENCE
1. Why is it important to study Earth Science?

Answer: Earth science is the study of planet Earth. It covers all aspects of the planet from the
deep inner core to the outer layers of the atmosphere. There are many fields of science that
are part of Earth science including geology (rocks and minerals), paleontology (dinosaurs
and fossils), meteorology
(atmosphere and the weather), and oceanography just to name a few. Earth Science studies
are critically important to modern society. An understanding of the rocks and minerals that
make up the solid Earth, and how these materials interact with the atmosphere, the world
water supply, and living organisms provides the foundation for all natural and environmental
sciences. All of these factors are critical for understanding how the Earth has changed in the
past and how it may change in the future.

On a daily basis, humans utilize mineral and energy resources and require water for
drinking, industrial purposes and crop irrigation. Our lives are disrupted by natural disasters
such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and landslides. As communities, we grapple with
the issues of environmental contamination and global climate change. At a higher level we
struggle to understand human origins and the origins of life on our planet, and we wonder
about the possibility of life on other planets.

The knowledge gained and the services provided by earth scientists help society cope
with its environment in many ways. Their knowledge about the structure, stratigraphy, and
chemical composition of the earth's crust helps us locate resources that sustain and advance
our quality of life. Understanding the forces in the crust, and the natural process on the
surface allows us to anticipate natural disasters such as volcanoes and earthquakes, and
geologic environments, such as damaging mining practices or improper waste disposal, gives
us information to correct such practices and design more benign procedures for the future.

It is through our knowledge of earth science that we can discover sources of energy
(coal, oil, gas, uranium, geothermal), mineral resources (iron, copper, nickel, etc.), and fresh
water. Understanding the dynamic nature of the Earth’s crust and interior also helps us to
predict and avoid natural hazards. Information preserved in rocks and minerals tells the
incredible story of the Earth’s 4.6 billion year history. Studying fossils and the rocks in
which they are found gives us insight into how life has diversified from its humble
beginnings as single cell bacteria to the myriad of life forms we see today. Studying the rock
record gives us insight into past environmental changes, from which we may be able to make
predictions about how the Earth could change in the future.

2. Explain longitude, latitude, the equator, the prime meridian, time zones, and the
international date line. Why are they important in Earth Science?

Answer:

Longitude and latitude are the points of reference on the basis of which any place on Earth
can be indicated. They are an important component on the basis of which GPS (Global
Position System) technology works. They also help determine the time zone. The specific
importance of longitude and latitude are given below.

Latitudes are used to measure the distance from the equator to the North Pole and the
South Pole. They play an important role in identifying and locating all the major heating
zones of the Earth. It helps in gaining a better understanding of wind patterns and also has
meteorological significance.

Longitude measures the distance between the Earth's main meridian to the west.
Latitude and longitude are important because they measure the distance from the equator to
various points on Earth. They provide a standard by which space and time can be measured.
They are vital to the functioning of various technologies.

The prime meridian is the line of 0 degree longitude, the starting point for measuring
distance both east and west around the Earth. The prime meridian is arbitrary, meaning it
could be chosen to be anywhere. Any line of longitude (a meridian) can serve as the 0 degree
longitude line. However, there is an international agreement that the meridian that runs
through Greenwich, England, is considered the official prime meridian.

The prime meridian sets Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). UTC never changes for
daylight savings or anything else. Just as the prime meridian is the standard for longitude,
UTC is the standard for time. All countries and regions measure their time zones according
to UTC.

There are 24 time zones in the world. The prime meridian also helps establish the
International Date Line. Earth's longitude measures 360°, so the halfway point from the
prime meridian is the 180° longitude line. The meridian at 180° longitude is commonly
known as the International Date Line. As you pass the International Date Line, you either
add a day (going west) or subtract a day (going east.)

A time zone is an area that observes a uniform standard time for legal, commercial
and social purposes. Time zones tend to follow the boundaries between countries and their
subdivisions instead of strictly following longitude, because it is convenient for areas in
frequent communication to keep the same time. Imagine if the entire Earth had a single time
zone. Noon would be the middle of the day in some places, but it would be morning,
evening, and the middle of the night in others. Since different parts of Earth enter and exit
daylight at different times, we need different time zones.

The date line, also called the International Date Line, is a boundary from which each
calendar day starts. Areas to the west of the date line are one calendar. The date line runs
from the North Pole to the South Pole through the Pacific Ocean. It is not a straight line,
however. The date line curves around several landmasses. For example, it curves around the
islands that make up the nation of Kiribati, so that all regions of the country remain on the
same day. The date line makes a big detour between Asia and North America in the Bering
Strait. Cape Dezhnev, Russia, is always a day ahead of Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska, even
though the landmasses are less than 80 kilometers (50 miles) apart. The date line, which
roughly follows the 180-degree meridian, is about halfway around the globe from the prime
meridian, which measures 0degrees longitude.

3. What are the four spheres in earth science and explain each of them.

Answer:

Earth's four major geological subsystems include the atmosphere, hydrosphere,

biosphere, and geosphere. All four major geological subsystems of Earth can function
independently from each other, but for the most part, there is some type of interaction
between them. In some cases, it may be an interaction between all four subsystems, but it
could be an interaction between just two.

The Lithosphere--contains all of the cold, hard solid land of the planet's crust
(surface), the semi-solid land underneath the crust, and the liquid land near the center of the
planet. The surface of the lithosphere is very uneven. There are high mountain ranges like the
Rockies and Andes, huge plains or flat areas like those in Texas, Iowa, and Brazil and deep
valleys along the ocean floor. The solid, semi-solid, and liquid land of the lithosphere form
layers that are physically and chemically different. If someone were to cut through Earth to
its center, these layers would be revealed like the layers of an onion. The outermost layer of
the lithosphere consists of loose soil rich in nutrients, oxygen, and silicon. Beneath that layer
lies a very thin, solid crust of oxygen and silicon. Next is a thick, semi-solid mantle of
oxygen, silicon, iron, and magnesium. Below that is a liquid outer core of nickel and iron. At
the center of Earth is a solid inner core of nickel and iron.

The Hydrosphere -- contains all the solid, liquid, and gaseous water of the planet. It
ranges from 10 to 20 kilometers in thickness. The hydrosphere extends from Earth's surface
downward several kilometers into the lithosphere and upward about 12 kilometers into the
atmosphere. A small portion of the water in the hydrosphere is fresh (non-salty). This water
flows as precipitation from the atmosphere down to Earth's surface, as rivers and streams
along Earth's surface, and as groundwater beneath Earth's surface. Most of Earth's fresh
water, however, is frozen. 2 Ninety-seven percent of Earth's water is salty. The salty water
collects in deep valleys along Earth's surface. These large collections of salty water are
referred to as oceans. The image above depicts the different temperatures one would find on
oceans' surfaces. Water near the poles is very cold while water near the equator is very
warm. The differences in temperature cause water to change physical states. Extremely low
temperatures like those found at the poles cause water to freeze into a solid such as a polar
icecap, a glacier, or an iceberg. Extremely high temperatures like those found at the equator
cause water to evaporate into a gas.
 The Biosphere --contains all the planet's living things. This sphere includes all of the
microorganisms, plants, and animals of Earth. Within the biosphere, living things form
ecological communities based on the physical surroundings of an area. These communities
are referred to as biomes. Deserts, grasslands, and tropical rainforests are three of the many
types of biomes that exist within the biosphere.

The Atmosphere--contains all the air in Earth's system. It extends from less than 1 m
below the planet's surface to more than 10,000 km above the planet's surface. The upper
portion of the atmosphere protects the organisms of the biosphere from the sun's ultraviolet
radiation. It also absorbs and emits heat. When air temperature in the lower portion of this
sphere changes, weather occurs. As air in the lower atmosphere is heated or cooled, it moves
around the planet. The result can be as simple as a breeze or as complex as a tornado.

4. Explain the earth’s yearly journey around the sun and the reasons for the Earth’s seasons.
Please explain the following terms in detail: perihelion, aphelion, solstice, equinox, and tilt
of the axis

Answer:

The orbit of the Earth is the motion of the Earth around the Sun every 365.242199 mean
solar days. The orbital speed of Earth around the Sun averages about 30 kilometer per second
or 108,000 kilometers per hour. This speed is equivalent to cover earth’s orbit in 7 minutes
and distance from moon to Sun in 4 hours. The path of the Earth around the Sun is elliptical
and slightly irregular due to gravitational attraction of moon and other celestial bodies. A
constant angle is maintained between the earth’s axis and its plane of elliptic, which is called
angle of inclination. As we know that Earth’s rotation axis is tilted by 23.44° with respect to
the elliptic, and is always pointed towards the celestial poles when the earth moves around
the Sun.

Perihelion and Aphelion

Earth travels 939,886,400 kms along its elliptical orbit in a single revolution. The average
distance is 150 million kms, but the orbit is elliptical and there is the difference if 2.5 million
kms. Perihelion is the point when Earth is closest to Sun and it occurs around 3 rd January.
The distance is 147.5 million kms.

• Perihelion: On around January 3rd, Earth is closest to sun and distance is around 147.5
million Kilometers. This is called Perihelion.

• Aphelion: On about July 4th earth is Farthest from Sun and this is called Aphelion.

Speed of Earth is fastest at Perihelion and slowest at Aphelion (Kepler’s Second Law).
Solstice

The solstice refers to the events when the Sun’s apparent position in sky reaches its
northernmost or southernmost extremes. Solstice happens twice a year, and twice a year
happen the equinoxes. Altogether, the four are considered to start 4 seasons.

• At the time of northern solstice, sun is perceived to be directly overhead the 23.44°
north known as Tropic of Cancer.

• Likewise, at the southern solstice the same thing happens for latitude
23.44° south, known as the Tropic of Capricorn.

• The sub-solar point will cross every latitude between these two extremes exactly twice
per year. The point where sun is perceived to be directly overhead is called subsolar
point.

• The Northern solstice happens at 20-21 June and Southern solstice happens at 20-22
December.

• In 2010, Northern solstice happened at 21 June and Southern solstice will happen on
21 December.

• At Northern solstice, the places which are located at Arctic circle, posited at latitude
66.56° north will see the Sun just on the horizon during midnight. And all the places
north of Arctic Circle will see Sun above horizon for 24 hours. This is called Midnight
Sun or a Polar Day.

• At Northern solstice which are located at Antarctic circle, posited at latitude 66.56°
south will see the Sun just on the horizon during midday. And all the places south of
Antarctic Circle will NOT see at anytime of the day. This is called Polar Night.

• At Southern solstice, Polar day occurs at Southern Pole and Polar Night occurs at
Northern Pole.

Equinox

The equinox is the time of the year when the sun is nearest to the equatorial plane
giving equal lengths of day and night. An equinox occurs at the start of the spring and fall.
There are only two times of the year when the Earth's axis is tilted neither toward nor away
from the sun, resulting in a "nearly" equal amount of daylight and darkness at all latitudes.
These events are referred to as Equinoxes. The word equinox is derived from two Latin
words - aequus (equal) and nox (night). At the equator, the sun is directly overhead at noon
on these two equinoxes. The "nearly" equal hours of day and night are due to refraction of
sunlight or a bending of the light's rays that causes the sun to appear above the horizon when
the actual position of the sun is below the horizon. Additionally, the days become a little
longer at the higher latitudes (those at a distance from the equator) because it takes the sun
longer to rise and set. Therefore, on the equinox and for several days before and after the
equinox, the length of day will range from about 12 hours and six and one-half minutes at the
equator, to 12 hours and 8 minutes at 30 degrees latitude, to 12 hours and 16 minutes at 60
degrees latitude.

Tilt of the Axis

Earth's axis is not perpendicular. It has an axial tilt, or obliquity. Axial tilt is the angle
between the planet's rotational axis and its orbital axis. A planet's orbital axis is
perpendicular to to the ecliptic or orbital plane, the thin disk surrounding the sun and
extending to the edge of the solar system. Earth's axial tilt (also known as the obliquity of the
ecliptic) is about 23.5 degrees. Due to this axial tilt, the sun shines on different latitudes at
different angles throughout the year. This causes the seasons.

DEVARAS, JESSIE C. MAED-SCIENCE

BIOLOGY
1.) What is known to be the Spontaneous Generation Theory? Explain your own belief on
its relevance.

Answer: Spontaneous Generation Theory refers to the previously popular thinking that a
living thing could arise or develop from a non-living thing. The theory of spontaneous
generation held that complex, living organisms may be produced from nonliving matter.
Spontaneous generation may also pertain to the process that supposedly led to the formation
or development of a living thing from a non-living thing which for me is incorrect.

It was once believed that life could come from nonliving things, such as mice from
corn, flies from bovine manure, maggots from rotting meat, and fish from the mud of
previously dry lakes. Spontaneous generation is the incorrect hypothesis that nonliving
things are capable of producing life. But several experiments have been conducted to
disprove spontaneous generation.

Although the theory of spontaneous generation was widely accepted before, I personally
don’t agree with this. A lot of studies have been made to disprove this belief of the past.
Francesco Redi was the first person to refute the theory of spontaneous generation. He
demonstrated that maggots did not emerge from rotting meat but from the eggs of flies. He
interpreted his findings as omne vivum ex vivo “All life comes from life”. This is termed as
Biogenesis, the theory which I believe is true. Biogenesis is based on the theory that life can
only come from life, and it refers to any process by which a lifeform can give rise to other
lifeforms.

2.) Explain what is antigen-antibody reaction.

Answer: An antigen is any substance that causes your immune system to produce antibodies
against it. This means your immune system does not recognize the substance, and is trying to
fight it off. An antigen may be a substance from the environment, such as chemicals,
bacteria, viruses, or pollen. An antigen may also form inside the body. An antibody is a
protein component of the immune system that circulates in the blood, recognizes foreign
substances like bacteria and viruses, and neutralizes them. After exposure to a foreign
substance, called an antigen, antibodies continue to circulate in the blood, providing
protection against future exposures to that antigen. The antigens and the antibodies combine
specificallywith each other. This interaction between them is called Antigen-Antibody
reaction. It may be abbreviated as Ag - Ab reaction. When Ag - Ab reactions occur invitro,
they are known as serological reactions. The reactions between Ag and Ab occur in three
stages. In first stage the reaction involves formation of Ag-Ab complex. The second stage
leads to visible events like precipitation, agglutination etc. The third stage includes
destruction of Ag or its neutralization

3.) Cite and explain the Unifying Principles of Biology

Answer: Four unifying principles form the basis of biology. Whether biologists are
interested in ancient life, the life of bacteria, or how humans could live on the moon, they
base their overall understanding of biology on these four principles:
 1. cell theory

2. gene theory

3. homeostasis

4. evolution

The Cell Theory

According to the cell theory, all living things are made up of cells, which is the
structural unit of living organisms, and living cells always come from other living cells. In
fact, each living thing begins life as a single cell. Some living things, such as bacteria,
remain single-celled. Other living things, including plants and animals, grow and develop
into many cells. Your own body is made up of an amazing 100 trillion cells! But even you—
like all other living things— began life as a single cell.

The Gene Theory

The gene theory is the idea that the characteristics of living organisms are controlled
by genes, which are passed from parents to their offspring. A gene is a segment of DNA that
has the instructions to encode a protein. Genes are located on larger structures, called
chromosomes, that are found inside every cell. Chromosomes, in turn, contain large
molecules known as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Molecules of DNA are encoded with
instructions that tell cells what to do.
Homeostasis
Homeostasis means maintaining stability within the environment, denoting the principles
of biology. It refers to both living and nonliving parts of nature as a whole. Living organisms
possess the ability to regulate different physiological processes occurring within themselves
to survive. The chemical and physical conditions within them are maintained at an
equilibrium irrespective of the external environment.
Evolution
Evolution is a change in the characteristics of living things over time. Evolution occurs
by a process called natural selection. In natural selection, some living things produce more
offspring than others, so they pass more genes to the next generation than others do. Over
many generations, this can lead to major changes in the characteristics of living things.
Evolution explains how living things are changing today and how modern living things have
descended from ancient life forms that no longer exist on Earth.
As living things evolve, they generally become better suited for their environment. This is
because they evolve adaptations. An adaptation is a characteristic that helps a living thing
survive and reproduce in a given environment.
 In the early 1800s, French biologist Jean Baptiste de Lamarck hypothesized that the use
of certain features would strengthen their existence, and nonuse would cause them to
eventually disappear in subsequent generations. This would explain how snakes evolved
from lizards when their legs weren't being used, and how giraffe necks grew longer with
stretching, according to Lamarck.
Charles Darwin constructed his own theory of evolution called natural selection.
Following his stint as a naturalist on the ship HMS Beagle, Darwin formulated a theory that
claimed all individuals possess differences that allow them to survive in a particular
environment, reproduce, and pass on their genes to their descendants. Individuals that adapt
poorly to their environments would have fewer opportunities to mate and pass on their genes.
Eventually, the genes of the stronger individuals would become more prominent in
subsequent populations. Darwin’s theory has become the most accepted theory for evolution.

4.) How do you differentiate between Mitosis and Meiosis?

Answer: Organisms grow and reproduce through cell division. In eukaryotic cells, the
production of new cells occurs as a result of mitosis and meiosis. These two nuclear division
processes are similar but distinct.

In mitosis, the genetic material (DNA) in a cell is duplicated and divided equally
between two cells. The dividing cell goes through an ordered series of events called the cell
cycle. The mitotic cell cycle is initiated by the presence of certain growth factors or other
signals that indicate that the production of new cells is needed. Somatic cells of the body
replicate by mitosis. Examples of somatic cells include fat cells, blood cells, skin cells, or
any body cell that is not a sex cell. Mitosis is necessary to replace dead cells, damaged cells,
or cells that have short life spans.

Meiosis is the process by which gametes (sex cells) are generated in organisms that
reproduce sexually. Gametes are produced in male and female gonads and contain one-half
the number of chromosomes as the original cell. New gene combinations are introduced in a
population through the genetic recombination that occurs during meiosis. Thus, unlike the
two genetically identical cells produced in mitosis, the meiotic cell cycle produces four cells
that are genetically different.

Key Differences:

✓ Mitosis and meiosis are nuclear division processes that occur during cell division.

✓ Mitosis involves the division of body cells, while meiosis involves the division of sex
cells.

✓ The division of a cell occurs once in mitosis but twice in meiosis.

✓ Two daughter cells are produced after mitosis and cytoplasmic division, while four
daughter cells are produced after meiosis.

✓ Daughter cells resulting from mitosis are diploid, while those resulting from meiosis
are haploid.

✓ Daughter cells that are the product of mitosis are genetically identical. Daughter cells
produced after meiosis are genetically diverse.
DEVARAS, JESSIE C. MAED-SCIENCE

CHEMISTRY
1. Explain what is an atom and the atomic structure by giving the particles that make up an
atom.
Answer: An atom is a particle of matter that uniquely defines a chemical element. An atom
consists of a central nucleus that is surrounded by one or more negatively charged electrons.
The nucleus is positively charged and contains one or more relatively heavy particles known
as protons and neutrons. Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter. Anything that takes
up space and anything with mass is made up of atoms. Every solid, liquid, gas, and plasma is
composed of neutral or ionized atoms. Atoms are extremely small, typically around 100
pedometers across. The atomic structure of an element refers to the constitution of its
nucleus and the arrangement of the electrons around it. Primarily, the atomic structure of
matter is made up of protons, electrons and neutrons. The protons and neutrons make up
the nucleus of the atom, which is surrounded by the electrons belonging to the atom. The
atomic number of an element describes the total number of protons in its nucleus.

2. Explain what a matter, element, compound, and mixtures is. Give examples of each.

Answer:
MATTER- is anything that takes up space and has mass. Different types of matter can
be described by their mass. The mass of an object is the amount of material that makes
up the object. In other words, matter has volume and mass. There are many different
substances, or types of matter, in the universe. Example: Rocks, Buildings
ELEMENT- A chemical element is a substance that cannot be further broken down by
any chemical reaction. Each element has a unique number of protons in its atom.
Example: Copper, Carbon, and all elements found in the periodic table.
COMPOUND- a compound is a substance that results from a combination of two or
more different chemical element s, in such a way that the atoms of the different elements
is held together by chemical bonds that are difficult to break. Example: Carbon Dioxide
MIXTURE- is a physical combination of two or more substances that aren't chemically
joined. Mixtures are the product of the combination of compounds and elements without
chemical change, so that each substance retains its original properties and remains its own
substance. Mixtures can either be heterogeneous, meaning the components of the
mixture can be easily separated, or homogeneous, meaning the composition is uniform
throughout the mixture. Example: Sea Water
3. Organize the following items from the smallest to the largest and explain your answer.
Items: NEUTRON, CELL, ATOM, ELECTRON

Answer: (Smallest to Largest)

 I. ELECTRON
II. NEUTRON
III. ATOM IV. CELL

Electrons are smaller than the protons and neutrons, neutrons are bigger than the electrons.
Atoms are made up of electrons, protons, and neutrons. Molecules are made up of atoms, and
cells are made up of molecules.

4. Explain how to use the periodic table.

Answer: The periodic table of the elements contains a wide variety of information. Most
tables list element symbols, atomic number, and atomic mass at a minimum. The periodic
table is organized so you can see trends in element properties at a glance. The periodic table
contains informative cells for each element arranged by increasing atomic number and
chemical properties. Each element's cell typically contains lots of important information
about that element. Here is how to use a periodic table to gather information about the
elements.

Element symbols are abbreviations of the element's name. In some cases, the
abbreviation comes from the element's Latin name. Each symbol is either one or two letters
in length. Usually, the symbol is an abbreviation of the element name, but some symbols
refer to older names of the elements (for example, the symbol for silver is Ag, which refers
to its old name, argentum).

The modern periodic table is organized in order of increasing atomic number. The
atomic number is how many protons an atom of that element contains. The number of
protons is the deciding factor when distinguishing one element from another. Variation in the
number of electrons or neutrons does not change the type of element. Changing number of
electrons produces ions while changing the number of neutrons produces isotopes.
The element's atomic mass in atomic mass units is a weighted average mass of the
element's isotopes. Sometimes a periodic table cites a single value for atomic weight. Other
tables include two numbers, which represent a range of values. When a range is given, it's
because the abundance of isotopes varies from one sampling location to another.
Mendeleev's original periodic table organized elements in order of increasing atomic mass
or weight.
The vertical columns are called groups. Each element in a group has the same number
of valence electrons and typically behave in a similar manner when bonding with other
elements. The horizontal rows are called periods. Each period indicates the highest energy
level the electrons of that element
occupies at its ground state. The bottom two rows—
the lanthanides and actinides—all belong to the 3B group, and are listed separately.
 Many periodic tables include the element's name to help those who may not remember
all the symbols for elements. Many periodic tables identify element types using different
colors for different element types. These include the alkali metals, alkaline earths, basic
metals, semimetals, and transition metals.
Periodic Table Trends
The periodic table is organized to showcase the different trends (periodicity).
• Atomic Radius (half the distance between the center of two atoms just touching each
other) o increases moving top to bottom down the table decreases moving left to right
across the table.
Ionization Energy (energy required to remove an electron from the atom) o
decreases moving top to bottom o increases moving left to right

• Electronegativity (measure of ability to form a chemical bond) o decreases

moving top to bottom o increases moving left to right