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Raspberry Pi Foundation, UK registered charity 1129409
 HELLO, WORLD!

A
fter the warm reception our first special edition, The Big Book of Computing
Pedagogy, received, we’re pleased to welcome you to our second special edition,
The Big Book of Computing Content. While the first book focused on how we can
teach computing, this new book is about what we can teach within the discipline and really
demonstrates the wide applications of this constantly evolving subject.
We have structured The Big Book of Computing Content around the Raspberry Pi
Foundation’s framework for formal computing education. This framework was originally
developed by the Foundation for the Teach Computing Curriculum, as part of England’s
National Centre for Computing Education, and comprises eleven strands, each consisting of
a range of conceptual and applied knowledge outcomes. It aims to categorise computing
content to both demonstrate the breadth of computing as a discipline and to provide a
common language to describe the different competencies and areas of study.
This book complements our first special edition; as such, it follows the same principle of
introducing you to up-to-date research followed by our favourite stories, from past Hello
World issues, of educators putting a concept into practice. For each of the strands, you’ll find
a table of learning outcomes illustrative of the kinds of knowledge and understanding that
learners could develop at each stage of their formal computing education, from ages 5 to 19.
The second album is always a difficult one, so we’d love to hear your thoughts about this
edition! Last time, we heard of educators setting up Big Book reading groups, of leaders
using the book to support pre-service teachers, and even of a translation into Thai! Please
get in touch to let us know how you’re using The Big Book of Computing Content at
[email protected] or on Twitter at @HelloWorld_Edu. Happy reading, happy learning!

Gemma Coleman
Editor

EDITORIAL DESIGN CONTRIBUTORS

Editor criticalmedia.co.uk James Abela, Chris Aviles, Pete Bell, George Boukeas, Mac Bowley, Claire
Gemma Coleman Head of design Buckler, Andy Bush, Katharine Childs, Jon Chippindall, Helen Clothier,
Gemma Coleman, Josh Crossman, Paul Curzon, Diane Dowling, Emily
Subeditors Lee Allen
Dreimann, Catherine Elliott, Lucia Flóriánová, Ben Garside, Ged Gast, Sway
Louise Richmond and Amy Rutter Designers Grantham, Andreas Grillenberger, Hannah Hagon, Ben Hall, Tony Harkins,
Subscriptions Ty Logan, Sam Ribbits, Olivia Mitchell Matt Hogan, Zach Huffman, Michael Jones, Peter Kemp, Eirini Kolaiti, Thom
Kunkeler, Doug Lloyd, Duncan Maidens, David J. Malan, Alan Merrett,
Joshua Crossman Photography Matthew Moore, Martin O’Hanlon, Matthew Parry, Rob Parker, Simon
Social media Raspberry Pi Foundation, Adobe Stock Peyton Jones, Carrie Anne Philbin, Pam Popay, Paul Powell, Oliver Quinlan,
James Robinson, Harriet Ryder, Stefan Seegerer, Sue Sentance, Charlotte
Neena Patel Graphics Spenceley, Jane Waite, Matthew Wimpenny-Smith, Andreas J. C. Woitzik
Pedagogical consultant Rob Jervis
James Robinson Cover and illustrations
© Muti, Folio Art

Hello World is published by Contributing Partner

the Raspberry Pi Foundation

This magazine is printed on paper Hello World is published by the Raspberry Pi Foundation, 37 Hills Road, Cambridge,
sourced from sustainable forests and CB2 1NT. The publisher, editor, and contributors accept no responsibility in respect of
the printer operates an environmental any omissions or errors relating to skills, products, or services referred to in the magazine.
management system which has been Except where otherwise noted, content in this magazine is licensed under a Creative
assessed as conforming to ISO 14001. Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0).

The Big Book of Computing Content 3

 INTRODUCTION
upporting educators in providing high-quality n T
 he structure would initially focus on the English national

S computing education has always been integral

to the mission of the Raspberry Pi Foundation.
curriculum, but would be independent of any particular exam
specification, and would be capable of adaptation to new
In 2018, having delivered in-person training to curricula in the future
over 2000 educators, our content and curriculum team began n C
 omputing as a discipline is a broad mixture of concepts and
developing more curriculum resources. The UK government had skills that need to be represented in any structure
recently announced significant future investment in supporting
computing educators as we began a piece of work to help us Following these principles, we initially identified ten themes or
describe the subject of computing and in particular, the common strands that threaded through a learner’s journey in computing
threads running through it. education (see the diagram on the next page). This representation
At the time, schools in England were offering the relatively new of the knowledge and skills that make up computing became
national curriculum subject of computing for learners aged 5–14, known as our computing taxonomy. This taxonomy subsequently
followed by elective qualifications in computer science. While became a cornerstone of the work of the National Centre for
exam specifications typically provided detailed learning outcomes Computing Education in England (of which the Raspberry
categorised into several areas of study, England’s national Pi Foundation is a consortium partner), providing a common
curriculum for computing consisted only of 25 statements outlining language to describe computing.
expectations for learners. Given the interconnected nature of computing, we embrace a
When describing computing, it was common to divide the best-fit approach to content categorisation, choosing the most
subject into three areas: information technology, computer appropriate strand or strands for each idea. In developing our
science, and digital literacy. Although this went some way towards content, we identified that four of the strands were best taught
outlining computing as a discipline, it was our view that this model throughout the others, in context rather than as discrete topics (the
created an artificial divide between aspects of the subject that horizontal strands in the diagram on the next page). An example is
were seen as more or less technical. Our more holistic view of ‘Safety and security’, which focuses on supporting learners to realise
computing recognised that concepts and skills within computing the benefits of technology without putting themselves at risk. While
were far more interconnected. this could be taught as one discrete experience, revisiting this strand
There are, of course, many existing approaches to dividing throughout a learner’s journey provides regular reinforcement, as
up the subject matter, in the form of exam specifications, well as grounding it in the context of other strands.
textbooks, schemes of learning, and various progression guides. Computing is, of course, a constantly evolving field and as such,
We reviewed examples of these from England and beyond, and our taxonomy will evolve with it. Since 2018 we’ve developed our
decided on some principles for our organisational structure: taxonomy to incorporate what we’ve learnt, such as our response
to the rapid emergence of artificial intelligence (AI) in recent years.
n It should represent the whole of computing, incorporating AI represents a significant area of study and so is now represented
what had commonly been categorised as computer science, as its own strand in our current taxonomy.
information technology, and digital literacy What we present in this book represents our work so far
n O
 ur structure should be capable of being applied across in describing the diverse range of concepts and skills within
phases — the knowledge encountered by five-year-olds should computing. We hope this book, and our taxonomy framework,
be categorised using the same model as that used for our resonates with your teaching. We welcome your feedback and
oldest learners contributions to help us develop this model further.

4 The Big Book of Computing Content

 HOW WE ORGANISE
COMPUTING KNOWLEDGE
Formal education content produced by the Raspberry Pi Foundation is
mapped to the following strands of computing concepts and skills

ALGORITHMS AND DATA STRUCTURES

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
DATA AND INFORMATION
COMPUTING SYSTEMS

CREATING MEDIA

PROGRAMMING
NETWORKS

IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

SAFETY AND SECURITY

EFFECTIVE USE OF TOOLS

The Big Book of Computing Content 5

 CONTENTS
COMPUTING
SYSTEMS CREATING MEDIA PROGRAMMING
10 COMPUTING SYSTEMS, 36 CREATING MEDIA, IN SUMMARY 66 PROGRAMMING, IN SUMMARY
IN SUMMARY

12 WHAT IS A COMPUTER? 38 THRESHOLD CONCEPTS 68 BLOCKS TO TEXT

Computing systems as foundational Defining, identifying, and approaching The transition from block- to
knowledge the teaching of threshold concepts text-based programming

14 THE IPO MODEL 40 ART AND COMPUTING 70 LEVELS OF ABSTRACTION

The importance of the IPO model to all Art, creativity, and computer science Different perspectives
aspects of computing when programming

44 3D-ANIMATED FILM
16 AND OR NOT Democratising digital culture with
73 TEACHING CHILDREN TO CODE
Hands-on Boolean logic gates 3D-animated film The benefits of coding

17 MINECRAFT 46 LEADING WITH CONCEPTS 76 THE WIDER CURRICULUM

Exploring logic gates in Minecraft Separating the learning from the tool Introducing programming through
the broader curriculum

20 QUANTUM COMPUTING
Introducing the world of 78 PROGRAMMING ASSESSMENT
A comprehensive approach to

ALGORITHMS
quantum information
assessing a program

AND DATA
NETWORKS STRUCTURES DATA AND
INFORMATION
24 NETWORKS, IN SUMMARY 50 ALGORITHMS AND DATA
STRUCTURES, IN SUMMARY
82 DATA AND INFORMATION,
IN SUMMARY
26 TEACHING APPROACHES 52 IN DEFENCE OF PSEUDOCODE
84 DATA LITERACY
The themes and tiers model The power of pseudocode
Fostering data literacy competencies

29 FILIUS 59 CONFIDENCE AND PERSONALITY

86 VISUALISATIONS
A tool to liven up networking lessons The links between computational
thinking and personality Captivating data visualisations

30 THE JOURNEY OF NETWORKING 60 FROM FAKEBOT TO BEE-BOT

Exploring the history of networking
Learning to program with Fakebots
88 REAL-LIFE DATA
A project to bring data to life

32 THE PRINCIPLES OF NETWORKING 62 ABSTRACTION

Using Packet Tracer
Teaching abstraction skills
90 BIG DATA
Teaching databases using big data

6 The Big Book of Computing Content

ARTIFICIAL DESIGN AND EFFECTIVE USE
INTELLIGENCE DEVELOPMENT OF TOOLS
94 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, 126 DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT, 156 EFFECTIVE USE OF TOOLS,
IN SUMMARY IN SUMMARY IN SUMMARY

96 AI ETHICS 130 WORKING INNOVATIVELY 158 THE DIGITAL DIVIDE

Engaging children with AI ethics The importance of team diversity Bridging the digital divide

98 BIG IDEAS 131 ONE DESIGN, THREE WAYS 160 SUPPORTING SEND STUDENTS
Big ideas in AI education Design in the primary classroom Key digital skills for SEND learners

100 POPBOTS 134 AGILE METHODOLOGIES 162 A WHOLE-SCHOOL APPROACH

AI for preschoolers Working like a software developer The benefits of embedding digital
skills across the curriculum

101 THE HISTORY OF AI 136 TESTING

164 TABLETS
Snapshots from history to Promoting a culture of positive failure
engage learners Using tablets to enhance
cross-curricular learning

104 AI IN ACTION

Kick-starting discussions on AI
SAFETY AND 166 PHOTOGRAPHY
Creating young digital artists

SECURITY 168 LOGGING ON

IMPACT OF Getting the basics right

TECHNOLOGY 140 SAFETY AND SECURITY,

IN SUMMARY

142 ONLINE SAFETY

108 IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY, What learners think they know and
IN SUMMARY what they actually know

110 CONTEXTS TO INSPIRE 145 LESSONS FROM INDUSTRY

A framework of ideas, technology, What students can learn from the
and skills cybersecurity industry

112 MORALS AND ETHICS 146 DISCRETE ONLINE SAFETY

The moral and ethical dimension of Rethinking how we can approach
computing education online safety teaching

115 HACKING AND THE LAW 148 ONLINE LEARNING

What the law says about hacking Safeguarding in online lessons

118 UPGRADE CULTURE 150 BRINGING CYBERSECURITY

The environmental impact of TO LIFE
technology Activities and tools to engage learners

122 AIR POLLUTION PROJECT 152 KNOW THY ENEMY

Engaging health and Learning to think like a hacker
environmental contexts
153 CARRY ON HACKING
Why we should teach children to hack

The Big Book of Computing Content 7

COMPUTING
SYSTEMS
10 COMPUTING SYSTEMS, IN SUMMARY
12  WHERE ARE ALL THE
COMPUTING SYSTEMS?
14 HOW DOES THIS WORK?
16 AND OR NOT: GETTING IT RIGHT
17 EXPLORING LOGIC GATES IN MINECRAFT
20 QUANTUM COMPUTING:
AS EASY AS A PENNY FLIP
 he study of computing systems is all about IN THIS SECTION,
T understanding what a computer is and how its YOU WILL FIND:
constituent parts work together as a whole. A solid ■ Learning outcomes:
grasp of this concept is absolutely essential for any computing computing systems, in summary

student; understanding how a computer system works allows ■ What the research says:
learners to write instructions for computers, as well as to what is a computer?

create artefacts with them. Knowing how a system stores ■ The input–process–output model

images in memory, for example, might influence how students ■ Hands-on Boolean logic gates
create and save images for a specific purpose. ■ Logic gates in Minecraft
Within this concept, students will focus on hardware and
■ Introducing the world of
software, and the further they explore these themes, the more quantum information
granular their focus will become. With hardware, for example,
learners will gradually shift their focus from thinking about the
system as a whole, to the individual devices, to how individual
components (for example, the central processing unit or
memory) work, and eventually, to the physical processes on
which the system is built. Similarly, learners will
typically begin by unpacking the difference
between hardware and software, before
coming to understand the different types
of software, and finally, how hardware and
software work together in a computer system.

The Big Book of Computing Content 9

IN SUMMARY

IN SUMMARY

COMPUTING
SYSTEMS
Understand what a computer is, and
how its constituent parts function
together as a whole

STAGE 1 STAGE 2
■ Identify familiar examples of computing systems in ■ Examine how computers process input data in
the local environment order to produce outputs (IPO)

■ Name types of computing device, such as ■ Explain that computers require input to
laptop, desktop, tablet, etc. perform a task

■ Recognise key features of computing systems ■ Explain that computers produce useful output
from a task
■ Describe the features and uses of different
computing systems ■ Identify the inputs, processes, and outputs
of specific computing systems
■ Explain some capabilities and limitations of
computing systems ■ Classify a broad range of input/output devices

■ Identify the capabilities and limitations

of individual computing devices
and components

■ Write programs that use the inputs and outputs of

a physical computing device

10 The Big Book of Computing Content

 IN SUMMARY

In the table below, you will find learning outcomes associated with
the ‘Computing systems’ strand of the Raspberry Pi Foundation’s
computing taxonomy. These learning outcomes are illustrative of the
kinds of knowledge and understanding that learners could develop in
this area of computing. They are not prescriptive, but instead aim to
illustrate the wide applications of the discipline.
These learning outcomes were originally developed to complement
the English national curriculum for computing, and as such, stage 1
roughly corresponds to ages 5–7, stage 2 to ages 7–11, stage 3 to
ages 11–14, stage 4 to ages 14–16, and stage 5 to ages 16–19.

STAGE 3 STAGE 4 STAGE 5

■ Describe an extended IPO model that includes ■ Distinguish between different types of software ■ Explain the structure and operation of the main
storage (IPOS) such as application, utility, and system computer architectures

■ Compare general-purpose, purpose-built, ■ Describe each stage of the fetch–decode– ■ Describe the function, application, and
and embedded devices execute cycle principle of operation of specialist hardware
and software
■ Identify the purpose of a computing system’s core ■ Compare different types of memory and storage
internal components (CPU, memory, storage) including cache, RAM, and secondary storage ■ Explain the role of registers and buses in the fetch–
decode–execute cycle
■ Define an operating system and summarise ■ Describe different methods and media
its role used to store data ■ Explain the role of the BIOS in configuring
and booting hardware
■ Identify simple logic gates (AND, OR, NOT) ■ Describe the functions performed by the
operating system ■ Explain how resourcing and scheduling are managed
■ Convert between binary and denary by the operating system
representations of numbers ■ Explain the function of internal CPU
components and their effect on performance ■ Create and convert between Boolean
■ Explain the purpose of compression and provide expressions, circuit diagrams, and
examples of its use ■ Identify common logic gates and circuit diagrams truth tables
and explain their function
■ Build and program systems using physical ■ Apply the rules of Boolean algebra to manipulate
computing components such as buttons, ■ Construct truth tables and simple Boolean logical expressions
LEDs, and sensors expressions to represent logic
■ Apply bitwise operations on pairs of
■ Solve problems by using calculations binary numbers
and conversions with binary, denary, and
hexadecimal numbers ■ Explain the difference between high- and low-level
languages and the need for program translators
■ Describe how some common compression
techniques work

■ Build and program physical computing systems

that exhibit autonomous behaviour, such as
robots, control systems, etc.

The Big Book of Computing Content 11

RESEARCH

WHERE ARE ALL THE

COMPUTING SYSTEMS?
STORY BY Sway Grantham

hen I first started teaching study to compare a tangible user interface This simple question highlighted a wealth of
W programming and algorithms to for controlling a robot with a graphical user alternate conceptions about programming
five-year-olds, I began by using Bee-Bots, interface (helloworld.cc/sapounidis2013). and computing systems. Many children
small floor robots you can program by In interviews with the participating identified that a computer needed a
pressing directional arrows on their backs. children, they initially preferred the tangible, keyboard. Many also believed that the
The theory behind using such devices suggesting that it seemed more fun and terms ‘machine’, ‘technology’, ‘electrical
is that they are more concrete than engaging. Younger children got on better device’, and ‘computer’ were all synonyms.
programming on-screen, and therefore with the tangible system, although this could The other commonality was describing the
more accessible for younger learners. be more to do with their developing mouse- computer’s function, as if we just need to
However, I kept coming unstuck. How do control skills. Other research on physical know what it does to define it. This view of a
learners connect what they’re doing on computing also finds increased engagement definition leads to a reduced understanding
a Bee-Bot with the computer systems all with hands-on tools, and greater problem- of what computers are capable of.
around them? Here is the research I read solving skills, so there is definitely support Here’s a useful activity to explore this
and the tasks I tried on my quest to find for this approach — but this is where things question with younger children. First, get a
an answer! started to unravel for me. piece of paper folded into quarters. In the
I found that learners could explain what first quarter, learners have two minutes to
Manipulatives an algorithm was, and that a program was draw a picture of a computer. Nearly all of
Let’s take a minute to go back to some ‘a set of instructions that runs on a computer them will draw a laptop. Discuss what they
of our favourite learning theorists: Jean to tell it what to do’. Both met the curriculum drew — did their laptops include a keyboard
Piaget and Jerome Bruner (helloworld. needs, but I wasn’t convinced they could and a mouse? What about a screen? By
cc/piaget1952 and helloworld.cc/ link these two facts together. Could they acknowledging the parts of a computer, you
bruner1964). Piaget believed learners connect what they were doing on the Bee- can later explore which parts are necessary
couldn’t even begin abstract thinking until Bot to the computing systems around them? for a computer to work. Now move on to
they were eleven, and Bruner recognised Did they understand what a computer was? the second quarter. This time, ask learners
that learners needed to do repeated actions to draw a different type of computer;
first (action-based thinking) before they What is a computer? you will usually get a mixture of desktop
could represent those actions on paper According to my class of nine- to eleven- computers or games consoles connected to
(image-based thinking). Both theorists year-olds, a computer is: a TV. Again, talk about the parts. Now you
support the idea that we need to work on a can have a discussion about there being
learner’s concrete understanding and that, nA piece of technology no keyboard on a games console. Repeat
as a learner progresses, they will transfer nA keyboard and a screen this process, but change the question to
this to more abstract contexts. n A search engine ‘What objects do you think have a computer
This application of learning theory n A machine used for work inside them?’ Each drawing they do leads to
supports what many educators have n A metal brain interesting discussions, from traffic lights, to
found when using manipulatives such n A machine with a keyboard remote control cars, to iPads.
as Bee-Bots. For example, researchers n An information device My learners now had two discrete
Sapounidis and Demetriadis conducted a n Electric chunks of knowledge: how to program

12 The Big Book of Computing Content

 RESEARCH

a Bee-Bot, and that laptops were a home button and a touchscreen, or we can I found similar benefits when teaching
computers. However, without a bridge talk to it using Siri. What code runs when we programming, where learners could tell me
to connect them, this learning began to press the home button? Something like ‘when that a wide range of devices ran programs,
seem disjointed. If it’s not a computer, button pressed, show home screen’. And then including Bee-Bots and beyond! Since
it can’t run a program, so what are the output? We can see it on the touchscreen. these early discoveries, I ensure that each
they learning from playing with it? The This simple model allows us to test different September, I start teaching with an age-
answer took me back to the research machines or items of technology and tell if appropriate introduction to computing
about manipulatives and those early- they’re computers or not. systems and make regular links back to this
learning theories I introduced at the start One misconception I regularly hear learning when I teach programming later
of the article. Learners needed to have is children referring to a monitor as a on. The Bee-Bot discussed here was one
a concrete, conceptual understanding computer. Using this model, we can test example of a manipulative, but there are
of what a computer is before they this alternate conception. What’s the input? many more examples, from floor robots, to
could start comprehending the more There are buttons. What happens when Raspberry Pis, to microcontrollers. There are
abstract role of a program in that system. we press them? It says ‘no input’. What’s many ways for you to challenge learners’
We needed to spend more time teaching the program it’s running? It’s not doing concepts of what a computer is, including
computing systems. anything, because there’s no laptop plugged embedded systems where you can find
computers in washing machines, traffic
lights, or automatic doors.

“ WHAT IS A COMPUTER? THIS QUESTION

HIGHLIGHTS A WEALTH OF ALTERNATE
Learners must learn the ubiquitousness of
programming to grow their understanding of
a world they’re a part of. And as a teacher,
IDEAS ABOUT COMPUTING SYSTEMS once you start these conversations, you
never know where they’ll end up! Take
some time this week to ask your class
What does that look like? in. Then is it a computer? No. We now have ‘What is a computer?’ and carve out time
Even the youngest learners can start a way to start conversations about whether in your curriculum to ensure learners
learning about what a computer is and how a device is a computer and therefore have a foundational understanding of
to recognise one. They start with spotting whether a device is running a program. computer systems.
buttons, wires, and batteries, and then Having developed this solution to my
talk about what they do. If they recognise
that when a button is pressed, there are
problem with teaching computing systems
prior to programming, I repeated the ‘What
FURTHER READING
instructions to follow, they’re beginning is a computer?’ question a year later with
to understand what a computer is and learners of the same age. This time I got Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of
where you’re likely to find them. As children much more varied and detailed responses. intelligence in children (Vol. 8, No.
move through lower primary, we can begin Here are some examples: 5, 18–1952). New York: International
spotting buttons and discussing what might Universities Press. helloworld.cc/
happen if we press them. This is where we n  computer has lots of switches and
A piaget1952
can start differentiating between things that plugs to plug things into; it doesn’t have Bruner, J. S. (1964). The course
use electricity and those that run a program. to have a screen of cognitive growth. American
By upper primary, we explore the world n A computer needs code on a microchip Psychologist. 19(1), 1. helloworld.cc/
around us and try to work out what the to make it work; without that, pressing a bruner1964
algorithm would be. We use input–process– letter would make nothing happen Sapounidis, T., & Demetriadis, S.
output to decide if something has a computer n Not all computers look like a computer; (2013). Tangible versus graphical user
inside it (see the next article for more on this). they have different shapes and designs interfaces for robot programming:
Each time we use this model, we reaffirm and are used for different things exploring cross-age children’s
what an input and output are, as well as preferences. Personal and Ubiquitous
the basic concept of programs running on While these answers are not perfect, in just Computing. 17(8), 1775–1786.
computers. For example, what’s the input on a year I was seeing noticeable progress helloworld.cc/sapounidis2013
an iPad? How do we tell it what to do? There’s in the complexity of the answers given.

The Big Book of Computing Content 13

FEATURE

HOW DOES THIS WORK?

The input–process–output model can support young learners with
understanding the technology around them

ometimes, when you ask a magical at best, and sentient at worst. This output is how the computer finally presents
S question of young learners, you are article will explore some common alternate the results of the process. It can return the
pretty sure you know what their response conceptions that learners hold about results to the user in many ways, such as
will be. Other times, they take you by computing systems, and how you can use displaying text on a screen, creating printed
surprise: you blink, try to keep calm, the input–process–output (IPO) model to materials, or playing a sound from a speaker.
and begin unpicking exactly where that support learners in making sense of the IT In today’s connected world, it’s easy
answer came from. This is what happened around them. to overlook the processes taking place in
when Sway asked a class of seven- to devices that learners don’t immediately
eight-year-olds how automatic doors The IPO model recognise as computer systems, such as
worked. One child rationally explained All computers work with inputs, processes, pedestrian crossings or washing machines.
that a person was watching the door on a and outputs (see Figure 1). All computers This can lead to learners developing
camera, and when someone approached accept inputs, which are entered into alternate conceptions about what is
the door, they pressed a button and the or received by a computer. They can be happening, making it harder for them to
doors opened. Simple. generated in many ways, including by a apply their understanding of programming
While this is a perfectly reasonable user pressing a key on a keyboard, or a or input and output devices as they gain
explanation, it is not the correct one. computer receiving a signal from another more knowledge. We can’t build knowledge
Instead, it highlights that our learners often device. The process then determines what on insecure foundations, so the sooner we
have no idea how information technology the computer does with that input. It can identify these misconceptions, the better.
(IT) actually works, what it does, or why process the same input in different ways,
something is happening. This makes it seem depending on the program running. The Does a lamp have a computer inside it?
As we start to pay attention to the world
around us, we begin to recognise different
groups of objects that have similar
properties, such as natural or manufactured,
mechanical or electrical. However, as these
objects become more complex, it can be
hard to tell which groups they belong
to. This ambiguity can make learners
overgeneralise their understanding of how
something works. Taking time to break this
down with the IPO model allows learners to
reflect on their assumptions.
Let’s imagine a desk lamp. Does it
have an input? Yes — I press a button to
trigger what I want to happen. Does it
have an output? Yes — the light turns on.
Now comes the important part: is there
a process? No — there is no program
n F igure 1 A simple example of the IPO model receiving data that the button has been

14 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

FURTHER RESOURCES
The Raspberry Pi Foundation’s free online
pressed. Instead, the switch on the when we begin considering personal courses:

lamp creates a circuit for the electricity data, what’s stored locally on the device n Teach Computing Systems and Networks
to 5- to 11-year-olds: helloworld.cc/
to flow through, allowing the bulb to you are using, and what’s uploaded to the
systemscourse
light. Therefore, most lights do not have internet. I’ve found that this is particularly
n Get Started Teaching Computing in
computers inside of them. challenging with certain apps on tablets
Primary Schools: Preparing to teach 5–11
that may also back up online.
year olds: helloworld.cc/primarycourse
Computers are really clever To unpick this, it’s important to start
The feeling we have that computers are considering larger and more complex
Free lessons and activities in the Teach
magical, before we start to understand systems, such as ATMs. The input (data from
Computing Curriculum:
how they work, is often reinforced when the keypad) and the output (the information n Connecting computers (ages seven to
the device can do something we do not displayed on the screen) are clear. However, eight): helloworld.cc/tccsystems1
know how to do ourselves. One of the most much of the process is not happening on the n Systems and searching (ages nine to
prevalent and early alternate conceptions computer within the ATM — it’s using the ten): helloworld.cc/tccsystems2
that learners hold about computers is that internet. The computer in the ATM sends the
they are ‘really clever’. input data through the internet to the server IPO Model overview document:
To address this, let’s consider looking at the cardholder’s bank, to check it’s correct. n helloworld.cc/IPOsheet
for information on a website to answer This is the process. Then the server sends
a question. What is the input? Using the back the output data to show the outcome
keyboard to type in keywords that tell on the screen. The first data processed will
the computer what I’d like to know. The check whether the PIN number is accurate,

“ OUR LEARNERS OFTEN HAVE NO IDEA HOW

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY WORKS, WHAT
IT DOES, OR WHY SOMETHING IS HAPPENING
search engine’s computer then processes but each instruction after that will begin
this data by running a program to find the process again. Even if learners can’t
relevant information. What is the output? accurately recognise what’s happening on a
A website showing a list of other websites device and what’s happening online, having
on my screen. Do I have the answer to my these IPO conversations can support them in
question? Most often, no. I now have to thinking about what’s happening before they
go to each web page and decide if it has create content and potentially share it online.
the answers that I need. Taking learners From programming, to collecting data from
through each step in the model highlights sensors, to recognising technology around
how much of the process is reliant on us, the IPO model applies to almost all
human interaction to work, and how aspects of computing. Starting activities with
computers are only as powerful as the the question ‘How does this work?’ can JOSH CROSSMAN AND
humans that use and program them. evolve into learners recognising the many SWAY GRANTHAM
and varied IPO systems in the world around Josh is a programme coordinator at the Raspberry
IPO takes place on one device them. You can then get creative, letting Pi Foundation, working across programmes such
Without understanding how a system learners invent imaginary systems to put the as the Teach Computing Curriculum and Hello
works, it can be very easy to make IPO model into practice (see helloworld.cc/ World. Sway is a senior learning manager at
assumptions. One afternoon, the internet tccsystems1). Initially, the processes will be the Raspberry Pi Foundation. She leads a team
went down at my (Josh’s) school. My class, assumptions, but as learners’ experiences developing computing resources for primary
however, didn’t believe me! Why? Because grow, these approaches become a chance teachers. Josh and Sway are both former primary
the interactive whiteboard was still working. for them to imagine the computer systems teachers (@SwayGrantham).
These assumptions become more important that will change the world.

The Big Book of Computing Content 15

FEATURE

AND OR NOT: GETTING IT RIGHT

Michael Jones brings hands-on Boolean logic gates to his upper-secondary classroom

oolean logic can be interesting of logic gates was just that — an

B and enjoyable, and can be learnt investigation. Going back to the very TTL LOGIC CIRCUIT
in a practical way: this was the promise basics of computer circuits, armed with With this combination of parts, your
I made to my upper-secondary students. breadboards, resistors, and TTL (transistor– students can build and test simple two-input
transistor logic) chips, we undertook a Boolean systems. Just swap out the TTL to
NOT getting it right journey into building systems that model change the type of logic gate. Apart from
Staring at the first year of a new GCSE Boolean logic. This approach incorporated the TTL chips, the components you need
syllabus a few years ago, I started an exploration of basic electronics, and are likely to be available from your design
wondering how to teach it. In particular, taught me not to assume that my students and technology department cupboard. Add
I was concerned about some of the drier understand how circuits work. In planning another chip to test the Boolean logic on
aspects, such as logic gates. the sessions, I initially made the mistake of two chips/gates in series.
To quote our exam board, OCR: assuming an understanding of resistors,
anodes, cathodes, and LEDs.
LEARNERS SHOULD HAVE STUDIED THE Working with the basic components
FOLLOWING: enabled my students to embed the
n TRUTH TABLES knowledge that a circuit is essentially the
n C
 OMBINING BOOLEAN OPERATORS same, regardless of which logic gate they
USING AND, OR, AND NOT TO TWO are creating. This allowed us to conduct
LEVELS blind testing of the chips based on the
n APPLYING LOGICAL OPERATORS IN output produced through the pressing of
APPROPRIATE TRUTH TABLES TO SOLVE the two input buttons. The process was More importantly, they also understand the
PROBLEMS very much hands-on and unplugged: integral part it plays in computer systems
not a line of Python or Java in sight, and as diverse as calculators and aircraft
The key word here is ‘studied’. yet we were programming. If you can control computers.
Traditionally, Boolean logic is delivered encourage students to ask the basic
with: “This is a NOT gate. This is the question ‘Why does the light go on if I hold
truth table for the NOT gate. This is the down both buttons, but not if only one
symbolic representation of the NOT gate.” button is pressed?’, it is only a short hop
Repeat for the other gates. If this works for from there to creating the truth table.
you and your students, fine. However, for
many students it is not fine, and it turns a Advanced logic
learning opportunity into a chore. Early in the process, I recognised that
I realised that most students could we had an opportunity to go beyond
understand the theory, but found it hard to the confines of the syllabus and launch
relate this to a real computer, full of circuits more advanced logic gate investigations,
and electrical signals. I didn’t feel that my through the development of half and MICHAEL JONES
students were getting the full value out full adders. Using physical circuits that Michael is the director of computer
of this topic. With the demise of design were a natural development of the two- science at Northfleet Technology College
and technology departments across button, one-TTL chip circuit (requiring in the UK. He is a CAS Master Teacher,
UK schools, we may have lost the link an additional input chip and some basic Raspberry Pi Certified Educator, Chartered
between the circuit and the theory. components to service the LEDs), we Information Technology Professional, PGCE
created systems that could add two bits Subject Leader, MIT App Inventor Educator,
AND getting it right and output the result. and Specialist Leader of Education
What did we do about it? In that first year As a result of their explorations, the (@MikeJonesCSTalk).
of the new syllabus, our investigation students now understand Boolean logic.

16 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

EXPLORING LOGIC
GATES IN MINECRAFT
Martin O’Hanlon shares how you can introduce logic
gates to students by creating circuits in Minecraft

ogic gates can be difficult to signals in Minecraft. In the real world,

L visualise, and it can be tricky to circuits are created by using wires to
understand why they are useful in the real conduct electricity, and the presence of
world. They are often described as black an electrical voltage (meaning there is
boxes; their operations being entirely electricity flowing through the circuit)
abstract, with the output being the only indicates that the output is 1, or on. In
indication of their function. Minecraft Minecraft, circuits are created using
(minecraft.net) is a brilliant tool that can ‘redstone dust’, a material used to conduct
help bring logic gates to life for you and power (see Figure 1), and as in the real
your learners, providing a sandbox to world, electricity flowing through the n F igure 2 A switch is mounted on a block and connected to a
lamp via a redstone torch; when the switch is off, the lamp is
create logic gates from simple components, circuit indicates that the output is 1, or on. on, and vice versa
understand their operation, and connect Input devices in Minecraft (for example,
them to outputs in a virtual world before buttons, switches, and pressure plates) but they can also invert a signal (for
exploring how they react to inputs. generate power that can be transferred to example, if the power is on, the torch will
output devices (for example, lamps, doors, be off, and vice versa). This ability to act
Building circuits in Minecraft and dispensers). For instance, connect like a switch allows you to use redstone
Before looking at logic gates, it’s a switch to a lamp block using redstone torches in similar ways to transistors, the
important to first understand how you dust and turn the switch on; power is basis of all logic circuits.
can create circuits and transmit binary conducted through the redstone dust and
the lamp turns on (Figure 1). Constructing logic circuits
In addition to redstone dust and By connecting redstone dust and redstone
input and output devices, there are torches together in the right configuration,
also components for making more you can create logic gates. The simplest
sophisticated circuits, such as redstone logic gate is a NOT gate whose output is
torches, repeaters, and comparators. the opposite of the input (for example, if
Redstone torches are essential for the input is on, the output is off). This can
creating logic gates, as they are not only be produced using a redstone torch to
n Figure 1 The power from the switch transfers through the redstone
dust and turns the lamp on a source of power, similar to a battery, invert the input (Figure 2).

The Big Book of Computing Content 17

FEATURE

A REDSTONE COMPUTER
Fully functional computers have been created using redstone in Minecraft by building on top of
logic circuits like those introduced in this article.
There are some very impressive builds, including this quad-core computer with user interfaces
and displays (helloworld.cc/minecraftcomputer).

of the XOR gate with redstone is more

complicated, needing seven redstone
torches connected together. This mirrors
the complexity of constructing an XOR
from NOT, OR, and AND gates.

Investigating how these gates work,

and seeing the interaction between the
input switches and the lamp, can help
learners develop an understanding of each

A practical example of the use of a NOT You can also create OR, AND, and XOR
gate is to create a night light. You can do gates using redstone torches, dust, and
this by connecting a daylight detector blocks (Figure 4):
(which is powered when the sun is up) to a
lamp via a NOT gate (Figure 3). At night, the n An OR gate is simply the connection
daylight detector will be off; the NOT gate between two inputs. When either or both
will invert this signal and turn the lamp on. inputs are on, the output is also on.
n An AND gate’s output is on when both

inputs are on. To create an AND gate,

you need to use two redstone torches
to invert the input connected to a third
redstone torch, which will output on
when both inputs are also on.
n An XOR (exclusive OR) gate’s output

is on when either input is on, but off

n F igure 3 A night light which uses a NOT gate to turn on a
lamp when it gets dark when both inputs are on. The layout n Figure 4 NOT, OR, AND, and XOR logic gates created in Minecraft

18 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

© MIKHAIL/stock.adobe.com
gate’s operation and act as an engaging concrete (see the diagram in the top left
introduction to truth tables. of Figure 5).
Multiple logic gates and circuits can also
Connecting the Minecraft world be linked together to create more complex
Using these logic gates and different devices. Take some time to look through
input and output devices in Minecraft, you the different input and output blocks and
can create realistic devices, for example, components in Minecraft, and let your
a door that can only be opened by two imagination guide what you create. You may
n Figure 6 You can create more complex circuits, such as this
players at the same time by using two also find it useful to create a logic circuit automatic sheep alarm, by linking multiple gates together

“ REVIEW THE INPUT AND OUTPUT BLOCKS

AND COMPONENTS, AND LET YOUR
IMAGINATION GUIDE WHAT YOU CREATE
buttons connected to a door via an AND diagram before embarking on your build.
gate (Figure 5). This is also an excellent While writing this article, I experimented
opportunity to introduce logic circuit myself, and created an alarm that beeps
diagrams, connecting the abstract to the when one of my sheep in the Minecraft
world leaves its pen. The alarm is
automatically activated at night, but
also has a switch so I can also turn it on
MARTIN O’HANLON
manually during the day (Figure 6).
Martin loves technology and creates online
Minecraft and its redstone give you the
learning experiences for the Raspberry Pi
opportunity to play and experiment with
Foundation. As a child he wanted to either be a
logic gates and circuits, without being
computer scientist, an astronaut, or a snowboard
constrained by the physicality of creating
instructor. You will find him on Twitter talking
actual electrical circuits. I hope you have as
n Figure 5 An AND gate is used to create a door that can only about all these things (@martinohanlon).
be opened by two players working together much fun as I did!

The Big Book of Computing Content 19

FEATURE

QUANTUM COMPUTING:
AS EASY AS A PENNY FLIP
Andreas J. C. Woitzik and Stefan Seegerer introduce the world of
quantum information through a quantum penny flip game

uantum computing has become solved was highly artificial and not useful In the game, two people, let’s say
Q one of the hot topics in new at all, but it showed us that quantum Alice and Bob, compete in predictions
technologies over the last few years. technologies are progressing fast. With about the outcome of a penny flip. In the
Put simply, a quantum computer many players from industry investing a classical world, if we spin a coin, there
is “a machine that harnesses some lot of money and time in this technology, is a 50 percent chance of it landing on
of the unique properties of quantum it cannot hurt for students to learn a little either side, heads (0) or tails (1). When it is
physics to solve problems that are too more about the topic. spinning, we can consider the coin to be in
complex for regular computers and So let us start you off. We are all used a superposition of heads and tails. In this
even supercomputers” (helloworld.cc/ to traditional computers with their bits and version of the game, Alice would prepare
quantumc). There are strong promises of a bytes. Their power stems from being able the penny as either heads or tails, put it in a
possible quantum speed-up of computers, to very quickly and efficiently manipulate box, and give the box to Bob. He would then
though there are still many obstacles to those bits, which we interpret as either 0 decide whether to flip the box, and return it
overcome. In 2019, researchers claimed or 1. Quantum computing is different: the to Alice. Alice could also choose to flip the
they had achieved quantum supremacy, fundamental bit of information is a qubit box again before opening it with Bob. If the
a situation in which a quantum computer (quantum bit). Qubits are used to store coin showed heads, Alice would win.
can solve a specific task much faster than quantum information. A qubit can take the In the quantum version, Alice gets a
any classical computer could (helloworld. values 0 or 1, but more than that, it can also special quantum coin which she can prepare
cc/arute2019). The specific task they store a superposition of them both. Being in as either heads, tails, or in a superposition
a superposition means that the qubit can be of both. The superposition is visualised by
partially regarded as a 0 and partially as a 1 a spinning coin. If Alice decides to prepare
at the same time. the coin in a superposition, Bob’s flip of
the box does not alter the state of the coin.
Quantum penny flip game Since Alice can also revert the superposition
Students can find quantum computing hard and Bob cannot change it, she now has
to grasp. To make it more approachable, full knowledge of the state of the coin and
we can describe superpositions, one of the therefore can always win the game.
core concepts, with a quantum penny flip
game. David Meyer originally proposed Further discussions
this game in a 1998 paper, but we have This game functions as a motivating entry
created an online version of the game at point to the world of quantum computing.
helloworld.cc/quantumpenny. Before you While the classical coin behaves like
continue reading, give the game a go — it a bit, the quantum coin behaves like a
n A quantum coin can be in a state of heads, tails, or a is intended to be played by two people qubit. A subsequent discussion in class
superposition of them both on a mobile phone. allows students to transfer the principle

20 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

© Annemarie Woeste
n Students can explore the game, searching for a reliable strategy

to computational ideas. For example, it is more). This is useful in a lot of problems that
easy to see that a bit can be represented involve an unstructured search.
by a qubit, as the quantum coin has the The penny flip activity can also lead to a
states of heads, tails, and the superposition discussion about the fragility of quantum
of heads and tails. With that in mind, it information and from there, to quantum
can be argued that a quantum computer cryptography. Once a superposition state is
can perform every computation a classical observed, it collapses, and from there, the
computer can do, as long as they both have coin can show only either heads or tails.
the same number of bits and qubits. But This feature, an obstacle for those wanting

A QUANTUM BIT, OR QUBIT, CAN TAKE THE ANDREAS J. C. WOITZIK

“ VALUES 0 OR 1, BUT CAN ALSO STORE
Andreas is a PhD student in quantum
information science in the Quantum Optics
A SUPERPOSITION OF THEM BOTH and Statistics group at the University of
Freiburg, Germany. He is interested in
bringing quantum information to schools.
by using its additional states, a quantum to build a quantum computer, forms the
computer can, in theory, perform some basis of many quantum cryptography
tasks better than its classical counterpart. protocols. The BB84 key exchange
You can also move to discussions of protocol, for example, uses superposition
a more advanced algorithm, Grover’s not only to exchange cryptographic keys
algorithm, which uses the concept of securely, but also to uncover whether there
superposition to search in an unsorted is an eavesdropper (see page 34 of issue
list. Imagine your unsorted wardrobe 18 of Hello World for more).
contains 100 coats in 100 compartments Quantum computing is still very new,
and you want to find your yellow coat. In and the various unknowns and the abstract
a worst-case scenario, you might need to nature of it can make it hard for students to
look in all the compartments before finding grasp. An activity such as the penny flip STEFAN SEEGERER
the coat. Using superposition, though, game, though, can provide an accessible Stefan is the quantum education manager
Grover’s algorithm only has to look at the entry point to a technology that may at IQM Quantum Computers, exploring ways
wardrobe ten times before revealing the eventually change the way we understand to make quantum computing accessible to
right position of the object you are looking the world. What better incentive could everyone (@StefanSeegerer).
for (see helloworld.cc/groversalgorithm for there be to give it a go?

The Big Book of Computing Content 21

NETWORKS
24 NETWORKS, IN SUMMARY
26  APPROACHES TO TEACHING NETWORKING
29 MAKE NETWORKS INTERESTING
WITH FILIUS
30 THE JOURNEY OF NETWORKING
32  THE PRINCIPLES OF NETWORKING
MADE EASIER WITH PACKET TRACER
 etworks is a strand very closely related to, and IN THIS SECTION,
N often taught in conjunction with, computer systems. YOU WILL FIND:
While learning about computer systems is about ■ Learning outcomes:
understanding how these individual systems work, studying networks, in summary

networks is about understanding how they work together. In ■ What the research says:
our interconnected world, understanding how networks work the themes and tiers model

is crucial for all computing students. ■ Livening up your networking lessons

Many learners will develop experience of using networks ■ The history of networking
before they explore how they work, which gives them an ■ Using Packet Tracer
understanding of their value and some of their applications.
Learners are likely to begin thinking in broad terms about what a
network is and some common components, before exploring the
role of addresses, protocols, and so on. Later, they will explore
how different networks are physically connected, and how data
is transmitted through different layers and across a network.
One challenge this topic presents is that it is very theoretical
in nature, as hands-on activities can be impractical in school.
However, educators can make the area more concrete by using
network simulation tools (such as Packet Tracer)
and relating to learners’ direct experiences of
being connected. This strand is also rich with
opportunities for exploring other related
strands, including safety and security, and
data and information.

The Big Book of Computing Content 23

IN SUMMARY

IN SUMMARY

NETWORKS
Understand how networks can be
used to retrieve and share information
and enable global communication

STAGE 1 STAGE 2
■ Describe some uses of the World Wide Web ■ Explain how the internet operates as a global
network of networks
■ Make use of online tools for searching,
authoring, and communicating ■ Identify internet services other than the
World Wide Web
■ Explain that computers can work together
■ Describe how search engines find, select, and
rank results

■ Explain that all networked devices have

their own IP address

■ Explain the need for common methods (protocols)

of communication

■ Describe how data is transmitted in small

chunks or ‘packets’

■ Identify practical uses of networks along with

common network components

24 The Big Book of Computing Content

 IN SUMMARY

In the table below, you will find learning outcomes associated with
the ‘Networks’ strand of the Raspberry Pi Foundation’s computing
taxonomy. These learning outcomes are illustrative of the kinds of
knowledge and understanding that learners could develop in this
area of computing. They are not prescriptive, but instead aim to
illustrate the wide applications of the discipline.
These learning outcomes were originally developed to complement
the English national curriculum for computing, and as such stage 1
roughly corresponds to ages 5–7, stage 2 to ages 7–11, stage 3 to
ages 11–14, stage 4 to ages 14–16, and stage 5 to ages 16–19.

STAGE 3 STAGE 4 STAGE 5

■ Explain how bandwidth can be used as a measure ■ Describe the use and structure of different types ■ Explain how data transmission is measured and
of network performance of network (WAN, LAN, PAN) categorised and the factors that affect performance

■ Describe and give examples of networking ■ Explain how physical networks can host ■ Explain the domain name hierarchy and how
protocols used to provide different services multiple associated logical networks domain name servers resolve IP addresses

■ Describe some of the technical vulnerabilities ■ Make use of simulations to explore the ■ Compare client/server with peer-to-peer
associated with computer networks transmission of data through a network communications systems and understand how
client/server systems communicate
■ Explain the role of a firewall in protecting ■ Describe how DNS servers translate URLs
a network into IP addresses ■ Describe the purpose and function of a
comprehensive range of network hardware
■ Outline the journey of a message sent ■ Outline how wired and wireless networks can be
across a network configured for performance and security ■ Describe each layer within the TCP/IP and OSI
models and how data passes between them during
■ Identify scenarios where wired or wireless ■ Describe how a network can be represented transmission
networks are more suitable as layers using the TCP/IP model
■ Describe a wide range of protocols
■ Explain how data passes through each network and standards used across a layered
layer as it is transmitted and received network model

■ Explain the relationship between MAC and

IP addresses

■ Explain how data is encapsulated at each

layer as segments, packets, and frames

The Big Book of Computing Content 25

RESEARCH

APPROACHES TO
TEACHING NETWORKING
STORY BY Katharine Childs, James Robinson, and Andy Bush

e can see the use and application concepts can be mapped to each of the drivers), and assembly/machine-code
W of computing devices in many resulting 16 areas as a themes and tiers language. Learners begin by understanding
areas of our world, from the personal model (Figure 1). software that is visible to them, such as
devices we use on a daily basis to the the operating system on their computer,
systems that control and automate The themes and tiers model before moving onto more abstract
industrial processes. Through these The four key themes are as follows: software concepts.
devices, we are almost always connected
to a wider network in some form or HARDWARE NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
another. An understanding of how our This covers the physical devices and This includes an understanding of the
networks, systems, and devices work is components that work together to form different types of computer network, the
therefore foundational knowledge for all a computer system. The deeper learners components that make up a network, and
students of computing. explore this theme, the more they focus on how these components are connected
Teach Computing and the Raspberry how different components work, as well as together. As learning in this theme
Pi Foundation propose that we can the logical concepts and physical processes progresses, learners can design and
organise the knowledge and skills within on which the system is built. build their own simple network to a
the teaching and learning of networks given specification.
and computer systems into four broad SOFTWARE
themes (helloworld.cc/rpf2021). In turn, This encompasses internet services DATA TRANSMISSION
we can then divide these themes into four (including cloud computing), operating This theme focuses on how data moves
tiers of detail/abstraction, and the relevant systems, applications, utilities (such as around networks. Students begin by
learning about common protocols for
transferring data across networks, and then
move on to understanding methods to make
sure data is transmitted securely, reliably,
and rapidly.

While these themes help describe the

content within the study of networks and
computer systems, they are still very broad
concepts. At different points in a learner’s
journey, they may explore the same or similar
concepts, albeit from a different perspective
or level of abstraction. For example, within
the data transmission theme, learners may
first find out that devices within a network
can communicate with each other. Later,
they explore the reasons why protocols are
n Figure 1 The themes and tiers model
of computer systems and networks needed, and after they delve deeper, they

26 The Big Book of Computing Content

 RESEARCH

COMPUTER SYSTEMS NETWORKS

HARDWARE SOFTWARE NETWORK ARCHITECTURE DATA TRANSMISSION

SYSTEM/ ■ Purposes of systems ■ Web services ■ What a network is ■ How and why we use networks
NETWORK ■ Benefits of ■ Cloud computing ■ Purpose, uses, and risks ■ Data can be routed across
computer systems ■ Software as a service ■ The internet a network
■ Monitoring and ■ Control systems software ■ WAN, LAN, and PAN ■ Network performance,
controlling systems bandwidth, and latency
■ Virtual machines ■ Network topologies
■ Remote storage

DEVICE ■ General purpose vs purpose- ■ Operating systems ■ Devices within the network ■ Connectivity
built embedded devices ■ Application software ■ Client–server and peer-to- ■ Role of protocols
■ Common device features ■ Open/closed source peer networking ■ Application layer protocols
■ Peripherals ■ Human–computing ■ Thin and thick clients ■ DNS and IP addressing
interaction ■ Portable devices ■ Servers, email, web, etc.
■ User interfaces

COMPONENT ■ Role of common ■ Utility software ■ Wired and wireless ■ Transport layer protocols
components: ■ Controlling IO devices connections ■ DHCP
• Storage ■ Hierarchy of programming ■ Switches, access points, ■ Network address translation
• CPU languages routers, gateways,
■ WebSockets
bridges, etc.
• RAM, ROM, and cache
■ NICs and WNICs
• Sensors

IMPLEMENTATION ■ CPU architecture(s) ■ Device drivers and BIOS ■ MAC addressing ■ Network layered model(s)
■ Fetch–decode–execute cycle ■ Program translators ■ Characteristics of ■ Collision detection
■ Logic gates/circuits ■ Assembly and machine-code transmission media, and avoidance
language including copper, fibre ■ Multiplexing
■ Buses
optic, radio waves, etc.
■ Interrupts ■ Libraries, linkers, and ■ Circuit and packet
loaders switching
■ Storage media

n F igure 2 Networks and computer systems content organised by themes and tiers

become aware of a range of protocols and

their uses. Eventually, they become familiar
with how those protocols are implemented.
Learners therefore examine the system “ WE NEED A BALANCE OF THEORETICAL
CONCEPTS AND PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES
and wider networks from a range of
perspectives. Teach Computing and the
Raspberry Pi Foundation refer to these
perspectives as tiers, with learners moving Component tier: learners look inside the Teaching approaches
from the highest, most abstract tier, to the device and understand the purpose of for computer networks
lowest tier, as follows: common constituent parts that make up Teaching about networks requires a balance
every computing device. between theoretical concepts and practical
System/network tier: a highly abstract view activities, to help learners move from the
in which learners focus on how systems and Implementation tier: learners focus on system tier through to the implementation
networks are used to solve problems. the specific details of how the smallest tier. The theories underpinning computer
components are built, how they work, and networks are too abstract to be understood
Device tier: learners are concerned with how they are controlled. without practical examples, but practical
familiar computing devices, including activities alone will not provide the deeper
computers, phones, tablets, and We can see how these themes and tiers understanding of the principles and protocols
embedded systems. can interact in Figure 2. that underpin a fully functioning network.

The Big Book of Computing Content 27

RESEARCH

learners to work as a team to problem-

TYPE OF APPROACH SUBTYPE OF APPROACH solve. This can be a highly motivating
context for learners, although teachers
VISUALISATION ■ Using network simulators
must also make sure to pre-teach the prior
■ Using multimedia and animations knowledge learners need and to model
■ Using visual analogies examples of successful collaboration.
■ Using network monitoring tools
Practical activities: tasks such as setting
ACTIVE LEARNING ■ Problem-based learning up a physical network with low-cost
■ Playing games equipment provide valuable hands-on
experience to illustrate theoretical principles.
HANDS-ON LEARNING ■ Practical activities For example, we can configure Raspberry Pi
to act as a server, and in doing so, learners
n F igure 3 A classification of teaching approaches for computer networks must set up a static IP address and connect
to a default gateway and DNS server. By
We can classify teaching approaches When using analogies, it is recommended configuring and testing these settings,
for learners aged five to eighteen into that a semantic wave approach is used, to learners gain a deeper understanding of
the seven different categories shown unpack theoretical concepts using concrete how networks are implemented in real-
in Figure 3, which have been adapted examples and then repack learners’ world situations.
from the work of researchers Prvan and understanding with clear links back to the
Ožegović (helloworld.cc/prvan2020). This theory, to avoid misconceptions (see the There are a number of different practical
categorisation offers a range of approaches ‘Unplug, Unpack, Repack’ section of The Big considerations when choosing a teaching
that you can try out in your classroom Book of Computing Pedagogy for more on approach for each topic. It is recommended
setting, supporting you with striking that semantic waves — helloworld.cc/bigbook). that teachers work with their school IT staff
balance between theory and practice: to identify opportunities and constraints,
Using network monitoring tools: network including available equipment, security
Using network simulators: network monitoring tools provide visible information protocols that are in place on the school’s
simulators help learners to design, about real-world networks to help learners network, and whether high-quality
configure, and compare network topologies better understand the process of routing visualisation resources such as videos or
in a risk-free virtual environment. The data across a network. This information animations are available. We should use
network design can then be tested for can be used as a diagnostic tool to think carefully planned units of work to involve
performance, bandwidth, and latency, and critically about errors in data transmission coverage across the themes and tiers model,
modified as required. Examples of network or to better understand the behaviour of and to strike the balance between theory
simulation tools include Packet Tracer from packet exchanges between network layers. and practice, supporting your learners with
Cisco (see the article on page 32 for more Use of these tools is dependent on network developing and understanding these
on this tool). security settings, but even basic Windows foundational skills and knowledge.
commands such as ‘tracert’ can provide
Using multimedia and animations: using
high-quality video content provides learners
interesting learning points about the speed
and route of data across networks.
FURTHER READING
with a visual overview of network activity.
For example, animations can show some of Problem-based learning: identifying Teach Computing and the Raspberry
the paths taken during data transmission, errors in a network and fixing them is a Pi Foundation. (2021). Computer
and images can illustrate the different type of active learning that can provide Systems and Networking Within
sections of a datagram, including the header opportunities for deeper understanding of the Computing Curriculum [White
and footer. concepts. Ensure that the network failures paper]. helloworld.cc/rpf2021
are designed to maximise the opportunity for Prvan, M., & Ožegović, J.
Using visual analogies: teachers can draw learning, and to offer opportunities for group (2020). Methods in Teaching
on real-world examples to help explain discussions to identify potential solutions. Computer Networks: A Literature
abstract concepts. An analogy such as Review. ACM Transactions on
the way a letter moves through the postal Playing games: game-based learning Computing Education, 20(3), 1–35.
system can be used to compare the way includes creating scenarios involving helloworld.cc/prvan2020
that data is routed through a network. insecure or faulty networks and challenging

28 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

MAKE NETWORKS
INTERESTING WITH FILIUS
Paul Powell shares how you can liven up your lessons on networking

etworking can be dull. Lots of

N terminology, acronyms, technical
detail, and bits of binary. Apart from the
underlying sense that it makes YouTube
work, what exactly is the point of knowing
all this stuff? Some schools are lucky
enough to be able to make a network of
Raspberry Pis and get them talking to each
other, but not every department will have
the funds, the space, or the wide range of
skills needed.

Filius to the rescue

Trying to get around this issue for my upper-
secondary class (aged 15–16), I started
looking for a network simulator. Everything
I found was either too complex (GNS3 or
Packet Tracer) or too restrictive (the Teach- n Two connected networks showing client/server communications
ICT simulator). Eventually I stumbled upon
Filius, a good midpoint between the two. with classes that are a little less than helped explain the different forms of
Filius is an open-source Java app that was attentive. Fortunately, Filius lets you load addressing. The next step will be to break
written first in German, and then translated and save your networks, so you can prepare the tasks down further so that any students
into English, including a decent English guide them in advance to teach specific concepts. who are struggling can begin to work
on the website (helloworld.cc/filius). more independently.
Filius lets you set up a network with Making it accessible
computers, switches, routers, and cables. Adapting the concept of the PRIMM
At the most basic level, this can be used (Predict–Run–Investigate–Modify–Make)
to connect the basic components. Each approach to programming, I tried to structure
machine can be set up with an IP address, the activities so that students began with
and then the simulation can be run. When a supported activity. Typically, this meant
in simulation mode, you can install software giving students a network that was already
onto the machines. You can use this to set up, with an element of the network
ping between machines, and you can see working. Students had to predict what the
the packets going back and forth as green network would do (mostly based on machine
pulses along the wires, or by right-clicking names and topology) and simulate (run) the
any computer or router and inspecting the network, as well as carrying out a few tasks,
packets as they go back and forth. investigating the settings, modifying the PAUL POWELL
Once the basics of a LAN are out of the settings of a non-working portion to get it Paul currently works as a solution delivery
way, Filius then lets you set up multiple running, and then making a new section of manager for a software development
networks, routing tables, web servers and the network. provider. Before this he was a computing
web browsers, email, DHCP, and more. This This approach was very successful with teacher in the UK for ten years.
might all sound a little daunting, especially my class. Everyone was engaged, and it

The Big Book of Computing Content 29

FEATURE

THE JOURNEY
OF NETWORKING
To help our young learners understand the internet better, we need to follow
the development of networking from the first connected computers

he power of a single computer is The electrical signals are referred to as ‘layer ring can remove it if it returns. But how do we
T well understood. The speed and 1’ or the ‘physical layer’ because they’re the ensure the data only goes to the computer
accuracy with which it can run through closest to the physical connections. we want to send it to, as it now goes through
an algorithm or solve the most complex Three computers can be connected with all the computers?
problems is outstanding. However, it’s three connections. Four computers need six The solution involves giving each computer
only the tip of the iceberg when compared connections, and so on. The advantage of in our ring a unique address. Before we send
to the power of networked computers. this system was that each computer could our data out, we add the destination address
The internet is the biggest worldwide choose where to send the information, just to the front of the data. For the receiving
network of devices, and has truly by selecting the appropriate connection. computer to know who to reply to, we also
transformed almost every aspect of how The downside was the number of add our own address as the source address.
we live, work, and play. Virtually all our This addition of a source address and
infrastructure is reliant on this global destination address to the data forms
connectivity. The ubiquitous nature of a ‘frame’. The process of adding this
its availability and ease of access has additional data is called ‘encapsulation’.
resulted in it replacing costly dedicated It’s similar to placing the data in an
connections and transforming just envelope and putting the destination
about everything. Electrical generation, address on the front and the sender’s
water distribution, transport networks, address on the back. The process that
banks, government, the media, and most encapsulates the data with addresses is
of education would cease to function called ‘layer 2’ or the ‘data link’ layer. The
with no network connectivity. Children n Figure 1 Fully meshed network n Figure 2 A ring topology format of the frame is therefore:
might relate to the idea of losing Facebook
or Snapchat, but fail to realise there would connections and thus connectors on each SOURCE DESTINATION DATA
be no power distribution and little food in the device; a fully meshed network (Figure 1) of ADDRESS ADDRESS

shops if there was no network. six computers would need five connections
The networks we have today and the from each computer and fifteen connections As the frame is passed around the ring, each
rules they follow are partially a legacy of in total. Imagine what 100 connected computer compares the destination address
older technology. If we had a clean slate computers would look like! What was to its own address. If there’s a match, the
and could start again, we wouldn’t build needed was a way of using a single wire computer reads the frame and has received
the internet we have today. Hence, to that all devices could connect to, and a the data. Computers that don’t match the
understand the internet, we need to follow way of somehow sharing usage of the wire address just forward the frame on.
the development of networking from the between them all. Two distinct solutions Ring-type networks are used today
very first connected computers. evolved: the ‘ring’ and ‘bus’ topologies. in synchronous optical networking
(SONET) and synchronous digital
Early connections Ring hierarchy (SDH) networks.
As computers developed, it was recognised Rather than connecting each computer
that they could be connected to share directly to every other computer, they can Bus
information. With two computers, it was be connected in a ring topology (Figure 2). Another option to connect multiple computers
easy to provide a dedicated link between The data passes round the ring, with each together is to connect them all to a common
them and use electrical voltages to represent computer ‘seeing’ the data and also passing wire. Initially, this was a thick coaxial cable,
the binary 1s and 0s of the data to be sent. it on. The computer that puts the data in the similar to a TV cable. Each computer was

30 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

connected to the cable with a ‘tap’, which

was a spike in a clamp, tightened up with a
nut. This visualisation of many computers
RESOURCES TO VISUALISE NETWORKS
being connected to a common wire inspired
DESCRIPTION VIDEO SCRATCH ANIMATION
the name ‘bus topology’, with the idea of a
Fully meshed networked computers helloworld.cc/meshedvideo helloworld.cc/meshedscratch
bus that people can get on and off as they
Ring-based network helloworld.cc/ringvideo helloworld.cc/ringscratch
wish (Figure 3).
Ethernet bus-based network helloworld.cc/busvideo helloworld.cc/busscratch
The single wire meant that only one
Ethernet hub-based network helloworld.cc/hubvideo helloworld.cc/hubscratch
computer could send data at any one time,
Ethernet switch-based network helloworld.cc/switchvideo helloworld.cc/switchscratch
and the data would go to every computer on
NIC sending data frame helloworld.cc/NIC1video helloworld.cc/NIC1scratch
the wire. The technology was called ‘ethernet’ NIC receiving data frame helloworld.cc/NIC2video helloworld.cc/NIC2scratch
and used a set of rules called CSMA/CD to
manage what would happen when more than
one computer tried to send data at the same Hub frames are switched to the right ports. We
time. Mechanical issues with the taps and dry To provide resilience and simplify call switches ‘layer 2’ devices because they
joints led to these networks being unreliable connections, the bus was collapsed into a understand the headers at layer 2, the data
and difficult to fix. An improvement used a box called a hub. Each device connected link layer.
thinner coaxial cable and special connectors directly to the hub on its own RJ45 port. The function of encapsulation is provided
called BNC connectors. This was called Inside the hub, signals were by the network interface card
‘thin ethernet’, and the original cabling was received on one pair; they (NIC) in the computer. Different
retrospectively renamed ‘thick ethernet’. were then regenerated, interfaces, such as wired,
Just like in a ring network, all the computers and just like the bus, were wireless, and 3G/4G, will all have
need an address. This is the media access transmitted out of all ports. different NICs. No matter the
control (MAC), ethernet, physical or hardware This simple, reliable, and media (except fibre), there’s still
address. Data is encapsulated, with a header cheap way to connect the possibility of some electrical
containing the source and destination computers led to a high interference with the signal,
address, to make a data frame. In early growth in the number of local n Figure 3 Bus topology and spikes in the voltage. These
ethernet networks, the frames were received area networks (LANs) with multiple spikes can result in a binary 0 being
by all computers, and each compared the computers connected using an ethernet interpreted as a binary 1, or vice versa. It may
destination address to its own address. If hub. We call hubs ‘layer 1’ or ‘physical not be obvious that an error has occurred,
there was a match, the computer read the layer’ devices, because they just regenerate so we use a ‘check-field’ at the end of the
frame and received the data; otherwise, the the electrical signals with no notion of the frame to enable us to detect errors. Thus our
frame was just ignored. The format of the structure of the frame. ethernet frame is now:
frame is therefore:
Switch SOURCE DESTINATION DATA (up CHECK-
Hubs just forward data frames out of all ADDRESS ADDRESS to 1500 FIELD
SOURCE DESTINATION DATA (up to
(6 bytes) (6 bytes) bytes)
ADDRESS ADDRESS 1500 bytes) ports, because they have no knowledge of
(6 bytes) (6 bytes)
which computers are connected to which
ports, and have no understanding of the When receiving the frame, we check the
Cabling data they’re forwarding. However, advances check-field to see if any errors have occurred.
With thin and thick ethernet networks, the in electronics have allowed us to improve If an error occurs, we discard the frame.
electrical signals that carried the binary data the efficiency of our ethernet networks by The next evolution was the
were protected from interference by the putting some intelligence in the hub. They interconnection of all these LANs and the
braiding in the coaxial cable. This shielded can now inspect the frame and examine the birth of the internet protocol (IP) ... but that’s
the inner conductor by providing an electrical source and destination ethernet addresses. another article! When trying to explain how
Faraday cage around the core. Clearly, the device is now much more than the internet works, it’s vital to appreciate
Improvements in technology meant the our humble hub, and is called a ‘switch’. that it has been a journey over some six or
data could be sent over a pair of wires twisted Initially, the switch will not know the seven decades — and we hope this article
together in the same way as wires are twisted addresses of the connected computers, so has been a helpful start!
in a telephone cable. One pair is used to it defaults to hub behaviour and switches
transmit data, and the other to receive it. incoming frames out of all ports. However,
The cable is called an ‘unshielded twisted it learns which addresses are connected to DUNCAN MAIDENS
pair’ (UTP), and is commonly, although which ports by examining source addresses Duncan is the director of computer science
incorrectly, known as an ethernet cable. on incoming frames, which are stored in education at the Raspberry Pi Foundation.
Connection is made via RJ45 plugs. a table within the switch. Hence, future

The Big Book of Computing Content 31

FEATURE

THE PRINCIPLES
OF NETWORKING
MADE EASIER WITH PACKET TRACER
Cisco’s powerful simulation tool encourages practice, discovery, and troubleshooting, and lets students
experiment with network behaviour by building complex networks — plus it’s free to schools!

reliable network forms the heart What is Packet Tracer? Key features
A of any technology infrastructure, Packet Tracer simplifies the complexity of Packet Tracer has two workspaces —
and networking is now at the forefront of teaching networking, while giving logical and physical — which you can easily
technology innovation in our increasingly students valuable hands-on experience. switch at the click of a button. The logical
digital world. Teachers must therefore Cisco developed Packet Tracer to help its workspace allows users to build coherent
be equipped to teach networking in Networking Academy students achieve network topologies by placing, connecting,
classrooms, particularly given the skills the best learning experience while gaining and clustering virtual network devices. The
shortages in this area. With many teachers practical networking technology skills. physical workspace provides a graphical
struggling to tackle networking principles, Packet Tracer is a powerful simulation physical dimension of the logical network,
purchasing switchers, routers, and other tool that students can use to build, explore, giving a sense of scale and placement in how
such devices might appear to offer and troubleshoot a variety of network network devices such as routers, switches,
the perfect solution. For most schools, environments as if the hardware were and hosts would look in a real environment.
however, this isn’t a practical or affordable with them in the room. By dragging and The physical view also provides geographic
option, which is why Cisco has created the dropping routers, switches, and various representations of networks, including
next best thing for teaching networking — other types of network devices, they can multiple cities, buildings, and wiring closets.
Packet Tracer (helloworld.cc/packettracer). develop virtual network worlds. This paves Packet Tracer also gives you two
the way for teachers and students to operating modes to visualise the behaviour
explore, experiment, and discover an almost of a network: real-time mode and simulation
unlimited array of networking concepts mode. In real-time mode, the network
CISCO NETWORKING and technologies. behaves as real devices do, with immediate
real-time responses for all network
ACADEMY activities. Simulation mode gives students
a viable alternative to real equipment and
Founded in 1997, Cisco Networking allows them to get configuration practice
Academy (helloworld.cc/ciscoacademy) before working with physical equipment.
is a not-for-profit IT skills and career
building programme that connects millions Supports teaching networking
of students, educators, and employers The Packet Tracer tool contains many
worldwide. As part of this programme, exciting features that offer an extra
Cisco partners with learning institutions dimension to teaching computing. Schools
to deliver technical training and problem- can easily teach and demonstrate complex
solving experiences to individuals studying technical models, as well as networking
networking, security, and IoT technologies.
concepts and protocols, using an
n Solving puzzles collaboratively enables student-led learning interactive environment.

32 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

homework, assessments, games, network

design, troubleshooting, modelling tasks,
case studies, and competitions
HOW DOES PACKET
TRACER HELP
n  Allowing

classroom
self-paced learning outside the
YOU TO TEACH
NETWORKING?
n  Supporting
social learning processes by
enabling collaboration and competition Packet Tracer allows users to build and
n The physical workspace offers a graphical view of the logical network
configure a functioning computer network
The student experience in a simulated environment. Traffic is
Packet Tracer’s hands-on approach simulated, with web and email servers being
to learning means students will be used by a variety of desktop applications.
better equipped to apply concepts and Simulations work in either real-time
configuration fundamentals when exposed mode, as they would in a physical network
to real equipment. By experimenting with environment, or in simulated mode, where
network behaviour and asking ‘what users can see the actual packets and frames
if’ questions, students will gain a solid moving through the network and decode the
understanding of how devices connect and layers structure of ethernet, IP, and TCP.
communicate in a live network, and how Duncan Maidens, director of computer
n Multiuser games provide fun learning opportunities
for collaboration and competition data flows from one device to another. science at the Raspberry Pi Foundation
The software uses a drag-and-drop
One key feature, the Activity Wizard, user interface, allowing students to add
allows teachers to write their own learning and remove simulated network devices
activities by setting up different scenarios. as they wish, and lets students practise
They can customise these scenarios with using a command-line interface. This is a
instructional text, while creating initial and fundamental component of learning how to
final network topologies and predefined configure routers and switches. Just as the
packets. The Activity Wizard also includes physical equipment allows you to modify

“ BY EXPERIMENTING, STUDENTS WILL

UNDERSTAND HOW DEVICES CONNECT
simulation-based learning environment helps
students develop essential business skills,
such as decision-making, creative and critical
AND COMMUNICATE IN A LIVE NETWORK thinking, and problem-solving.
To access Packet Tracer and explore a
range of networking activities suitable for
grading and feedback capabilities. In hardware, Packet Tracer offers the ability to the classroom, sign up for one of the free
addition, you can save and share activities insert interface cards into modular routers courses at helloworld.cc/packettracer. If
with other teachers and students. and switches, which then become part of you want to know more about becoming a
Packet Tracer helps the teaching of the simulation. Cisco Networking Academy, which gives
networking by: Students can also learn how to design you access to extra learning materials and
complex and large networks, which isn’t activities, and professional development
n  Providinga visual demonstration of always possible using physical hardware. such as Python, C++, C, cybersecurity, and
complex technologies and configurations From the very basics, such as connecting a PC Linux courses, visit helloworld.cc/
to a hub, or setting up a server and building ciscoacademy.
n  Letting
teachers author customised, a local area network (LAN) and wide area
guided activities that provide immediate network (WAN), students can build an almost
feedback through the Activity Wizard unlimited number of environments. And as HELEN CLOTHIER
they gain practical experience of configuration, Helen is a Country Digital Acceleration
n  Facilitating
numerous learning activities, troubleshooting, and other tasks, they become skills programme manager at Cisco.
such as individual and group lab activities, more confident in their abilities. In addition, the

The Big Book of Computing Content 33

CREATING MEDIA
36  CREATING MEDIA, IN SUMMARY
38 THRESHOLD CONCEPTS
40  ART, CREATIVITY, AND
COMPUTER SCIENCE
44 DEMOCRATISING DIGITAL CULTURE
WITH 3D-ANIMATED FILM
46  EPARATING THE LEARNING FROM
S
THE APPLICATION
 n important set of digital skills that learners IN THIS SECTION,
A develop through their computing studies is the YOU WILL FIND:
ability to work with a variety of media, from text, ■ Learning outcomes:
to 2D and 3D graphics, to audio and video, to interactive creating media, in summary

media. Whether developing new media or integrating and ■ What the research says:
combining existing content, learners encounter a range of threshold concepts in creating media

common concepts and skills, including grouping, layering, ■ Art, creativity, and computer science

and alignment. Additionally, learners should develop an ■ 3D-animated films

understanding of how different media are represented and ■ Separating the learning from the tool
stored by a computing device. This aspect connects to other
strands, providing context while also helping learners to
evaluate the relative merits of different media formats and
consider factors such as compression and file types.
The journey for learners will probably begin with simple
and familiar media, including text and images, and gradually
expand into a broader mixture of media such as animations,
3D models, and videos. Once they are comfortable with a
selection of media types, learners can become more selective
about the suitability of different media for different projects.
As they progress into the later stages of their
computing education, their ability to create
media will be valuable, but unless they
are taking a specialised media-related
qualification, it is unlikely to be the focus of
their computing studies.

The Big Book of Computing Content 35

IN SUMMARY

IN SUMMARY

CREATING MEDIA
Select and create a range of
media including text, images,
sounds, and video

STAGE 1 STAGE 2
■ Identify different forms of media, including text, ■ Distinguish between examples of vector/
images, video, and sounds bitmap images

■ Explain that text can be displayed in ■ Distinguish between an editable

different styles multimedia project and the exported media
it can produce
■ Contrast the strengths and drawbacks of using
technology to create media ■ Make use of layering when working with images,
sounds, and video
■ Make use of a range of input devices to
create and capture media ■ Explain how grouping can be used to work
with multiple digital objects
■ Combine text and images in documents
■ Select and apply suitable text formats for a range
of purposes

■ Explain what ‘good’ looks like for a

particular digital artefact

■ Capture and edit images, sounds, and video for a

given purpose

■ Create multimedia including sounds,

images, video, and 3D objects

■ Select, manipulate, and arrange multimedia

for a purpose

36 The Big Book of Computing Content

 IN SUMMARY

In the table below, you will find learning outcomes associated

with the ‘Creating media’ strand of the Raspberry Pi Foundation’s
computing taxonomy. These learning outcomes are illustrative of the
kinds of knowledge and understanding that learners could develop in
this area of computing. They are not prescriptive, but instead aim to
illustrate the wide applications of the discipline.
These learning outcomes were originally developed to complement
the English national curriculum for computing and as such, stage 1
roughly corresponds to ages 5–7, stage 2 to ages 7–11, stage 3 to
ages 11–14, stage 4 to ages 14–16, and stage 5 to ages 16–19.

STAGE 3 STAGE 4 STAGE 5

■ Explain the use cases for both vector and ■ Explain how the technical properties of different ■ Analyse digital media products, identifying their
bitmap images media affect a finished product purpose and intended audiences

■ Describe how vector and bitmap images ■ Describe physical factors (such as lighting ■ Propose, design, create, and evaluate digital
are stored or noise) that affect the quality of recorded artefacts using a range of media
or captured media
■ Explain the factors that affect the quality of ■ Describe how both vector and bitmap images
collected or created media ■ Describe the means by which text, images, and are created
sounds are represented using binary numbers
■ Identify ways in which digital artefacts can ■ Describe the process by which sound
be manipulated and the motivations for ■ Apply a wide range of techniques to (analogue) is sampled and stored digitally
doing so compose and enhance digital artefacts
■ Calculate the expected file size of different media
■ Decide from examples what makes specific digital ■ Develop and apply templates to speed up based upon their attributes
artefacts ‘good’ production and improve consistency
■ Describe the impact of changing media
■ Describe how digital artefacts can be made ■ Find and create digital assets that attributes (such as colour depth or sample
more usable and accessible are suitable and compatible with a rate) on quality and storage needs
final product
■ Combine software tools to create digital artefacts ■ Choose appropriate media formats comparing
quality, file size, and performance
■ Create or adapt digital artefacts to make
them suitable for different audiences

■ Apply consistent styles and common assets to

give digital artefacts a shared identity

The Big Book of Computing Content 37

RESEARCH

© beeboys/stock.adobe.com
n Understanding threshold concepts is vital if learners are
to progress and build subsequent skills and concepts

THRESHOLD CONCEPTS
STORY BY Ben Hall

ven if you have never heard of or (helloworld.cc/davies2006). The first A threshold concept should be revisited
E
n

used the term ‘threshold concepts’, approach includes the engagement of from a teaching and learning perspective
you will be teaching them day in, day two distinct disciplines, and specifically, several times across different ages and
out, both in your computing classes and the views in which these disciplines stages of learning (buildability)
in any other subjects you may teach. examine the same situation. The second
Researchers Meyer and Land introduced approach, which is mostly used in the In some subjects, threshold concepts are
the term to education in 2003, stressing current literature, such as Janet and Nathan easy to identify. Consider young readers,
the importance of the idea as “akin to a Rountree’s 2009 paper (helloworld.cc/ for example. They are initially taught
portal, opening up a new and previously rountree2009), suggests that to identify the threshold concept of phonics, which
inaccessible way of thinking about threshold concepts, the researcher should introduces them to the alphabet and letter
something. It represents a transformed concentrate on people inside and outside sounds, which they can blend into simple
way of understanding, or interpreting, of the community; that is, on the different and then more complex words. They are
or viewing something without which the ways in which students and experts then introduced to the threshold concept
learner cannot progress” (helloworld.cc/ experience the situation. that not all words are spelled as they sound.
meyer2003). This article will explore the The Raspberry Pi Foundation has The same is true in computing, or at
research behind defining and identifying defined threshold concepts within least some elements of it. In programming,
threshold concepts, with a focus on computing education in a similar way. in the Teach Computing Curriculum, we
‘Creating media’ topics, before suggesting When deciding whether or not a concept is introduce four threshold concepts, one
some approaches to introducing them to a threshold concept, we at the Foundation per year group from ages seven to eleven:
your classroom. use the following criteria: sequence, repetition, selection, and variables
(helloworld.cc/tcc). By isolating these
Identifying threshold concepts n A threshold concept should be relevant four concepts, you can introduce each
Researcher Peter Davies suggests two to two or more topic areas within the progressively, and gradually develop an
methods for identifying threshold concepts subject (portability) understanding of each one. We have found

38 The Big Book of Computing Content

 RESEARCH

that there is a broad consensus that this areas of the computing curriculum. For ‘Creating media’? Instead of Use, for
order is appropriate at this age range. example, if a student understands layering example, could students ‘consume’ a
In some areas of computing, however, in desktop publishing, they will be at a particular type of media? Take vector
threshold concepts are not as widely agreed significant advantage when they move on drawings as an example. In isolation,
on or accepted. The content and curriculum to creating vector drawings, as the concept many students will not be familiar with
team at the Raspberry Pi Foundation has is fundamentally the same in both types of the concept of vector drawings. To
picked out ‘Creating media’ as an example media. This can deliver significant benefits familiarise them with it, you could ask
of a strand of computing that could to students across all age ranges: learners to edit or adapt a vector graphic
benefit from an approach more based on so that it suits a different audience or
threshold concepts. At a high level, we n  he identification of threshold concepts
T purpose (that is, as part of the Modify
have identified a number of commonalities accentuates their importance stage). This could involve changing the
when working with computer-based media. n Skills and concepts can be introduced position, order, or colour of objects, but
Whether you’re creating a presentation systematically in one context before being crucially, not creating anything new.
or producing a video, you will need some applied to others At this point, you could cover threshold
understanding of: n The transition between learning stages concepts associated with layers, objects, and
can be smoother, with less need to recap colours, without the added cognitive load of
n Files n Students learn to apply concepts across students having to think about creating their
n Text different curriculum areas own idea. They could then build upon this
n Images experience to create a new artefact, with the
n Audio/video Pedagogical strategies scaffolding of existing content. It may be that
n Animation Now that we have considered how we you are actually already doing some of this
n Layers define and identify threshold concepts, we in your own practice, but having a structure
n Objects need to look at the best way of teaching could help you to formalise and standardise
n Hyperlinks them to learners and the pedagogical your approach.
n Preview strategies that might be most suitable for It is vital that we know how to define,
n Templates threshold concepts in the ‘Creating media’ identify, and approach the teaching of
strand of computing. In programming, there threshold concepts in the computing
There may be more concepts than this; is a great deal of research into the best classroom, to ensure that learners can
research in this area of computing education ways of teaching new skills and concepts. progress and build subsequent skills and
is underdeveloped, so we aim to narrow Thousands of educators have implemented concepts successfully. Evidently, there is
down to the key concepts. Some of the and iterated strategies such as Use–Modify– still work to be done within this area for
‘Creating media’ topics. How could you
apply these ideas in your classroom, and

“ ‘CREATING MEDIA’ TOPICS COULD BENEFIT

FROM A THRESHOLD CONCEPT APPROACH
are there any other ideas you might be able
to weave in?

items in the list above can be considered Create and Predict–Run–Investigate–Modify–

FURTHER READING
more skills-based than others, for example Make (PRIMM). In ‘Creating media’, there is
file management. But there are some nowhere near as much to go on. So, is there Meyer, J., & Land, R. (2003).
clear concepts that can be considered as scope to adapt some of the strategies that Threshold concepts and troublesome
thresholds to further learning: are so widely used in programming to other knowledge. ETL Project. helloworld.
areas of the curriculum? cc/meyer2003
n Layers Let’s consider the Use–Modify–Create Davies, P. (2006). Threshold concepts:
n Objects strategy introduced by researcher Lee How can we recognise them? In J.
n Hyperlinks and her colleagues, which gives students Meyer, & R. Land (Eds.), Overcoming
n Preview a structure for learning to program barriers to student understanding.
n Placeholders (helloworld.cc/lee2011). At the Use Routledge. helloworld.cc/davies2006
n Templates/styles (global application) stage, students use an existing program, Rountree, J., & Rountree, N. (2009).
n Colour accessibility analysing what it does and how it does it. Issues regarding threshold concepts
They then apply this knowledge to modify in computer science. Conferences in
Once identified, these concepts can be parts of the program so that it achieves a Research and Practice in Information
introduced progressively across a range different outcome, before creating their own Technology Series, 95, 139–146.
of media, teaching students concepts and program from scratch. helloworld.cc/rountree2009
skills that are transferable across different Could a similar approach work in

The Big Book of Computing Content 39

 FEATURE

ART, CREATIVITY,
AND COMPUTER SCIENCE
Paul Curzon, Jane Waite, and Ged Gast argue that art and computing
have a lot more in common than you might imagine

oth computing and art involve The creative computer scientist Art and the machine
B creativity, innovation, and Programming is obviously creative in the Artists now have new media to play with.
imagination. And people who possess loose sense that it involves constructing By using programs and electronics as
both artistic and computing skills can new things, but it is also creative in a more media, they can create interactive art.
make wonderful things happen. inventive sense. When programming, you For example, Soda Constructor was a
Art involves a creative process, and are not creating things by rote, and not program that implemented a simple 2D
creating an emotionally or intellectually following a fixed plan; you are devising line-drawing program. However, it also
engaging work of art requires more than something that has never existed before. If added in the laws of physics. Points were
just skill with a chisel or paintbrush and you approach opportunities creatively, you masses, and lines were springs with rules
an understanding of the medium. It needs may even completely change the way the based on Newton’s and Hooke’s laws.
innovation, creativity, and imagination. world does things. Springs could also be turned into muscles
To most people, this may sound a million Take the original iPhone keyboard. Before that were given periodic energy boosts,
miles from the stereotype of the computer its launch, Apple
programmer, whose work is based on had a problem: the
logical thinking, but the links are deeper virtual keyboard
than you might imagine. Computer science
also involves great creativity, innovation,
was unusable. The
buttons were just
“ ARTISTS ARE INCREASINGLY
USING DIGITAL MEDIA TO
and imagination. too small. Lots of
On top of these high-level similarities engineers worked on CREATE INTERACTIVE ART
in approach, artists are increasingly the problem, trying
using digital media, and this opens new out different keyboard
opportunities for interactive art for those layouts, but nothing worked. With the launch making them stretch and contract. Users
with programming and electronics skills. looming, the situation looked dire. Without made a digital drawing and then switched
a usable keyboard, the product would flop. on the laws of physics, and their pictures
© NoDenmand/stock.adobe.com

Then someone thought about it differently. would come alive. You could even make
Rather than using a different layout, they creatures, following all kinds of body
had the idea of writing a program that would shapes and means of locomotion, that
predict which letter was most likely to come moved around the screen. The result was
next, based on those that had gone before, an amazing program that won a BAFTA
and making the area of those keys larger. It for interactive art.
worked, and the iPhone went on to become Interactive programs create imagery
one of the company’s biggest ever successes. on a computer screen, but digital art can
It took creativity, innovation, and imagination also escape into the real world. Physical
to come up with this winning solution, and installations can be computer-controlled,
n The original iPhone keyboard represented a breakthrough with
its ability to have the software step in and help the user skill with the medium to make it work. creating, for example, sound and light

40 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

n The Photogrowth project simulates the behaviour of artificial ants as they travel on a canvas
Images used with permission of CDV Lab. Source image: Just Be Yourself by Kirsten Sims

shows, where sculptures include light Another example of the use of digital
and sound effects controlled by sensors. creative practice in art is the wonderful PAUL CURZON
Epic-scale examples include the work of sculpture The Hive, at Kew Gardens in Paul is a professor of
artist Leo Villareal, who turned the San London. It is an architectural-scale sculpture computer science at
Francisco Bay Bridge into a pulsating, in the shape of a walk-in beehive. It is Queen Mary University
ever-changing work of art by covering it covered in lights that pulse, controlled by of London and co-
in lights controlled by a computer. Artist the activity of bees in hives in the Gardens. founded both cs4fn (cs4fn.org)
Di Mainstone had a different approach to This kind of art often uses very simple and Teaching London Computing
turning bridges into art. At Tower Bridge in combinations of sensors, lights, and sounds (teachinglondoncomputing.org).
London, she put digital sensors on bridge with simple computer control. The artist is He is author of the book The Power of
cables attached by lines to a performer’s writing programs as an essential part of the Computational Thinking.
clothing. As the bridge vibrated with traffic creative process. As an artistic medium, it
and people, and the performer moved, is now within the reach of school students,
the angle and length of the lines were combining programming, electronics, and JANE WAITE
measured and different sounds produced. art. If you have a creative spark, you can Jane has worked both as
Human and bridge thus became one make similar kinds of art with simple sensor a primary teacher and in
augmented artistic instrument. kits such as Arduinos and Raspberry Pis. industry as a developer.
She worked on the Barefoot
programme, was CAS London manager,
© John Nakata/stock.adobe.com

and is now a senior research scientist at

the Raspberry Pi Foundation.

GED GAST
Ged is a visual arts
specialist, an education
consultant, and a past
president of the National
Society for Education in Art and Design
(NSEAD).
n Artist Leo Villareal covered the San Francisco Bay Bridge with lights controlled by a computer

The Big Book of Computing Content 41

 FEATURE
© Miroslav Posavecc/stock.adobe.com

THE ALGORITHMS
“ THEMSELVES
BECOME THE
MEDIUM THAT
THE ARTIST
WORKS WITH

and their trails lead other ants to those

sources. If they don’t find enough ‘food’, the
ants die. If they do find enough, however,
they reproduce, leading to more ants to
continue developing the picture. Here, the
n The Hive at Kew Gardens has a distinctive mesh frame constructed
from 170,000 aluminium parts and 1000 LED lights parameters you can set include things like
the thickness of the trails the ants leave.
Algorithmic art artworks result because the algorithm has Many other kinds of algorithm can be
In interactive art, artists use computers elements of randomness in it, or because the used. Our article on algorithmic doodle art
and electronics as media, like canvases. artist tweaks the starting parameters (the in Hello World issue 9 (pages 87–89), gives
In some works, though, algorithms play inputs to the algorithm). Or, the artist may some simple and unplugged algorithmic
a more fundamental role, generating the devise variations on the algorithm, exploring art activities for the classroom, using
art themselves. the different kinds of result that emerge algorithms that mirror the developmental
Arguably, artists have been using from different changes. So in algorithmic processes of plants. Students may find
algorithms for a long time — following rules art, algorithms themselves become a it intriguing to use these as a means of
as part of the artistic process. Perhaps the medium for the artist to work with, just like exploring the way in which our minds
most stunning examples of this are the organising colour and expressive marks on generate doodles and how the rules of
geometric images of Islamic art — and a surface, painting with oils, or constructing abstraction could, or might, function.
the word ‘algorithm’ itself comes from the in clay. The artist is also adding artistic Another way is to try to create a program
Persian scholar al-Khwārizmī and his ninth- judgement by deciding which images to that codifies the way human artists work —
century book on the algorithms behind keep and which to discard. an algorithm for human art.
the Hindu–Arabic numeral system. We are There are lots of places to get inspiration
taught simple algorithms in art classes at for the algorithms behind algorithmic art. The art of AARON
school, dating back to the Renaissance, One good source is in the algorithms of AARON is a robotic painting device
such as those used to get perspective nature. A particularly creative example created by the artist Professor Harold
right. Maths, algorithms, and art have been of this, from the University of Coimbra’s Cohen. AARON’s creations have appeared
intertwined, at least informally, for centuries. CDV Lab, is a program called Photogrowth in art galleries worldwide. Just as we
Taking this idea further leads to (helloworld.cc/photogrowth). It involves learn the basics of art in school, AARON
algorithmic or generative art. Now, rather breeding a colony of virtual ants that has been taught the rules of art, such as
than the work arising purely from the deposit ink as they crawl over an initial composition and perspective. It also knows
creativity of an artist, it is generated by an image. The brighter colours of the starter about things in the world, such as how the
algorithm that the artist creates. Different picture act as food sources for the ants, parts of a person’s body are connected.
AARON has another kind of knowledge
too: creative procedural knowledge. It

ART & COMPUTING RESOURCES knows how to follow the steps to create
a painting. For example, it starts with the
background of a new painting, and works
Teaching London Computing: National Society for Education in TechPathways London:
its way forward to the foreground. By
helloworld.cc/londonart Art and Design: nsead.org helloworld.cc/techpath
following these in-built rules that codify
artistic knowledge, AARON creates novel

42 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

© Jiri Hera/stock.adobe.com
pictures. Each picture it paints is different,
and it even chooses the subject to paint.
In creating AARON, Cohen made a great
step forward in understanding creativity,
and researchers interested in understanding
computational creativity continue to pursue
that mission. Ultimately, work like Cohen’s
is about writing programs that help us
understand what it means to be human.

Computers and judgement

The next step for algorithmic art is to take
the human out of the loop and let the
computer itself judge which pictures are n Digital photography is now the only digital
art offering at many secondary schools
‘good’. This is a key part of creativity, and
feeds back into a human’s development as
an artist. Great artists don’t churn out lots COMPUTING AND ART
of mediocre paintings, with a few being IN THE CLASSROOM
chosen as brilliant. They get better, and they
develop a distinctive style of their own. This Digital technology has been used in art and Bill Viola use film, electronic sound, and digital
development as an artist goes hand in hand design classrooms since the mid-1980s, mainly images; William Kentridge combines drawing
with the development of their judgement as a tool for digital drawing or manipulating and animation; Jenny Holzer creates immersive
and so their creativity. Computer scientists and reproducing images or objects in different installations of words and pictures using
working in the area of computational formats. The 1990s and early 2000s saw the programming. Creative industries such as web
creativity are exploring ways for algorithms greatest range of creative digital practice, with design, interface design, games development,
to exercise this kind of judgement. developments in digital video, animation, and even advertising, marketing, animation, and film
game design. Overlapping with this, England’s incorporate digital art and design.
Ant art and the Photogrowth program
1999 ICT curriculum included elements of art and Have classroom practices and examination
explore one kind of algorithm that can
design in developing ideas and making things requirements kept pace with the changes in the
provide judgement: a kind of artificial
happen, for example with digital photography, world of art and creative media? Some people
intelligence algorithm called a genetic
multimedia, and animation. have called for young learners to have earlier
algorithm. This allows the program to
take a further step, so that the computer However, recent cuts to school budgets, an access to relevant information on digital media
increased emphasis on the computer science careers, and an increased exposure to the skills
itself judges the images it produces, and
elements of computing, and changes to secondary needed in digital art and design professions
feeds that into the creative process. In this
examinations have had a significant negative and the creative industries. Furthermore, some
approach, the artist develops a ‘fitness
impact on digital art and design in class. Many suggest that increasing the computing content
function’ — an algorithm that gives images
secondary schools have phased out the specialist in art lessons could address the lack of boys
a score as to how well they conform to
software shared by art and design departments, opting to study art and design, while more art in
a particular aesthetic. The best images
mostly leaving digital photography as the only computing lessons could contribute to improving
then ‘breed’: their parameter settings are
digital art offering. In computing departments, the representation of girls in computer science.
used to create a new virtual ant colony, some new digital media courses are being Teachers in the UK can access support to
but with mutations — slight adjustments introduced. In the UK, these include Creative iMedia increase digital art and design in schools by
— to favour those winning settings. Over and BTEC Creative Digital Media Production. joining the National Society for Education in Art
time, the ratings of the surviving paintings
Some craftspeople and designers use and Design (NSEAD) at nsead.org. NSEAD has a
improve, as only the best survive each
technology as their main creative tool; others, new guidance document on digital art and design.
round, just as animal species adapt to
such as the ceramicist Michael Eden, use Teachers can also make use of its digital audit
better survive in their environment. technology alongside traditional processes and tool to reflect on what actions and development
There are many more links between techniques. He uses CAD for rapid prototyping, their school needs. When planning actions, you
computing, maths, creativity, and art. and 3D printing in a plaster and gypsum material can find resources at Teaching London Computing
And we would argue that the world with a non-fired ceramic coating to create some (helloworld.cc/londonart), TechPathways London
needs more computer scientists who are of his digital forms. Multisensory work, 3D design, (helloworld.cc/techpath), and in the other ideas
trained artists, and artists who are trained and generative art have become part of the art presented in Hello World issue 9, which focused
computer scientists. and design landscape. Famous artists such as on computing and the arts.

The Big Book of Computing Content 43

FEATURE

DEMOCRATISING DIGITAL
CULTURE WITH
3D-ANIMATED FILM
3D animation still takes serious computing power, but there are
ways to bring it into your classroom

ne reason for the inclusion of

O programming in the English national
computing curriculum in 2014 was the
idea of democratising digital technology:
we wanted people to be creators of the
systems they consume. Apps, websites,
computer programs, and games are built
using programming, so we need to teach
our children how to code.
However, coding is not the only
component of digital creativity. Much
of what you see in films, on TV, and
in computer games has a 3D digital
component, and we are also seeing n Blender 3D computer graphics software is free and used in industry

growth in virtual and augmented reality

technologies. If we want to democratise write can complete almost instantaneously. I was a secondary-school teacher with
digital culture, we also need to enable To create with 3D animation, though, you’re students interested in getting into film,
young people to create 3D digital content. going to need a fairly decent computer and games, and animation. There was, and still
But how do we go about this? a dedicated graphics card. is, a shortage of people working in these
ICT has been replaced in UK schools Even then, if you make short films, you’ll areas. A 2018 Nesta report, Which digital
by computing, which focuses more on need to wait hours, if not days, for something skills do you really need?, lists animation
computer science. Where ICT courses to render — to make each of the individual and multimedia production as the top areas
might previously have had digital art frames of a film. When Pixar’s artists had of growth for jobs in the digital sector
components, the replacement qualifications finished making the characters, props, and (helloworld.cc/nesta2018).
in computer science do not. Even if a school shots, Monsters University would have taken Film, games, and animation are generally
wanted to teach 3D digital animation, 495.78 years to render on a single computer. quite straightforward careers to get children
maybe through its media studies course, They used thousands of computers to get interested in, as they are often already avid
it would require teachers with the skills to around the problem, but this solution is not consumers. But it’s less straightforward to
teach it, potentially expensive software, available to schoolchildren! get students to make informed decisions
and hefty computer hardware. Today, about choosing these careers, based on
3D animation is one of the last areas of Foundations actual experience. We wanted students
digital creativity that still requires serious I co-founded 3Dami (3dami.org) in 2012 to be able to gain real experience using
computing power. You can program with the intention of giving students the industry-standard tools, so they could
industry-standard Python through a web tools, skills, and contacts they needed to choose their future education and careers
browser, and most programs a beginner will start making their own 3D digital content. more wisely.

44 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

3Dami runs a seven-day camp where team can’t help. Computing concepts such as
teams of nine students create every part modular design and computational efficiency
of an animated short. On the first day, the are natural to 3D animation. One student
students write a story for their team to work might make a character that appears in
to — this means lots of paper and pens, and multiple shots; another might make a bucket
a complete, albeit paper-based, storyboard that’s used in some of the same shots. Once
by the end of the day. Students then work on these assets are linked, we have a film, and
computers to create all the props, characters, if there’s an artistic change to the character’s
sets, animations, and shots that make their hair, it will be immediately updated in all the
film, with the premiere on day seven. Among shots because it’s linked. Learning modular
the nine students, two are given roles as design through programming is much more
director and producer, with the director taking difficult — a buggy module will probably

“ IT’S IMPORTANT THAT STUDENTS USE

INDUSTRY TOOLS TO GET A TRUE FEEL
n Visit the Raspberry Pi website for projects to get you started

the visual effects in the TV series The Man

FOR WHAT IT’S LIKE TO WORK IN AN AREA in the High Castle. Blender runs on old
hardware that you will often find in schools.
If you can’t get permission to install it, it’s
the artistic lead, and the producer using an break a program, and a buggy haircut will less than a gigabyte and will run off a USB
asset management system to allocate tasks just look a little rubbish. Trying to get shots stick or shared drive.
to the rest of the team and queue up the rendered in time is always a problem, and Many of our students are now studying
shots for rendering. We set up a ‘render farm’ students need to think carefully about how digital art, film, computer science, and
— hundreds of computers linked together — they set up their animations. Inefficient shots engineering at university, and several work
to speed things up. A shot of seven seconds can bring even the fastest computer to its in the games and film industries. 3D digital
at 24 frames a second means 168 separate knees for hours at a time; in particular, smoke art is a skills shortage area that many
frames, and a normal computer might take simulations and hair can be very computer- students love! If you’d like to get started,
45 minutes to do one frame, or 5.25 days to intensive. Someone learning how to program please check out the materials we’ve made
complete the shot. If we split the 168 frames rarely meets a problem where they need to for schoolchildren over at b3d101.org and
across 168 computers, the shot would be write more efficient code, but thinking about helloworld.cc/blenderprojects.
ready in 45 minutes. efficiency is a daily task in 3D animation.
It’s important for students to use industry
Ownership tools where possible, as this is the only way PETER KEMP
The aim is for students to own their film they can get a true feel for what it’s like to Peter is a senior lecturer in computing education
and the management of it. We don’t use work in an area. We base our work on the at King’s College London, UK. He taught
pre-made assets, and we avoid lecturing. open-source Blender 3D computer graphics computing in secondary schools through the
Students tend to learn from each other and software (blender.org). Blender is free, and Teach First scheme and set up 3Dami in 2012.
only ask questions when people on their is used for films, TV, and games, such as

The Big Book of Computing Content 45

 FEATURE

SEPARATING THE LEARNING

FROM THE APPLICATION
Josh Crossman explores the importance of leading teaching with
concepts and skills, rather than the nuances of software applications

omputing is a broad discipline, application to bring concepts to life. Which more complex features. In the TCC, this
C rich in concepts and skills, which software application you choose will involves learners progressing from basic
can be taught through many different depend on a number of factors, such as vector drawing applications, such as
technologies and software applications. accessibility for learners; the time it takes Google Drawings in Year 5 (aged 9–10)
As we have developed units of work for to understand how to use it; and whether to more complex applications such as
the Teach Computing Curriculum (TCC) it is a free or a paid-for product. The key Inkscape in Year 8 (aged 12–13). With
(helloworld.cc/tcc), we have reflected thing to recognise is that the application an understanding of key concepts and
on how best to support learners in should be used to scaffold conceptual skills, learners can apply this knowledge
developing lifelong understanding understanding, rather than being an with less support, allowing educators to
and skills. An important aspect of this integral part of the learning. focus on embedding new concepts and
is separating the learning from the understanding instead.
applications used to teach it (such as Benefits
software packages and programs) and By following a more application-agnostic Software variations
instead, leading with concepts. approach to teaching computing, we can Throughout the TCC ‘Creating media’
This principle is of particular relevance achieve several benefits: units, we have chosen software
in the ‘Creating media’ strand of the TCC, applications that are free, accessible, and
where learners select and create a range Transferable knowledge learner-friendly. However, the majority
of media including text, images, sounds, With such a range of digital applications of these applications are web-based, so
and video. It is imperative that learners can available, it is important that learners require the internet. Whether a school
use their knowledge and understanding develop knowledge that can be easily has a strong enough internet connection
more widely, rather than getting lost in the transferred. If educators lead with concepts will be a factor in deciding whether that
nuance of particular applications. rather than tools, learners will be able application is suitable, or whether a locally
to reapply their knowledge to other downloaded application would be more
Scaffolding conceptual understanding applications and technologies in their lives. beneficial. This is a very specific use case,
Leading with concepts is, of course, a A simple example is understanding the copy but developing units of work that aren’t
consideration to make more broadly when and paste function. It is a key concept that, focused on the specifics of a tool makes
teaching. In literacy classes, for example, once understood, can be applied to most it much easier to transfer lessons to other
learners might write a diary entry, using other applications and programs. applications if necessary.
either pencil and paper or a word processor.
The learner may be proficient at using either Learner independence Teacher questioning
medium, but that doesn’t mean they can As learners become familiar with how to The questions we ask as educators are
write a good-quality diary entry! They have accomplish certain tasks, they become arguably one of the most important
to learn how to structure it, as well as the more independent. This enables them to aspects of teaching and learning. When
importance of writing in the first person and traverse different applications more easily teaching learners processes to achieve
the use of appropriate vocabulary. as they progress. When learners need to something within a piece of software,
Similarly, when teaching computing, create more complex media, for example, such as how to draw a line, the only
you generally need a tool or software they will need to use an application with understanding you can ask of those

46 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE
© petrrgoskov/stock.adobe.com

n It’s important to lead teaching with concepts and skills rather

than with the specifics of a particular tool

learners is to repeat the process back How much should we assess a learner’s which they could make use of their layering
to you. This is low-level understanding, ability to use the specific functions of a tool? knowledge. It will be evident from the
relying solely on their memory. If, instead, What if they achieved the correct end goal, learner’s final product where they have used
you teach them to recognise the familiar but in a convoluted way? Having a clear this skill and whether they have understood
line icon, make connections with how they focus on the conceptual understanding the concept, enabling a more focused
apply other tools such as the shape tool, rather than the process of using a tool or assessment of their holistic understanding.
and encourage learners to consider prior application allows greater clarity when As with any subject, we want to
knowledge, your questions can be deeper, assessing learning. maximise learning time and ensure learners
such as: “How can I create a line to add to Throughout the ‘Creating media’ strand can apply concepts and skills to other areas
my drawing?” and “How did you know to of the TCC, we use rubrics as possible of their learning. Removing the specifics of
choose this specific tool?” summative assessment tools for educators the software application allows us to do
The benefits of this approach are to use. We have tried to ensure these this, and ensures the teaching and learning
numerous, but it can be daunting for a rubrics are always focused on the concepts experience is driven by the learner’s needs
teacher initially. If learners are used to and skills introduced in the learning, rather and not by the application used.

“ THE KEY THING TO REMEMBER IS THAT

APPLICATIONS SHOULD SCAFFOLD
CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING
being told every icon to click, you may than on the nuances of an application. In
have to transition to a more open approach the Year 5 vector-drawing unit (helloworld.
by using games, such as making learners cc/y5vector), for example, learners are
detectives who have to search for clues as assessed on whether they can move
to what different icons can do. The effort objects to different layers in the drawing JOSH CROSSMAN
will be worth it, though — I promise! in a suitable way that fulfils the required Josh is a programme coordinator at the
task. To achieve this, learners will first Raspberry Pi Foundation, working across
Assessment need a conceptual understanding of what programmes such as the Teach Computing
Changing how you approach teaching and layering is in vector-drawing software; they Curriculum and Hello World. He is a
learning when making use of software can will then need to identify the process for Raspberry Pi Certified Educator and a
also have an impact on assessment. There ordering objects in the layers; and they will former primary teacher.
are new questions to consider, such as: finally need to choose a suitable scenario in

The Big Book of Computing Content 47

ALGORITHMS
AND DATA
STRUCTURES
50  ALGORITHMS AND DATA
STRUCTURES, IN SUMMARY
52 IN DEFENCE OF PSEUDOCODE
59 COMPUTATIONAL THINKING,
CONFIDENCE, AND PERSONALITY
60 FROM FAKEBOT TO BEE-BOT
62 ABSTRACTION:
THE IMPORTANT BITS
 lgorithms and data structures enable learners to IN THIS SECTION,
A explore and express core programming concepts in YOU WILL FIND:
a more abstract manner, independent of a specific ■ Learning outcomes:
programming language. In this way, algorithms and data algorithms and data structures,
in summary
structures are useful for planning, expressing, and comparing
the intended operation of a computer program. ■ What the research says:
the power of pseudocode
From an early stage, learners will plan and represent their
■ What the research says:
programming plans in a variety of ways, including designing
computational thinking and
sketches and simple pictorial or symbolic algorithms, eventually personality
progressing to more formal approaches, including flow charts ■ Learning to program with Fakebots
and pseudocode. At the upper stages of school education, ■ Teaching abstraction skills
learners will begin to use standard algorithms (such as those
for sorting, searching, and route finding) to make comparisons
between different approaches and develop an understanding
of algorithmic complexity. Later in their education, learners also
typically study abstract and complex data structures, such as
stacks, queues, and trees, as well as the algorithms used to
manipulate them.

The Big Book of Computing Content 49

IN SUMMARY

IN SUMMARY

ALGORITHMS AND
DATA STRUCTURES
Comprehend, design, create, compare,
and evaluate algorithms

STAGE 1 STAGE 2
■ Identify that algorithms are clear, precise steps to ■ Describe how algorithms relate to program design
complete a task
■ Distinguish between a program and
■ Recognise the role of algorithms as part of an algorithm
program design
■ Recognise that different algorithms can achieve
■ Decompose a simple task into two smaller tasks the same outcome

■ Express algorithms through symbols, simple ■ Follow an algorithm in order to predict the
sketches, and in written form outcome and identify errors

■ Adapt a template or example to plan an ■ Decompose a task into several smaller tasks
algorithmic solution
■ Choose appropriate formats to express
algorithms and designs (sketches,
flowchart symbols, text)

■ Design solutions that reflect the capabilities and

constraints of the intended system

50 The Big Book of Computing Content

 IN SUMMARY

In the table below, you will find learning outcomes associated with
the ‘Algorithms and data structures’ strand of the Raspberry Pi
Foundation’s computing taxonomy. These learning outcomes are
illustrative of the kinds of knowledge and understanding that learners
could develop in this area of computing. They are not prescriptive,
but instead aim to illustrate the wide applications of the discipline.
These learning outcomes were originally developed to complement
the English national curriculum for computing, and as such, stage 1
roughly corresponds to ages 5–7, stage 2 to ages 7–11, stage 3 to
ages 11–14, stage 4 to ages 14–16, and stage 5 to ages 16–19.

STAGE 3 STAGE 4 STAGE 5

■ Describe how algorithms relate to different parts ■ Recognise factors that affect the efficiency of ■ Describe a range of standard algorithms including
of a programmed solution searching and sorting algorithms searching, sorting, graph traversal, and shortest path

■ Distinguish between real-world scenarios ■ Describe how common searching and ■ Describe how the complexity of an
and computational models sorting algorithms work algorithm is measured in terms of time and
space requirements
■ Walk through an algorithm recording the value ■ Use trace tables to walk through algorithms
of variables ■ Distinguish between problems that are tractable,
■ Compare algorithms and select the most intractable, and unsolvable
■ Analyse algorithms and suggest efficient for a given scenario
potential improvements ■ Analyse standard algorithms and express
■ Explain the need for abstraction and their efficiency using big O notation
■ Express algorithms using text and flowcharts decomposition when planning a program
■ Compare the efficiency and suitability of algorithms
■ Independently decompose a task into ■ Use formal flowchart symbols to for different scenarios
smaller tasks, events, and actions communicate algorithms with others
■ Represent and convert algorithms
■ Use abstraction to highlight key parts of a task ■ Use a shared pseudocode to communicate using pseudocode, flowcharts, and
when designing a solution algorithms with others structured English

■ Write algorithms for whole solutions or ■ Write algorithms that manipulate data ■ Use data structures and abstract data types to
individual components structures such as lists, arrays, and records organise and manipulate data effectively

■ Explain the difference between static and

dynamic data structures

■ Design the main parts of an application including

the interface, required data, and key algorithms and
data structures

The Big Book of Computing Content 51

RESEARCH

IN DEFENCE OF PSEUDOCODE
STORY BY Eirini Kolaiti

hen I used to teach programming, The case for simple languages problem. The percentage of Python
W it didn’t take me long to realise In 2006, researcher Linda Mannila and programs that ran correctly and fulfilled the
how easily my students could confuse or her colleagues compared 60 programs intended purpose was more than double
even forget basic structural elements of written by students aged 16–19 after that of the Java programs.
a programming language. They would be their first programming course, in either One potential drawback of teaching
tripped up by misusing capitalisation, white Python (a simple language, developed for programming in Python rather than a more
space, or parentheses. Basic syntax errors its readability) or Java (a more advanced complex language, such as Java, is that it
such as these would sidetrack students language). They analysed the assignments, could do students a disservice if they then
from focusing on developing a solution. both in terms of syntax and logic errors needed to relearn aspects of programming
Instead, they would resort to trying out and their overall functionality (helloworld. when moving to a less intuitive language,
every possible instruction they could find cc/mannila2006). like Java. However, the team did not find
online in the hope that it would solve their The results were remarkable. this to be the case: students who had first
errors. It turns out that my experiences Programming in Python not only helped learnt to program with Python were at no
weren’t unique, and are also supported by students avoid making syntax errors, disadvantage when switching to Java.
research in computing education. but also allowed them to solve the given So if choosing a simple language can play
such a positive role in student progression,
why not opt for that option?

From simple to pseudocode

Researchers Allison Elliott Tew and Mark
Guzdial took the matter of programming
language choice even further (helloworld.
cc/tew2011). In 2011, they developed
a way of comparing the knowledge of
university students who took introductory
programming courses in Java, MATLAB,
and Python. They wanted to make the
assessment language-independent, so
they used pseudocode instead of any
of the taught programming languages.
© maciek905/stock.adobe.com

Pseudocode makes use of simple English

to describe what a program does. It is laid
out in a similar manner to a programming
language, but removes some of the clutter
that is needed for a machine to understand
the code — clutter that increases the
n In a 2006 study, students who had first learnt to program with Python were at no disadvantage when switching to Java
complexity to a human reader.

52 The Big Book of Computing Content

 RESEARCH

PSEUDOCODE AT GCSE
The results demonstrated that a well in programming tasks is not a lack REBECCA FRANKS
pseudocode-based assessment can of ability to problem-solve, but a fragile Learning manager at the Raspberry Pi
accurately determine students’ programming knowledge of fundamental concepts. Foundation
competency, regardless of their Students were unable to hand-trace code
programming background. This means that (where the values of variables are calculated I asked upper-secondary computer
students could transfer their comprehension by hand) because of an insufficient science teachers on Twitter which type
of fundamental programming concepts to command of basic programming tasks, of pseudocode they used for designing
pseudocode notation. Reversing this logic, such as iterating over an array or the use of programs. 38 percent followed their exam-
surely we can use pseudocode to scaffold recursion. These areas are mostly related to board-specific pseudocode and 53 percent
the learning of programming concepts. an ability to read code rather than write it. did not specify a syntax. Several commented
From these pieces of research, one could that it was more important that learners
Walk before you run (a program) argue that as educators we should use could effectively design their own programs
In 2004, an international group of programs in pseudocode to foster these and that the syntax used was less relevant.
researchers, led by Raymond Lister at preliminary skills, so that students benefit
the University of Technology in Sydney, from a reduction in the cognitive load caused
conducted a study regarding programming by language-specific syntax. After all, most

PSEUDOCODE LOOKS LIKE A PROGRAMMING

“ LANGUAGE, BUT IT REMOVES SOME OF THE In UK GCSE qualifications (for ages 14–16),
CLUTTER SO IT’S EASIER TO UNDERSTAND there is currently no requirement for
students to use a specific pseudocode
syntax. However, most exam boards have
competency across seven countries programming languages are not designed their own unique approach to pseudocode
(helloworld.cc/lister04). Instead of asking with the aim of teaching programming, for presenting questions. Students need to
students to produce their own programs, whereas pseudocode can be adapted to be familiar with these to answer questions
the researchers examined whether students meet the needs of the students. successfully. Exam questions will indicate
could understand existing code (written in Pseudocode activities can be used in the form or response required, whether it’s
Java or C++) by predicting the output of a lessons in order to practise reading and a specific programming language, natural
given program. The results suggest that tracing code, and as an opportunity to English, pseudocode, or a flowchart.
what stops many students from performing discuss basic programming concepts.

The Big Book of Computing Content 53

RESEARCH

Students could then convert the pseudocode

PSEUDOCODE ACTIVITIES programs (their own or each other’s) into

compilable code. This gives them the
opportunity to experiment with how to
Here are some ideas on how to incorporate n Ask students to write a program using
implement algorithmic constructs using the
pseudocode into your teaching: pseudocode and then swap with a partner for
specific features of a programming language,
them to write it in a programming language.
n Start activities with pseudocode to discuss n Give snippets of pseudocode to test basic
and how to deal with syntax errors. Having
concepts before converting into code to deal misconceptions, for example in the use the stepping stone of pseudocode therefore
with syntax errors, to test/debug the algorithm, of recursion. helps with the skills needed to test and
and to check the algorithm’s structure. It should n Give small programs that students can hand- debug algorithms.
be easier to write an algorithm after students trace, writing out the values of variables as the Pseudocode can also be used for
have worked on a pseudocode version, rather program progresses, to check they understand formative assessment. Low-stakes tests
than starting with a programming language. the code. and starter activities that use pseudocode
snippets to test specific misconceptions can
help unpack the underlying processes of
program execution. I have found that
challenging students with small, targeted
Linear search in pseudocode: pseudocode programs helps with
engagement and information retention. In
function linear_search(list, element) this way, pseudocode could pave the way
for i = 0 to len(list) - 1 towards gaining fundamental knowledge
x = list[i] and skills through reading and tracing code
if x == element then before moving on to writing actual
return TRUE programs and dealing with the inevitable
endif corollary of syntax errors.
next i
return FALSE
endfunction FURTHER READING
v = ['Bob', 'Doug', 'Alice'] Mannila, L., Peltomäki, M., &
value = input("Enter search string or q to quit: ") Salakoski, T. (2006). What about
WHILE value != ‘q’ AND value != ‘Q’ a simple language? Analyzing the
print( linear_search(v, value) ) difficulties in learning to program.
value = input("Enter search string or q to quit: ") Computer Science Education, 16(3),
ENDWHILE 211–227. helloworld.cc/mannila2006
Tew, A., & Guzdial, M. (2011). The
FCS1: A language independent
Linear search in Python: assessment of CS1 knowledge.
SIGCSE’11 - Proceedings of the 42nd
def linearSearch(list, element): ACM Technical Symposium on
for x in list: Computer Science Education, 111–116.
if x == element: helloworld.cc/tew2011
return True
Lister, R., Adams, E. S., Fitzgerald,
return False
S., Fone, W., Hamer, J., Lindholm, M.,
v = ['Bob', 'Doug', 'Alice']
McCartney, R., Moström, J. E., Sanders,
while True:
K., Seppälä, O., Simon, B., & Thomas,
value =input("Enter search string or q to quit: ")
L. (2004). A multi-national study of
if value.lower( ) == 'q':
reading and tracing skills in novice
break
programmers. ACM SIGCSE Bulletin,
else:
36(4), 119-150. helloworld.cc/lister04
print linearSearch(v, value)

54 The Big Book of Computing Content

 RESEARCH

© PaeGAG/stock.adobe.com
n Pseudocode activities can be used in lessons to practise reading and tracing code

Linear search in Java:

import java.util.Vector; for (int i = 0; i 5 values.length; i++) {

public class JavaEx { v.addElement(values[i]);
public static boolean linearSearch(Vector v, }
Object o) { String value;
for (int i=0; i 5 v.size( ); i++) { while (true) {
if (v.elementAt(i).equals(o)) { System.out.println("Enter search string
return true; or" + " q to quit: ");
} value = in.readLine( );
} if (value.toLowerCase( ).equals("q")) {
return false; break;
} }
else {
public static void main(String args[ ]){ System.out.println(linearSearch(v,
Vector v = new Vector( ); value));
BufferedReader in = new BufferedReader( }
new InputStreamReader (Systems.in) }
); }
String[ ] values = {"Bob", "Doug", "Alice"}; }

n Linear search in Python, Java, and pseudocode from Mannila and colleagues’ 2006 research. Reprinted by permission of the publisher (Taylor & Francis Ltd, tandfonline.com)

The Big Book of Computing Content 55

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The Big Book of Computing Content 57

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THE WRITERS!
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computin ach ine? E
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How can
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about co xcited
de?
 RESEARCH

COMPUTATIONAL THINKING,
CONFIDENCE, AND PERSONALITY
STORY BY Lucia Flóriánová

omputational thinking is a topic A positive link between computational programming. It would be especially useful
C that’s widely discussed within thinking and extraversion, on the other to improve children’s self-efficacy in
computing education. It’s a key thinking hand, contradicts most existing research, specific computing tasks, and helping
skill that students need to develop if they and challenges stereotypes. The consensus children see their success through concrete
are to live in a technology-driven society. used to be that brilliant programmers are examples can be one way of making them
Computational thinking is generally usually introverted, but this seems to be learn more. Finally, it is paramount to teach
understood as a type of logical thinking that changing. Computing is becoming less of computing in an environment that
can help students to problem-solve, both a solitary activity, and now involves more welcomes different types of personality
with and without the use of computing social interaction and collaboration. and is freed from stereotypes about a
devices. It relates to children’s cognitive typical computational thinker.
abilities, such as their reasoning, spatial, Improving computational thinking

FURTHER READING
numeracy, and problem-solving abilities. These findings provide new insight into
how we should approach computing
More than cognitive ability education. Although computational
Román-González and his colleagues, thinking is a cognitive psychological Román-González, M., et al. (2018).
however, concluded in their 2017 study process, it is significantly influenced by Extending the nomological network
that cognitive abilities weren’t the only non-cognitive factors. of computational thinking with
link to computational thinking skills: they To make children think computationally, non-cognitive factors. Computers
studied how computational thinking is educators should therefore focus on their in Human Behavior, 80, 441–459.
also linked to the non-cognitive factors of development beyond cognitive abilities, helloworld.cc/gonzalez2018
self-efficacy and personality. Quantitative such as boosting confidence in
analysis suggests that only 27 percent
of computational thinking is explained
© StockPhotoPro/stock.adobe.com

by cognitive factors. Almost the same

proportion — 24 percent — is related to
non-cognitive factors, mainly self-efficacy,
openness to experience, conscientiousness,
and, surprisingly, extraversion.
The study found a possible link between
students’ computational thinking and their
self-efficacy — that is, students’ perceptions
of how well they performed. It appears
that if learners believe they can perform
well, they’re likely to achieve better results.
Lower self-efficacy in girls could also help to
explain the gender gap in computing.
Computational thinking also seems to be
linked to openness and conscientiousness.
This finding doesn’t come as a surprise,
as these are the aspects of personality
that are most closely related to academic
performance, dealing with open-ended
problems, and persistence in working on
difficult tasks.

The Big Book of Computing Content 59

 FEATURE

© BT and BCS Barefoot

n A pupil uses a Bee-Bot: can you spot
the Barefoot Fakebot to the side?

FROM FAKEBOT TO BEE-BOT

Jane Waite and Pam Popay share how laminated card representations of
popular floor robots can help students learn to program

s a resource to help pupils learn to sequence of commands that were most Bee-Bots. Rather than randomly playing
A program, the Bee-Bot floor robot recently entered since the last time ‘Clear’ with the device, pupils were encouraged
has been a success in primary classrooms was pressed. The ‘Clear’ button wipes the to think like scientists and examine what
and clubs in the UK. A present-day device’s memory, and if it’s switched off, the each button did. By doing this more guided
simplified version of Seymour Papert’s memory is also cleared. activity, the students gradually discovered
Logo turtle robot, the plastic device the functionality of the Bee-Bot.
looks like a 20cm bee with a smiling face, The birth of Fakebots As the team from BT developed more
bright colours, and simple buttons on In 2013, Pam Popay and a colleague at BT tasks, they realised that students needed
its back to control its motion. Over three were spending a lot of their time developing a way to record their planned sequence of
quarters of a million units have been sold and trialling resources to support the newly instructions, as it was hard for children to
by the education providers TTS since the proposed computing curriculum in schools debug their intended instructions without it.
product’s launch in the early 2000s, with in Suffolk, UK. When they discovered that all After experimenting with different methods,
other similar products on the market also the schools they were visiting had Bee-Bots, they introduced a set of arrow cards along
being used by educators. it seemed obvious that they should develop with ‘Go’ and ‘Clear’ cards. The children used
Each Bee-Bot has a left and a right button, some resources to be used with the devices the cards to construct a command list, which
and straight on and reverse buttons, which which could support the delivery of the they could then test. Finally, when students
can be combined to write a program which, new intended computing curriculum across thought the sequence was correct, they
when run, causes the robot to move around different year groups. were then given the Bee-Bot to program.
the room. There is also a ‘Clear’ button and The BT team started with ‘having a go’ However, it soon became clear that the
a ‘Go’ button. The ‘Go’ button executes the sessions that introduced children to the physical robot was a distraction from the

60 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

© Pam Popay
© BT and BCS Barefoot

n Barefoot Fakebots are available on the Barefoot website,

but you can get your children to make their own

thinking process and that pupils wanted to

use trial and error instead of thinking ahead
to work out the solution to the problem.
During a lesson break, Pam had an idea.
She found some card in the classroom, drew
around a Bee-Bot, and added buttons and a n The original Fakebots are still pinned
face. She then introduced this paper-based to Pam’s noticeboard at BT

representation of a Bee-Bot to the class.

Pupils were now asked to complete activities useful to have Bee-Bots with distinguishing
with the card bee, while the Bee-Bots rested features, such as different eyes, so that each
JANE WAITE
safely in their beehive. One of the students in group knows which Fakebot is theirs. Thirdly,
that class called the card bee a Fakebot, and if required, a Fakebot can have L (left) and R
& PAM POPAY
Jane is a senior research scientist at the
this is what they have been called since. (right) written on them to help children recall
Raspberry Pi Foundation. Pam works on
Pupils used the Fakebot to test their vocabulary for discussing movement.
education engagement strategy at BT.
planned sequences of commands. They
worked in teams: one pupil was the Fakebots as a widespread resource
sequence designer and could organise the Around the time she was introducing
sequence of commands using the arrow Fakebots in teaching resources, Pam shared
cards, and another pupil controlled the
Fakebot, using it to test the arrow card
her findings about the Fakebot with Jane
Waite, who was very excited by the idea.
FAKEBOT
command sequence. Once the team thought Both Pam and Jane were involved in the RESOURCES
all was well, they could collect a real Bee- development of the Barefoot Computing
Bot, and a third member of each team, the programme at the time, and included
You can find Fakebot activities, such as
programmer, entered the commands into Fakebots in the Barefoot resources. Set up
Barefoot’s Bee-Bot Basics Activity and Bee-
it. The group then waited to see what by BT and Computing at School, Barefoot
Bots 1, 2, 3 Programming, at helloworld.cc/
happened. During this time, they followed helps to empower primary-school teachers
beebot1 and helloworld.cc/beebot2 along
the arrow card sequence as the Bee-Bot across the UK to deliver the computing
with other downloadable resources that help
moved around. curriculum brilliantly with free and engaging
bring computing to life in the classroom.
Through working with Fakebots, Pam has lesson plans, online guides, and workshops.
recognised several essential features that It would be fantastic to hear how Bee-Bots and Fakebots are also used in
can impact on their successful use. Firstly, educators are using Fakebots in their resources from the Teach Computing
they must be the correct size, so that their classrooms and how they affect pupil Curriculum (helloworld.cc/tcc_robot) and
tested movements are relatively accurate. learning. Please share your experiences with TTS (helloworld.cc/tts).
Secondly, depending on the activity, it can be us on Twitter (@janewaite).

The Big Book of Computing Content 61

 FEATURE

ABSTRACTION:
THE IMPORTANT BITS
Matthew Parry discusses the concept of abstraction and shares ideas on how
to teach abstraction using the PRIMM approach and My Blocks in Scratch

he Collins English Dictionary “abstraction is about simplifying things instructions such as ‘switch the kettle on’
T defines abstraction as “the process — identifying what’s important without in order to make our algorithm simpler and
of formulating generalised ideas or worrying too much about detail”, while easier to understand.
concepts by extracting common qualities educational researcher Keith Turvey says
from specific examples” or “something that “abstraction is a process by which Abstraction in Scratch
which exists as a general idea rather than any unnecessary detail is omitted in order The majority of programming languages are
as an actual example”. In other words, it to help us to solve a problem or achieve a abstractions. They hide the complexity and,
is about removing complexity in order to specific outcome”. for us humans, the incomprehensibility of
increase understanding, without losing the One of the aims of England’s National the binary instructions that computers use.
core message. Curriculum for Computing is to ensure that A lot of the keywords and commands within
We encounter abstractions around all pupils “can understand and apply the programming languages, for example the
us every day. They can be shortened fundamental principles and concepts of print and input commands, also abstract
versions of something, to give an example computer science, including abstraction, more complex tasks.
of the whole thing. For example, the logic, algorithms, and data representation”. Within Scratch, there are a number of
British television programme Match of Abstraction allows us, as computer blocks that abstract the processing that is
the Day shows only highlights of football scientists, to concentrate on the important being performed under the hood. Figures 1
matches; music websites allow you to bits of developing a solution by ignoring the and 2 below show two such blocks, and you
stream excerpts of upcoming albums; irrelevant detail — much as pupils do for can see the steps that are hidden from the
and the blurb on the back of a book gives maths word problems. user in their captions.
only an indication of the whole story. For example, we may have been asked to
Abstractions can also be symbols that create an algorithm for making a cup of tea. Abstraction lesson idea using Scratch
are used to convey meaning while reducing In our algorithm, we can ignore some of the Using decomposition and the PRIMM
complexity. Examples are road signs, complexity that this task would entail, such (Predict–Run–Investigate–Modify–Make)
the London Tube map, class timetables, as how to use a kettle, and use (abstract) pedagogical approach to structuring
and infographics.
We also regularly entertain abstract ideas in
our day-to-day living. For example, most of us
have only a conceptual understanding of most
of the machines we use. We use the terms
‘car’, ‘microwave’, and ‘mobile phone’ without
really knowing what they do or having any
concept of how they work. n Figure 1:
1st step: get current direction of the sprite
Word problems in mathematics are a 2nd step: add 15 to the current direction
great example of abstraction. Pupils need to 3rd step: set direction to the new value

choose (abstract) the relevant information

from the description in order to create the
number sentence that solves the problem.

Abstraction in computer science

Within computer science, abstraction is
n Figure 2:
one of the key elements of computational 1st step: create new x value by randomly selecting a number between -240 and 240
2nd step: create new y value by randomly selecting a number between -180 and 180
thinking. Barefoot Computing states that 3rd step: move to the new x and y position

62 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

n Figure 3 Modify: ask students to alter the code n Figure 4

to make the sprite bounce on the left-hand

edge of the screen too.
Make: get students to add code to make
the sprite bounce at the top and bottom of
the screen too. Ask them what they will have
to change to test this code. For an added
challenge, ask students to try and replicate
the if on edge, bounce block.

Abstraction using My Blocks n Figure 5

Using My Blocks in Scratch is an excellent
way to develop understanding of abstraction. Modify: can you create other blocks for
In creating an abstraction, pupils must fully moving left, up, and down?
understand what information needs to be Make: can you create another block called
programming lessons (see the boxout for hidden from the user. stay on screen, to stop the body of the sprite
more details), we can unpick another of the One of the complexities of teaching going off the screen? Can you then amend
Scratch blocks to begin to understand how Scratch to younger children is the need the move right, left, up, and down blocks to
abstraction works. for them to understand coordinates and include this stay on screen block?
Take your class through the the use of negative numbers to control the Jeannette Wing, who is recognised as
following steps, referencing Figure 3: movement of a sprite around the stage. having defined computational thinking, refers
Predict: ask your students to look at the We can use abstraction to hide those to abstraction as the most crucial thought
process in computer science. Abstractions
are everywhere in computing: they hide the

“ TO CREATE AN ABSTRACTION, PUPILS

MUST UNDERSTAND WHAT INFORMATION
complexity of the underlying processes,
whether that complexity is in an algorithm, a
program, the computer itself, or your own
NEEDS HIDING FROM THE USER understanding of what the internet is. As
with all tricky concepts, the more practice
and examples you engage with, the more
code and ask them, “What does this code complexities by creating new blocks to move concrete the notion becomes — even with
snippet do? What will happen to the sprite?” left, right, up, and down. Take students something as abstract as abstraction.
Run: get your students to run the through the following steps:
program and ask them, “Does the code do Predict: what do you think the block in
what you thought it would? If not, can you Figure 4 will do?
work out why?” Run: using the when right arrow key is
Investigate: ask your students to label and pressed block, run the Move Right x steps
comment on the code. You can ask questions block. Does it do what you thought it would?
such as, “What does each block do? What Investigate: investigate the block
do the numbers represent? What happens if definition in Figure 5. How does it work? Will
you change the numbers?” it work for all directions?

THE PRIMM APPROACH

PRIMM is a pedagogical approach to structuring programming lessons. It follows this structure:
Predict: discuss the program and predict what it might do; what will be the output? MATTHEW PARRY
Run: run the program to test the predictions. Matthew is a senior lecturer in initial
Investigate: explore the structure of the code using tracing, explaining, annotating, debugging, etc.
teacher training at the University of Derby,
Modify: edit the program to change its functionality via a sequence of ever-more challenging exercises
UK. He is also a CAS Community Leader,
to gain confidence by extending the function of the code.
a Raspberry Pi Certified Educator, a
Make: design a new program that uses the same structures but solves a new problem.
Barefoot Ambassador, and an NCCE course
You can read more at helloworld.cc/primm. facilitator (@Matthew_Parry_).

The Big Book of Computing Content 63

 PROGRAMMING
66  PROGRAMMING, IN SUMMARY
68  BLOCKS TO TEXT
70 LEVELS OF ABSTRACTION
73  HY WE SHOULD TEACH CHILDREN
W
TO CODE
76 INTRODUCING PROGRAMMING
THROUGH THE WIDER CURRICULUM
78  OMPREHENSIVE PROGRAMMING
C
ASSESSMENT

The Big Book of Computing Content

 rogramming allows learners to apply concepts IN THIS SECTION,
P from across computing in creative and innovative YOU WILL FIND:
ways to solve problems relevant to them. Through ■ Learning outcomes:
programming, learners can create new tools and experiences, programming, in summary

solve complex problems, and express ideas. ■ What the research says:
As learners move through school, they will progress their moving from block-based to text-
based programming
understanding and application of programming. Students
■ What the research says:
learn to read and write simple programs from their first year
levels of abstraction
of school, and over time, they develop their understanding
■ Why we should teach children to code
of key programming concepts. Initially, they will focus on
■ Programming and the wider curriculum
sequence, repetition, selection, and variables. Later, students
■ Comprehensive programming
will encounter more complex ideas, such as modularisation,
assessment
recursion, and data structures. This experience usually
culminates with students learning about alternative
programming paradigms, including object-oriented and
functional programming. Throughout this journey, students will
use ever more sophisticated tools and languages.
We can apply programming across a wide range
of contexts to solve a diverse range of problems.
This broad application of the skill, alongside
the increasing pervasiveness of computing
in all areas of our lives, makes programming
an important and relevant skill for all learners.

The Big Book of Computing Content 65

IN SUMMARY

IN SUMMARY

PROGRAMMING
Read, write, test, and debug computer
programs that provide meaningful
output or solve a problem

STAGE 1 STAGE 2
■ Predict the outcome of a sequence of commands ■ Make predictions about the outcome of programs
containing selection and repetition
■ Recognise that changing a sequence of
commands can have an impact on the output ■ Recognise that evaluating a condition will
result in either true or false
■ Create short sequences of commands for a given
purpose ■ Recognise that repeated sequences of commands
can be replaced with a loop
■ Compare programs and their output to an
algorithm in order to identify issues ■ Write programs that include selection to
alter program flow based on a condition
■ Make changes to programs when they don’t behave
as expected ■ Write programs that include count-controlled,
condition-controlled, and infinite loops

■ Describe how variables can be used in

programs

■ Describe the importance of initialisation to create

consistency

■ Use tracing, testing, and debugging

techniques to identify and fix issues

■ Modify or incorporate elements of existing

programs to create a new program

■ Annotate code with comments to describe

functionality or design decisions

66 The Big Book of Computing Content

 IN SUMMARY

In the table below, you will find learning outcomes associated

with the ‘Programming’ strand of the Raspberry Pi Foundation’s
computing taxonomy. These learning outcomes are illustrative of the
kinds of knowledge and understanding that learners could develop in
this area of computing. They are not prescriptive, but instead aim to
illustrate the wide applications of the discipline.
These learning outcomes were originally developed to complement
the English national curriculum for computing, and as such, stage 1
roughly corresponds to ages 5–7, stage 2 to ages 7–11, stage 3 to
ages 11–14, stage 4 to ages 14–16, and stage 5 to ages 16–19.

STAGE 3 STAGE 4 STAGE 5

■ Read, trace, and predict the outcome and purpose ■ Trace and predict the outcome and purpose ■ Predict the outcome and purpose of
of programs written in text- and block-based of programs comprising multiple functions programs written in a range of languages and
languages using different paradigms
■ Define subroutines that make use of parameters
■ Distinguish between event-based and and return values ■ Describe the role of objects, classes, methods, and
procedural programming attributes within the object-oriented paradigm
■ Describe the properties of simple data
■ Identify how subroutines can be used to make structures such as lists and arrays ■ Contrast the differences in how code is
program code more manageable expressed in the functional programming
■ Implement familiar program ‘patterns’ to solve paradigm compared to other approaches
■ Manipulate data held in variables, applying common problems and use appropriate libraries
concatenation and arithmetic operators and modules as needed ■ Describe the role of events, messages, and the main
loop in event-based programming
■ Use lists to retrieve, add, and remove items and ■ Interpret and write code that contains
perform iteration on a list nested statements such as nested ■ Write programs using a broad range of
selection and nested iteration programming paradigms and languages
■ Use a combination of logical operators to
construct more complex conditions ■ Describe how a record data structure can be ■ Write programs that use recursion to solve problems
implemented using dictionaries and lists
■ Apply a systematic approach to testing programs ■ Build programs that use existing or custom
■ Manipulate variables using suitable classes and objects
■ Use comments and documentation to help operators or methods, converting between
make programs easy to follow, test, and data types when necessary ■ Create programs that implement data structures
adapt such as stacks, queues, and trees
■ Use variables within subroutines and events and
distinguish between local and global variables ■ Incorporate exception handling actions to
make programs more robust
■ Incorporate validation techniques into
programs to help minimise errors ■ Apply a range of testing approaches to ensure
functionality, performance, and robustness of
■ Perform both iterative and final testing on programs
programs to ensure they function correctly

■ Document a programming project to

explain design decisions

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RESEARCH

FROM BLOCKS TO TEXT

STORY BY Matt Hogan

lock-based programming software keyboard. Young learners in particular can ways students engaged with problem-
B is an established part of any become very frustrated by this, as it can solving in these contexts. They discovered
teacher’s toolbox, used to introduce take several minutes to type out even the that it was valuable to think about these
learners to programming. These shortest of programs, and they spend a different media as pedagogical tools,
applications have an engaging user lot of their time learning the basic syntax with different strengths for teaching and
interface with vivid coloured blocks that rules, which leaves little time for them to learning, rather than as stages students
can be quickly snapped together and experiment and be creative. You can use leave behind as they progress.
moved around on the screen to create a software to help correct errors in code, In their research, they outlined a
program. Scratch is a very popular block- but these applications are often quite pathway that used unplugged, block-
based application, but there are several complicated and unsuitable for beginners. based, and text-based approaches to
other similar environments, including
Snap!, Pencil Code, Blockly, and more.
A regular area for debate among
teachers of programming is how best “ YOUNG LEARNERS OFTEN HAVE TO WASTE
TIME LEARNING BASIC SYNTAX RULES,
to support the transition from visual
programming to text-based languages. LEAVING LITTLE TIME FOR CREATIVITY
Visual languages and environments are
a hugely powerful tool for introducing
students to the concepts of programming, This means that learners have become teach the fundamental control structures
allowing them to explore concepts, solve accustomed to not recognising errors, such of programming (sequence, repetition,
problems, and create products through as a missing capital letter, until after they function, selection, and communication).
programming. However, it’s important run their programs. The specific languages used were Logo,
to get the experience of working in There can also be problems relating to Python, and Scratch; all three share
text-based languages, both to cover the a learner’s literacy. Even without learning similarities of sequential processing with
curriculum and to develop the skills for difficulties such as dyslexia and dyscalculia, a sprite or turtle and the reward of the
the next stage. This article will explore many young learners are unable to recognise instant feedback of sprite or turtle activity
common challenges when making the the difference between: on the screen.
transition from blocks to text, and the tools The researchers chose a cross-curricular
you can use to support this. for i in range(5): context (geometric shapes and patterns)
and to teach the background of each of the
Common challenges For I in ragne 5: control structures. By using this approach,
Many learners have access to computers Dorling and White concluded that “there
or mobile devices, or have some experience when they first type the line. Even the is established pedagogy in other subjects
using them. Despite this, when learning best programmers will occasionally make that can be effectively used in a computing
to use a text-based language, there are mistakes, such as typing Flase instead lesson. In turn, it was also evident that
still some major hurdles for students of False. programming could enhance the delivery of
to overcome, many which have little to other curricula topics.”
do with their ability to think logically Rethinking the transition Having a linear transition from blocks
or computationally. Researchers Dorling and White, however, to text without any cross-curricular
Even students who have grown up with suggest that we might want to think context may not be a suitable approach
a games console, laptop, or tablet will often about this transition in a different way to take when learning programming.
struggle in the early days when it comes (helloworld.cc/dorling2015). They When introducing new concepts, such as
to typing — they are often more used to explored approaches including unplugged, local and global variables, learners may
typing with their thumbs on an on-screen visual, and textual programming, and the find using block-based programming

68 The Big Book of Computing Content

 RESEARCH

and their cofidence with programming.

© Kenjo/stock.adobe.com

After another ten weeks, all the students

were taught Java, and then the test and
attitudinal questions were taken again.
The results showed that at the five-week
point, the students who had used block-
based programming scored more highly in
their learning outcome assessment than
the text and hybrid groups, but at the final
assessment after 15 weeks, the scores of all
the groups were roughly equivalent. In terms
of students’ perceptions of computing and
their confidence levels, the responses of the
block-based group were very positive at the
five-week point, but less positive after 15
weeks. Taking both methods of assessment
into account, the hybrid group showed the
n Learners don’t necessarily need to leave block-based
programming behind as they progress best results, and the use of block-based
programming did not hamper students’
languages easier to use and understand. Dual-modality environments transition to text-based programming.
It gives learners an opportunity to see the Some applications, for example Pencil Although more research is needed to
similarities between two languages and a Code, offer a dual-modality (or hybrid) support the conclusions of Weintrop’s study,
clear context that they understand. environment, in which learners can write the approach of the hybrid group can be
and see the same program in a text- adopted in many classrooms.
Tools to support based and a block-based programming Block-based languages are valuable
When learners are new to text-based environment side by side. The key point when introducing any new programming
programming, they may feel apprehensive of dual-modality environments is that concept to learners, and the development
about learning code. It is worth discussing the code is displayed automatically in of more and more hybrid models makes it
how they are feeling and trying to mitigate the alternative text-based format: block- easier for learners to identify the similarities
any risk of them being put off text-based based code is automatically translated between blocks and text. Perhaps there is
programming. Hybrid platforms such to text-based code, and vice versa. In a no linear path from blocks to text; maybe
as the micro:bit MakeCode editor and 2017 study, researcher David Weintrop the important thing is that teachers know
EduBlocks are a great way of doing this. set out to test the assumption at the and understand the tools that can be
These online platforms have developed a heart of dual-modality applications, that added to their toolbox in order for them to
block-to-text feature, which includes a tool being able to match a text-based program teach programming effectively to their own
to drag and drop blocks of code, similar to to its block-based equivalent supports learners, in their own specific context.
Scratch, although the blocks correspond the development of understanding
more directly to Python code. These online
platforms also give the ability to toggle
program syntax in a text-based language
(helloworld.cc/weintrop2018).
FURTHER READING
between blocks and Python code, or to Weintrop carried out a 15-week study
split the screen to view blocks and code with 14-to-16-year-old students in the US Dorling, M., & White, D. (2015).
next to each other. to investigate the differences in learning Scratch: A Way to Logo and
These tools help to bridge the gap when using block-based, text-based, or Python. SIGCSE ’15, March 04
between block-based and text-based hybrid (a mixture of both, using a dual- –07 2015, Kansas City, USA.
programming languages by: modality platform) programming tools. The helloworld.cc/dorling2015
90 students in the study were divided into
Weintrop, D., & Wilensky,
n Using a familiar drag-and-drop user three groups. Each group was set the same
U. (2018). How block-based,
interface tasks with the same learning objectives, but
text-based, and hybrid block/
Allowing users to transition between they used either block-based programming,
text modalities shape novice
n

block-based and text-based methods text-based programming, or the hybrid

programming practices.
while creating a program environment. After five weeks, students
International Journal of
Helping learners become familiar with were given a test to assess learning
Child-Computer Interaction.
n

Python code in a way that reduces errors outcomes, and they were asked questions
helloworld.cc/weintrop2018
that could arise when typing code into about their attitudes to programming,
the micro:bit editor specifically their perception of computing

The Big Book of Computing Content 69

RESEARCH

LEVELS OF ABSTRACTION
STORY BY James Robinson, Andy Bush, and Sway Grantham

earning to program is broader than requirements, and may even define the task and trace the execution of their code to
L simply learning to write code. While independently through user research. ensure they understand its behaviour.
coding is a big part of the programming These levels of abstraction do not represent
process, programming also encompasses DESIGN a linear pathway to developing a project.
analysing and understanding the task or The design level includes the algorithm, While learners will often begin at the task
problem being addressed, designing a which outlines the process and logic that level and will generally progress towards
solution, and testing and debugging the will exist within the program. The design running the project, they will frequently need
program. If we try to teach all these things may also contain other aspects, such as to switch back and forth between levels.
to novice programmers at the same time, artwork, sounds, and sketches of what the
the cognitive load overwhelms them. The project will look like, or how it will be put LOA in practice
skill of abstraction — routinely adjusting together. This level contains more detail While expert programmers regularly move
your focus and the level you’re working at than the overall task, but doesn’t yet refer through these different levels without even
while developing a programmed solution to the code or programming languages that realising it, it’s important to scaffold them
— is therefore a vital skill to introduce to will be used. Learners can use a range of for novice learners. This means that when
learners. These different perspectives or tools to represent their design, including you are planning a programming unit of
levels can be modelled by the levels of text, sketches, flowcharts, and diagrams. work, you need to consider which level the
abstraction (LOA) hierarchy. There are lesson is working at, and what support
several variations of this hierarchy, but this CODE/BUILD learners might need at each level. You
article discusses the model outlined by The code level (or build level, for physical should use this approach across different
researcher Jane Waite and her colleagues computing projects) represents a static projects, genres of program, and age
(helloworld.cc/waite18). program that implements the design from the groups. This will ensure that as learners
level above. This could be constructed in any begin to move from novice to expert,
The LOA framework number of programming languages, including progressing through each of the levels
This hierarchy emphasises the critical role that both block- and text-based programs. becomes routine. The rest of this article will
abstraction plays in developing programs. It Learners will be limited to the languages and now exemplify this through a programming
describes four levels, encompassing different tools they are familiar with initially. As their project from the Teach Computing
degrees of abstraction. We can characterise confidence and repertoire increases, they can Curriculum for learners aged ten to eleven
the four levels as follows: be more discerning about choosing the best (helloworld.cc/tccLOA). Learners should
tool to implement their design. complete the project mostly independently
TASK so you can assess their understanding of
The task outlines the problem to be solved, RUN THE PROJECT variables across three one-hour lessons.
or describes what the project should At the lowest level, the programmer is
actually do. concerned with how the program behaves THE TASK
With younger learners, a teacher often when it is run. Does it run? Are there errors? Give students the following task:
defines a task. As students become more Does the program behave as expected?
experienced, they can expand a given task These are all important questions at this Create a ‘catching’ game that includes a
or develop a task themselves. Later, they level. Here, learners need to know how to score and at least three falling objects. The
may work from formal specifications or user test their programs, find and correct errors, objects should fall at different speeds.

70 The Big Book of Computing Content

 RESEARCH

© MICHAEL ZECH/stock.adobe.com
As a teacher, I want the learners to program that do require an understanding of Again, you can see how this part of the
demonstrate their understanding of variables. This also means that the activities task guides the design to include a focus
variables. This means I don’t want them to will largely be at the designing and coding on the variables (score, speed, and size),
choose a task that might limit this, and so levels of abstraction. but leaves learners free to design their
in this project, I have provided the task. In The main design activities can now begin. own programs independently. The last
another unit, the focus will be different and Learners need to choose their assets (sprites, step, before we move on to the coding
I might work with learners to identify the sounds, and backgrounds). This is also their level, is to encourage students to check
user requirements themselves. opportunity to begin personalising their back with their original task. Does their
project; it’s important that learners recognise design meet the requirements you gave
THE DESIGN there is no one right answer, and that they them? Once they are confident that it
For context, these learners will have had can achieve the task in different ways. does, they can begin their implementation
several years’ experience working through Just like the program stub we provided, at the coding level.
the levels of abstraction, so they know how
to use designs and implement them. Before
this task, they will also have completed three
lessons introducing the concept of variables. “ AS LEARNERS MOVE FROM NOVICE TO
EXPERT, PROGRESSING THROUGH EACH OF
Every programming language is slightly
different in how it can be used. It is important
for learners to have an understanding of
THESE LEVELS SHOULD BECOME ROUTINE
this before they begin designing, or they
may plan a project that is unachievable. In the algorithm and design for that part of the THE CODING/BUILDING
this project, we provide a ‘program stub’, program have been provided for learners Learners can refer to Figure 1 and its
which is part of the program they will (Figure 1). This models to learners how implementation in the program stub
need to complete the task (helloworld.cc/ we write algorithms, and create this part to scaffold what they need to do next.
fruitcatcher). Give learners time to familiarise of the program design. It also gives them a The unit of work also contains a design
themselves with this project before they reference for their next step: worksheet, which is organised so that
begin their design, so they can remind learners can approach each section
themselves of the Scratch environment and Write two algorithms (include a drawing independently:
its capabilities. The stub will also maintain and a description) for the two new sprites
learners’ focus on variables. Providing the you chose. Each sprite must change 1. Add sprites with the necessary artwork
code for the sprites that will not use variables the score by a different amount, should 2. Initialise variables — use clear names!
means learners will spend their time move at a different speed, and could be a 3. Algorithm for sprite 1
designing and implementing the parts of the different size. 4. Algorithm for sprite 2

The Big Book of Computing Content 71

RESEARCH

n Figure 1 The information above prompts learners how to write the algorithm and create the program design for this task

checking whether your program behaves

“ IF LEARNERS START CHANGING RANDOM as expected for the task or design. In this
project, for example, a program might run
VALUES ‘JUST IN CASE’ , YOU’LL KNOW successfully, but perhaps the items of fruit

IT’S TIME TO BRING THEM BACK A LEVEL are flying up into the air instead of into the
fruit-catcher bowl. This is what testing is for.
Working through these levels within a
unit of work gives learners the opportunity
As this project is an assessment piece, working. This can become a problem if to develop skills at a realistic pace and
learners are largely left to implement learners find a bug in their programming. gives you the opportunity to scaffold
their programs with this scaffolding. If Most debugging will happen at the coding specific skill sets. This ultimately ensures
learners do not have much experience at level, especially in the early stage of text- that learning to program is an option for a
implementing code, you might spend more based languages where many of the errors wider range of learners.
time making links between the algorithm are syntax-related. However, if learners
and the code.
Working at the code level is also an
find themselves with a logic error, or a
more substantial bug, they may need to
FURTHER READING
opportunity to observe more general revisit their algorithm to work out what it
programming skills: are learners testing is doing and to plan an alternative solution. The National Centre for Computing
each bit of code as they go? Do they An easy way to spot whether you need to Education. (2022). Programming and
duplicate chunks of code rather than bring learners back to the design level is if Algorithms within the Computing
rewriting very similar scripts for each their approach to debugging has resorted Curriculum. helloworld.cc/p&areport
sprite? These will be opportunities for you to changing random blocks/values ‘just in
to engage with learners while they are case’ because they have no idea why their Waite, J. L., Curzon, P., Marsh, W.,
creating their projects, depending on what program is not working. Talking through Sentance, S., & Hadwen-Bennett,
the focus of your unit is. the algorithm and precisely what it is A. (2018). Abstraction in action:
doing, and then working out the bit that’s K-5 teachers’ uses of levels of
RUNNING THE PROJECT not clear and rewriting that section, will abstraction, particularly the design
It can sometimes be difficult to distinguish support these learners. level, in teaching programming.
between the levels of coding/building and The other aspect of this level that should International Journal of Computer
running the project, as learners should be not be overlooked is testing. This is not the Science Education in Schools, 2(1),
repeatedly cycling through coding and same as just running the code as you are 14–40. helloworld.cc/waite18
running, to check t hat their program is working through the project. Testing is about

72 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

WHY WE SHOULD TEACH

CHILDREN TO CODE
Simon Peyton Jones explores how programming can bring computer
science to life for learners

n a March 2019 blog post puts it, “Computer science is no more curriculum, but its medium. Coding is the
I (helloworld.cc/schleicher2019), about computers than astronomy is about lab work of computer science: it motivates,
Andreas Schleicher, director of education telescopes.” illuminates, and brings to life the dry bones
and skills at the OECD, asked, “Should But if computer science is not about of theory. Without programming, computer
schools teach coding?” This was computers, what is it about? It is the science would be a dry, theoretical husk
somewhat misreported in the press as study of information, computation, and of a subject. Imagine a music lesson
“Teaching children coding is a waste of communication. Take information, for in which the students only studied the
time, OECD chief says” (helloworld.cc/ example: suppose I show you a picture of the rules of counterpoint or the structure of a
telegraph2019). But it’s a good question. French national flag, and one of the Mona sonata, but never brought them to life by
Let’s start at the beginning, though. Lisa, and ask, ‘Which picture contains more performing or composing any music.
Technology moves fast. To equip our information?’ What does that even mean? But that’s not all: programming is more
young people to flourish in a world of A way to make the question more precise than mere medium. As Fred Brooks put it,
change, we therefore strive to give them might be, ‘Suppose I dictated instructions “The scientist builds in order to study, but
a foundational understanding of the world to you over the phone; which picture would the engineer studies in order to build.” Most
that surrounds them, and an intellectual take you longer to reproduce?’ of programming’s body of knowledge is
toolbox that will equip them to deal with Clearly the Mona Lisa has more organised around the challenge of building
successive waves of technology. For information in this sense: it would be ever more ambitious edifices of software,
that reason, the computing curriculum in slow and painstaking for me to dictate and having them actually work and be
England, introduced in September 2014, instructions so that you could reproduce useful. Programming is the very stuff of
established computer science (not just it at your end, even rather approximately. computer science.
coding, and with computational thinking at Thus, we have begun to speak of Coding is phenomenally creative.
its core) as a foundational subject that all information as a measurable quantity. We The same Fred Brooks wrote that, “The
children learn, alongside maths and science, start to think about how tightly we could programmer, like the poet, works only
from primary school onwards. The previous compress data before transmitting it, and slightly removed from pure thought-stuff.
ICT curriculum focused on technology; how we could detect, and perhaps correct, He builds his castles in the air, from air,
the current curriculum focuses on ideas errors made during transmission. All this creating by exertion of the imagination. Few
and principles. As the famous aphorism is called information theory; it is part of media of creation are so flexible, so easy
computer science, it has a substantial to polish and rework, so readily capable of
body of theory, and it has immediate realising grand conceptual structures.”
SIMON PEYTON JONES practical consequences. When a child does a science experiment,
Simon is a British computer scientist she is seeing physical principles at work,
who researches the implementation and Where coding fits in coming to life in front of her eyes. If she
applications of functional programming What, then, is the role of coding or does the experiment right, we know what
languages, particularly lazy functional programming (the terms are roughly will happen. In contrast, when she writes a
programming. equivalent) in computer science? Coding is program, no one knows what will happen.
not the message of England’s computing The programmer brings into the world a

The Big Book of Computing Content 73

FEATURE
FEATURE
OPINION
© patpitchaya/stock.adobe.com

n Without programming, computer science

would be a dry, theoretical husk of a subject

new creation, formed from an infinitely by everyone: business innovators (for And yet, and yet. There are two risks
malleable substance, which does something identifying a need or potential); scientists here. First, there is the risk that we
new, conjured from the mind of its creator. (for working with data and developing confuse the medium with the message.
We are not limited by the strength of wood, computational models of scientific I fear a future prime minister giving a
or the budget of the school workshop: processes); those procuring software (for speech saying, “The new computing
in programming, we are limited only by example in health services, for knowing curriculum has been a great success:
our own ability or inability to manage the what is possible and what they should be every child now leaves school fluent in
complexity of our creation.

Self-assessment and risks

Coding offers immediate, tangible feedback. “ WE ARE LIMITED ONLY BY OUR OWN
ABILITY OR INABILITY TO MANAGE THE
No need to wait for the teacher to mark
your essay, as in English; in computing, the COMPLEXITY OF OUR CREATION
program runs, or not, and remorselessly
exposes the logical errors in your thinking.
When hunting a bug in a malfunctioning looking for); or end users (because one must Python.” What a disaster that would be!
program, we form a hypothesis about always have a notional machine model of The computing curriculum is focused on
what is wrong. We formulate tests that what a given piece of software is doing). ideas and principles, not on a particular
will confirm or refute that hypothesis. Programming is a tremendously useful and technology such as Python. Yes, some of
In the light of the results of those tests, marketable skill. In every corner of business, those ideas (sequence, iteration, choice,
we refine the hypothesis, and so on; it is and in every part of our daily lives, there are abstraction) are directly embodied and
the scientific method in action. Even for programs, and they all need to be written, brought to life in Python, but Python is just
students who will never explicitly program modified, fixed, and stitched together. There is one embodiment among many, not the
again, programming teaches understanding tremendous demand for skilled programmers, thing itself. Once pupils have learnt to code
and reasoning skills that are needed who command high salaries as a result. in one language, they should be able to

74 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

© StockImageFactory/stock.adobe.com
 hatever learners want to be when they grow up,
nW
learning to program teaches them vital skills

“ ONCE PUPILS HAVE LEARNT TO CODE IN

ONE LANGUAGE, THEY SHOULD BE ABLE TO
FURTHER READING
QUICKLY TEACH THEMSELVES OTHERS Andreas Schleicher’s blog post:
helloworld.cc/schleicher2019

quickly teach themselves others built on the Tomorrow’s problems The Telegraph’s interpretation of
same concepts, and should also be able to Returning to Schleicher’s blog post, he Schleicher’s blog post: helloworld.cc/
recognise those same concepts appearing says, “The risk is that we will again be telegraph2019
in the wider world that surrounds them. teaching students today’s techniques to
The second risk is that we may forget solve tomorrow’s problems; by the time
that the school computing curriculum today’s students graduate, these techniques and understand them deeply. People
is for the many, not the few. I certainly might already be obsolete. We should occasionally say, ‘In the future, computers
hope that the education our young people instead focus on the computational thinking will program themselves,’ but I believe they
receive will inspire some of them to be the that underpins these techniques, and that are mistaken — we will simply increase the
software developers of the future. But many students can use to shape the technologies ambition of the programs we write.
more will become lawyers and plumbers, of tomorrow.” So yes, to answer the question, we should
hairdressers and doctors. They all learn the Fair enough — and indeed, computational teach our children to code. But we should do
elementary principles of natural science, thinking is already explicitly at the core so not as an end in itself, but rather as a
and similarly they should all learn the of the English national curriculum, from powerful and effective means to motivate,
elementary principles of computer science. start to finish. But teaching programming illuminate, and exemplify the underlying
And, just as mathematics appears in primary is emphatically not ‘teaching today’s principles of computer science. There is no
schools mainly in the guise of arithmetic, so techniques to solve tomorrow’s problems’. more intellectually exciting, creative, or
computer science will appear mainly in the Programming is computational thinking practically useful subject. I want to convey to
form of simple programming. Just as no one incarnate, brought to life, made tangible, our young people a visceral sense of that
confuses arithmetic with the manifold glories executable, and useful. It provides a richness and creative possibility, and by far
of mathematics, so we should not confuse powerful way to practise and so develop the best way to do so is to share with them
programming with computer science. those computational thinking skills, the joy and beauty of programming.

The Big Book of Computing Content 75

 FEATURE

INTRODUCING
PROGRAMMING THROUGH
THE WIDER CURRICULUM
Ben Hall looks at the crossover between literacy and
coding, and how it can help in the primary classroom

uch of the research around broaden the appeal of the subject for both (see the photo below) or Code-a-Pillars.
M how we learn to program, and learners and teachers? This works really well in a continuous
which approaches are most successful, Researcher Jane Waite and her provision environment where children
has been focused on older learners, colleagues drew parallels between the immerse themselves in the language
particularly undergraduates or those design level of a program — where a pupil before applying it to a different context,
transitioning to text-based languages. uses simple language to explain what much as you might do with many other
There is comparatively little research on characters will be needed and what they subjects. Using Fakebots or grids can be
how children learn to program from an will do — and the planning of writing in a a really useful way to introduce directional
early age. If we want children to become literacy lesson (helloworld.cc/waite2018). language (see the article on page 60
curious and confident programmers, Researcher Raymond Lister and colleagues for more on this). Once the language is
then an understanding of their formative also investigated the links between writing secure, we can then introduce symbols to
experience would certainly help. skills and early programming, but in the represent movements.
Computing is usually seen as a STEAM context of text-based (in this case Python) This is very similar to literacy, where
(science, technology, engineering, arts, and languages for older learners (helloworld. children are immersed in the language
maths) subject. However, are we missing cc/lister2009). Can this research help through opportunities to listen to
a trick? Are there parallels between us develop our understanding of how stories and explore books. Through this,
programming and literacy, and could this the youngest learners are introduced they understand that books convey
to programming? meaning and that they have an order
and a sequence: spot the link? Sway
Skill acquisition Grantham, a senior learning manager at
As a former specialist computing the Raspberry Pi Foundation, explores
teacher in a primary school, I this connection in a blog post, analysing
have been fortunate to teach ‘Talk for Coding’ as an approach based
learners from the age of six on Pie Corbett’s ‘Talk for Writing’ learning
right through to the age of sequence (helloworld.cc/grantham2017).
thirteen. This has given She draws upon research that concluded
me some insight into how that sequence, structure, and clarity
children pick up key skills. of expression are as important in
I’ve typically introduced programming as they are in writing
computing to the (helloworld.cc/burke2010).
youngest learners by
looking at concepts such Parallels
as instructions, and As children’s literacy skills develop and
developing vocabulary to they become more aware of structure in
help learners access floor writing, there are some interesting parallels
robots such as Bee-Bots we can draw on.

76 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

Firstly, nursery rhymes. They’re parallels with literacy — we plan writing that of learning a programming language?
sequenced (for example, One, Two, Three, and design algorithms, and storyboards In maths, when you teach patterns and
Four, Five), and may include some form can be used for both. sequencing, how can you translate these
of repetition (such as Hickory Dickory The research suggests that this into the corresponding programming
Dock or Ten Green Bottles). Knowledge of approach is not widely used: Waite and concepts? Can you link debugging to the
these patterns can be directly applied to a colleagues identified that 82 percent of process of correcting errors in other
sequence of instructions, or even used as a primary teachers thought that design in subjects? A great way to develop your
basis for programming projects. In ScratchJr, programming was at least very useful, computing teaching is to ensure you use all
we have the perfect platform for storytelling. whereas only 44 percent actually used your experience, from all of your primary
One of my favourite learning sequences it in their teaching ‘always’ or ‘usually’. curriculum, to make computing as
with Year 1 (aged 5–6) tied in with their Double this number ‘always’ or ‘usually’ accessible as possible to the broadest
class book at the time, The Three Little Pigs, used planning in writing. This could range of learners.
which they retold through ScratchJr. reflect a lack of confidence in teachers’
I was careful not to bring in the subject knowledge, a shortage of materials
programming element too quickly; it to support design-led activities, or the

“ SEQUENCE, STRUCTURE, AND CLARITY

OF EXPRESSION ARE AS IMPORTANT IN
PROGRAMMING AS THEY ARE IN WRITING

was much more effective when children curriculum itself. In England, the curriculum
were able to plan an element, using a for English states that children should ‘plan,
storyboard, which they could then apply evaluate, and improve’ their writing — but BEN HALL
within the tool. This is very similar to how there is no mention of planning or design Ben is a learning manager at the
most literacy teachers would encourage in computing. Raspberry Pi Foundation, developing
children to plan a story before writing It can be helpful to draw upon other curriculum resources for England’s
it. Design in programming is equally subjects, not just literacy, in your primary National Centre for Computing Education.
important, and this is a way to introduce computing classes. Consider languages. He was previously a primary teacher
it by using a known context and drawing How could learners apply their experience specialising in computing (@hengehall).
from prior learning. There are many of learning a second spoken language to

The Big Book of Computing Content 77

 FEATURE

COMPREHENSIVE
DAVID J.
MALAN
David is a Gordon McKay
Professor of the Practice of

PROGRAMMING
Computer Science at the
Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering
and Applied Sciences in Massachusetts, USA.
He is the instructor for CS50.

ASSESSMENT DOUG LLOYD

Doug is senior preceptor
in computer science at
the Harvard University
Establishing whether a program works needn’t Division of Continuing
Education in Massachusetts, USA. He
be the only goal of assessment
is the course manager for CS50.

etermining whether a student’s At CS50, Harvard University and Yale

D code is correct is an important University’s largest open-learning course, about the decisions they make in their
part of the grading process. Whether you we respectively grade for scope, style, code, and to put them into a mindset of
use an autograder, or benchmark student and design, in addition to assessing for continuous improvement. We rarely give
code through a series of manual unit correctness. It is design, however, that out a perfect score in design, as there are
tests, it’s fairly easy to determine whether we’ll discuss further here. almost always areas where we can make
a student has considered the solutions improvements. We ourselves are in a
to your test cases in their solution. But What to look for mindset of continuous improvement, and
while correctness is important, there are If correctness asks the question ‘Does we feel that if we can find opportunities to
other important questions to consider. it work?’, then design asks the question design better solutions to our problem sets
For example: ‘How does it work?’ Our goal in assessing (and year after year, we almost always do),
design is to get students thinking critically our students should be able to as well.
n D
 id the student at least attempt to
solve the program at hand, even
if they struggled along the way
with syntax, such that their code
might not compile? Particularly
among students less comfortable
with coding, rewarding effort is a
reminder that it’s OK to struggle.

n I s
it actually possible to read the
student’s code? Poor indentation
(unless programming in Python!) and
no commenting might not matter to
the processor, but to an instructor it
can cause quite the headache!
© CS50, cs50.harvard.edu.

n H
 ow efficient is the student’s
code? If the program is correct, but
takes 15 minutes to run, is it all
that useful?
n CS50 staff grading student work at a grading party

78 The Big Book of Computing Content

 © CS50, cs50.harvard.edu.
FEATURE

A MULTI-AXIS GRADING PHILOSOPHY

n Students get help from CS50 staff members during office hours

Assessing programming through different axes allows us to test several skills via a single assignment:
Some questions that we consider when
looking at design include: n S
 cope rewards student effort in solving n D
 esign considers the efficiency,
problems, reiterating the importance of a culture elegance, and clarity of a student’s
n H
 ow frequently do the same lines of error and normalising the idea that failure code from an organisational standpoint
of code repeat? to completely solve a problem is not a total (how does it work?)
failure, but a learning opportunity (did you try?)
n D
 oes a student’s code have an n S
 tyle is the most human-focused axis, and

over-reliance on loops or magic n C

 orrectness judges the performance of a considers how readable and well-commented
numbers? student’s code, either using a test harness or via the code is for others who might need to read it
manual execution of the code (does it work?) (how does it look?)
n D
 id the student choose the most
efficient algorithm?
Trade-offs out again, and grading design only becomes
n W
 as the code broken into Unlike the other three axes — correctness, quicker and easier once you’ve seen multiple
functions or subroutines which we can assess with autograders; different solutions to the same problem, and
where appropriate? style, which we can assess with linters; and you’re familiar with common errors.
scope, which a quick glance can assess — That said, the qualitative feedback
n How
 many lines of code did the grading design can take significant time and received via the design axis is, in our opinion,
student write? The length of a effort for experienced and inexperienced the most valuable. Comments on design
student’s submission is often, teachers alike. Students in CS50 submit their should get students thinking about what
though not always, a good indicator code to course staff via GitHub, and teaching makes one solution better (or worse) than
of how well-designed that code is; fellows can offer feedback via comments on another, even if both have the same output.
if fewer lines of code are needed, GitHub’s web interface. The ability to use This reinforces the notion that there is not
the student is probably taking ‘saved replies’ for issues that might recur always one right answer, and we hope it will
advantage of an efficiency. in the work of multiple students can save encourage students to be more aware of
some time over writing the same comment their programming decision-making.

The Big Book of Computing Content 79

DATA AND
INFORMATION
82 DATA AND INFORMATION, IN
SUMMARY
84  FOSTERING DATA LITERACY
COMPETENCIES IN THE
CLASSROOM
86 DATA VISUALISATIONS
FOR INQUISITIVE MINDS
88  SING DATA TO OPTIMISE A
U
SCHOOL GARDEN
90 TEACHING DATABASES USING BIG
DATA
 ata and information is a strand of computing that IN THIS SECTION,
D focuses on how data is stored, organised, and used YOU WILL FIND:
to represent the real world and provide meaningful ■ Learning outcomes:
insights. Most data collection, storage, and analysis will involve data and information, in summary

computers, and as such, this area of computing particularly ■ What the research says:
complements other school subjects, with a practical focus on fostering data literacy competencies

collecting, storing, and analysing data at scale. The study of ■ Captivating data visualisations

data and information also provides a solid basis for learners ■ A real-life data project
to understand the role of artificial intelligence in analysing and ■ Boosting engagement with big data
interpreting data.
There are skills and concepts associated with each stage
of a data life cycle, which involves questioning, collecting,
implementing, analysing, and sharing. The
implementation stage of this process, in
particular, involves the application of
computing. Learners will use, design, and
compare different tools and approaches
to storing data digitally, including text files,
spreadsheets, and databases.

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IN SUMMARY

IN SUMMARY

DATA AND
INFORMATION
Understand how data is collected,
organised, and analysed to explore
real-world scenarios

STAGE 1 STAGE 2
■ Explain that data can be helpful in answering ■ Identify that yes/no questions can be used to
questions structure data

■ Collect, group, and compare simple data ■ Answer questions using decision trees

■ Explain that names/labels can be used to ■ Use sensors/data loggers to collect data
describe objects
■ Explain how data can be searched and
■ Identify how attributes can be used to ordered using different fields
compare objects
■ Use suitable tools and applications (including
■ Describe how data can be presented spreadsheets) to handle data
pictographically
■ Use AND/OR operators to refine searches
■ Present data using pictographs and
simple charts ■ Choose an appropriate format to present data

82 The Big Book of Computing Content

 IN SUMMARY

In the table below, you will find learning outcomes associated with
the ‘Data and information’ strand of the Raspberry Pi Foundation’s
computing taxonomy. These learning outcomes are illustrative of the
kinds of knowledge and understanding that learners could develop in
this area of computing. They are not prescriptive, but instead aim to
illustrate the wide applications of the discipline.
These learning outcomes were originally developed to complement
the English national curriculum for computing, and as such, stage 1
roughly corresponds to ages 5–7, stage 2 to ages 7–11, stage 3 to
ages 11–14, stage 4 to ages 14–16, and stage 5 to ages 16–19.

STAGE 3 STAGE 4 STAGE 5

■ Identify the differences between data and ■ Design a model to represent specific objects and ■ Produce a relational data model to represent a
information relationships within a scenario scenario

■ Describe the stages of the data life ■ Describe the role of a database and its data ■ Describe approaches to optimising
cycle, including questioning, collecting, model in structuring and organising data databases, including normalisation
implementing, analysing, and sharing
■ Explain how a relational database is implemented ■ Explain how databases handle and process multiple
■ Collect, process, and analyse quantitative data to through tables and keys transactions
answer a specific question
■ Compose SQL expressions that ■ Construct database tables, relationships, and
■ Explain the need for being selective when add, retrieve, and update data in an views using SQL
working with large data sets existing database
■ Design, build, and interact with a database using a
■ Apply formulas within a spreadsheet to process ■ Explain how data can be organised, stored, and database management system
data retrieved using files
■ Describe the relationship between artificial
■ Use sorting and filtering techniques to help ■ Identify sources of potential bias within a intelligence, machine learning, and big data
identify patterns in data data set at each part of the data life cycle
■ Describe the kinds of problem that data science
■ Present data in a range of different formats to aid ■ Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative can address
understanding data
■ Design and conduct a data science
■ Prepare data for analysis, importing, investigation, identifying a problem, data
structuring, and cleaning as appropriate sources, and methodology

■ Report on findings, making use of descriptive ■ Build interactive data dashboards to summarise
statistics and visualisations data and aid analyses

■ Distinguish between public and private ■ Identify potential sources of bias within data
data sets and work with both analysis

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RESEARCH

FOSTERING DATA LITERACY

COMPETENCIES IN SCHOOL
STORY BY Andreas Grillenberger

oday, data analysis is everywhere: This model characterises data- and a process aspect (such as being able
T large companies collect and related competencies from two different to prepare data in a way that is suitable
analyse masses of data to systematically perspectives: content areas and process for visualising it and creating the aspired
promote their products, while social areas. The content areas clearly emphasise visualisation). Although the competency
media platforms use data analysis to technical aspects and hence are focused model was developed with a focus on
suggest friends. on computer science content. In contrast, computing education, we can also adapt it
Nowadays, everyone is confronted the process areas take a more practically to incorporate aspects from other subjects.
with new challenges because of the oriented perspective, illustrating what can After all, computer science is not the only
increasing and widespread relevance of be done with data. subject that is dealing with data today. Other
data; these include deciding which personal These two types of competency area topics can contribute important elements too,
and foreign data is shared with others are closely intertwined, meaning that each particularly to the content areas, enriching
(including services on the internet), under data literacy competency has to connect to the model and extending its usability.
which conditions, and for which purpose. at least one content and one process area.
We also need to ask what others can do For example, the competency to visualise The life cycle of data
with, and read from, this data. And it’s not data and analyse results incorporates both When trying to include data literacy
just children and young people who need a content aspect (such as knowing different competencies in school teaching, the
to gain skills in this area — we all need to visualisation methods and their purpose) question often arises as to where to start.
become data literate.

Data literacy competencies

But what does data literacy mean?
According to widely accepted definitions,
data-literate people are able to work with
and handle data in a meaningful way —
for example, by acquiring, structuring, or
analysing it.
In recent years, I have investigated this
topic further with the Friedrich-Alexander-
Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg Computing
Education Group. We have looked at
data literacy from a computing education
point of view, taking into account various
perspectives. We looked at the technical
perspective on the large topic of data, and
we also considered students’ and teachers’
perspectives, as well as requirements from
society. On this basis, we developed a data
n Figure 1 According to the research-based data literacy competency model, each data literacy competency must
literacy competency model (Figure 1). have both content-related and process-related aspects

84 The Big Book of Computing Content

 RESEARCH

FURTHER READING
Grillenberger, A. & Romeike, R.
(2018). Developing a Theoretically
Founded Data Literacy Competency
Model WiPSCE ’18, October 4–6, 2018,
Potsdam, Germany. helloworld.cc/
grillenberger2018
n Figure 2 The data life cycle model gives a structure for teaching data literacy, for both teachers and students

Most computing lesson plans probably have instead of discussing fictitious examples. An exemplary project, particularly
various connection points to data literacy, The important question, therefore, is not considering data analysis, is based on real
so there are multiple possibilities for data where to start with teaching data literacy, data about school students. For example,
literacy teaching. Yet it is crucial to keep in but where to connect it to what we already learners could examine a data set about
mind the entire process of working with teach. The data life cycle helps to identify Portuguese students that was released
data. When only discussing distinct parts such connection points. on the UCI Machine Learning Repository,
of this topic (for example the analysis), helloworld.cc/UCIdataset. Students can
other important aspects are missing (such Fostering data literacy in school analyse this using simple tools (like Orange,
as gathering data, or justifying the analysis Several challenges have to be overcome orange.biolab.si), to predict grades based
from an ethical perspective). when fostering data literacy competencies on the information contained in the data set.
We therefore also developed the data in school. For example, we have to identify As this setting directly concerns students,
life cycle model (Figure 2) as a structure suitable tools, select appropriate examples particularly if the teacher presents it as a
for teaching data literacy. This model that are relevant and motivating to possible new way to grade them, it raises
provides a structure for teachers and students, and work out which concepts can several ethical problems that directly affect
students when working with data and foster these skills. the students. The resulting discussions that
emphasises the complete process, not We cannot teach most data literacy arise on challenges, risks, and opportunities,
just a small part of it. Of course, we can’t competencies through theory alone; along with the possibility of directly working
consider all aspects in the same depth suitable examples and appropriate data with and analysing large amounts of data,
in school, but using the data life cycle play a significant role in teaching these lead to another challenge. Although this
helps to bring together all the knowledge competencies. Such data is available from article has taken a computing education
and skills students gain throughout their various sources today. The application perspective on data literacy, the topic also
computing education. programming interfaces (APIs) of widely affects and applies to many other subjects.
For example, aspects related to known services on the internet (such as We should therefore consider data literacy
data modelling, implementation, and Twitter) aren’t the only data sources we an interdisciplinary topic, and it should be
optimisation are already in most computing can use; there are also rich and easy-to-use taught in school accordingly.
curricula, and so only need to be connected data sets available, such as those released Fostering data literacy in school is an
with other elements of the data life cycle. by public administrations as part of open- open challenge to which we all can, and
When working with databases, you can data projects. For example, data.gov.uk must, contribute if we are to prepare our
gather and structure real data in class for contains open data published by the UK students for a life in a world where we use
efficiency, storing them in the database government and public bodies. data continuously and everywhere.

The Big Book of Computing Content 85

FEATURE
FEATURE
OPINION

DATA VISUALISATIONS
FOR INQUISITIVE MINDS
How to get your students started with data science by introducing
exciting and interesting visualisations

isualising data is the art of being Telling a story with data the beige line representing the march on
V able not only to present data in a Take a look at the data you can see in Figure Moscow and the black line representing
visual format, but to truly tell a story with 1 below. Can you extract any meaning from the retreat back to Poland. The scale
it. A good visualisation will bring data it? What story is it telling you? You can of the losses becomes very clear when
to life, aiming to provide the audience inspect the data in more detail here: ncce.io/ you compare the thickness of the two
with something that they might not have minard-data. lines: Napoleon set off with 422,000
been able to spot merely by looking at This data relates to Napoleon’s 1812 troops and returned with just 10,000.
numbers on a page. While writing a unit march on Russia. The numbers alone don’t Other forms of data have also
on data science for the Teach Computing tell much of a story, but in 1869 Charles been represented in the visualisation.
Curriculum, I became infatuated with Joseph Minard, a French civil engineer known Geographical features such as locations and
the creative ways in which people have for his information graphics, produced what rivers crossed have been plotted, as well as
visualised data, drawing out trends, is now widely regarded as the best statistical the varying temperatures at different points
correlations, and patterns. In this article, graph of all time; see Figure 2. on the march and retreat. If you look closely,
I want to highlight some of the best The visualisation shows Napoleon’s this helps you to see where and why tragedy
visualisations that are adaptable for army, departing at full strength from the occurred at various points on the journey.
most age groups, so you can use them Polish border to Russia, and then their During the retreat on 28 September 1813,
to inspire your classes and get them subsequent retreat. The thickness of the the data labels on the black line read 50,000,
thinking about data. lines represents the size of the army, with before dropping to 28,000, showing that
22,000 men died crossing the Berezina river
near Minsk!
What I love about this visualisation is that
the more you look at it, the more you see.
The visualisation really made me feel as
though I understood a little more about the
story of Napoleon’s march on Russia — a
story that I certainly wouldn’t have been
able to get by simply studying the data as
n Figure 1 What does this data tell you? numbers on a page.

Effecting change with data

As well as telling a story with data,
visualisations can be starting points to
bring about change or to help gain support
for a cause. The next historical example
dates back to 1854, when there was an
outbreak of cholera in the Soho area of
London. At the time, it was a commonly
held belief that cholera was caused by bad
air in the area. A physician named John
Snow held an alternative belief that cholera
was being transmitted by a contaminated
n Figure 2 Statistical graph of Napoleon’s march on Russia water supply. To help prove this theory,

86 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

he mapped the deaths from cholera in

the Soho area. The map revealed that the
deaths were centred around Broad Street,
and the residents there were getting their
water from the pump on this street.
By visualising the data in this way (now
known as a dot map, a map type that uses
a dot symbol to show the presence of a
feature or phenomenon), Snow was able
to convince the local council to disable the
water pump. It is widely recognised that this n Global data over time in the Gapminder tool
visualisation helped to save many lives.
make a country a great place to live. They can week and visualise it on a postcard sent to
Getting hands-on with then use the Gapminder tool to investigate each other. A nice follow-up activity to the
interactive visualisations which country best fits their ideals. Dear Data website would be to ask students
Moving from the past to the present day, to spend a week collecting and visualising
the final point I would like to highlight is Practical suggestions for the classroom data about their own lives. For example, they
a free visualisation tool by Gapminder As suggested, the Gapminder tool is a good could monitor their mobile phone or app
(helloworld.cc/gapminder). This software place to start to get students exploring data usage, or what food they’ve eaten. Once they
allows you to view global data and see sets. You can also use the Turner’s Graph have completed the activity, ask them to write
how it has changed over time. The default of the Week website (helloworld.cc/turner) a short report on what they have learnt from
data in the bubble graph compares life to reinforce the idea of using visualisations their visualised data and how they might use
expectancy with income. By using the to spot trends and correlations, as well as the information to make changes in their lives.
slider and clicking on the ‘Play’ button, you to make predictions and gain insights. The Finally, data science is not just the remit of
can see how this has changed from the site provides free worksheets that include computing. Do explore the cross-curricular
year 1799 to the present day. visualised data and sets of questions to opportunities that you could take advantage
The data on the x- and y-axes is prompt analysis of the data, perfect for in- of when teaching visualisations; the
customisable, allowing you to compare a class activities and homework. examples in this article have clear links with
huge range of other factors, such as CO₂ I’d recommend allowing time for your history, geography, and maths.
emissions and educational standards. I students to explore the visualised data sets Using some of these examples and tools,
like this tool, compared to the historical on the Information is Beautiful website, I hope your students will have understood
examples I’ve discussed, as it is much including data talking points such as ‘riskiest that visualisations can be much more
more hands-on for students, and presents activities during the pandemic’, and how creative than the traditional bar and pie
opportunities to discuss concepts such as much music streaming services pay their charts we’re all used to seeing, and that
trends, correlation, and outliers. artists (helloworld.cc/information). Another data has the power to tell a story, share
After allowing students to see the data favourite of mine is Dear Data (helloworld.cc/ information, and bring about change.
available to them, a good activity would be deardata), a project between two information
to get the class to think about what factors designers to collect data about their lives each

BEN GARSIDE
Ben works for the Raspberry Pi Foundation
and is also a Computing at School
community leader. Recently, Ben has
been developing resources for the Teach
Computing Curriculum, as well as writing
online courses and content for Isaac
Computer Science (@BenberryPi).
n Cholera dot map

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 FEATURE

USING DATA TO OPTIMISE

A SCHOOL GARDEN
Chris Aviles describes how his class uses data to make their gardens more productive

s a society, we have never before too hot, students turn on a fan. But how control plant at the same time as we watered
A collected more data about many fans do we need to turn on? After all our other plants, when the control plant
individuals. Despite this, most people and experimenting, we know that each fan was dry (giving a negative moisture signal),
institutions do a poor job of interpreting lowers the greenhouse temperature by the rest of the plants in the greenhouse
data and using it to make meaningful between 7 and 10 degrees. Opening the would need to be watered as well.
change. I wanted to tackle this problem on a door and turning on both fans can bring a This method of determining when to
local scale with my learners in FH Grows. greenhouse that’s pushing 100 degrees water our plants worked well. We rarely
FH Grows is the name of my seventh- in late May or early June down to a more ever saw our plants turn yellow from
grade class (aged 12–13), and a student-run manageable 80 degrees. overwatering again. Here is where the
agriculture business at Knollwood Middle Turning data into action can allow for creativity came in. We received a signal from
School in Fair Haven, New Jersey. In FH some creativity as well. Overwatering plants Raspberry Pi when the soil was not wet
Grows, we grow produce and sell it, both can be a real problem; we found that our enough, so we played around with what we
online and through student-run farmers’ plants were turning yellow because we were could do with that signal. We displayed it
markets. Any produce we don’t sell is watering them every day when we didn’t on the dashboard along with our other data,
donated to our local soup kitchen. To get the need to. How could we solve this problem but we also decided to make the signal send
most out of our school gardens, students and become more efficient at watering? us an email from the plant. When I showed
have built sensors and monitors using Students built a Raspberry Pi that used a students how this worked, they decided to
Raspberry Pis. These sensors collect data, moisture sensor to find out when a plant write the message from the plant in the first
which allows me to teach students how to needed to be watered. We used a plant with person. So every week or so, we received an
get better at interpreting data themselves, this moisture sensor in the soil as our control email from Carl the Control Plant asking us to
and how to turn it into action. plant. We figured that if we watered the come out and water him!

Turning data into action n How does your garden grow?

In the greenhouse, our gardens, and our

alternative growing stations (we have
hydroponics, aquaponics, and aeroponics)
we use sensors to log temperature, humidity,
and other important data points. This data
is streamed in real time on a site I created
for the class. When students come into the
classroom, one of the first things we do is
look at the live data on the site and find out
what is going on in our gardens. Over the
course of the semester, students are taught
about ideal growing conditions. If, when
we look at the data, we see that conditions
aren’t ideal, it’s time to get to work.
If we see that the greenhouse is too hot,
over 85 degrees Fahrenheit, students go
and open the greenhouse door. We check
the temperature a bit later, and if it’s still

88 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

If students didn’t honour Carl’s request

for water, if they didn’t use data to know
when to cool the greenhouse, or if they had
not done the fan experiments to see how
much cooler their measures would make
the greenhouse, all our plants, such as the
basil we sell to the pizza places in town,
would die. This is the beauty of combining
data literacy with a school garden: failure
to interpret data, then take action based on
their interpretation, has real consequences:
our produce could die. When it takes 60–120
days to grow the average vegetable, the loss
of plants is significant. We lose all the time
and energy that went into growing those
plants, as well as all the revenue they would
have brought us. Furthermore, I love the
urgency that combining data and the school n Our Pi prediction system has given us far more accurate data

and previous data, was more accurate for

“ FAILURE TO INTERPRET DATA THEN ACT

ON THEIR INTERPRETATION HAS REAL
our immediate area than the general weather
reports you would get on the radio or an
app, as those considered a much larger area
CONSEQUENCES: OUR PRODUCE COULD DIE when making their predictions.
It seems that we are going to be collecting
even more data in the future, and it is
garden creates, because many students and June if you time it right. Getting an extra important that we get our students
have learnt the valuable life lesson that not growing cycle from our garden is incredibly comfortable working with it. The school
making a decision is also making a decision. valuable, not only to FH Grows as a business garden supported by Raspberry Pi’s amazing
If students freeze or do nothing when (as we would be growing more produce ability to collect data is a boon for any
confronted with the data about the garden, to sell), but as a way to get an additional teacher who wants to help students learn
that too has consequences. learning cycle out of the garden. how to interpret data and turn it
So, using two seasons’ worth of ground into action.
Using data to spot trends temperature data, we set out to predict
and make predictions when the ground in our garden would be
The other major way we use data in cool enough to do this cool-veggie grow.
FH Grows is to spot trends and make Students looked at the data we had from the
predictions. This is different to using data to weather station and compared it to different
create the ideal growing conditions in our websites that predicted the last frost of
garden every day; the sensors we use also the season in our area. We found that the
provide a way for us to use information about ground right outside our door warmed up
the past to predict the future. FH Grows has two weeks earlier than the more general
about two years’ worth of weather data from prediction given on weather websites. With
our Raspberry Pi weather station (there are this information, we were able to get a full
guides available online if you wish to build a cool-weather grow at a time where our
weather station of your own). By collecting garden used to lie dormant.
weather data year after year, we can start to We also used Raspberry Pi to help us
determine important information such as the predict whether or not it was going to rain CHRIS AVILES
best time to plant our veggies. over the weekend, by using it to connect to Chris is a Raspberry Pi Certified Educator
For example, one of the most useful Weather Underground and looking at data and a teacher at Knollwood Middle
data points on our Raspberry Pi weather from previous years. If we believed it would School in the Fair Haven school district
station is the ground temperature sensor. not rain over the weekend, we would water in New Jersey, USA. There, he runs the
Last semester, we wanted to squeeze in a our gardens on a Friday. If we thought it renowned Fair Haven Innovates program he
cool-weather grow in our garden. This post- would rain, we let Mother Nature water our created in 2015.
winter grow can be done between March gardens for us. Our prediction, using the Pi

The Big Book of Computing Content 89

 FEATURE

TEACHING DATABASES
USING BIG DATA
Databases are fundamental to modern society, so why do many young people
(and their teachers) find the topic less than engaging?

here has been major curricular interact with huge data sets multiple times Why do we need a database to store ten
T change in Scottish computing in a day? In this article, I’d like to explore an records? A spreadsheet, or even a table in
education over the last eight years. approach to learning about databases that Word, would allow us to store and see this
Previously, there were separate show pupils the relevance of understanding information at a glance.
qualifications in computing and and being able to extract meaning from To see the need for databases, and
information systems. To generalise, modern data sets. their enormous power and value, we must
the former focused on programming use big data: data sets with thousands
and the second on databases. The Big data of records, data that requires queries
new qualifications, introduced in Imagine an introductory database lesson and sorts in order to tell us something
2014, combined these two separate that talks about the millions and billions meaningful. Multiple, linked tables can then
qualifications into one new qualification of records and fields contained in the be used to show why careful design of
called ‘computing science’. A more recent Amazon or Twitter databases. Pupils, keen databases is so important. Close to home
update introduced SQL queries at all levels to get insight into the technology behind for me, for example, Glasgow City Council
of computing science. these huge enterprises, are then directed and the Scottish Government publish a
Soon after this update, at a meeting to Microsoft Access, where they have to range of data sets about crime, education,
with local computing teachers, we create a single table, declare a few fields, environment, and population, which can be
were discussing, first, the importance and create a handful of records in an used in class (helloworld.cc/glasgowdata
of databases in the study of computing address book or music database. This and helloworld.cc/scotlanddata).
science and, second, how it can be difficult discrepancy, between the reality of huge, The Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation
to engage pupils in a topic that can be drier enterprise-scale databases and what is an excellent, interactive example of data
than programming or designing websites. pupils can actually create, is massive. How being used to analyse and compare huge
How can a topic that underpins so much many of us have asked pupils to enter five amounts of socioeconomic data (helloworld.
of modern technology be seen as boring or or ten records into a database, with no cc/smd). Simply comparing Glasgow and
irrelevant by pupils who, unwittingly or not, actual thought as to the educational value? Edinburgh shows stark differences, but

HOSTS Has LISTINGS Has REVIEWS

n Inside Airbnb offers vast amounts of data relating to hosts, listings, and reviews

90 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

IMDB
Field(s) listing_url, summary, price, bedrooms
Many of our young people will be big
Table(s) Listings
fans of online streaming services, and
will likely be familiar with the Internet
Search criteria Bedrooms > 1, price <=60, zipcode=EH99%
Movie Database (IMDb). Data sets

Sort order review_scores_rating Desc

from IMDb and its vast library of films
and television series can be found at
datasets.imdbws.com, with information
n Figure 1 By identifying which tables are being queried, you can spot any joins that are required.
Thinking at this stage about fields, criteria, and ordering leads naturally to writing the query in SQL about the data at imdb.com/interfaces.
This could be an engaging context to
explore and manipulate.
what can we say about the educational, SELECT listing_url, summary,
health, and employment opportunities for price, bedrooms
children growing up in rural versus urban FROM Listings
areas? Drumchapel and Bearsden are WHERE bedrooms>1 AND price 0
neighbouring areas of Glasgow, but have <=60 and zipcode LIKE ‘EH99%’
vastly different opportunities for young ORDER BY review_scores_rating
people growing up just a few streets apart. DESC;

Airbnb Looking at a single listing on the Airbnb might the web server view the scraper
Another powerful example is the big website will show you the listing, some software as an attack?
data available about Airbnb. Airbnb host information, and a summary of their Then we can look at the social and
has disrupted the world of travel and reviews. What better illustration of a join? economic implications of Airbnb. Would
accommodation, and the site Inside Airbnb This view is created dynamically using data you like to live alongside someone who
(helloworld.cc/airbnb) allows you to from all three tables. lets out their apartment to multiple people
download vast amounts of data that has Data on Inside Airbnb is updated 250 nights of the year? What impact has
been scraped from the site for many of the regularly. Pupils can click on the URLs the site had on the hotel industry? What
most popular destinations in the world.
This context allows us to see the real-world
website and the database behind it.
These data sets require some analysis “ TO SEE THE POWER AND VALUE OF
DATABASES, WE MUST LOOK TO DATA
and work before they can be used
in a classroom situation. Using the SETS WITH THOUSANDS OF RECORDS
Edinburgh Airbnb data (helloworld.cc/
edinburghairbnb), I downloaded listings,
hosts, and review data for thousands of contained in the database and verify impact does it have on cities that welcome
destinations in the capital and imported that the data they’re examining is for a lots of tourists each year? Does Airbnb
it into Access. Some fields needed a little real host with a real listing in a real city. I drive up rents and restrict availability for
work to make them usable. Creating a believe this authenticity, and the quantity local residents?
relational database of the data allows us to of data used, will start to show pupils the There are lots of other sources of
illustrate the cardinality of the data. value of database management software. large data sets out there. I hope this article
This data is too much to take in just by The focus on SQL will mean they don’t provides you with a helpful starting point
looking through the tables, but we can become experts in Access but, instead, for finding examples that will grab the
now start to construct queries. If I wanted come to understand the underlying attention of the young people in your
to stay near the Scottish Government structure of databases and the language classes, which they’ll want to manipulate
building in the EH99 postcode area, but used to query the data. and manage.
could only afford £60 a night for at least Other discussions will follow. Is it legal
two bedrooms, which table or tables would to scrape data? None of the downloaded
I look in, and what criteria would I use? The data is hidden or hacked, but do we TONY HARKINS
SQA exam board that my school follows have the right to extract, store, and Tony is head of computing at St Aloysius’
plans queries as shown in Figure 1. From manipulate it? How could bot software College, Glasgow.
there, it’s then trivial to code this query: be programmed to scrape the data? Why

The Big Book of Computing Content 91

ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE
94 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE,
IN SUMMARY
96  ENGAGING CHILDREN
WITH AI ETHICS
98 BIG IDEAS IN AI EDUCATION
100  OPBOTS OPEN AI TO THE
P
YOUNGEST LEARNERS
101 SNAPSHOTS FROM THE
HISTORY OF AI
104  ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
IN THE CLASSROOM
 rtificial intelligence (AI) encompasses a range of IN THIS SECTION,
A technologies that analyse large data sets to identify YOU WILL FIND:
patterns, which they then use to make predictions, ■ Learning outcomes:
classify objects, or generate entirely new artefacts. artificial intelligence, in summary

In developing an understanding of AI, learners will explore ■ What the research says:
examples of different AI applications and the crucial role of AI ethics

data in these systems. In comparison to traditional rule-based ■ What the research says:
big ideas in AI education
systems, where decisions made by the system are governed
by programmed rules, AI systems make decisions based on ■ AI for preschoolers

patterns in data — patterns that may be harder for humans ■ The history of AI

to explain. Learners will explore how AI systems make use of ■ Ideas for discussions in the classroom
models, as well as looking at how such models are generated.
Alongside this technical knowledge, learners will also need to
understand the social and ethical implications of AI.
Artificial intelligence is an emerging technology, and as such
is a new strand within the Raspberry Pi Foundation’s taxonomy
of formal education content. While there is a broad consensus
as to the importance of learners understanding, applying, and
building with AI systems, there is less agreement
about what, how, and when we should teach it.
Many relevant tools, initiatives, and resources
are nonetheless available, and there are
multiple active research projects in this area.
This section therefore provides an insight into
AI education at this point in time.

The Big Book of Computing Content 93

IN SUMMARY

IN SUMMARY

ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE
Understand the capabilities and
limitations of artificial intelligence,
along with its applications and wider
impacts

STAGE 1 STAGE 2
■ Recognise that AI systems are computing ■ Name examples of AI applications in a wider
systems that are designed and built by people societal context

■ Describe examples of the problems ■ Contrast the benefits and issues of using
associated with using and trusting AI and trusting AI systems
systems
■ Describe how data is key to AI systems and the
■ Describe the purpose of familiar AI applications decisions they make

■ Describe examples of where AI can

generate digital artefacts

■ Describe examples of where AI can classify

(images, sounds, text, etc.)

■ Understand that AI systems can be used to

make predictions

■ Describe a model as a representation of the real or

a fictional world

■ Recognise that a model’s performance can

be improved by adding more training data

94 The Big Book of Computing Content

 IN SUMMARY

In the table below, you will find suggested learning outcomes

associated with the ‘Artificial intelligence’ strand of the Raspberry
Pi Foundation’s computing taxonomy. These learning outcomes are
illustrative of the kinds of knowledge and understanding that learners
could develop in this area of computing. They are not prescriptive,
but instead aim to illustrate the wide applications of the discipline.
These learning outcomes were originally proposed to complement
the English national curriculum for computing, and as such, stage 1
roughly corresponds to ages 5–7, stage 2 to ages 7–11, stage 3 to
ages 11–14, stage 4 to ages 14–16, and stage 5 to ages 16–19.

STAGE 3 STAGE 4 STAGE 5

■ Describe how the quality of data determines the ■ Describe how a machine learning model is trained ■ Describe the main AI paradigms
success of an AI application
■ Name ethical standards and guidelines for ■ Describe the potential social, cultural, and
■ Explain how AI systems pose a potential threat to creating and using AI economic impacts of AI
equal opportunities
■ Compare the advantages and disadvantages of ■ Compare AI learning types (supervised,
■ Identify common types of AI application supervised learning algorithms unsupervised, reinforcement)

■ Identify the parts of a system that are AI and the ■ Design and test supervised learning ■ Compare AI task types (classification,
parts that are not solutions for classification problems regression, clustering, generative, decision-
making)
■ Compare data-driven models and ■ Train models and incorporate them into a
rule-based models programmed solution ■ Identify different AI engines (e.g. decision trees,
k-nearest neighbors, neural networks, linear
■ Describe how the data life cycle is applied to an ■ Evaluate whether a model is fit or not fit for regression)
AI system purpose
■ Explain that different engines have different
■ Train a machine learning model ■ Identify a neural network as a supervised learning levels of explainability
algorithm
■ Explain the difference between training and ■ Choose the right algorithm to solve a particular
test data ■ Identify the different components of a problem
neural network and describe their purpose
■ Evaluate the performance of a ■ Describe the role of weights and
decision-tree model ■ Evaluate the performance of a neural network backpropagation during the training of a
neural network

The Big Book of Computing Content 95

 RESEARCH
© kentoh/stock.adobe.com

ENGAGING CHILDREN
WITH AI ETHICS
STORY BY Ben Garside

rtificial intelligence (AI) is a term that approach teaching young people about it. Why is this important?
A is now in most people’s vocabulary, Researchers Mhairi Aitken and Morgan Aitken and Briggs stress that learning
even if the meaning isn’t always understood. Briggs at The Alan Turing Institute have about AI through this lens is important;
With huge amounts of data constantly being found that many curricula designs focus on children need to understand the role of AI
generated in the world, alongside regular AI and data science skills and capabilities, in their lives and critically engage with this
developments in hardware capabilities, more to “equip the next generation to pursue technology if they are to make informed
and more systems that we interact with, or careers in these fields” (helloworld.cc/ choices about how they interact with it. The
that make decisions about us, use AI. As a aitken2022). They make the case that paper illustrates that it’s almost guaranteed
result, educators are becoming increasingly AI education needs to go beyond simply that every young person will at some point
interested in teaching young people about preparing young people for careers, and interact with, or be the subject of, a decision
this technology. At the same time, there isn’t that we should instead make it a priority made by an AI system. For example, if a child
a huge amount of evidence-based research to encourage discussions about the social interacts with a voice-based digital home
in this area of education, so curriculum and ethical ways in which AI is designed, assistant, or uses a social media app, they
designers are making choices as how best to developed, and deployed. will be submitting their data and interacting

96 The Big Book of Computing Content

 RESEARCH

with AI applications, perhaps unbeknown Child-centred AI centred AI into practice. The paper thus
to them! These examples might both seem As well as the more negative examples recommends a substantive approach
harmless, but many such systems aren’t discussed above, the paper highlights that to engaging children around AI ethics,
designed with children in mind, and without “children and young people have a unique engaging young people in discussions
children having a basic education about set of needs, and it is important to note that that help them understand the role and
how they work, there may be unforeseen if developed ethically and responsibly and impact AI has in their lives and allows them
problems. Aitken and Briggs quote the with children’s voices included and listened to “critique the ways that AI is designed,
case of a ten-year-old child who asked an to, AI technologies could provide beneficial developed, and deployed”. The researchers
Amazon Alexa for a challenge, with Alexa outcomes”. For example, the researchers focus on the benefits of this type of
responding with a challenge that placed the argue that within education, AI could help approach and highlight that if young people
child’s safety at risk. support children’s learning, such as through are involved in this way, they are better
The paper also describes how AI systems real-time translation, allowing children equipped to make “informed choices” and
might have an impact on “shaping children’s to access global educational resources, to “hold AI systems and their developers to
views of the world”, such as deciding what or by supporting those with visual or account”. Translating this for the classroom,
content to display to them online, what hearing impairments. However, to ensure this means that to engage children with
content to filter out, and influencing the that children’s needs and interests are AI, we should begin with no assumptions
about what they already know, and should
promote a dialogue, asking questions like:

“ AI IS INCREASINGLY IMPACTING CHILDREN’S

LIVES AND SHAPING THE FUTURE SOCIETIES
n What do you know about AI? What do
you want to know?

IN WHICH THEY WILL LIVE AND WORK n What are your concerns, interests, and

priorities?
n What are the important issues in your

lives to which AI might relate, or have a

friendships they develop via social media. accounted for, ethical principles need to be positive or negative impact?
AI could also “impact and shape children’s followed. Here, Aitken and Briggs introduce
lives” through influencing the provision an area of research called child-centred As the paper concludes, it is essential for
of services. A recent example Aitken and AI, which aims to ensure that children are future AI workforces to include a “diverse
Briggs point to was the algorithm used by involved throughout all stages of the AI life mix of skills and expertise encompassing
Ofqual (England’s Office of Qualifications cycle in a “meaningful and worthwhile way”. technical, social, ethical, legal, and policy
and Examinations Regulation) to help A summary of the main components of dimensions”. While there is a place for
determine grades after examinations were child-centred AI are as follows: teaching young people the technical skills
cancelled in 2020 due to the pandemic. related to AI, children and wider society
The algorithm awarded exam grades which n Helping children to make informed would clearly benefit from education going
clearly showed that students from less choices about their interactions with, and beyond this and teaching them about the
privileged backgrounds were disadvantaged uses of, AI importance of ethics and critical thinking
compared with students who attended n Enabling children and young people to within this ever-changing technology.
private schools. The system was designed play a role in discussions shaping future

FURTHER READING
to achieve fairness, but because of a lack AI practices
of attention towards ethical considerations, n Ensuring the next generation of developers

the result was a system that “exacerbated and policymakers are equipped with an
existing inequalities in society leading to understanding of the ethical considerations Aitken, M., & Briggs, M. (2022).
unfair outcomes”. AI is clearly increasingly around AI and its uses Engaging children with AI ethics. In
impacting children’s lives and shaping the n Ensuring ethical mindsets of future
AI, data science, and young people.
future societies in which they will live and developers and members of the tech Understanding computing education
work. Aitken and Briggs conclude that it industry (Vol 3). Proceedings of the Raspberry
is therefore vital that children and young Pi Foundation Research Seminars.
people are equipped to interrogate and Organisations that are creating and using helloworld.cc/aitken2022
understand the role of AI systems. AI may find it challenging to put child-

The Big Book of Computing Content 97

RESEARCH

BIG IDEAS IN AI EDUCATION

STORY BY Sue Sentance

rom September 2021 to March ideas shared in one of these seminars, describe what educators should teach in US
F 2022, the Raspberry Pi Foundation presented by Professor Dave Touretzky schools across the discipline of computer
hosted a series of seminars in partnership and Professor Fred Martin, about how to science, but they say very little about AI. As
with The Alan Turing Institute focused approach teaching AI. such, this was the stimulus for starting the
on artificial intelligence (AI), machine AI4K12 initiative.
learning, and data science education AI4K12 The AI4K12 project has a number of goals.
(helloworld.cc/AIseminars). These are The AI4K12 project (ai4k12.org), One is to develop a curated resource directory
important topics in both the Foundation’s spearheaded by Touretzky and Martin, for K–12 teachers, and another is to create
learning resources for learners and focuses on teaching AI in K–12 (that is, to a community of K–12 resource developers.
educators, and for our programmes of learners aged 4–18) in the US. The AI4K12 Several members of the AI4K12 working
research, and will only become more team has aligned its vision for AI education group are practitioners in the classroom who
important as AI increasingly becomes to the CSTA standards for computer science have made a huge contribution to taking this
ingrained in our societies. In this article, I education (helloworld.cc/CSTAstandards). project from idea stage to fruition. If you’ve
will summarise and explore some of the These standards, published in 2017, heard of AI4K12 before, it’s probably because
of the Five Big Ideas the team has set out, to
encompass the AI field from the perspective
© AI4K12

of school-aged children (helloworld.cc/

fivebigideas). These ideas are:

1. P
 erception: the idea that computers

perceive the world through sensing

2. R
 epresentation and reasoning: the idea

that agents maintain representations of

the world and use them for reasoning
3. L
 earning: the idea that computers can

learn from data

4. N
 atural interaction: the idea that

intelligent agents require many types

of knowledge to interact naturally
with humans
5. S
 ocietal impact: the idea that artificial

intelligence can impact society in both

positive and negative ways

We sometimes hear concerns that

resources being developed to teach AI
concepts to young people are too narrowly
focused on machine learning, particularly
supervised learning for classification.
It’s clear from the AI4K12 Five Big Ideas
that the team’s definition of the AI field
n The AI4K12 project’s Five Big Ideas in AI encompasses much more than this one

98 The Big Book of Computing Content

 RESEARCH

area. Despite being developed for a US approach, which would mean showing Professor Matti Tedre and Dr Henriikka
audience, I believe the description laid out students an AI system’s inputs and outputs Vartiainen shared their description of
in these five ideas is immensely useful to all only, to demonstrate what AI is capable of computational thinking 2.0 (helloworld.
educators, researchers, and policymakers without trying to teach any technical detail. cc/tedreseminar). Their description
around the world who are interested in The AI4K12 researchers are keen focuses only on the ‘Learning’ aspect of
AI education. for learners to understand, at an age- the AI4K12 Five Big Ideas, and on the
During the seminar, Touretzky and Martin appropriate level, what is going on inside distinct ways that thinking underlies
shared some great practical examples. an AI system, not just what the system can data-driven programming and traditional
Martin explained how the big ideas do. They believe it’s important for young programming. From this, we can see some
translate into learning outcomes for each people to build mental models of how AI differences between how different groups
of the four age groups (ages 5–8, 9–11, systems work, and that when young people of researchers describe the thinking skills
12–14, and 15–18). You can find out more get older, they should be able to use their young people need in order to understand
about their examples in their presentation increasing knowledge and skills to develop and develop AI systems. Tedre and
slides (helloworld.cc/AI4K12ppt) or their own AI applications. Vartiainen are working on a more granular
description of machine learning thinking,
which has the potential to impact the way

“ WE MUST UNDERSTAND PROGRESSION —

WHAT YOU LEARN WHEN, AND IN WHICH
we teach machine learning in school.
Another description of AI thinking comes
from Juan David Rodríguez García, who
SEQUENCE — BEFORE WE CAN TEACH AI presented his system, LearningML, at
another of the Raspberry Pi Foundation’s
seminars (helloworld.cc/garciaseminar).
the seminar recording (helloworld.cc/ What does AI thinking look like? Rodríguez García drew on a paper by
AI4K12seminar). Touretzky addressed the question of Brummelen, Shen, and Patton (helloworld.
I was struck by how much the AI4K12 what AI thinking looks like in school. His cc/brummelen2019), who extended
team has thought about progression approach was to start with computational Brennan and Resnick’s CT framework
— what you learn when, and in which thinking (he used the example of of concepts, practices, and perspectives
sequence — which we do really need to the Barefoot project’s description of (helloworld.cc/brennan2012) to include
understand well before we can start to computational thinking as a starting point; concepts such as classification, prediction,
teach AI in any formal way. For example, helloworld.cc/barefootCT) and describes and generation, together with practices
looking at how we might teach visual AI thinking as an extension that includes such as training, validating, and testing.
perception to young people, children might the following skills: What I take from this is that there is
start when very young by using a tool such much still to research and discuss in this
as Teachable Machine to understand that n Perception area! It’s a real privilege to be able to hear
they can teach a computer to recognise n Reasoning from experts in the field and compare and
what they want it to see (helloworld. n Representation contrast different standpoints and views.
cc/teachablemachine), then move on to n Machine learning Read more from our AI and data science
building an application using Scratch plug- n Language understanding education presenters in their write-
ins or CalypsoAI (calypsoai.com), and then n Autonomous robots ups of their seminars (helloworld.cc/
to learning the different levels of visual RPFseminarpapers).
structure and understanding the abstraction He went described AI thinking as furthering
pipeline — the hierarchy of increasingly
abstract things.
the ideas of abstraction and algorithmic
thinking commonly associated with
FURTHER READING
computational thinking, stating that with AI,
Glass and opaque boxes computation actually is thinking. My view is Touretzky, D. S., & Martin, F. (2022,
Touretzky and Martin support teaching AI that to fully define AI thinking, we need to January 11). Teaching Artificial
to children using a glass-box approach. By dig a bit deeper into, for example, what is Intelligence in K-12 [seminar
this we mean that we should give students involved in developing an understanding of presentation]. Raspberry Pi
information about how AI systems work, perception and representation. Research Seminar.
and show the inner workings, so to speak. Thinking back to a previous Raspberry helloworld.cc/touretzky2022
The opposite would be an opaque-box Pi Foundation research seminar,

The Big Book of Computing Content 99

 FEATURE

POPBOTS OPEN AI TO THE

YOUNGEST LEARNERS
From Siri to gaming, artificial intelligence is all around us.
Ben Hall explores an innovative project that makes this
technology accessible to preschoolers

ery often, the most vivid examples tablet, and merely exposing them to it will Research-led
V of how quickly children learn and not introduce new concepts. How can we PopBots are still in the early stages of
progress can be seen in the youngest age develop children’s computing knowledge so development and are not yet widely available.
groups. A great example is how children it will encourage them to be more than just Despite this, there is already a growing body
use construction-based resources such as passive users? of research investigating the inclusion of AI
wooden blocks, train tracks, or LEGO®. in the curriculum at an early age. Williams
Often, children experience these for the AI literacy would like to see PopBots developed as an
first time when they enter the primary Could artificial intelligence (AI) provide open-source platform that students could
classroom. Initially, they will use these an answer? A Massachusetts Institute of build from classroom materials. Research
resources in quite a free, unstructured way. Technology team has aimed to make AI supports further development.
Over time, with guidance and support, accessible by developing PopBots, small A recent paper by Williams and colleagues
they construct increasingly complex and robots that are used to introduce AI to investigates how AI can influence young
imaginative models, often linked to other children. They have also developed easy-to- children’s perceptions of robots (helloworld.
areas of learning. The models from the end use resources to complement the hardware. cc/williams2019). They found perceptions
of the year are unrecognisable from those One such resource explores machine of robots are shaped at an early age, so
constructed at the beginning. learning, where a robot can be programmed for children to be AI-literate, their earliest
Can the same be said of children’s to sort healthy or unhealthy foods. Children experiences should be meaningful and
first encounters with technology in the begin by classifying foods for the robot, informed. It is an emerging technology, so
classroom? Many schools will provide access but soon realise it would take too long to the research is at an early stage, but there is
to tablets or computers as part of their do this for every single food type. Through no doubt that AI will increasingly shape our
early-years provision, but how much of that supervised machine learning, children can world. Helping children develop a conceptual
is about consuming the technology, and do quickly train PopBots to classify foods and understanding at an early age needs to be at
children relate it to real-world applications? develop their own understanding of healthy the forefront of curriculum development.
In my experience, simply having the devices eating. Through this simple activity, children
available is not enough — most children start become AI-literate creators — turning a
school able to navigate their way around a passive device into something that makes BEN HALL
informed, intelligent decisions. Ben is a learning
Randi Williams, who worked on the manager at the
Raspberry Pi
WHAT IS A POPBOT? PopBots project, gives her view on
introducing children to AI: “Children’s Foundation. He’s
views of themselves relative to technology a former primary
PopBots are constructed using LEGO and use a change. Their views of how much they can teacher, a CAS
mobile phone with additional LEGO or Arduino participate in technological invention change. Master Teacher,
peripherals. Users interact with them via a I love the fact that early AI education makes and a Raspberry Pi Certified Educator
programming interface on a tablet or computer. children feel more curious about their world, (@hengehall).
and empowered to change it.”

100 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

SNAPSHOTS FROM
THE HISTORY OF AI
George Boukeas introduces fascinating
stories to share with your students

he story of artificial intelligence a proxy for answering the question: the are still the yardstick for intelligence, but
T(AI) is a story about humans trying imitation game. there is no requirement that a machine
to understand what makes them human. In modern terms, you can imagine should think in the same way humans do,
Some of the episodes in this story are a human interrogator chatting online as long as it behaves in a way that suggests
fascinating, and could help learners catch a with another human and a machine. If some sort of thinking to humans.
glimpse of what the field is about and, with the interrogator does not successfully In his essay, Turing also discusses
luck, compel them to investigate further. determine which of the other two is the learning machines. Instead of building
human and which is the machine, then highly complex programs that would
The imitation game the question has been answered: this is a prescribe every aspect of a machine’s
In 1950, Alan Turing published a machine that can think. behaviour, we could build simpler programs
philosophical essay titled Computing This imitation game is now a fiercely that would prescribe mechanisms for
Machinery and Intelligence, which started debated benchmark of artificial intelligence learning, and then train the machine to learn
with the words: “I propose to consider the called the Turing test. Notice the shift in the desired behaviour. Turing provides an
question: can machines think?” Yet Turing focus that Turing suggests: thinking is to be excellent metaphor that could be used in
did not attempt to define what it means identified in terms of external behaviour, not class to describe the essence of machine
to think. Instead, he suggested a game as in terms of any internal processes. Humans learning: “Instead of trying to produce a
programme to simulate the adult mind,
why not rather try to produce one which
simulates the child’s? If this were then
subjected to an appropriate course of
education one would obtain the adult brain.
We have thus divided our problem into
two parts. The child-programme and the
education process.”
It is remarkable how Turing even
describes approaches that have since
evolved into established machine learning
methods: evolution (genetic algorithms),
punishments and rewards (reinforcement
learning), and randomness (Monte Carlo
tree search). He even forecasts the main
© chrisdorney/stock.adobe.com

issue with some forms of machine learning:

opacity. “An important feature of a learning
machine is that its teacher will often be very
largely ignorant of quite what is going on
inside, although he may still be able to some
extent to predict his pupil’s behaviour.”

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 FEATURE

The evolution of a definition program, and Turing famously played a few The evaluation function was handcrafted
The term ‘artificial intelligence’ was coined games with human opponents executing by human experts, and the only form of
in 1956, at an event called the Dartmouth the algorithm by hand. Claude Shannon learning was the system’s ability to fine-
workshop. It was a gathering of the field’s wrote Programming a Computer for tune some of its parameters.
founders; researchers who would later have Playing Chess in 1950, in which he laid the Modern chess-playing programs need
a huge impact, including John McCarthy, foundation for many of the search techniques to evaluate far fewer positions and do
Claude Shannon, Marvin Minsky, Herbert that would later be applied in games not require specialised hardware to vastly
Simon, Allen Newell, Arthur Samuel, Ray (helloworld.cc/shannon1950). outperform human players. The last known
Solomonoff, and W. S. McCulloch. Search is the main approach for playing win by a human against a top chess-
The simple and ambitious definition for many of these games, systematically playing machine was in 2005.
Deep Blue’s victory was part of an
impressive string of achievements,

“ INTELLIGENCE IS THE QUALITY THAT

ENABLES AN ENTITY TO FUNCTION
but there were problems that seemed
elementary and yet proved extremely hard
to tackle. This was eloquently summarised
APPROPRIATELY AND WITH FORESIGHT in Don Knuth’s remark: “AI has by now
succeeded in doing essentially everything
that requires ‘thinking’ but has failed to
artificial intelligence, included in the proposal generating and evaluating positions do most of what people and animals do
for the workshop, is illuminating: “making and moves. That may sound trivial for a ‘without thinking’ — that, somehow, is
a machine behave in ways that would computer, but the number of combinations much harder!” It is only very recently that
be called intelligent if a human were so in non-trivial problems quickly explodes AI has made breakthroughs in the latter
behaving”. These pioneers were making the exponentially, and a brute-force class of problems, such as image and
assumption that “every aspect of learning enumeration of all the possible outcomes is speech recognition, and this is the main
or any other feature of intelligence can in impossible. Shannon estimated the number reason it has become so prominent.
principle be so precisely described that a of different chess games to 10120. In these
machine can be made to simulate it”. This vast search spaces, a lot of thought needs Watson
assumption turned out to be false, and led to to go into evaluating search states, to guide In 2011, Watson, a computer system built
unrealistic expectations and forecasts. Some the search effort and prune non-promising by IBM, competed against two human
50 years later, McCarthy himself stated that search paths. champions in a game of Jeopardy! The
“it was harder than we thought”. In his paper, Shannon discussed the highly publicised match resulted in an
Modern definitions of intelligence value of research in games, explaining that impressive win for Watson, in a context that
are of a distinctly different flavour: a solution “will act as a wedge in attacking would traditionally have been considered
“Intelligence is the quality that enables an other problems of a similar nature and extremely hard for a computer to tackle.
entity to function appropriately and with of greater significance”. Indeed, search Watson is not really a computer system
foresight in its environment” (helloworld. was the driving force behind many of the for playing Jeopardy!, though. It is a system
cc/nilsson2009). Some even speak of landmark achievements in the field: making that uses multiple different techniques
rationality: “doing the right thing, given plans and schedules, proving theorems to answer questions posed in natural
what it knows” (helloworld.cc/russell- with logic, solving algebraic problems,
norvig1995). making inductions, and so on.

Playing games: search Deep Blue FURTHER READING

A lot of research in artificial intelligence In 1996, the chess world champion Garry
has focused on games. Over the Kasparov played against Deep Blue, a Artificial Intelligence by Michael Wooldridge
years, programs for playing draughts, purpose-built IBM computer. Deep Blue helloworld.cc/wooldridge2018
backgammon, and many other games have became the first chess machine to ever win Machine Learning for Humans by Vishal Maini and
reached competence levels that surpassed a game and, a year later, the first to win Samer Sabri helloworld.cc/maini2017
the best human players. a match against a world champion under
The Quest for Artificial Intelligence: A History of Ideas
However, chess was the most prominent regular time controls. Kasparov’s defeat
and Achievements by Nils Nilsson helloworld.cc/
game, right from the start. Alan Turing made the headlines and is considered a
nilsson2009
and David Champernowne developed milestone in the history of AI.
a basic algorithm called Turochamp for The main driving force behind Deep Blue Machines Who Think by Pamela McCorduck
playing chess back in 1948. It took years was search: it was able to generate and helloworld.cc/mccorduck2004
for that algorithm to be implemented into a evaluate 200 million positions per second.

102 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

THE STRATEGY
“ GAME GO WAS
ALWAYS THE
HOLY GRAIL
OF GAME AI

language. In order to answer a question,

Watson generates multiple hypotheses and
seeks to support them by drawing evidence
from a body of sources. In other words,
Watson is able to provide justification for
its answers. There are many areas where
Watson is now being applied; one of the
most prominent involves assisting doctors
with diagnosis and suggested treatment. n Neural networks are behind nearly all AI technology
Watson’s level of complexity is
astonishing, and it would be impossible to also taking the weights into account. A Enter AlphaGo, a computer program by
develop such a system without some form neural network can learn in the sense that DeepMind. In 2017, AlphaGo beat Ke Jie,
of learning. Echoing Turing’s comments its weights can be modified, swaying the the world’s top-ranked player at the time,
about learning machines, Grady Booch, output in more desirable directions. following victories over other high-ranking
who was involved in building Watson, Behind every recent breakthrough professional players.
remarked that “building a cognitive system in artificial intelligence, you will find AlphaGo combines previously known
[like Watson] is fundamentally different a neural network. Teaching a neural methods in a novel way. It studies
than building a traditional software- network of sufficient complexity requires human games or uses self-play, in
intensive system of the past. We don’t a significant amount of training instances order to learn how to evaluate positions
program them. We teach them.” and computational power. Even though and moves. It uses neural networks to
neural networks have been around for compute its evaluation functions and
Neural networks decades, it is only in the last few years modify them while learning. It searches
A neural network receives input values that their potential has been realised, as through the vast space of possible
and computes output values, which are the amount of available training data has positions by taking random samples,
influenced by a set of parameters called skyrocketed and computing power, along instead of searching systematically.
the weights. The function computed with dedicated hardware, has become This is such a promising generic
is a composition of simpler functions, more readily available. approach that AlphaZero, a generalised
represented by individual neurons. Building version of the program, used only self-play
a neural network boils down to how AlphaGo to achieve a superhuman level of play in
these simpler functions are organised Go is an ancient strategy game for two the games of chess, Shogi, and Go within
and composed (the network ‘topology’), players, who take turns placing black and 24 hours. This is a step closer to Turing’s
white pieces (stones) on a 19x19 board. vision of a blank slate child-programme,
It is a notoriously difficult game for endowed with the ability to learn.
computers. The number of possible board
positions is estimated at an astronomical
10170. Traditional search techniques GEORGE
are pointless in such a vast space of BOUKEAS
possibilities, and it has proved very hard George is a former
© Alexy Napalkov/stock.adobe.com

to develop functions that reliably evaluate computing teacher

positions in order to guide the search. and is now a Python
Researchers estimated that it might take engineer while figuring
decades for machines to beat humans at out what he wants to
Go, which was considered to be the holy do when he grows up.
grail of game AI.

The Big Book of Computing Content 103

 FEATURE

n A strong understanding of AI is paramount if young

people are to succeed in the data-driven economy

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
IN THE CLASSROOM
Emily Dreimann shares ideas for kick-starting discussions on artificial intelligence

here’s little doubt that artificial lifelike robot Sophia, for example, has interactions with the technology. Here are
T intelligence (AI) has captured our become a familiar sight on talk shows, and just a few of the angles from which we can
collective imagination. TV series and films has even starred in music videos. approach this topic, and suggestions for
increasingly explore the implications of this At the same time, our understanding of resources that can complement them.
technology, from family favourites such how we personally interact with AI in our
as WALL-E to the distinctly darker Black day-to-day lives, and how we can use it to AI in action
Mirror. Robotics companies, meanwhile, our advantage, remains limited. Ask a class With the recent proliferation of smart
are transforming the more benign of these of 13-year-olds what they think of when speakers and virtual assistants, this
visions into reality: Hanson Robotics’ they hear ‘artificial intelligence’, for example, technology can be a useful framework for
and the answers tend towards a common an initial discussion around the key tenets
theme: ‘creepy’; ‘sinister’; ‘taking over the of artificial intelligence. Most young people
EMILY world’. How do we keep interest levels up will have been exposed to these devices
DREIMANN while grounding AI in reality and preparing in some form; fewer, however, are likely
Emily is a digital students for the workplaces of the future? to identify them as an example of AI. You
communications For young people to be able to lead and could ask students:
officer who succeed in the data-driven economy, a n What does AI look like?
previously worked strong understanding of this ever-evolving n What does it sound like?
at the David & Jane technology is paramount. To engage n To what extent should it mirror
Richards Family students with this topic, lessons should not human behaviour?
Foundation only highlight the many forms that artificial Google’s Duplex AI assistant is a great
(@em_dreimann). intelligence can take in the real world, but example of the capabilities and potential of
also offer a tangible experience of and this technology. In a popular video of the

104 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

n Smart speakers can be a useful starting

© Anthony Brown/stock.adobe.com
point for a discussion about AI

GET CREATIVE
WITH DATA
AI and machine learning form a key part of
Get Creative With Data, a data science course
for students aged 11–14 from the David & Jane
Richards Family Foundation (@DJRichardsFF).

Complete course materials are available for

free to all state schools. For more information
about introducing the course at your school,
visit djrff.org.

assistant in action, we can hear it making

calls to several businesses, sounding
sufficiently humanlike in its interactions to annual Turing test competition. Would any common sense when determining a course
fool the real humans on the other end of the of these have convinced them they were of action as a strength that machines cannot
line. This somewhat unnerving potential of speaking to a real human? emulate. This can encourage students to
AI is likely to hook students, while it remains On the website AI Weirdness, meanwhile, understand AI as a tool to complement us,
grounded in reality as an aid and time saver, research scientist Janelle Shane publishes rather than compete with us.
rather than a replacement, for humans. the entertaining results of her experiments Meanwhile, developments in self-driving
Quick, Draw! is a great resource for training neural networks on existing content vehicle technology present a unique
highlighting to students another manifestation across a range of topics, from cat names opportunity for students to explore ethics
of AI. The game challenges the user to create to knitting patterns. Taking Halloween in the context of computer science. Moral
a series of doodles, while a neural network
attempts to guess what they are drawing.

“
Coupled with its hands-on, accessible nature,
this activity has the potential to engage even
AI ARGUABLY REMAINS A THEORETICAL
the most reluctant of students. CONCEPT, WHILE MACHINE LEARNING CAN
Not so intelligent? ALREADY BE SEEN IN ACTION IN INDUSTRY
At the same time, we need students to be
critical in their appraisal of AI technology.
The statement that ‘Machine learning is costumes as an example, you could allow Machine, developed by the Massachusetts
written in Python; artificial intelligence is students to explore; with suggestions such Institute of Technology, is an interactive
written in PowerPoint’ is a great starting as ‘sentient stone’ and ‘a skunk in a moose tool that asks the user to judge the most
point for this discussion. You could ask suit’, it should quickly become apparent to acceptable outcomes of a series of moral
students what they understand by this. The them that this technology has some way to dilemmas faced by a self-driving car. By
aim here is to draw out the idea that we can go in capturing the uniquely human traits of engaging with this modern take on the
already see machine learning in action in creativity and humour. classic trolley problem, students develop a
industries across the globe, while AI arguably deeper and more personal understanding
remains a theoretical concept. Has anyone Branching out of the ethical challenges surrounding
yet created a truly intelligent machine? AI and machine learning can also be ideal artificial intelligence.
There is a wealth of resources that we starting points for generating lively debate These activities have been popular in
can draw on to assist students in forming around other key topics in computing. An schools I have worked with. Teachers have
their own opinions in this debate. The Turing unplugged activity in which students create commented that pupils were “fully engaged”
test, for example, is an important concept for their own algorithm to guide a visitor from and found the topic “really interesting”. By
students to understand and remains a useful the school reception to their classroom providing students with an interactive forum
benchmark against which to measure the is an ideal catalyst for a discussion about in which to explore AI, we have an excellent
capabilities of AI technology. Encourage your the differences between how people and opportunity to support the next generation
students to read aloud some transcripts for machines make sense of instructions. We in confidently claiming their place in the
entries to the Loebner Prize, a now defunct can highlight the ability of humans to apply modern world.

The Big Book of Computing Content 105

IMPACT OF
TECHNOLOGY
108 IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY, IN
SUMMARY
110  INSPIRING YOUNG PEOPLE WITH
CONTEXTS THEY CARE ABOUT
112 HOW MORAL IS YOUR MACHINE?
115 THE THIN BLUE PIXELATED LINE
118 DOES UPGRADE CULTURE NEED
AN UPGRADE?
122  ROTECTING CHILDREN FROM
P
BREATHING HAZARDOUS AIR
 earners are constantly surrounded by technology, IN THIS SECTION,
L and new innovations impact every part of their YOU WILL FIND:
lives. For them to become successful digital citizens ■ Learning outcomes:
or go on to develop new technologies themselves, learners impact of technology, in summary

need to understand the impact that technology has on ■ What the research says:
individuals and on society at large. Technology may impact for contexts to inspire

better or worse, and in a wide range of ways, including health ■ Morals and ethics in computer science

and well-being, careers, privacy, global politics, equality, and ■ What the law says about hacking
the environment. ■ Upgrade culture
Our approach to learning about the impact of technology
■ Air pollution project
begins with learners identifying technology around them
and its direct impact on them as individuals, both at home
and at school. Beyond this focus, they then start to explore
the benefits and issues for society, specifically through the
lens of moral, ethical, and legal frameworks, and the rights
of individuals and organisations. Ultimately, they begin to
think more from a global perspective, considering issues of
equity and challenges facing the environment. Throughout
their study, learners will encounter familiar
examples and contexts, as well as considering
the challenges presented by emerging
technologies such as artificial intelligence
and machine learning.

The Big Book of Computing Content 107

 IN SUMMARY

IN SUMMARY

IMPACT OF
TECHNOLOGY
Understand the impact of computer
systems on individuals, organisations,
and society

STAGE 1 STAGE 2
■ Identify and describe familiar examples of ■ Identify tasks that are managed by computer
information technology systems

■ Identify information technology that can be ■ Recognise that human decisions determine
used in more than one way the use and impact of information
technology
■ Use information technology for different activities
■ Explain how the internet allows data to be
■ Explain why we use information technology shared globally
and some of its benefits
■ Explain the benefits of a given information
technology system

■ Explain similarities and differences between

digital and non-digital tools

■ Consider ownership and copyright when

selecting content

108 The Big Book of Computing Content

 IN SUMMARY

In the table below, you will find learning outcomes associated with
the ‘Impact of technology’ strand of the Raspberry Pi Foundation’s
computing taxonomy. These learning outcomes are illustrative of the
kinds of knowledge and understanding that learners could develop in
this area of computing. They are not prescriptive, but instead aim to
illustrate the wide applications of the discipline.
These learning outcomes were originally developed to complement
the English national curriculum for computing, and as such stage 1
roughly corresponds to ages 5–7, stage 2 to ages 7–11, stage 3 to
ages 11–14, stage 4 to ages 14–16, and stage 5 to ages 16–19.

STAGE 3 STAGE 4 STAGE 5

■ Analyse information sources to judge their ■ Contrast the varying access, knowledge, and ■ Identify the challenges of legislating and enforcing
credibility opportunities of different global communities in the law in a global digital world
relation to information technology
■ Explain the benefits of information ■ Discuss the impact that emerging
technology for individuals and wider ■ Identify the positive and negative impact technologies will have on the workforce and
society that computing has on the environment economies

■ Describe the potential harms of information ■ Describe the sustainability challenges associated ■ Outline the data protection principles that
technology upon society and individuals with digital technologies developers and organisations must comply with

■ Recognise the need for laws related to the ■ Outline the benefits and risks to individuals ■ Describe the laws that aim to protect
misuse of computers and data as a result of emerging technologies individuals from malicious communication
(for example AI)
■ Describe the difference between legal, ethical, ■ Evaluate the societal impacts of digital
and moral behaviours ■ Describe the rights that individuals have in technologies, including how we work, communicate,
relation to their personal data learn, and entertain
■ Consider content copyright and credit
sources of information ■ Outline laws that aim to protect individuals and ■ Compare the positive and negative impacts
organisations from digital crime of digital technologies on our physical and
■ Discuss uses of information technology that may mental health
be considered immoral or unethical ■ Describe examples of situations where
digital technologies introduce bias or ■ Identify factors that affect the accessibility,
■ Explain the importance of seeking diverse reduce equity usability, and cultural relevance of digital
perspectives in evaluating and improving technologies
digital artefacts
■ Discuss the ways in which technological
products and tools cater for all members of a
diverse population

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 RESEARCH

INSPIRING YOUNG
PEOPLE WITH CONTEXTS
THEY CARE ABOUT
STORY BY Oliver Quinlan

any young people get into making people with mental health issues with Ideas, technology, and skills
M things with computers through managing their medication. The idea for From our research into these and
an early interest in the technology itself. this project came from the interest in many other projects, we put together
There are many others who may not be health issues of one of the project team a framework to help us understand the
as fascinated by technology for its own and drew on the experience of their different ways in which young people
sake, but given the right context, can see parent, who was working in healthcare. approach making digital projects. We found
it as a powerful tool to make a difference The team had worked together before and that successful digital projects involve three
to the things they care about. met through a summer coding camp. For key areas: ideas, technology, and skills.
One such compelling context is health this project, they wanted to take skills they What tends to happen is that young
and well-being. We see just how many had learnt together and apply them to an people start their projects with an
children care deeply about issues in this area they all cared about. They combined emphasis on one of these three areas.
area every year from the projects entered a lot of thoughtful design work with both Many start with the technology that they
to Coolest Projects, the Raspberry Pi hardware and software skills to realise have access to and explore its potential
Foundation event showcasing young their idea as a working prototype. uses. This is an important consideration,
people’s digital projects.
n The interaction of ideas, technology, and
Back in 2018, the Foundation carried skills in the Locking Medical Box project
out some research looking at the stories
behind the projects children presented
at the events in the UK and Ireland. One
of the most highly regarded projects at
the UK event was Be Healthy, an app to
guide people’s diets and health habits.
The young creator of this app took a
holistic view of health and created a single
app that could encourage people to live
healthy lives in a variety of ways. They
focused very much on the design of the
app, starting with the goals they wanted
to achieve and then exploring how they
would realise them with the technology.
Another was Locking Medical Box, a
physical computing project that supported

110 The Big Book of Computing Content

 RESEARCH

n The Be Healthy app creator

at Coolest Projects

as a lack of access to technology can be Other young people start with an idea Evidence from research into formal
very limiting. This approach appeals to in an area they care about and want to education shows that when computing
young people with a strong interest in make a difference to. This approach can lessons address contexts young people
technology for its own sake, and allows be a challenge for adults to facilitate, as feel apply to them, such as health and well-
them to explore the possibilities of it requires young people to figure out being, it can help to motivate groups that
particular technologies. how they can execute ideas that are are usually less engaged with computing,
Some young people start with skills they often quite ambitious, using technology particularly girls (see the ‘Further reading’
have learnt or want to learn, and create a they have access to and skills they can box). This suggests that encouraging
project to apply these skills. In our research, realistically acquire during the course of young people to approach digital making by
we found that this approach was less the project. It is a common tendency to be focusing on the ideas that matter to them
common than the other two. It is a focus ambitious with ideas, but matching them could be an effective way of opening up the
that we saw being taken by young people to a comfortably challenging level of skill activities to a wider range of students.
who already had quite a lot of experience and the technology available to them can The Foundation is currently working
with computing and digital making. require some support. together with Apps for Good (helloworld.
cc/appsforgood) and the Behavioural
Insights Team (helloworld.cc/thebit)

TIPS FOR TAKING AN ‘IDEAS to explore this approach to computing

lessons in schools, as part of the RPF
FIRST’ APPROACH TO PROJECTS Gender Balance in Computing research
project. For more information, and for
examples of projects that you could share
n Make it clear to young people that the n Try to help learners break down their
focus isn’t on learning about technology ambitious ideas into chunks or steps with young people, see the publication
for its own sake, but using technology that might be more achievable with the How Children Make Digital Projects
to make a difference to things they care skills, technology, and time available. at helloworld.cc/projectsresearch.
about.

n Share examples of projects linked to

n Help learners work out what the
minimum viable version of their idea is,
FURTHER READING
topics like health and well-being, and so they can get to something functional
help young people see that they can use quickly and feel a sense of achievement; Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz,
digital technology in contexts like this they can always iterate and add to it J. M. (2009). Promoting Interest and
that they may not realise are possible. later on. Performance in High School Science
Classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410-
n Be prepared for young people to want to 1412. helloworld.cc/hulleman2009
n Set aside time away from the technology
to talk to young people about the areas do things you might not know how to do Kemp, P. E. J., Berry, M. G., & Wong,
that interest them and the issues they yourself. Support them to use forums (if B. (2018). The Roehampton Annual
care about; understanding this well will age-appropriate) and online resources. Computing Education Report.
help you notice opportunities to build on You don’t have to know everything, but
University of Roehampton, London.
their interests. you can help them figure out how to learn!
helloworld.cc/kemp2018

The Big Book of Computing Content 111

 FEATURE

© patpitchaya/stock.adobe.com
HOW MORAL IS YOUR MACHINE?
Diane Dowling explores the moral and ethical dimension of computer science education

he A-level computer science and the lower animals, the moral sense or forums. Such a wide sphere of influence
T specification of all English exam conscience is by far the most important.” It can and will result in diverse views of
boards requires students aged 17–18 is a generally accepted view that as humans what is right and wrong, even between
to have the ability to ‘articulate the we all have: members of the same household.
individual (moral), social (ethical), legal, Some moral values are widely held by
and cultural opportunities and risks of n The ability to anticipate the consequences most societies, but there can be shades of
digital technology’. of our own actions grey in even the most widely held beliefs.
The terms ‘ethics’ and ‘morals’ are n The ability to make value judgements ‘Thou shalt not kill’ is a tenet of many
sometimes used interchangeably, as both n The ability to choose between alternative religions, and most people, when asked,
refer to behaviour that can be labelled as courses of action will agree that killing another human being
‘right’ or ‘wrong’. Ethics may be guided or is wrong. However, across the globe, 56
directed by codes of conduct in schools or Although we all have the capacity for countries retain the death penalty, and
workplaces, or by faith leaders, for those moral behaviour, our individual moral code research shows that in these countries,
who practise a religion. Ethical guidance is not biologically determined, but arises as the majority of the population agrees that
is provided to computing professionals a result of human experience. The society the penalty is an appropriate punishment
by external bodies such as the British in which we live influences our morals; for those in society who commit the most
Computer Society, which sets the for young people, they will be formed by serious crimes.
professional standards of competence, the views of parents, teachers, and other An interesting dilemma arises when we
conduct, and ethical practice for computing people they interact with. Increasingly have to choose between two alternative
in the United Kingdom. for most of us, this will include content courses of action, where both are morally
On the other hand, morals are guided by consumed through the internet. The reprehensible. An example of such a
our own principles and a sense of permitted internet does not respect national borders; dilemma is the much-studied trolley problem.
behaviour. Charles Darwin maintained thoughts and ideas can be readily shared In this thought experiment, there is a
that “Of all the differences between man on social media, in chat rooms, and on runaway trolley. Ahead, on the tracks, there

112 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

are five people tied up and unable to move; for making this impossible choice?
the trolley is heading straight for them. You An algorithm may ensure that consistently
are standing, some distance away, next to reliable decisions are made, but whose
a lever. If you pull this lever, the trolley will morals will determine the way that
switch to a different set of tracks. However, autonomous machines are programmed?
you notice that there is one person on the Would you rather a human could override a
side track. You have two options: machine-made decision, or that rules were
absolute and consistently applied? Machine
n Do nothing and allow the trolley to kill the learning muddies the debate still further.
five people on the main track Neural networks used for this purpose are

© caifas/stock.adobe.com
n Pull the lever, diverting the trolley onto the difficult to analyse in order to determine
side track, where it will kill one person why a decision was produced, so there is a
serious issue of accountability.
The dilemma can be made more challenging The Massachusetts Institute of Technology
by adapting the alternatives to include has created a website — moralmachine.net n Charles Darwin wrote of humans’ sense of morality

children or animals, or by varying age, — that is collecting data to help researchers

gender, intelligence, or socioeconomic by providing a platform for “building a which students propose arguments for both
factors. Examples of how the trolley problem crowd-sourced picture of human opinion sides will allow a wide range of views to
can be used in the classroom were given by on how machines should make decisions be shared and discussed. However, there
Marc Scott on page 86 of Hello World issue when faced with moral dilemmas, and are issues that need careful consideration;
12 (helloworld.cc/12). crowd-sourcing assembly and discussion of for example, when discussing autonomous
vehicles, a young person with a friend or
family member who has been involved in a

DELEGATING MORAL DECISION-MAKING

“
traffic accident might find this a very hard
topic to engage with.
TO MACHINES CAN BE FASCINATING OR Life-and-death choices are at the

FRIGHTENING, DEPENDING ON OUTLOOK extreme end of the decision dilemma.

There are many less contentious areas that
could be discussed. In her excellent book,
Hello World: Being Human in the Age of
Make the link potential scenarios of moral consequence”. Algorithms, mathematician Hannah Fry
The moral conundrum is interesting, but how Projects such as this will allow researchers introduces a range of topics, from medicine
does any of this relate to computer science? to gain a better understanding of the choices to law, where algorithms are already being
The fact is that many of today’s computer that humans make. used to automate decision-making. For
science students will become the software In guiding young people through the example, in some US states, an algorithm
engineers of the future, and a large number moral maze, there are many topics that can that uses data about a defendant to estimate
will be faced with the task of designing be discussed in the classroom to promote their likelihood of committing a future
and writing code for artificial intelligence lively discussion. Facilitating a debate in crime is deployed to recommend whether
applications such as self-driving cars.
These programs will have to make complex,
autonomous decisions that are often a
matter of life or death.
The prospect of delegating moral
decision-making to machines can be
fascinating or frightening, depending on
your outlook. The trolley problem can be
abstracted to encompass many moral
dilemmas. Sometimes, unprecedented
situations such as the coronavirus
© Goodpics/stock.adobe.com

pandemic will throw up new dilemmas. In

hospitals worldwide, medics were forced
to prioritise their patients. Who gets a
ventilator when there is insufficient supply
for all those who need one? Would it be
better if a machine had the responsibility n Surveillance and privacy are hotly debated topics in ethics

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 FEATURE

someone awaiting trial should be granted

bail. If you search for more information on
INTEGRATING THE STUDY OF MORALS
this, you will quickly find some fascinating
examples of bias in the data.
“ AND ETHICS WILL RELATE REAL-WORLD
Artificial intelligence and automated
decision-making are not the only topics in
ISSUES TO MORE THEORETICAL TOPICS
which morals play an important role. The use
of big data, and the ability of organisations
and government to analyse personal can facilitate lively debate. How much assault, and the #MeToo hashtag quickly
information, are also worth discussing. freedom should people have to express swept the globe and empowered victims to
The power of the state to monitor a viewpoint? Where is the line between speak out. Social media also gives a voice
behaviour is always contentious. Advances what is allowed and what should be to many who live in less liberal societies. In
in facial recognition technology are enabling banned? In the 2019 UK General Election, Hong Kong, activists have been able to use
some regimes to monitor and track their many female candidates said that they social media to communicate and organise
citizens, putting in doubt the principle of felt unsafe. In research funded by Joseph large-scale demonstrations against what
informed consent. Since December 2019, Rowntree Reform Trust, analysis of they saw as an attempt by the Chinese
all mobile phone users in China registering 139,564 tweets sent on a single day in government to undermine the region’s
new SIM cards must submit to facial November 2019, which either replied to autonomy and civil liberties.
recognition scans, giving rise to suspicion of or otherwise mentioned any of the 2503
mass state surveillance. election candidates who used Twitter, Plan for morals and ethics
Such an initiative would previously have found that 23,039 (16.5 percent) of the Integrating the study of morals and ethics
been widely vilified by more democratic total were abusive. into your scheme of work for computer
societies but, since coronavirus has Of greater relevance to teenagers might science will provide the opportunity to
swept the globe, many governments be the death of Molly Russell, a 14-year- relate real-world issues to more theoretical
are now deploying tracking apps. In the old girl who took her own life in 2017. Her topics, and to make them relevant to the
UK, the government released an app to Instagram account contained distressing world we live in. Many of the topics
automatically collect details of those we material about self-harm and suicide. introduced in this article are emotionally
had been in close contact with, to help Molly’s father claimed the algorithms used challenging, and teachers may feel
control the spread of the virus. Many will by some online platforms push similar uncomfortable introducing them into the
applaud such initiatives, but defenders of content towards you, based on what you classroom. However, many of these issues
civil liberties and the right to privacy will had been previously looking at. are relevant and important for older learners
be dismayed by such developments; their However, there are also stories of who are nearing adulthood. Teachers have a
moral code would not condone such a social media being used for collective unique place in the lives of young people
measure, even for the greater good. change. In 2017, actor Alyssa Milano and an important role in steering and
The use of social media and other encouraged people to say ‘me too’ if they guiding their moral development.
online platforms is another area that had experienced sexual harassment or

DIANE DOWLING
Diane is a learning manager at the
© Stanislav/stock.adobe.com

Raspberry Pi Foundation, where she works

on the Isaac Computer Science platform.
In her spare time, she is a trustee of a
national charity that runs robotics events
for sixth-formers.
n Sometimes, social media can inspire positive change

114 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

THE THIN BLUE

PIXELATED LINE
Jon Chippindall and Alan Merrett discuss what the law says about hacking
and the resources you can use to educate your learners

ention ‘hacking’ or ‘hackers’ to cybercrimes, and share some resources you discussions in game-modding forums at the
M your class and you might spot a can use to educate your pupils. Although top end of primary-school age (helloworld.
few smiles or exchanged glances. There this article focuses on UK law, its learnings cc/ncareport). Looking at the makeup of
might even be confessions of “I managed should still be relevant for all. many digital literacy curricula, perhaps
to hack so-and-so’s Roblox account once.” we’ve spent too much time on teaching
Pupils’ eagerness to identify as hackers “It’s OK, I only teach primary” how to protect against cybercriminals at the
might be somewhat explained by the You might question whether we need to expense of reminding pupils not to become
romanticisation of hacking in popular be covering the legalities of hacking in cybercriminals themselves! What’s more, the
culture. But let’s be absolutely clear: without primary schools, as surely these pupils are advent of new off-the-shelf hacking tools has
express permission, unauthorised access too young to be at risk of offending — but lowered the bar of the technical knowledge
to any computer system is illegal, and our you’d be surprised. The Pathways Into Cyber required to undertake cyberattacks, so it’s
pupils need to know this so they don’t find Crime report from the UK’s National Crime more important than ever that we educate
themselves on the wrong side of the law. In Agency (NCA) highlighted that 61 percent of pupils from a young age on what is and isn’t
this article, we’ll unpick a little about what hackers start hacking before the age of 16, OK to do with computers.
the law says around hacking and other and many can trace their pathways back to There is also a real positive opportunity
here to promote cybersecurity career choices
and strike an appropriate balance of stick
and carrot. Pupils need to know what is
illegal, but they also need to know that if they
have an interest in the computer science
behind hacking, there is an ever-growing
world of jobs available to them when they’re
a bit older. Many offenders interviewed by
the NCA and police officers were motivated
not through malicious intent, but by genuine
curiosity, and by the satisfaction to be gained
from solving the complex technical challenge
of the hack. If we can get these pupils on
the right track, they’ll be a huge asset to any
organisation that employs them to defend
their digital interests. So, what does the law
n Figure 1 Child-friendly translations of the laws constituting the UK’s Computer Misuse Act 1990 actually say?

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 FEATURE

© oz/stock.adobe.com
FURTHER
RESOURCES
barefootcomputing.org/cyber: all the
activities mentioned in the article
and more can be downloaded here.

[email protected] or
[email protected]: email
addresses for additional cybercrime-
related support in the UK.

What the law says

In the UK, the Computer Misuse Act 1990
(helloworld.cc/cma1990) sets out what
constitutes illegal activity with a computer.
There are five elements of the law, which were
translated into child-friendly explanations as
part of Barefoot’s Be Cyber Smart resources;
these are shown in Figure 1. This figure also
shows details of the sentences people can
receive if convicted of each element, including
MANY CYBERCRIMINALS INTERVIEWED
imprisonment and fines.
To bring the Computer Misuse Act to life, “ WERE MOTIVATED NOT BY MALICE, BUT
let’s look at a selection of real prosecutions
to illustrate the elements that make up the BY GENUINE INTEREST AND CURIOSITY
law. The following case information was
taken from a record of convictions available
at helloworld.cc/cmacases. This record Case 2 From these three cases alone, we can see
could be explored with older pupils to A disgruntled Jet2 employee launched a the far-reaching impact of cybercrimes. Here,
deepen their understanding of when and revenge attack that shut down Jet2’s booking the victims include those whose online services
how the law is broken, but please be aware system and accessed the CEO’s email. were being used without their permission,
that some cases include crimes of a sexual Recovery cost the company £165,000 (about and social media users whose personal
nature that are inappropriate for students. $188,000). The person was convicted of information was sold without their knowledge
accessing Jet2’s files without permission and — potentially leading to further crimes such
Case 1 subsequently damaging them (breaking laws as identity theft. In their interviews, the NCA
A 22-year-old student created software 1 and 3). They were sentenced to ten months learnt that cybercriminals often see their crimes
capable of harvesting names and passwords in prison and their laptop was destroyed. as victimless. With large-scale hacks, though,
for various online services. They deployed the the number of victims can vastly surpass those
software to gather these credentials so that Case 3 affected by traditional crimes, as demonstrated
they could then access the services for free. A student hacked into social media and in these case studies. Most large businesses
They were imprisoned for six months after gaming accounts using a program they had now employ cybersecurity teams to prevent
they were found guilty of creating the software created, and then sold the personal information hacks by regularly testing their organisation’s
to harvest login credentials (breaking law 5) from them (breaking laws 1 and 4). They defences. These penetration testers are
and accessing the services without permission were sentenced to four months’ imprisonment, just one example of the careers available
(breaking law 1). suspended for one year. in cybersecurity.

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By introducing pupils to the Computer barrister, and jury members. Pupils then hear
Misuse Act 1990 (or your country’s a number of cybercrime cases and for each,
equivalent) and case studies such as these, consider whether the law has been broken,
we can lead discussions to educate pupils on who the victims are, and what the punishment
what constitutes the illegal use of computers, might be. The resources even include
the impact of these crimes, and the sentences templates to create a barrister’s wig for pupils
perpetrators can receive. Here is a selection of and a judge’s wig for the teacher!
JON CHIPPINDALL &
questions to lead a discussion with pupils: From the same set of resources, You’re the ALAN MERRETT
Cyber Security Expert brings us back to the Jon (pictured) is the Barefoot director and
n  How was the law broken? positive opportunities of the topic, namely the computing lead at Crumpsall Lane
n  What specific part of the law was broken? raising awareness of cybersecurity careers. It Primary School in Manchester, UK. He also
n  Who are the victims? How are they affected? does this by giving pupils a taste of life in leads the computing PGCE at The University
n  What might the punishment be? this field as they learn what a brute-force of Manchester. Alan is a senior officer in the
hack is and, importantly, what strategies we Cyber Prevent Team at the UK’s National
Taking this one step further, the free Barefoot could deploy to guard against it. So, for Crime Agency. He has 34 years of law
You’re the Jury resources, which can be those pupils who exchanged a knowing enforcement experience, including overt
downloaded for free at barefootcomputing. glance at the mention of hacking, let’s and covert roles with HM Customs and a
org/cyber after a quick registration, suggest harness that curiosity and raise their team leader role at the UK’s Interpol Desk
turning classrooms into courtrooms and awareness of the rewarding careers that and Fugitives Unit.
putting pupils in the roles of defendant, pursue this interest legally.

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 FEATURE

DOES UPGRADE CULTURE

NEED AN UPGRADE?
Mac Bowley questions our habit of swiftly replacing devices with newer
versions, with some interesting discussion points for students

echnology is more embedded in be a single root cause of upgrade culture. manufacturers and mobile network carriers,
T our lives than ever before, and This is why I want to start a conversation and for their profit margins, a two- or three-
most of us now carry a computer in our about it, so we can challenge our current year life cycle of devices is beneficial.
pocket everywhere we go. On top of that, perspectives and establish fact-based Where do you, as a consumer, see your
the length of time for which we use each attitudes. I think it’s time that we, as role in this process? Is it wrong to want
individual piece of technology has rapidly individuals and as a society, examined our to upgrade your phone after two or three
decreased. This is what’s referred to as relationship with new technology. years of constant use? Should phone
upgrade culture, a cycle that sees many companies slow their development, and
of us replacing our most trusted devices What is the natural lifespan of a device? would this hinder innovation? And, if you
every two to three years with the latest Digital technology is still so new that really need to upgrade, is there a better use
products offered by tech giants such as there is really no benchmark for how long for your old device than living in a drawer?
Apple and Samsung. digital devices should last. This means These questions defy simple answers, but
How we got to this point is hard to that the decision-making power has by your students should be aware of their role
determine, and there does not seem to default landed in the hands of device in this process as consumers, so this is a
great area for in-class discussion.
© sashazerg/stock.adobe.com

How does this affect the environment?

As with all our behaviours as consumers,
the impact that upgrade culture has on
the environment is an important concern.
Environmental issues and climate change
aren’t anything new, but they’re currently at
the forefront of the global conversation, and
with good reason.
There are a number of issues around the
manufacture of our mobile devices, such as
the large amounts of energy required. Here,
n Is it wrong to want to upgrade your phone after two or three years of constant use? though, I would like to focus on another

118 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

© Kirill Gorlov/stock.adobe.com
n A common trope of mobile phone adverts is the overwrought
aspect of the environmental impact of there are renewable alternatives, you’ll comparison of your current device with a newly launched version
device production: the materials that are be disappointed: a study by researchers
used to create some of the tiny components working at Yale University found that there or environmentally friendly. As many of
that form our technological best friends. are currently no alternative materials that are the mines are located in distant areas of
Some components of your phone as effective (helloworld.cc/graedel2013). developing countries, these problems may
cannot be created without using rare Then there’s the issue of how the feel remote to you, but they affect a lot of
chemical elements, such as europium and materials are mined. The market trading people and are a direct result of the market
we are creating by upgrading our devices
so frequently.
WE HAVE LET DEVICE MANUFACTURERS
“ AND NETWORK CARRIERS TELL US HOW
Many of us agree that we need to do
what we can to counteract climate change,
and that to achieve anything meaningful,
LONG OUR DIGITAL DEVICES SHOULD LAST we have to start looking at the way we
live our lives. This includes questioning
how we use technology. It will be through
dysprosium. (In fact, there are 83 stable these materials is highly competitive, and discussion and opinion-gathering that we
non-radioactive elements in the periodic more often than not, manufacturers buy can start to make more informed decisions
table, and 70 of them are used in some from the companies that offer the lowest — both as individuals and as a society.
capacity in your phone; see helloworld. prices. To maintain their profit margins,
cc/phoneelements). Upgrade culture these companies have to extract as much The obsolescence question
means there is high demand for these material as possible, as cheaply as they You probably also have that one friend/
materials, and deposits are becoming can. As you can imagine, this leads to colleague/family member who swears by
more and more depleted. If you’re hoping mining practices that are less than ethical their five-year-old mobile phone and scoffs

The Big Book of Computing Content 119

 FEATURE
© R_yosha/stock.adobe.com

n The length of time for which we use individual pieces

of technology has declined rapidly

at the prices of the newest models. These after a new model is released, our opinion

© Onidji/stock.adobe.com
people are often labelled as sticklers who are of our device worsens, even if only on a
afraid to join the modern age, but is there subconscious level.
another way of seeing them? The truth is, if This marketing strategy is related
you’ve bought a phone in the last five years, to a business practice called planned
then — barring major accidents — it will most obsolescence, which sees manufacturers
likely still function, and be just as effective as purposefully limiting the durability of their
it was when it came out of the box. So why products in order to sell more units. An
are so many consumers upgrading to new early example of planned obsolescence
devices every two or three years? is the light bulb, invented by the Edison
There isn’t a single reason, but I believe company. It was relatively simple for the
marketing departments should shoulder company to create a light bulb that would
much of the responsibility. Using marketing last 2500 hours, but it took years and
strategies, device manufacturers and a coalition of manufacturers to make a
mobile network carriers purposefully version that reliably broke after 1000 hours
encourage us to view the phones we (helloworld.cc/lightbulb). We’re all aware
currently own in a negative light. A that the light bulb revolutionised many
common trope of mobile phone adverts aspects of life, but it turns out it also had
is the overwrought comparison of your a big influence on consumer habits and on
current device with a newly launched what we see as acceptable practices by
n Manufacturers often purposefully limit the durability of
version. Thus, with each passing day technology companies. their products in order to sell more units

120 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

WE ARE WIDENING THE DIGITAL DIVIDE

“ BY PLACING MORE VALUE ON NEW
TECHNOLOGY THAN IS WARRANTED

The widening digital divide celebrated — but do you ever stop and ask
The final aspect of the impact of upgrade who really benefits from this? Is your new
culture that I want to examine relates to phone really that much better than the old
the digital divide. This term describes the one, or could it be that you’re mostly just
societal gap between the people with basking in the social rewards of having the
access to, and competence with, the latest newest bit of kit?
technology, and the people without these What do you think? Time for you to
privileges. To be able to upgrade, say, discuss with your students! Here are some
MAC BOWLEY
Mac is a learning manager at the Raspberry
your mobile phone to the latest model discussion starters to use with them:
Pi Foundation. When he isn’t teaching, you
every two years, you either need a great
can usually find him tinkering with his latest
degree of financial freedom, or you need ◊ When you are in charge of buying your
project (@Mac_Bowley).
to tie yourself to a 24-month contract that own phone, what can you do to make
may not be easily within your means. As a the device last longer than the usual
society, we revere the latest technology and two- to three-year upgrade cycle? Upgrade culture is one of the topics for
hold people with access to it in high regard. ◊ Do you think upgrade culture is which we offer you a discussion forum on
What does this say to people who do not something that should be addressed our free online Impact of Technology
have this access? by mobile phone manufacturers and course (helloworld.cc/impactoftech). The
Inadvertently, we are widening the providers, or is it caused by our own course, designed for educators, also
digital divide by placing more value on new consumption habits? covers how to facilitate classroom
technology than is warranted. Innovation ◊ How might we address upgrade culture? discussions about these topics — sign up
is exciting, and commercial success is Is it a problem that needs addressing? today to take part for free!

WHAT ABOUT RASPBERRY PI TECHNOLOGY?

Obviously, this article wouldn’t be complete if we didn’t share our ON THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF OUR HARDWARE
perspective as a technology company. So here’s Raspberry Pi Trading CEO “We’re constantly working to reduce the environmental footprint of
Eben Upton: Raspberry Pi. If you look at the USB connectors on Raspberry Pi 4, you’ll see
a chunky black component. This is the reservoir capacitor, which prevents
ON OUR HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
the 5V rail from dropping too far when a new USB device is plugged in. By
“Raspberry Pi tries very hard to avoid obsoleting older products. Obviously
using a polymer electrolytic capacitor from our friends at Panasonic, we’ve
the latest Raspberry Pi 4 (helloworld.cc/pi4) runs much faster than
been able to avoid the use of tantalum.
Raspberry Pi 1 (something like 40 times faster), but a Raspberry Pi OS
“When we launched the official USB-C power supply for Raspberry
(helloworld.cc/rpiOS) image we release today will run on the very earliest
Pi 4 (helloworld.cc/piUSBC), one or two people on Twitter asked if we
Raspberry Pi prototypes from the summer of 2011. Cutting customers off
could eliminate the single-use plastic bag that surrounded the cable and
from software support after a couple of years is unethical, and bad for
plug assembly inside the box. Working with our partners at Kuantech, we
business in the long term: fool me once, shame on you; fool me twice, shame
found that we could easily do this for the white supplies, but not for the
on me. The best companies respect their customers’ investment in their
black ones. Why? Because when the box vibrates in transit, the plug scuffs
platforms, even if that investment happened far in the past.
against the case; this is visible on the black plastic, but not on the white.
“What’s even more unusual about Raspberry Pi is that we aim to keep our
So for now, if you want to eliminate single-use plastics, buy a white supply.
products available for a long period of time. So not only can you run a 2020
In the meantime, we’ll be working to find a way (probably involving cunning
software build on a 2014 Raspberry Pi 1B+; you can actually buy a brand-new
origami) to eliminate plastic from the black supply.”
1B+ to run it on (helloworld.cc/pi1b).”

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 FEATURE

PROTECTING CHILDREN FROM

BREATHING HAZARDOUS AIR
James Abela shares how his computer science students solved the very real problem of
predicting air pollution and looks at the classroom environment that made this possible

n 2018, Indonesia burned measurements from around the city, we through higher-order tasks, or do group
I approximately 529,000 hectares of might have some visibility as to when work, and it creates more supervised
land. That’s an area more than three times pollution was likely to affect our school. coding time.
the size of Greater London, or almost the I initially started doing this because when
size of Brunei. With so much forest being Making room for student-led projects I set coding challenges for homework, I
burned, the whole region felt the effects of I’ve always encouraged my students to often had students who confessed they had
the pollution. Schools frequently had to ban do their own projects, because it gives spent all night trying to solve it, only for me
outdoor play and PE lessons, and on some programming tasks meaning and creates to glance at the code and notice a missing
days, schools were closed completely. Many something they can be genuinely proud colon or indentation issue. I began flipping
schools in the region had an on-site CO2 of. The other benefit is that it gives them the less difficult theory for students to do
detector to reveal when pollution was bad, something to talk about in university essays as homework, to create more programming
but by the time the message could get out, and interviews, especially as they often time in class where we could resolve issues
children had already been breathing in the need to do extensive research to solve the more quickly. This then evolved into a
polluted air for several minutes. problems central to their projects. system in which students could work much
My Year 12 students (aged 16–17) This project was much more than this: more at their own pace, and eventually led
followed the news and weather forecasts it was a genuine passion project in every to a point at which older students could,
intently, and we all started to see how sense of the word. Three of my students in effect, learn through their own projects,
the winds from Singapore and Sumatra approached me with the idea of tracking such as the pollution monitor.
were sending pollution to us in Kuala CO2 to give schools a better idea of when
Lumpur. We also realised that if we had there was pollution and which way it was Building the pollution monitor
going. They’d had some experience of using The students started by looking at existing
Raspberry Pi computers, and knew that it weather station projects — for example,
was possible to use them to make weather there is an excellent tutorial at helloworld.
n Arduino sensor used for
detecting pollution stations, and that the latest versions had cc/weatherstation. Students discovered
wireless LAN capability that they could use. that wind data is relatively easy to get over
I agreed to support them during allocated a large area, but the key component would
programming time, and to help them reach be something to measure CO2.
out to other schools. We found a sensor (the CCS811 sensor
I was able to offer students support with module) on a Malaysian site called Lazada.
this project because I flip quite a lot of the It was designed to work with an Arduino,
theory in my class. Flipped learning is a and so we connected our Raspberry Pi
teaching approach in which some direct via its USB port to an Arduino, and so to
© Arduino.cc

instruction, for example reading articles the CO2 sensor. You could also order a
or watching specific videos, is completed more accurate sensor directly from the
at home. This enables more of our class Arduino store (the MG-811 sensor) or
time to be used to answer questions, work order a variety of sensors from eBay, such

122 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

n Circuit design of the CO2 sensor using just Raspberry Pi; designed on circuito.io

as the MQ-135 hazardous gas sensor. We Beaten to the punch

IT WAS A GENUINE
then used the Get started with Arduino
guide (helloworld.cc/getstartedarduino)
We were not the only ones with such an
idea, and a company called IQAir began “ PASSION PROJECT
to help us connect the two together. The selling the AirVisual Pro around this time,
advantage for us was that the CO2 sensor which did almost exactly what we hoped IN EVERY SENSE
module we bought was designed to to do, and did it incredibly well. Schools
interface with the Arduino, so it was easier were already very receptive to the idea
to install. It is also possible to connect and quickly invested in the technology. It
Raspberry Pi directly to such a sensor is still very impressive to think that three
using a breadboard, an analogue-to-digital Year 12 students came up with an idea that
converter (MCP3008 will work), a 1K solved the very real concern of pollution
resistor, and a 470 ohm resistor (see the visibility and were only fractionally behind a
circuit design image above). commercial solution.
We were very pleased to see that This project really helped these students
data started to come through showing to decide whether they enjoyed the
us the CO2 levels. Our plan was to run hardware side of computing, and solving
the Raspberry Pis headless and export real-world issues encouraged them to see
this data to Google Sheets. We found computing as a practical subject. This is a
an excellent way to do this in Python message that has resonated with other
using the Google Sheets API (helloworld. students, and we’ve since doubled the
cc/sheetsapi). This meant that our number of students taking A-level computer
spreadsheet was automatically loaded with science. Since doing this project, I’ve JAMES ABELA
real data, and from there we could make encouraged students to take on the James is the head of computing at Garden
a visualisation to show the CO2 data as it Extended Project Qualification (helloworld. International School in Kuala Lumpur,
was being generated. We also contacted cc/extendedproject). This will give them Malaysia. He is an RPi Certified Educator,
other schools around Kuala Lumpur to time to explore concepts fully and allow founder of the South East Asian Computer
see if they would be interested in putting them to put their programming to good use, Science Teachers Association, and author of
a device on their roof, and most were tackling problems that interest them and The Gamified Classroom (@eslweb).
interested in the idea. that the world needs solving.

The Big Book of Computing Content 123

DESIGN AND
DEVELOPMENT
126 DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT,
IN SUMMARY
130 TEAM DIVERSITY AS A PREDICTOR OF
INNOVATION
131 ONE DESIGN, THREE WAYS
134 AGILE METHODOLOGIES IN THE
CLASSROOM
136 TESTING: THE FEAR LOVE OF
FAILURE
 henever learners develop a digital artefact, whether IN THIS SECTION,
W it be a program, video, database, or something YOU WILL FIND:
else, they will typically engage in some design and ■ Learning outcomes:
development activities. These activities incorporate analysis, design and development, in summary

planning, implementation, testing, and evaluation. Throughout ■ What the research says:
their journey in computing, learners should apply and hone the importance of team diversity

these skills using relevant tools and techniques. Most learners ■ Design in the primary classroom

will have some previous experience of design processes from ■ Agile methodologies
other subjects, but they may not necessarily associate them ■ Testing and a culture of positive failure
with computing.
In the early stages of their learning, there is a focus on
learners planning and communicating their ideas and
discovering the value in planning before they put those
ideas into practice. They will also learn to express the key
requirements of a task and to provide feedback on their own or
others’ solutions. As they progress, they will encounter more
formalised approaches to designing, testing, and evaluating
their products. Increasingly, the responsibility for analysis,
user research, and establishing success criteria for a particular
project will shift to the learners themselves, until
they are able to independently design and
develop significantly complex digital artefacts
that meet the needs of their audience.

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 IN SUMMARY

IN SUMMARY

DESIGN AND
DEVELOPMENT
Understand the steps involved in
analysing, planning, creating, and
evaluating computing artefacts

STAGE 1 STAGE 2
■ Outline the broad requirements of a task ■ Explain the key requirements a digital artefact has
to fulfil to meet the needs of its audience
■ Experiment with different tools and
approaches to understand what is possible ■ Explain the limits of what is possible with
before building a solution available tools, time, and understanding

■ Use planning templates to sketch and describe ■ Describe the benefits of planning before creating
solutions before building them a project

■ Follow a plan to create a solution ■ Create structured plans for solutions

using templates (flowcharts,
■ Choose appropriate media from a limited selection storyboards, diagrams)

■ Gather and provide feedback on ■ Create a first draft or prototype of a solution,

finished artefacts including key features

■ Check that a solution meets the task requirements ■ Iterate and improve a solution
incorporating suitable media

■ Test and gather feedback on a solution throughout

its development

■ Evaluate the success of a solution for

the task

126 The Big Book of Computing Content

 IN SUMMARY

In the table below, you will find learning outcomes associated

with the ‘Design and development’ strand of the Raspberry Pi
Foundation’s computing taxonomy. These learning outcomes are
illustrative of the kinds of knowledge and understanding that learners
could develop in this area of computing. They are not prescriptive,
but instead aim to illustrate the wide applications of the discipline.
These learning outcomes were originally developed to complement
the English national curriculum for computing, and as such, stage 1
roughly corresponds to ages 5–7, stage 2 to ages 7–11, stage 3 to
ages 11–14, stage 4 to ages 14–16, and stage 5 to ages 16–19.

STAGE 3 STAGE 4 STAGE 5

■ Summarise the requirements, purpose, and ■ Develop success criteria based on a project brief ■ Describe different approaches and
audience of a task and user research methodologies to software development,
such as prototyping and the agile approach
■ Analyse existing solutions to identify what ■ Research around a problem to determine
is possible and what ‘good’ looks like the size, feasibility, and scope of a ■ Identify a problem and produce a clear brief that
planned solution includes measurable objectives
■ Identify appropriate planning techniques for a
given project ■ Decompose a problem into manageable chunks ■ Research a problem, making
and produce project plans recommendations as to its feasibility,
■ Develop and communicate plans for benefits, and risks
projects using formal structured formats ■ Build a project, recording versions and
documenting decisions ■ Produce comprehensive plans, detailing all aspects
■ Build limited prototypes that prioritise the of a project
required features of a solution ■ Develop and collaborate on a project following a
modular or staged approach ■ Generate and apply test plans to digital and
■ Choose design assets to suit the purpose physical artefacts
and audience of a task ■ Distinguish between different types of
testing and their purposes ■ Explain the features that make a digital
■ Test finished artefacts alongside alternative artefact maintainable and extendable
solutions as part of evaluation ■ Select and apply a range of suitable tests to a
digital artefact ■ Explain what is meant by the functionality,
■ Compare an artefact with the task and effectiveness, usability, and reliability of a
user requirements ■ Evaluate a project using previously defined digital artefact
success criteria
■ Seek feedback from a broad range of individuals ■ Evaluate a project against its project brief
to improve a digital artefact ■ Gather feedback on the accessibility of a digital and objectives
product in order to improve the user experience
for all ■ Use collaboration tools to design and develop a
digital artefact as part of a team

The Big Book of Computing Content 127

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The Big Book of Computing Content 129

 RESEARCH

TEAM DIVERSITY AS A PREDICTOR OF INNOVATION

STORY BY Thom Kunkeler

eam diversity is one of the both in face-to-face university settings The results of the study indicate that
T core advantages of learning in and in online classrooms, for the course diverse teams were rated more highly on
groups, and new research has shown ‘Nanotechnology and nanosensors’. The project innovation, both for online and face-
its benefits for project innovation. The diversity of a team was rated according to-face learners. This evidence supports
study, conducted at the Israel Institute to four variables: gender, native language, the idea that working in collaboration with
of Technology, found that the inclusion academic discipline, and academic level. people from diverse backgrounds enhances
in classroom settings of people from Not surprisingly, the group of online creative ideas and innovative solutions. In
various academic disciplines and levels learners was more diverse than the group particular, the study found that a mixture of
helps students create innovative and of university students, with followers from academic discipline and academic level — the
implementable solutions. Individual over 150 countries. The group of university task-related diversity — was key to project
differences, researchers found, invite students, although less diverse in native innovation. For teachers, this type of research
students to approach situations in language than the online group, showed should be taken as an incentive to experiment
various ways, and stimulate new ideas slightly more diversity in gender. with classroom diversity for group projects.
and fresh perspectives. To understand how diversity relates to So, how diverse is your classroom?
Over the past few decades, student project innovation, both groups of learners
populations have become increasingly were split up into teams of four and were
FURTHER READING
mixed on biodemographic variables such asked to develop a new product. In the
as gender, age, and ethnicity. Although creative stage, students had to create Usher, M., & Barak, M. (2019). Team
barriers to participation in education still new ideas, and in the application stage, diversity as a predictor of innovation
persist, classrooms are increasingly mixed, the implementation was carried out. The in team projects of face-to-face
especially in online settings. innovation of students’ team projects was and online learners. Computers
For this study (helloworld.cc/usher2019), assessed on product necessity, STEM & Education, 144. helloworld.cc/
Usher and Barak were interested in how interdisciplinarity, market readiness, and usher2019
diversity relates to project innovation, innovation type.
© Svitlana/stock.adobe.com

n Working in collaboration with people from diverse backgrounds enhances creativity

130 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

ONE DESIGN, THREE WAYS

Matthew Wimpenny-Smith explores the importance of implementing design in
programming lessons through a project with his upper-primary learners

esign is very important, but can

D often be overlooked in computing
projects, as we tend to be too quick to
jump straight into the coding or making
stage. Without good design and an
understanding of how to implement it,
though, we don’t get good products or
services — or code, for that matter! So
why do we encourage children to be
creators rather than consumers, without
any consideration given to design?
Back in April 2018, I (Matthew)
attended a fantastic three-day course
run by Jane Waite called Diving Deep
into Primary Programming, where there
was much discussion and debate about
how to implement design in computing
lessons. For the 2019 academic year, I
then set myself the goal of getting my
pupils to really think about design and
how to implement it.
Of course, spending time thinking
about design required a shift in both my
own mindset and that of the learners.
This included helping them not to be

All images courtesy of Matthew Wimpenny-Smith

tempted to just jump in and start coding,
but to think critically and apply their
computational thinking skills. They also
needed to learn their own limitations, such
as what is possible within the software
and hardware they’re using, how long they
have to complete a project, and what skills
they need to meet their design ideas — in n Figure 1 The results of the pre-assessment show levels of pupil confidence across the three systems
other words, what is doable.
I’m very fortunate to teach computing formalise this, as I’d noticed that spending Christmas message project
across all year groups in my school. In time on design helps with the process of It was a sunny October day in London
the preceding six years we had done decomposition and the abstraction skills of and, as I was having lunch with Jane,
some design, but usually not with a clear computational thinking. Alongside this, we the conversation turned to what I was
purpose of what I was expecting, or how need to help pupils to evaluate software planning to teach my Year 6 pupils (aged
we would use the designs within the and hardware, and decide what might be ten to eleven) after half term. I said, “I am
coding process. I therefore wanted to the best way to implement a design. thinking about starting to transition them

The Big Book of Computing Content 131

FEATURE

from blocks to text coding.” Jane asked,

“Are they ready to move on?” and warned
me not to do it too soon, emphasising the
need for a firm foundation of block-based
programming. I was intrigued to find out
whether they were ready, so over that lunch
meeting, we thrashed out the idea for a
design implementation project that would
give me more information on what they
currently knew and could do.
The project asked a simple question:
could the pupils create a design and
independently implement it in a variety
of software that I felt they were proficient
in, including block-based code, and could
I then move them on to a text-based
language using the same design?
Christmas was approaching, so we
settled on the idea of creating a Christmas
n The pupil design being implemented in Google Slides
message for other pupils in the school, with
the added language twist of it being in
different spoken languages, such as French,
Japanese, and so on.
I chose Google Slides, Scratch, and a
micro:bit for the implementation, then
started with a pre-assessment to find
out levels of pupil confidence within the
three implementations. The results of this
assessment showed without a doubt that
they felt most confident using Google
Slides, followed by Scratch, and then the
micro:bit, as highlighted by the bar graphs
in Figure 1.
The results of this are perhaps
predictable, mainly because of pupils
having lots of exposure to Google Slides
across all their lessons, and limited
exposure to Scratch, mainly via my
computing lessons (one hour per week,
plus one hour of Code Club for those who
were keen). And only those who attended
my Code Club or had enthusiastic parents
n The pupil design being reviewed based on the implementation
or siblings in the senior school had any
exposure to the micro:bit before this project.
I did, however, briefly demonstrate the micro:bit). Between each implementation, I Implementation stage
micro:bit just before the pre-assessment. photocopied their designs and asked them The pupils found they could implement
to reassess them for confidence, and also their designs with little change in both
Design stage to make notes on how they would need to Slides and Scratch, drawing on their
After the pre-assessment, the pupils change their designs to fit the limitations existing knowledge (you can watch a
worked on their paper designs, followed by of the software. This helped to highlight video of the implementation in Scratch at
a self-assessment for confidence using red, their initially ambitious ideas and hone helloworld.cc/scratchimplementation).
amber, green (RAG). I set them a challenge their critical thinking around what was However, I realised after pre-teaching
to implement their design as closely actually possible, given their knowledge how to use the micro:bit that this was a
as possible within the three different and understanding plus the curriculum different approach, moving away from
systems (Google Slides, Scratch, and time constraints. a block-based language to a text-based

132 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

n Figure 3 Pie chart showing how many of the pupils

felt they were ready to move on from Scratch

MATTHEW
WIMPENNY-SMITH
Matthew is leader of digital strategy and a
computing subject leader. He has worked
for Headington School Oxford, UK, for the
last seven years in the Prep School, teaching
EYFS, Key Stage 1, and Key Stage 2. He is
a CAS Master Teacher and the Oxfordshire
Primary Community Leader. He is also a
BCS Certified computer science teacher,
Raspberry Pi Certified Educator, Google L1,
and NCCE facilitator (@MWimpennyS).

JANE WAITE
Jane is a research scientist at the Raspberry
n Figure 2 Summary of the post-assessment survey results
Pi Foundation. Her interests include using
design in primary programming, semantic
interface, and that their designs would felt about Scratch. It must be noted that waves, PRIMM, and migrating to online
need to be modified. I purposefully kept for this project, I intentionally gave limited teaching using ABC (@janewaite).
them constrained to just being able to support with both Slides and Scratch.
display and scroll through text and images The results and comments from the
on the micro:bit LED matrix, and I would post-assessment suggested that pupils this, to show them how to implement ideas
use the text-based Mu editor. The next found following a design constraint and know what is doable. It seems that
three lessons were a busy time for the in Scratch harder than they initially the current way I teach Scratch isn’t quite
class as they adapted their designs and thought. This led me to realise that they hitting the mark, and I need to do more
taught themselves how to scroll and overestimated their abilities with Scratch. research in my class to explore this.
display images on the micro:bit. They also One pupil who found it challenging even This was emphasised by the results of
discovered that there were limitations, asked, “Please can I just do the whole another question, this time asking them if
such as not being able to display certain project in Slides?” they felt ready to move on from Scratch
languages, for example those with Cyrillic- Perhaps pupils may have been (Figure 3). The results show that over 50
based alphabets. overconfident with Scratch, as in the past, percent were either not sure or not ready.
they’ve tended not to stick to an initial This classroom research has highlighted
Post-assessment idea once they got started, and just done the need for me to ask my pupils about
The post-assessment survey highlighted what was easy as they wrote the code; their learning more often, and not to move
some interesting results (Figure 2). or perhaps they are used to copying code them on until they’re ready. I also need to
Predictably, the pupils’ confidence without truly understanding it. Scratch is do more to develop my pedagogy of
with using Google Slides was high, but complex, and learning how to implement a teaching computing — but that’s for
interestingly, there was a shift in how they design isn’t easy. I need to work more on another article!

The Big Book of Computing Content 133

 FEATURE
FEATURE
OPINION

AGILE METHODOLOGIES
IN THE CLASSROOM
Introducing agile practices into the classroom has lots of benefits beyond giving
students a taste of what working as a software developer entails

eing agile means moving and requirements, through design, building, There is a whole range of methodologies
B responding quickly, and it’s also testing, and then finally delivery. Years and frameworks that can be used to help
an adjective that is applied to a range might have passed between the first and you work in a more agile way. I won’t go into
of methodologies developed to improve final stages. Years is a long time in the tech all of them — just a few favourites that we
the software development process and world, and by that time, the requirements employ in the classroom every day.
life cycle. It means being able to respond might well have changed. But too late
to shifting requirements, industry — the product has already been signed, Pair programming
changes, and unforeseen problems. It sealed, and delivered. This is the most important agile methodology
usually involves cross-disciplinary teams we use. During a project (which we call a
of developers collaborating, planning, Why in the classroom? ‘sprint’ and lasts two days), we pair students
and reviewing software together and I teach software development to adults, for about half the time. We initially give
one of its key tenets is to work in short preparing them for work in the industry. students a quarter of the allotted coding time
iterations, building the minimal product Exposing them to common industry practices to explore aspects of the problem alone, and
you need and then refactoring and and structuring their classroom like a then we randomly pair them up to continue
improving it later. development shop is important in preparing working. When they pair, they have to start
It stands in contrast to the more them for work. However, the techniques again, integrating ideas from both of their
traditional ‘waterfall’ approach, in which and ideas that I’m going to talk about can be initial explorations. At the end, they split
a product flows down through several applied to all areas of life, and provide tools again and independently finish up the project
fixed stages, from initially deciding the for tackling any project or problem. in whatever way they prefer.

n Free tools such as trello.com can be used

as kanban boards to organise workflow

134 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

n Students driving and

navigating on a project

DRIVING AND
NAVIGATING
The driver:
n   Is the one using the computer
n   Listens to the navigator
n   Implements the ideas of the navigator
n   Can question the navigator

The navigator:
n   Directs the driver
n   Explains their ideas
n   Doesn’t touch the computer
n   Can use pen and paper to help explain
their thinking

How to pair stand in a circle and each student has a

While pairing, students work together on few minutes to explain what they’ve been information, and upload attachments.
one of their computers and follow a strict working on, what they found challenging GitHub has a similar board system called
driving–navigating model, as explained and whether they’ve overcome it, and what Projects. GitHub Projects are great because
in the boxout. With this set-up, students they want to achieve today. We use this in you can integrate your cards with GitHub
have no choice but to try to explain and combination with kanban (explained below). Issues and link to parts of your code.
communicate their ideas. This can be We think it’s important for every student to Many students on our course end up
challenging at first, but continual practice hear what other students struggled with, as using kanban to organise everything, from
at explaining technical concepts and ideas everyone will be struggling with something. studying, to job hunting, to general life!
helps students embed what they’re learning We also encourage group retrospectives,
and discover the areas they don’t fully where upon finishing a sprint, the group will ‘Just make it work’
understand. discuss what went well, what didn’t go well, Another concept we spend a lot of time
talking about is the minimum viable product
(MVP). Building an MVP means building

“ PRACTICE AT EXPLAINING TECHNICAL

CONCEPTS AND IDEAS HELPS STUDENTS
the most bare-bones version of the product
that will work. We discourage students from
trying to create the most amazing, all-bells-
EMBED WHAT THEY’RE LEARNING and-whistles product on the first attempt,
because who knows how the specification
might end up changing later and how much
Every 30 minutes, we ask students to and what could have been done differently. time we will have wasted.
swap roles. This might involve using a Sometimes, students will keep ongoing blogs Beyond practical implication, stressing the
version-control system to push their work or logs of their work on a project and use this importance of ‘just make it work’ encourages
to a service such as GitHub and then pull it to refer back to during retrospectives. small wins, which boost confidence.
down on the other student’s computer, or it Students can improve, refactor, and rethink
could just mean swapping who is using the Kanban their initial attempt, but at least they’ve got
same computer. The principle of kanban methodology is to something to show for their work so far.
be able to visualise the work and tasks to Creating something that ‘just works’ also
Scrum be completed. Kanban means ‘billboard’ in gives us a starting point to talk about how
Scrum is a framework for managing roles Japanese and that’s usually what you use — we can make the code cleaner and more
and workflow in an agile way. A few some kind of billboard divided into columns. modular, or to consider edge cases.
things we’ve borrowed from Scrum are Tasks can be moved from column to column
the concepts of stand-up meetings and as they progress through the development
retrospectives. If students are working on a workflow. Sometimes, the board is drawn HARRIET RYDER
project in a small group over several days, up on a whiteboard, but free software such Harriet teaches software development to
we help them organise stand-up meetings as Trello (trello.com) can also be used. You adults in one of the UK’s leading boot camps.
at the beginning of the class, where they can tag individuals on cards, add additional

The Big Book of Computing Content 135

 FEATURE
FEATURE
OPINION

TESTING: THE FEAR

LOVE OF FAILURE
Pete Bell offers tips for inculcating a culture of testing
(and failing!) in the computing classroom

ne of my fondest memories of Don’t test only code: it seems simple to Make it explicit early: build debugging into
O teaching is when a group of ten- build testing into upper-primary or lower- lessons all the way from primary and lower
year-old students visited my secondary secondary programming sessions. However, secondary, so that it becomes a standard
school for a computing experience day. when programming is still so new as a part of the programming process.
The first question I asked students was, concept, it is tough for students to think
“What does FAIL stand for?” After I’d about what might be wrong with their work: Build a culture of support and
given them the answer (First Attempt they don’t know what they don’t know. improvement: programming lessons should
In Learning), I spent a few minutes Instead, you could initially plan a lesson build confidence. One method you can use
telling them that the second time they on testing something that’s more familiar to is pair programming, which has been shown
fail, it changes its meaning to “Further students, like some pre-prepared directions to improve social and communication skills
Attempts in Learning” and that, each time to the school library for an open day, or for (see the article on page 58 of The Big Book
they fail, it just means they are learning someone with a visual impairment. If you of Computing Pedagogy for more on this).
how to improve. Throughout the day, I add in a few mistakes along the way, it will However, allow a little longer for students to
rewarded students who told me they’d give students a chance to find errors and find a solution through collaboration.
got something wrong. At the end of their correct them. You could also test a piece of
experience day, I walked them to the writing, a drawing, a piece of music, or a Model it and scaffold it: provide students
minibus, and the head teacher came over mathematical equation. with a test plan for a short piece of code and
and asked them what they’d been doing. demonstrate how to use it. Have a look at the
One young lad shouted passionately Model how to fail well: in my first interview test plans section of Isaac Computer Science
“We’ve been learning to FAIL!” I’ll admit to for an ICT teacher role, I couldn’t turn the for examples (helloworld.cc/testplans).
being a bit nervous about what the head’s projector on. Embarrassing? Yes! However,
reaction might be, but he just grinned and in my feedback, I was told that part of the The testing process
said “Brilliant!” reason I was appointed was the way in Coursework projects and non-examined
In our culture, we reward people for doing which I told the students that I’d made an assessments have historically been
things right and punish them for getting error and then calmly talked them through structured to reflect the waterfall
them wrong. Wrong is bad; right is good. Do my process of checking (testing) each development methodology, where
you recognise this in your students? ‘I tested potential cause as I went about solving testing is a process that’s carried out
my product thoroughly and found there was the problem. after development. More recently, mark
nothing I could improve.’ This might not be a
result of laziness or a lack of understanding;
it could just be a student wanting to show
that they got it all right, because ‘right’ is
“ INSTILLING A LOVE OF FAILURE AND
IMPROVEMENT IS IMPORTANT, AND WE
‘good’, so that means they did ‘good’ —
right? So, because testing is (mostly) the CAN DO THIS BY NORMALISING TESTING
process of identifying things that are wrong,
the challenge is: how do you help students
unlearn that wrong is bad? In a programming lesson, modelling schemes for these types of project have
failure could take the form of a live-coding been updated to reflect more modern
Normalising testing demonstration. Almost every time I have agile methodologies, in which students
It’s important to instil a love of failure and shown students a programming concept are expected to apply agile development
improvement in your classroom, and we during one of these demonstrations, the principles, with testing assessed throughout
can do this by normalising testing. Here are thing doesn’t work as I thought it should … the process (see the previous article for
a few tips: and that’s more than OK! more on agile methodologies).

136 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

© Anch/stock.adobe.com
n The waterfall methodology compared to the more modern agile methodology

So how can students best show their network requirements, or specific uses they supported their peers during code
understanding of testing for formal of a particular data structure. Some reviews; and communication as they
assessment? Let’s walk through it by using subprograms or classes will be very similar, articulated their coding journey in a report.
an advanced-level project (for students so it’s best to test more than one of the Above all, they should have built resilience as
aged 16+) as an example, where students same type only if it allows a student to they planned and iterated their development
submit a coding solution to an identified show a new testing concept. as a result of testing feedback.
problem, along with a report explaining their In the end, isn’t education all about learning
testing process: n  In
addition to the more obvious that failure is OK? With that in mind, there
opportunities to carry out iterative was no need for me to be so nervous about
n  In
their project report, students should unit tests, it is important to document my head teacher’s reaction to my group’s
demonstrate how they have put theory integration testing to check how a few exclamation that they’d been failing with me
into practice. From the start, students modules work together, preferably ones all day. It’s his job to see where improvements
should be able to explain their approach with interesting edge cases. You can can be found; he was just testing.
to testing — justifying an agile approach, read more about types of testing on
for example. Isaac Computer Science at helloworld.cc/
testingtypes.
n  Having analysed and decomposed the
problem, students could then identify a n  When a solution has been through this
range of (not necessarily all) data that could alpha phase, end users can then carry out
be used in acceptance testing to show that some usability testing — approaching this
the system works as intended, including as a beta-test opportunity that is again
validation tests to check the robustness cross-referenced to the success criteria
of some of the planned subprograms. identified at the analysis stage.
Students can show how they have
embedded testing holistically by testing An advanced-level student wants to see
a few of their designs with end users and where they went wrong and how they
updating those designs based on feedback. fixed it. Although it’s not always part of PETE BELL
the assessment criteria, it is important Pete is a learning manager at the
n  Students should be selective when for students to reflect on their journey as Raspberry Pi Foundation. He was
choosing subprograms to test, focusing learners, including how they have developed previously a computing teacher for 23
on those that can provide opportunities wider twenty-first-century skills, such years and the head of his school’s STEM
to best demonstrate good testing as critical thinking as they planned and faculty. Pete is also an experienced
practice. Examples are login systems, executed their tests; creativity as they assessment designer (@petejbell).
timers, scoring systems, storage and developed their solution; collaboration as

The Big Book of Computing Content 137

SAFETY AND
SECURITY
140 SAFETY AND SECURITY, IN SUMMARY
142  ONLINE SAFETY: WHAT DO
LEARNERS KNOW?
145 LESSONS FROM THE
CYBERSECURITY INDUSTRY
146  HY DISCRETE ONLINE SAFETY
W
TEACHING IS NOT ENOUGH
148 SAFEGUARDING IN ONLINE LESSONS
150  ACTIVITIES AND TOOLS TO
BRING CYBERSECURITY TO LIFE
152 KNOW THY ENEMY
153  KEEP CURIOUS AND CARRY
ON HACKING
 ike most tools, computing systems promise many IN THIS SECTION,
L advantages, benefits, and opportunities — but they YOU WILL FIND:
are not without their risks. A vital part of computing ■ Learning outcomes:
education is for learners to develop their understanding of safety and security, in summary

these risks and the steps they can take to mitigate them. This ■ What the research says:
topic area has a few different dimensions to it that are more or media use and attitudes

less relevant at each learning stage. ■ Online safety teaching

Early on, we need to support learners in becoming safe ■ Safeguarding in online lessons
users of digital technology, so that they can realise the ■ Cybersecurity activities and tools
benefits of such technologies without putting themselves
■ Thinking like a hacker
at risk. While online personal safety should be present in
every school subject area, computing classes provide a space
for learners to understand the limits of computing and how
technology can be exploited.
Personal safety lessons continue to thread through all
learning stages, with the focus shifting to the risks and threats
relevant to learners’ ages and the technologies they
use. However, as learners progress, they should
also begin to consider safety and security from
an organisational and societal standpoint, as
well as delving into the technical innovations
that help keep systems secure.

The Big Book of Computing Content 139

 IN SUMMARY

IN SUMMARY

SAFETY AND
SECURITY
Understand the risks of using
technology, and how to protect both
individuals and systems

STAGE 1 STAGE 2
■ Explain how to use computing equipment safely ■ Demonstrate safe and responsible behaviour when
using a range of information technology
■ Use information technology safely and
with respect ■ Demonstrate how to keep passwords and
other credentials safe and secure
■ Demonstrate safe behaviour when working online
■ Describe when individuals might be asked for
■ Give examples of personal information personal data online
and know who it should and should not be
shared with ■ Explain the security risks of linking to or
sharing content owned by others
■ Outline how individuals should report concerns
about content or contact from the internet ■ Explain how misleading information or media can
pose a security risk

140 The Big Book of Computing Content

 IN SUMMARY

In the table below, you will find learning outcomes associated with
the ‘Safety and security’ strand of the Raspberry Pi Foundation’s
computing taxonomy. These learning outcomes are illustrative of the
kinds of knowledge and understanding that learners could develop in
this area of computing. They are not prescriptive, but instead aim to
illustrate the wide applications of the discipline.
These learning outcomes were originally developed to complement
the English national curriculum for computing, and as such stage 1
roughly corresponds to ages 5–7, stage 2 to ages 7–11, stage 3 to
ages 11–14, stage 4 to ages 14–16, and stage 5 to ages 16–19.

STAGE 3 STAGE 4 STAGE 5

■ Explain the attributes and practices that make a ■ Explain how safety and security principles apply in ■ Explain the concept of computational security
password secure emerging contexts or technologies
■ Explain what a vulnerability is and how it is
■ Explain how online activity leaves a lasting ■ Describe examples of some vulnerabilities introduced or exploited in a system
digital footprint of computing systems, networks,
and software ■ Explain how senders and messages can
■ Explain common techniques used to exploit be authenticated using digital signatures
individuals and steal personal data ■ Recommend security measures and practices for and certificates
different scenarios
■ Describe how users can control where and ■ Describe the process, applications, and limits
with whom their personal data is shared ■ Explain the need to balance security with of modern cryptography techniques
other considerations including usability,
■ Describe common threats to computing systems cost, and ethics ■ Apply and compare a range of ciphers to encrypt
and ways to protect against them and decrypt data
■ Describe a range of malware and the threats that
■ Understand the risks and related it can pose ■ Attempt to decipher encrypted data applying
precautions associated with online services common cryptanalysis techniques
■ Explain the rights and responsibilities that
■ Explain the purpose of encryption along with individuals and organisations have with ■ Distinguish between symmetric and asymmetric
examples of its use regard to personal data encryption schemes

■ Identify where and how to report ■ Outline the role of encryption in protecting data ■ Describe strategies and techniques
inappropriate content, contact, or conduct and its importance in data security to protect against common security
vulnerabilities
■ Describe authentication techniques used
to improve security, such as biometrics,
captchas, and two-factor authentication

■ Describe the strategies that organisations can use

to keep their systems and information secure

The Big Book of Computing Content 141

 RESEARCH

ONLINE SAFETY: WHAT DO

LEARNERS KNOW?
There’s a large gap between what learners think they know about online safety and what they
actually know, but some small changes to classroom focus can make all the difference

STORY BY Sway Grantham

eaching online safety is hard. Ofcom report suggests that children aged This conceptual understanding needs to
T Curriculum requirements vary from 3–4 largely use video-sharing platforms underpin online safety education.
class to class, from year to year, and even (89 percent) and watch TV and films
from one term to the next. Teachers have online (81 percent). These continue to be What do learners actually know?
to work hard to ensure they know how to popular activities for those aged 5–7 (95 Researcher Macaulay and his
use specific tools safely, how to support percent and 74 percent respectively). By colleagues used questionnaires with
young people, and that the tools they’re the 8–11 age group, 84 percent are using learners aged 9–11 to compare their
using are still relevant. On top of this, messaging sites and apps as one of their subjective knowledge of online safety
there are the broader trends in terms of main online activities. This trend continues to their objective knowledge. Subjective
what tools students are using. Each year with those aged 12–15, with 91 percent knowledge is how learners feel about their
in the UK, Ofcom (the UK government’s using social media and 73 percent using own ability, while objective knowledge
communications regulator) produces a live-streaming apps and websites. Finally, reflects their actual understanding.
report about children and parents’ media by 16–17, 100 percent had a mobile To measure subjective knowledge,
use and attitudes, which highlights some phone and this was their primary device learners were asked to rate statements
of these trends. In the 2022 report, 99 for interacting online. such as ‘I know what to do to stay safe
percent of 3–17-year-olds had been online This high level of exposure to the on the internet’ and ‘I know what things
in the last year (helloworld.cc/ofcom2022). internet can lull educators and parents could put me in danger or upset me on
While this fact is perhaps no surprise, into a false sense of security; they may the internet’ on a four-point scale, from
pair it with research conducted by Peter think that young people therefore have ‘Disagree a lot’ to ‘Agree a lot’. To then
Macaulay and colleagues concluding that the skills they need to navigate this measure their objective knowledge,
students think they are better at keeping world successfully. And to an extent, learners were asked open questions such
themselves safe online than they really they are right. These tools are designed as ‘What things might put someone in
are (helloworld.cc/macaulay2020), and to be intuitive, and through experience, danger of harm, or make them feel upset,
it appears we need to review our online people learn how to use them more when they use the internet?’ and ‘What
safety curriculum focus. proficiently. However, we don’t want things can you do to stay safe from
learning about online safety to happen harm or getting upset on the internet?’
How are learners using tech? through experience. Knowing there is The learners’ ideas about the dangers
A helpful first step in providing suitable a report button on a website does not of the internet were then grouped into
online safety education is understanding mean you know what you should report, six categories of the most common
how technology is being used by learners what behaviour is unacceptable or responses: people online pretending to
of different ages. Classes will vary, but the inappropriate, or why you should report it. be somebody else; being in contact with

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© Graphicroyalty/stock.adobe.com
n Young people can’t always identify sponsored
content, or whether a social media post is genuine

people we do not know; sharing personal

“ A HIGH LEVEL OF INTERNET EXPOSURE

information/personal photographs or
videos; cyberbullying; inappropriate and/or
distressing content; and computer viruses. CAN LULL TEACHERS AND PARENTS
This study found that children felt safe
online, and that their subjective knowledge
INTO A FALSE SENSE OF SECURITY
was high. This was especially true of boys
and older children (in this study, ‘older
children’ were eleven). In contrast, when could spot a fake social media profile, and Changing online safety education
their objective knowledge was tested, how they identified sponsored search results Many of the strategies outlined in the
students could only identify, on average, and content from influencers. Unfortunately, article on page 146 would help move
two out of the six categories of online safety objective knowledge about online safety online education towards where it needs to
risks. When faced with these two conflicting doesn’t seem to improve massively with be. However, there are also some specific
sets of knowledge — what learners think age, with the numbers varying very little pedagogies and approaches that are
they know, and what they actually know between the 12–15 and 16–17 age groups. particularly relevant to ensuring we are
— children’s subjective knowledge was the Overall, these young people were best at improving learners’ objective knowledge
biggest predictor of how safe they felt they recognising fake profiles (64 percent and and not just their subjective knowledge.
were online. This is worrying, as it may lead 65 percent respectively). Few of them were
students to wrongly conclude that they are able to identify sponsored content, either LEAD WITH CONCEPTS
internet-savvy and get complacent when in searches or from influencers (38/39 Teachers can often fall into the online safety
considering the risks they are taking online. percent for 12–15 year olds and 44/48 trap of focusing on teaching a process, such
percent for 16–17 year olds), and very few as how to report inappropriate comments.
Improvements with age? were able to recognise whether a social However, what is missing here are the
There is not yet an equivalent study for media post was genuine (11 percent and concepts underpinning the process to
learners aged twelve and above, but the 13 percent respectively). For age groups ensure attitudinal change. Understanding
Ofcom report can give us some insights. in which six out of ten children stated that what comments to report and why you
As part of their report, Ofcom asked young they used social media to get their news, should report comments is much more
people what features indicated that a social this is clearly a problem that needs to be powerful than just learning about the
media post was genuine, whether they addressed through education. actual process.

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 RESEARCH
© AlesiaKan/stock.adobe.com

n Even if a child isn’t old enough to use a particular platform,

it can still be beneficial to teach them about its dangers

MAKE CONCRETE
There is often a nervousness among
teachers when it comes to teaching learners
“ THE CONFIDENCE WITH WHICH LEARNERS
DISCUSS ONLINE SAFETY IS NOT A FAIR
about being safe online, due to potentially
encouraging uptake among those who do ASSESSMENT OF THEIR UNDERSTANDING
not already use the tools, or being aware
that they do not meet the stipulated age to
use the tool being discussed. However, we examples, there should be content that
teach children to cross roads safely before you can objectively assess to inform future FURTHER READING
we expect them to do it independently. The approaches to teaching and learning. There
more skills we can give learners that are are some examples in the research shared
Macaulay, P. J. R., et al. (2020).
grounded in real-life, concrete knowledge in this article, and others have been built
Subjective versus objective
rather than theoretical knowledge, the easier into resources, such as in the Raspberry Pi
knowledge of online safety/dangers
it is for them to apply them. This could be Foundation’s Teach Computing Curriculum
as predictors of children’s perceived
through using social stories and debates to units (for example, the unit of work for
online safety and attitudes towards
discuss morals and ethics, or by using role students aged ten to eleven at helloworld.
e-safety education in the United
play, for example becoming data detectives cc/TCCcommunication).
Kingdom. Journal of Children and
to find ‘hidden’ information about someone These changes to educators’ practice
Media, 14(3), 376-395. helloworld.
through the content they post online. are not substantial. They do require
cc/macaulay2020
some preparation and some time spent
ASSESS ONLINE SAFETY understanding the learners in your Ofcom. (2022). Children and
What this research highlights is that the classrooms each year, but as teachers, you parents: media use and attitudes
confidence with which learners will discuss do that every day. However, actively making report 2022. helloworld.cc/
online safety is not a fair assessment of objective online safety a focus could prevent ofcom2022
their actual understanding. By teaching a student from learning about the risks of
key concepts and using concrete online safety the hard way.

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LESSONS FROM THE

CYBERSECURITY INDUSTRY
STORY BY Katharine Childs

ybersecurity topics in school

C computer science curricula often
focus on defending against cybersecurity
attacks and understanding the ethical and
societal implications of data privacy. In
programming topics, however, a proactive
approach to writing secure code is also
important. A research project called

© successphoto/stock.adobe.com
Motivating Jenny (motivatingjenny.org),
supported by the UK’s National Cyber
Security Centre, has created a number
of tools to help developers consider
the security of their code and embed n Using prompt cards and values cards can help to stimulate
a workplace culture in which software positive conversations about cybersecurity issues

security is seen as a fundamental value.

Although this research has been conducted a first-person account of the impact of in the research, in teaching and learning
in industry, there are many ways in which the security breach. Finally, the workshop (helloworld.cc/firstperson).
educators can translate the findings into concluded with a discussion of participants’ Values can support positive
good classroom practice. own experiences. Prompt cards and values discussions: in the research, using
cards kept the group conversations focused values helped to create positive, non-
Real-world industry perspectives on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours, to confrontational conversations. Your
In a 2019 study by the Motivating Jenny create discussions that were “refreshingly school community is likely to have a set
project, researchers took an ethnographic different” and “participatory”. of values to help each pupil shape their
perspective. An ethnographic research study understanding of the world. For example,
aims to find out more about the behaviours Applying findings to the classroom a classroom wall display that links
and routines of a group through direct The findings from the workshops were cybersecurity considerations to the school’s
observation, and researchers conducting designed to be applied to professional values is a powerful way of modelling this
this study met with professional developers settings. However, the themes that and providing useful discussion prompts.
in their workplaces to find out more about emerged could be equally relevant to the Group discussion through play is
their beliefs, attitudes, and experiences computing classroom: effective: the researchers gamified group
with writing secure code. The write-up of Personal stories resonate: cybersecurity discussions by using a timer and prompt
the study provides a real-world example of can often seem like an abstract or cards. This provided a valuable structure
a computing career and is useful for both intimidating topic. However, all software to conversations and helped to give each
teachers and pupils. and systems are designed and implemented participant a chance to speak. Consider
The researchers ran a series of workshops by people. Consider how to use examples how this approach could work when you
with groups of professional developers, of real-life security compromises, such as are leading classroom discussions with
with the aim of finding out more about how the first-person account that was used your pupils.
social interactions and a culture of software
development contributed to supporting
developers in writing secure code. In the
FURTHER READING
first part of the workshop, participants read
Lopez, T., Sharp, H., Tun, T., Bandara, A., Levine, M., & Nuseibeh, B. (2019, May 28). Talking
various examples of a security compromise
about Security with Professional Developers. 7th International Workshop Series on
that had taken place, each with a different
Conducting Empirical Studies in Industry, Montreal, Canada. helloworld.cc/lopez2019
focus or perspective. They then all read

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 FEATURE
FEATURE
OPINION

WHY DISCRETE ONLINE

SAFETY TEACHING IS
NOT ENOUGH
Sway Grantham shares suggestions on how to ensure your
primary online safety curriculum is fit for purpose

nter any primary school and you number, and they know that they shouldn’t is challenging, but remember that you work
E will find strategies for keeping share those things online. Then they share with the real experts! Ask your learners
yourself safe being modelled every day of a photo of themselves on social media in what’s popular at the moment, how it
the year. From not running with scissors their school uniform, in front of their house, works, and what safety measures they
to negotiating whether it’s acceptable to with their best friend. Without the context, take when using that technology. Creating
declare who someone else can or can’t such as different ways and places we share a safe space for them to share openly and
play with at lunchtime, we are constantly information about ourselves online, learners honestly gives you the power to support
guiding learners to recognise boundaries, often imagine that the only time they need them in making the right decisions to keep
be honest about their choices, and develop to be careful about this is when someone is themselves safe and know how to handle
a little common sense that jumping off directly asking for their contact information. new situations. Equally, your online safety
something really high may hurt. Yet, more curriculum should be reactive and allow you
often than not, I see online safety relegated What’s trending? to address new issues as they arise.
to computing lessons and Safer Internet The digital world that your learners are
Days. One-off lessons are simply not a part of is constantly changing. New Where is it relevant?
enough to safeguard our learners. apps, games, social media, and other The conversation around online safety is no
We all want to keep our learners safe, and technological advances are constantly longer solely about online safety. It’s about
it’s challenging to ensure our online safety being introduced, so teaching the same how learners handle their digital selves in
curriculum stays up to date. I recommend online safety lessons year-on-year isn’t all aspects of their development, and this
asking yourself the following three questions suitable. Keeping up with the latest trends requires both computing and non-computing
when reviewing online safety in your school:
“What’s your context?”, “What’s trending?”,
and “Where is it relevant?”
TIPS FOR INCORPORATING ONLINE
What’s your context? SAFETY INTO THE SCHOOL DAY
It can be very tempting to start a school year
or unit of work with several discrete online
n Read some online safety books such as Chicken Clicking (helloworld.cc/chicken) or When Charlie
safety lessons. These often demonstrate to McButton Lost Power (helloworld.cc/charlie) to open up different conversations.
outside observers that online safety is taught n In science, when learning about what humans need to stay healthy, could you extend this to a conversation
in your school (there’s a timetabled lesson about healthy and unhealthy behaviours with device use?
for it!) and reassure you that learners have n When discussing stories about friendships in personal, social, health, and economic (PSHE) education
some safety skills before you begin using classes or assemblies, do you include the differences between online friendships and offline ones?
technology more prevalently. However, what Opening up the conversations you are already having is a great way to encourage more honest discussion.
we often see here is a lack of context. n ProjectEVOLVE has a range of activities to meet statements of the Education for a Connected World
For example, if we ask learners what Framework (register to access these free resources at helloworld.cc/evolve). These range from discussion
personal information is, they can tell us it’s questions to vocabulary that inspires reflection. Why not use these to start or end your school day?
their name, school, address, and phone

146 The Big Book of Computing Content

© Anatoly Tiplyashin/stock.adobe.com
FEATURE

n Your online safety curriculum is vital if your learners are to grow up safe and empowered

skills — for example, a learner’s self-image units, as they consider what is and isn’t Your online safety curriculum is vital for
and identity, managing relationships with OK to include in the artefacts they create your learners if they are to grow up safe and
friends, building a reputation, avoiding (helloworld.cc/tcc). When learning about empowered. Yet spending more time on
bullying and isolation, and having a healthy, searching for media or information, learners topics relating to safety does not necessarily
balanced lifestyle. If we leave these skills to explore managing information online and mean greater learning outcomes. Use these
be developed solely in computing lessons, the issues they need to consider around three questions as a starting point to review
we not only misrepresent their importance, copyright and ownership. Across all units, we your online safety curriculum and to ensure
but we also wouldn’t have a great deal encourage learners to manage their online that it is as prevalent as instructions about
of time left to teach anything else! Online accounts and think about the online reputation not running with scissors!
safety has to be taught throughout the they are creating, as well as their rights to
school day in various contexts, whether it’s privacy and security. Each of these examples
a casual conversation at break about online offers relevant opportunities to learn the skills
gaming with friends, or a social story about of online safety and digital citizenship within
friends who were unkind either with or the context of their computing units of work.
without technology. These TCC units are also linked to
the Education for a Connected World
In the computing classroom Framework, created by the UK Council
After asking yourselves those three for Internet Safety (helloworld.cc/
questions, there may still be some topics connectedworld). Even if you’re not teaching
to be addressed in your computing lessons in the UK, this framework is a great resource
that are relevant to the content you are for understanding the breadth of online
teaching. This is a great opportunity to safety and digital citizenship. Although it
use learners’ developing technological includes recommended learning outcomes SWAY GRANTHAM
skills while addressing online safety in a for learners aged 4 to 18, it doesn’t Sway is a senior learning manager at the
contextual way. recommend the most appropriate times and Raspberry Pi Foundation. She leads a
In the Teach Computing Curriculum (TCC), places to teach that content. For the TCC, team developing computing resources for
we teach learners about sharing personal we chose the most pertinent aspects to primary teachers (@SwayGrantham).
information throughout the ‘Creating media’ computing, but the rest is up to you.

The Big Book of Computing Content 147

 FEATURE
FEATURE
OPINION

© patrick/stock.adobe.com
SAFEGUARDING IN
ONLINE LESSONS
How do you organise live learning sessions
that are both safe and help young people to
learn? Carrie Anne Philbin investigates

ransitioning learning from a face- There are four areas to think about if you between young people, as this could
T to-face interaction to online can want to host online teaching sessions: be a safeguarding risk. Use your school
sound straightforward, especially as we account and not a personal account when
now live in a society where it’s common to n  hoosing the right technology
C using online tools, and check the privacy
have access to devices and the internet. In n Communicating with young people settings. It’s also a good idea to test
a school environment, it is relatively easy to and parents the functionality of the technology with
promote the welfare of young people and n Designing your session colleagues, perhaps by having a practice
vulnerable adults and to keep them safe, n Child protection run of your session. They can stress-test
thanks to well-established routines built on any interactive features, and provide you
decades of learning. So if we find ourselves Choosing the right technology with useful feedback to incorporate before
having to teach online, how do we promote There are lots of different tools you could you run it with students.
the well-being of young people while they use to host live sessions, and they vary Another consideration is access. Does
learn? Here are some tips that might help, in their functionality, cost, and usability. the technology you want to use require
based on feedback and ideas from brilliant When choosing a technology, think about young people to have an online account?
educators and leading children’s charities how you intend to use it and how your This may be an issue for learners below
such as the UK’s NSPCC (nspcc.org.uk), intended audience will use it. Consider the age of 13. Do check your school
who have tested different approaches to whether it allows private communication e-safety policy, as it is likely that there is
hosting online sessions. between you and young people, or already guidance available on this issue.

148 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

SAFEGUARDING
ONLINE GUIDES
FOR TEACHERS
n NSPCC: undertaking remote teaching safely
(helloworld.cc/NSPCC)
n GOV.UK: Education for a Connected
World framework (helloworld.cc/
connectedworld)
n GOV.UK: coronavirus safeguarding
guidance (helloworld.cc/safeguarding)

© Sushiman/stock.adobe.com
n Childnet: teachers and professionals
section (helloworld.cc/childnet)
n UK Safer Internet Centre: social media
guides (helloworld.cc/saferinternet)

Communicating with young

people and parents
YOU HAVE THE SAME SAFEGUARDING
Every organisation that provides activities
for children and young people needs to
“ RESPONSIBILITIES AS A TEACHER, WHETHER
get consent from a parent or carer for their
child to participate. A well-written consent
YOU’RE TEACHING ONLINE OR IN CLASS
form will support your efforts to ensure
parents, carers, and children understand the
benefits and risks of online lessons, as well that gives students the opportunity to play via email, you must disclose this to your
as providing written consent for children with the features. If there is a live comment child protection lead immediately. Make sure
to take part. The NSPCC has an example stream, you might ask them to all say who you have their contact details to hand and
consent form to help get you started they are and what they’re hoping to learn in check your school’s safeguarding and child
(helloworld.cc/consent). the session. I find that allowing this type of protection policy and procedures.
It’s also a good idea to share a link to your structured play reduces the opportunity for
online session in advance with parents, misusing the technology later.
carers, and young people, as well as any You should also consider where you will
instructions they will need for joining. You present your session from. The NSPCC
could also share what you are planning for suggests you should be in “a neutral area
your learners to work on, including links where nothing personal or inappropriate can
to any online projects or PDF files they be seen or heard in the background”.
may need. This will help your students I’d also advocate having another teacher
to prepare for the session, and keep their or responsible adult acting as a teaching
adults informed about the learning you assistant during the lesson. They can
want them to experience. moderate any feature misuse and keep an
eye out for any safeguarding issues.
Designing your session
As with any lesson, you should design Child protection CARRIE ANNE PHILBIN
the session structure and prepare your Whether you are teaching online or in class, Carrie Anne is director of educator support
materials before you announce that you’re you have the same responsibilities as a at the Raspberry Pi Foundation, and the host
going live online. If it is your first time using teacher, and that means if you see or hear of Crash Course Computer Science and
the online technology, I’d recommend anything that worries you during the GeekGurlDiaries.
having an introduction or starter activity session, or a child discloses anything to you

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 FEATURE

ACTIVITIES AND TOOLS TO BRING

CYBERSECURITY TO LIFE
Rob Parker shares how his school teaches cybersecurity skills using real-life
tools and projects, increasing engagement and excitement in the classroom

eaching cybersecurity can be a data breach. We then set up various allowed for topical classroom discussions
T dull without hands-on practical machines mimicking commonly known in which students debated the advantages,
experiences and exercises. Fortunately, vulnerabilities, to demonstrate how a disadvantages, difficulties, and ethics
my passion for cybersecurity and my over penetration tester could identify weaknesses of such a project. Students are always
20 years of experience as a data security and how they could be fixed. Running interested to learn more from real-life case
engineer have helped me to understand an activity such as this not only has the studies that help them relate personally to
how to motivate my students to acquire advantage of keeping our school network as the importance of cybersecurity. Khanteepop
the real-world skills needed for success in secure as possible, but also helps students to Thaipradith, one of my students at Steam
industry. In this article, I’m going to present understand the types of threat schools face, Labs, shared, “I learn ethical hacking to keep
activities and tools you can use to link and how to put their learning into action. myself updated with the news and security.
cybersecurity topics and skills to the world This project particularly stressed the By going through the process of ethical
outside the classroom walls. importance of keeping all operating systems hacking, I’m able to gain knowledge in order
up to date and using suitable security to use it to secure myself, as well as people
Projects with real-life consequences software, and the real-life consequences around me, from being hacked.”
I recently gave my students a taste of of not doing so. Students absolutely
industry experience through a data security thrived during this project, as it allowed Professional real-world tools
project about our internal IT infrastructure. them to develop some basic skills that Another way of increasing engagement
Working alongside a team of remote ethical hackers and penetration testers in cybersecurity teaching is through using
penetration testers, I identified weaknesses use in industry, as well as practical skills tools that are actually used in industry.
in our own school system that could allow they can use in their everyday lives. It also We use Raspberry Pis preloaded with Kali
Linux, a system commonly used by industry
n Keep students engaged with cybersecurity
by using real-life tools and projects specialists, to teach students about evolving
threats in cybersecurity (helloworld.cc/
kalilinux). Students learn the fundamental
skills and steps needed to protect themselves
against these threats, and the importance of
ensuring that any data that is transmitted is
encrypted. Using Kali Linux, students explore
how to scan devices and sniff packets of data
that are being transmitted. They learn how
penetration testers identify whether particular
ports are open on network devices using
a TCP half-open port scan, and then look
at what action a penetration tester would
take if there were ports open that could be
dangerous (you can learn more about how to
do this at helloworld.cc/sniffpacket).

150 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

FURTHER
RESOURCES
n h elloworld.cc/steamblog: blog at Steam
Labs (an online school that teaches
robotics and ethical hacking), where I post
free cybersecurity content for schools at
the request of other global educators

n h elloworld.cc/robparker: my LinkedIn
profile; here, you can contact me for help
with designing lessons and raise queries
about how to integrate cybersecurity into
the classroom

Another great way of putting cybersecurity system. Wireshark (wireshark.org) is parts of their education. Importantly, students
into practice is by using Secure Shell. Using another powerful real-life tool you can use finish these lessons with the know-how they
Raspberry Pi’s command line, students learn in cybersecurity lessons. It analyses network need to help protect themselves and their
how to access a device remotely by analysing traffic and explores how encryption works, families’ devices from this type of hacking.
the weaknesses in its security. The students underlining the importance of having a strong VirtualBox (virtualbox.org) is another
take the perspective of the hacker, and password. Our students quickly discover how great tool, particularly if you’re low on time
search for areas of weakness. From there, easy it is to crack a user’s password using and budget. It is a well-rounded, free, open-
we challenge them to think of ways of fixing tools such as John the Ripper (helloworld. source piece of virtualisation software. This
the issues in the system. Any skilled ethical
hacker or penetration tester has to be able to
ANY SKILLED ETHICAL HACKER HAS TO
“
understand offensive security and think like
a malicious hacker. Students are taught the
ethics behind cybersecurity, and they thrive UNDERSTAND OFFENSIVE SECURITY
when learning about the skills that ethical AND THINK LIKE A MALICIOUS HACKER
hackers develop and use in higher education.
Similarly, we use Shodan (shodan.io),
which can index every device connected to cc/john), and why systems block multiple type of software allows you to install and use
the internet, to demonstrate the importance password attempts when individuals use applications and operating systems other than
of keeping devices that are connected to the brute-force tools such as Hydra. Through those running on your computer. This means
internet up to date. We use it to explore how these activities, we’re developing their you can look at malicious files safely without
a hacker could potentially take advantage analytical and problem-solving skills, which infecting your computer, which can be a
of a device using an outdated operating they can transfer to everyday life and other great starting point for applying cybersecurity
knowledge and skills in the classroom.
Raspberry Pi OS Lite is another good place to
ROB PARKER start. You can download a headless image and
Rob is a computer science educator and the data teach students how to access devices without
protection officer at St Andrews International a keyboard, mouse, or monitor.
School, Bangkok. He is also a robotics and If educators develop fun and exciting
technology coach at Steam Labs (steamlabs. projects in cybersecurity, we will start to
co.th), a specialist online school that teaches unlock our students’ ability to excel, and help
robotics, computer science, and ethical hacking. them to keep their own data and devices
Rob is a certified Ethical Hacker with EC-Council. secure, as well as those of the organisations
they work for in the future.

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 FEATURE
FEATURE
OPINION

KNOW THY ENEMY

Pretending to be the bad guys adds depth, understanding, and fun to
cybersecurity classes, and helps us to become better good guys

now thy enemy. This is one of the to accomplish it? What is their motivation?
K most famous tenets of warfare, Understanding the offence improves our
according to the legendary Chinese defence. Understanding the techniques
general Sun Tzu. It’s great advice on phishers use helps us to identify them more
the battlefield, and its utility extends to quickly and accurately.
the teaching of cybersecurity. In a way, After studying these emails, it’s time for
cybersecurity is war: an ever-evolving students to show me what they’ve learnt,
conflict between those who want by phishing me. In doing so, they have to
information and those who have that ask themselves the same questions: what
information. By the time I start teaching am I trying to accomplish, and how? Some
phishing, the majority of students have students’ emails are more convincing than ZACH HUFFMAN
already been phished. If you want to beat others, but they all make it clear that they Zach is an upper-school computer science
the bad guys, I teach them, you have know what a phishing attempt looks like. teacher at the Hun School of Princeton
to walk a mile in their shoes to really Most of them are funny, and occasionally, in New Jersey, USA. He is an avid gamer
understand them. one of them actually fools me. Any student and has spent the last five years teaching
that does this gets extra credit and provides computer science, from kindergarten all
Walk a mile the entire class with another learning the way up to 12th grade (@ltwheat).
When I introduce cybersecurity, I use as opportunity: it’s a win-win situation.
many real-world examples as possible. I By studying and then creating real-life
keep every single phishing email I get in artefacts, we deepen our understanding of causation. In doing so, they gain a level of
a folder, so that when we study phishing, them. Being the bad guys makes us better understanding that does not come with
we are studying primary sources. I pick out good guys. So, the next time you study a simply studying the subject. They understand
a few and we study each one as a class. threat, have your students emulate it. Have their foe, and as Sun Tzu said, “If you know
We ask ourselves, what is this person them write a clickbait title for a fake news the enemy and know yourself, you need not
trying to accomplish? How are they trying article, or equate a spurious correlation with fear the result of a hundred battles.”

PHISHING CONTEST: THE WINNING ENTRY

Most real-life phishing emails try to alarm you into
acting quickly and irrationally. Aaron, last year’s winner,
appealed to my lack of attention. I primarily use Google
Docs for grading, and receive about 50 emails every
week that all say “[Student] has invited you to edit
the following document” with the little blue Google
Docs icon. I click these without a second thought. Aaron
knew that, and exploited it. This provided a meaningful
teaching moment in class.

152 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

KEEP CURIOUS AND

CARRY ON HACKING
Ben Garside explores the meaning behind the word
‘hacking’ and makes the case for teaching students to hack

ver time, the meaning of the word students were learning how to be problem- relate this approach to the karate principle.
O ‘hacking’ has changed. Today, it solvers and how to fill the gaps in their Although martial arts do teach people how
often has pejorative connotations around knowledge. They were learning to hack, in to do harmful things to other human beings,
bad things that bad people do on their the spirit of the original meaning of the term. a sensei is there to guide students in self-
computers. However, the term has much Developing students’ problem-solving control and discipline. Relating this to hacking,
more positive origins, with its first recorded skills is no bad thing, but what if we were students can easily go online and follow
use coming from the Tech Model Railroad to take this a step further and also teach hacking tutorials, but at home, there is no
Club at the Massachusetts Institute of students how to hack in the more common, sensei there to guide them about the rights
and wrongs of their choices. As educators, we
need to remember our role as sensei.
WE DECIDED TO GO BEYOND THE THEORY
“ AND GIVE STUDENTS THE CHANCE TO
Let’s keep teaching our students to be
curious about technology, to want to know
how something works, to be problem-
EXPLORE THE CODE BEHIND THESE ATTACKS solvers, and, therefore, to be hackers — just
like the good people of MIT’s Tech Model
Railroad Club.
Technology (MIT) in the 1950s. Members malicious sense of the word? When writing
of this club enjoyed taking apart model cybersecurity units for the Teach Computing
trains to discover how they worked, Curriculum (helloworld.cc/tcccyber1 and
with the aim of enhancing them; they helloworld.cc/tcccyber2), this is exactly what
were ‘hacking’ the technology they were we did. We made the conscious decision,
working with. In this article, I argue that in places, to go beyond the theory of how
hacking shouldn’t be used as a dirty word, these attacks work and give students the
and that teaching students how to hack opportunity to explore the code that makes
isn’t necessarily a bad thing. them happen. We created activities in which
When I was a teacher, I often asked learners use very unsophisticated code that
classes to open up old computers over a could be used for a brute-force attack, as well
series of lessons about hardware. We would as an activity in which students perform an
look at their components, see how they fit SQL injection on a fake website.
together, and discuss what we could do We’re not encouraging students to become BEN GARSIDE
to improve the machines. This method of criminals, of course, and we contextualise Ben is a learning manager for the
teaching students about hardware had more these activities with the ethics and legalities Raspberry Pi Foundation. He has worked
benefits than just visualising the abstract: of these types of action. As Zach argues on the production of the Teach Computing
without realising it, I’d been teaching my in the previous article, I believe that we’re Curriculum, and on online courses including
students how to hack. Just as Grace Hopper encouraging students to get a deeper the recently released Introduction to
famously enjoyed dismantling clocks as a understanding so that they can better Machine Learning and AI (@BenberryPi).
child to figure out how they worked, my protect themselves against real threats. I

The Big Book of Computing Content 153

EFFECTIVE
USE OF TOOLS
156 EFFECTIVE USE OF TOOLS,
IN SUMMARY
158  THE DIGITAL DIVIDE
160 KEY DIGITAL SKILLS FOR YOUNG
PEOPLE WITH SEND
162  WHOLE-SCHOOL APPROACH
A
TO DIGITAL SKILLS
164 USING TABLETS TO ENHANCE
CROSS-CURRICULAR LEARNING
166  REATING DIGITAL ARTISTS:
C
YOUNG PHOTOGRAPHERS
168 LOGGING ON AND BEYOND
 he idea that learners start school as digital natives, IN THIS SECTION,
T competent in everything digital, is a myth. While YOU WILL FIND:
some learners will have already developed ■ Learning outcomes:
confidence in using digital tools, this experience will vary effective use of tools, in summary

greatly between students and will probably be limited to a ■ What the research says:
narrow set of skills. In order to access and progress learning in the digital divide

all areas of a computing curriculum, learners need opportunities ■ Digital skills for SEND learners

to develop skills such as using a keyboard and mouse, saving ■ Whole-school approach to digital skills
and organising their work, and more. This doesn’t mean that ■ Tablets and cross-curricular learning
we need to dedicate entire lessons to typing skills, but instead
■ Young digital artists
we need to provide opportunities to develop these skills
■ Logging on for lower primary
alongside the broader concepts and skills within computing.
Initially, the focus for learners will be on developing the
basic skills required to access learning, using a range of
devices and simple software. As learners experience more
devices, tools, and software, we can challenge them to see
the commonalities between them, allowing them
to learn to use new tools more quickly. They
will then be able to be more selective in the
tools they use for specific tasks, and will
gradually become able to use specialist
tools and software.

The Big Book of Computing Content 155

 IN SUMMARY

IN SUMMARY

EFFECTIVE
USE OF TOOLS
Select and use appropriate
hardware and software tools

STAGE 1 STAGE 2
■ Recognise the different applications of information ■ Identify the features and limitations of different
technology in different contexts devices

■ Control a device using a touchscreen ■ Describe how to use different

tools successfully
■ Independently power up and sign in to
computing equipment ■ Explain the uses of different communication and
collaboration tools
■ Use a keyboard to enter and modify text,
including the use of shift and backspace ■ Use a range of input and output devices to
capture, manipulate, and share data and
■ Use a mouse to control a computer, including digital media
clicking, selecting, and dragging
■ Connect digital devices and transfer files to and
■ Use a range of hardware, including cameras from them
and programmable toys
■ Use appropriate communication and
■ Use a selection of online and offline collaboration tools during a project
software applications
■ Find useful and suitable information online
■ Explain the purpose of different buttons and
features of applications ■ Save work using useful and identifying
filenames
■ Save work between sessions and reopen it
■ Use cut, copy, and paste, as well as simple
■ Explain how undo can be used to revert formatting tools
a change
■ Apply existing IT experience and skills to
new applications and contexts

156 The Big Book of Computing Content

 IN SUMMARY

In the table below, you will find learning outcomes associated with
the ‘Effective use of tools’ strand of the Raspberry Pi Foundation’s
computing taxonomy. These learning outcomes are illustrative of the
kinds of knowledge and understanding that learners could develop in
this area of computing. They are not prescriptive, but instead aim to
illustrate the wide applications of the discipline.
These learning outcomes were originally developed to complement
the English national curriculum for computing, and as such, stage 1
roughly corresponds to ages 5–7, stage 2 to ages 7–11, stage 3 to
ages 11–14, stage 4 to ages 14–16, and stage 5 to ages 16–19.

STAGE 3 STAGE 4 STAGE 5

■ Describe how different hardware devices may be ■ Describe the features of specialist programming ■ Use a range of specialist software in developing
better suited to specific uses software such as IDEs digital artefacts

■ Describe how different software ■ Use collaborative revision tools to provide ■ Adapt to new software tools, combining past
applications are suited to feedback and suggestions experience with available documentation
different purposes and support
■ Apply versioning to files to provide a
■ Be familiar with a range of online communication version history ■ Use appropriate software tools to support planning,
and collaboration tools development, organisation, and collaboration
■ Demonstrate responsibility for files
■ Combine software tools to create through organisation and backup strategies ■ Use collaborative tools to connect and
digital products collaborate remotely with others
■ Explain the purpose and benefits of templating
■ Save and organise files within folders and create and styling tools
multiple versions where appropriate
■ Use templating and styling tools to create
■ Select hardware and software tools that consistency within digital products
are appropriate for a specific task

■ Apply past experience of hardware and software

to new devices and programs

The Big Book of Computing Content 157

 RESEARCH
© StudioDin/stock.adobe.com

n How many of the tasks you completed today could

you have done without access to a digital device?

THE DIGITAL DIVIDE

STORY BY Ben Hall

ow wide is your use of computers and do not have access to computers and researchers Korupp and Szydlik (helloworld.
H and digital devices? Think about the internet. A 2019 study by Lloyds Bank cc/korupp2005). They analyse the causes
your day so far: from the moment you got identified that “11.9 million people (22%) do of the digital divide through three lenses:
up to the moment you now find yourself not have the Essential Digital Skills needed human capital, which relates to people’s
reading this article, where and how have for day-to-day life in the UK” (helloworld. education and their experiences with
you interacted with computers? What are cc/lloyds2019). As the use of technology technology at work; family composition,
the purposes of your interactions with has expanded, the range of services which considers the make-up and income
technology — work, social, play? Are these available on devices has also increased, of a household; and social context, which
interactions all productive? And what else and consequently, so has the digital divide. considers an individual’s generation, gender,
do you have planned for the day that will Of the tasks you have completed using ethnic background, and geographical
involve technology? computers so far today, how many could location. Within these groups there are
Now that you have reflected on your own you have completed if you had not been complex factors that can either exacerbate
interactions, what about those of others? able to access some kind of digital device? or mitigate the divide. Whatever the cause,
Not everyone has access to digital devices. the impact is that these people or groups
There has been a great deal of research in Causes of the digital divide are excluded from some aspects of society.
recent years into the digital divide, a term The causes of the digital divide are wide- The digital divide came into sharp focus
first used by psychologist Lloyd Morrisett. ranging and complex. There are numerous during the coronavirus pandemic. The need
This is the gap between those who have papers offering ideas, including those from for people to isolate from each other, and

158 The Big Book of Computing Content

 RESEARCH

the expansion of online services, meant therefore, this group surely cannot be functional computer sets to educationally
that the pace of change increased hugely. victims of the digital divide? disadvantaged young people in the
Schoolchildren found themselves in home These beliefs have now been challenged. UK. The impact was immediate: young
learning environments, needing laptops In a 2019 study, researcher Scolari focused people were more engaged with learning;
or tablets and, crucially, bandwidth, to on media literacy, breaking down the parents reported positive changes in their
access their learning. Such a scenario was term into ten ‘new literacies’ (helloworld. children’s attitude and behaviour; and
unthinkable before the pandemic. Some cc/scolari2019). He found that the term youth and social workers deepened their
children and families adapted quickly and digital native has “more problems than relationships with families, enabling them
easily, using devices they already had and advantages”. Not all young people, for to provide better support (helloworld.cc/
dedicating spaces in their homes to school- example, have access to devices, and much RPFreview2021).
based activities. Others were less fortunate, of the behaviour of these so-called digital There have been a number of other
coping with very limited space and having natives is focused on the consumption of similar initiatives advocating the idea of
in many cases to share devices unsuitable digital content, such as watching something one laptop per child (OLPC). However, it’s
for learning, such as mobile phones, online or playing with a device. This does important to stress that equipment alone
between multiple siblings. Researchers not involve using digital tools to their will not necessarily deliver improvements.
Holmes and Burgess highlight that only 51 full extent; consumers are not producing Researchers Thapa and Sein studied an
percent of the poorest households have anything by doing this, or thinking about OLPC scheme in Nepal that had been
internet access, compared to 99 percent of how they could make best use of the tools widely regarded as a success. They found
the richest (helloworld.cc/holmesburgess); they have at their disposal. In fact, labelling that it wasn’t the technology per se that
it is very clear that the pandemic has people as digital natives can actually brought quality education to these schools,
exacerbated existing inequalities. widen the digital divide. It peddles the false but rather, it was the ecosystem around
the deployment of these devices that had
a more significant role in the success story

“ IT IS CLEAR THAT THE PANDEMIC HAS

EXACERBATED INEQUALITIES BETWEEN
(helloworld.cc/thapa2018). Similarly, the
Learn at Home initiative has been backed
by significant support, to ensure that
THE RICHEST AND POOREST HOUSEHOLDS students were able to get the most from
the devices they were provided with.
While the pandemic widened the digital
Looking through Korupp and Szydlik’s assumption that the skills associated with divide, it also drew attention to it. With
social context lens, older people have the effective use of tools do not need to be the issue now more in the spotlight, there
also been badly affected by the pandemic taught to learners, which could lead to a life are opportunities for more research and
and the acceleration of the digital divide. surrounded by technology they can never more initiatives to broaden digital inclusion
Services such as booking a doctor’s fully understand or exploit. and ensure that digital tools can be
appointment or ordering a prescription used effectively by all.
moved online, and the pace of change left Bridging the digital divide
many behind, with inadequate support
provided to help this group come to terms
So what can we do? We cannot ignore
the problem. The growth in the use of
FURTHER READING
with new ways of doing things. computers and the internet is unstoppable,
but that does not mean the digital divide Prensky, M. (2001). Digital Natives,
Digital natives also needs to widen. More work needs Digital Immigrants, Part 1. On The
Are any groups immune to the digital to be done to ensure that everyone Horizon. 9(5), 1–6.
divide? You may have come across the has access to digital tools as and when helloworld.cc/prensky2001
term ‘digital native’, a term first introduced they need them, as well as access to Thapa, D., & Sein, M. K. (2018). An
by researcher Marc Prensky in 2001 opportunities to help them develop their ecological model of bridging the
(helloworld.cc/prensky2001). This term is skills. While computers are still expensive, digital divide in education: A case
often used to describe young people who there are tools available that can provide study of OLPC deployment in Nepal.
have been brought up using computers access to key services at a reasonably The Electronic Journal of Information
and the internet from a very young age. low cost. Raspberry Pi is a great example Systems in Developing Countries.
Unfortuantely, articles such as Prensky’s — for less than $50, you can buy a fully 84(2). helloworld.cc/thapa2018
perpetuated a widely held belief that if functional personal computer that will Korupp, S. E. (2005). Causes and
you can use a tablet or phone to access plug straight into most modern TVs. From Trends of the Digital Divide. European
content online, you are somehow a digital the start of the pandemic to the end of Sociological Review (ESR). 21(4),
native and can use these skills across 2021, the Raspberry Pi Learn at Home 409–422. helloworld.cc/korupp2005
many platforms and technologies — initiative distributed nearly 6000 fully

The Big Book of Computing Content 159

 FEATURE
OPINION

KEY DIGITAL SKILLS FOR

YOUNG PEOPLE WITH SEND
Catherine Elliott shares the importance of teaching key digital and digital literacy
skills, and looks at how you can build them with your students

omputing curricula generally cover Why is developing fluency in basic iPad. If we can teach young people how to
C a wide range of skills, concepts, digital skills and literacy important? use these options independently as part
and knowledge, and much of the focus is 1. It reduces cognitive load of computing lessons, it will help them to
often on creative projects, programming, Cognitive load relates to the number of items become more effective in their learning.
and abstract computer science concepts. a person can hold in their working memory. Similarly, highlighting how to increase the
There is a powerful argument, however, For many younger pupils and students with size of text or change the background colour
for ensuring that we teach the basic skills SEND, basic skills such as logging on and in documents will allow learners to modify
well in the first instance, with a particular opening files are not practised enough to be digital documents to be more accessible.
benefit for young people with special moved to long-term memory, and therefore
educational needs and disabilities (SEND). rely on working memory. This results in the 4. Digital skills open up greater
Basic digital skills are any skills that are frustrating position of a child spending much opportunities for employment
required to access and use a computer of a lesson simply accessing a computer and There are few jobs where digital skills are
effectively. The concept of digital natives finding work. Once these actions become not required, and even the application
has been widely discredited, but many fluent, learners can concentrate on the process generally requires the use of some
teachers believe that young people just content of the lesson more effectively. elements of technology. For students who
‘get’ computers and can use them with are not taking an IT or computer science
ease, as they are more confident users. 2. It increases confidence in using qualification, schools need to consider how
However, although children may be technology to teach key employability skills, such as
experts at swiping and accessing content Once learners become fluent in using the sending emails and searching for information
on certain devices, such as tablets, they computer in basic ways, their confidence online. A functional skills qualification in IT
often lack keyboard and mouse skills, and will develop. This will help to increase would greatly benefit some learners with
the understanding of the basics of an their motivation and contribute to a feeling SEND in preparing them for their next steps
operating system. of achievement. in education or employment.
Basic digital literacy is equally
important. The skills and knowledge 3. It enables learners to use assistive 5. It helps students use technology safely
required to communicate effectively and technologies effectively and make simple and responsibly
to use current and emerging technologies modifications to content to support Young people need to be taught about the
are essential if students are to remain their learning risks of online technologies, how to act
safe and act appropriately online. Young Mainstream applications and devices appropriately online, and where to go for
people with additional learning needs now have a greater amount of assistive help with safely accessing key services.
and disabilities can be among the most technology built in — for example, Immersive They need the same opportunities for
vulnerable in terms of online risks and Reader in Microsoft 365, Voice Typing in learning, entertainment, and shopping as
behaviours. Google Docs, and Speak Screen on the their peers.

160 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE
OPINION

ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY IN MAINSTREAM APPLICATIONS

Support weaker readers

© epixproductions/stock.adobe.com
n
with the Immersive Reader
tool, built into Microsoft
365 products and the Edge
browser, and as an extension
in Chrome (see helloworld.
cc/immersivereader for
more info)
n Enable Speak Selection in the
Accessibility settings on the
iPad to enable students to
listen to any selected text
n Try the Voice Typing option
in the Tools toolbar in Google
Docs to allow learners to
convert speech to text; there
is also a dictation function
via the keyboard on iPad
and Android tablets, and in
Microsoft Word online

How can we teach key skills effectively? them, or add subtitles to videos. Where Computing often doesn’t receive enough
n  evelop fluency through routine. For
D possible, share these with parents to use space in the curriculum. However, an
example, pupils open and save work from at home. investment of time and effort in developing
the same folder each lesson, and have a n Show students how to adapt digital key digital and digital literacy skills early in a
routine for logging on when they enter the content to make it more accessible. child’s computing journey will pay
ICT suite or access a laptop. Share these A great benefit of the pandemic has dividends later in increased confidence,
routines with the other teachers these been that we have been able to provide fluency, and access to learning for all of
learners work with. lesson content for students to access your students.
n Provide support materials for learners for in their own time, so they can revisit
habitual actions — create a set of simple and consolidate their learning. If this is
instructions for each step, with image in an editable format (such as Word,
support. For example, log on, open an PowerPoint, or Google Docs), learners
application, save work, and take a photo can change the background colour,
on the iPad. increase the font size, choose a more
n Provide lots of opportunities for repetition readable typeface, and increase line
to consolidate learning — time spent spacing to make it more readable. If you
repeating an action multiple times, or are providing videos to watch, enable the
practising keyboard and mouse skills, use of closed captions.
is worthwhile for helping key skills to n Model safe and responsible use of
become fluent early in the year. Consider technology in the classroom, and make
how to combine this with other meaningful your actions explicit through commentary
tasks in the classroom, or to assist with and discussion. CATHERINE ELLIOTT
other learning goals (for example, typing n When teaching digital literacy and online Catherine is the SEND lead for the Sheffield
practice to support spelling). safety, make sure you discuss risks and eLearning Service (sheffieldclc.net), and she
n Teach learners how to use assistive behaviour in several different situations works on ways to make computing accessible to
technologies built into the mainstream and contexts, as some young people all learners. She is a member of the CAS Include
tools that are available at school or at with SEND struggle to generalise their working group, and leads the SEND Virtual and
home through a learning platform. There knowledge. Issues also need explaining the Sheffield and South Yorkshire Secondary CAS
are a number of tools to allow students to explicitly for those students who can’t Communities (@catherinelliott).
dictate rather than type, have text read to infer risk from subtle cues.

The Big Book of Computing Content 161

 FEATURE

A WHOLE-SCHOOL
APPROACH TO DIGITAL SKILLS
Claire Buckler shares the benefits of embedding digital
skills across the curriculum

ike most schools, at Devonport High communicate and collaborate — vital skills Berryman, will bring his business students
L School for Boys (DHSB), we want to for being digitally literate after leaving in when they need to access technology.
ensure that all of our students are equipped school. We offer a coding club here twice He says, “Digital literacy is an important
with the digital skills they need to thrive a week, which is full of students who don’t skill, and at DHSB we have embraced this.
in the world. We have been working hard take computer science as an option but still The Learning Commons inspires the future
to ensure that even those students who see the benefits of learning to code. generation to be creative and learn the skills
don’t choose to take computer science are needed to adapt.” Google Expeditions is
technologically literate. Across the school, The benefit of support currently a favourite app among teachers
technology has a strong presence. We All of this comes from having a school that and students, who can use our class set
operate a bring-your-own-device policy, sees digital literacy as an essential skill and of Google Cardboards — the affordable
which will shortly be replaced with a one- is happy to provide the time and resources VR headsets.
student-to-one-Chromebook scheme. to get all staff and students on board. My Another way we involve students in
Most departments have Chromebooks or role is a great example of this: I am the technology is with our Digital Leader
iPads, and we encourage students to use director of the Learning Commons, a library scheme. Students take the roles of IT
mobiles phones as learning devices. As a and digital breakout space. We have 60 helpdesk staff, and we assign technical
Google Reference School, we use Google Chromebooks, which are available at break support tickets to them. They are an
tools in creative and innovative ways across times, and an innovative learning space. amazing resource for the school, saving time
the whole of our curriculum. This healthy The Learning Commons is often booked out and allowing technical staff to concentrate
relationship with technology is essential by teachers who enjoy the freedom that on infrastructure issues. Students who
for our students, to ensure that they are the space offers compared to a traditional are successful in their bid to be part of the
data-aware and can use digital tools to classroom. Our assistant head, Nick Digital Leader scheme take the Google
Applied Digital Skills course (helloworld.cc/
digitalskillscourse). They are available to run

BECOMING A GOOGLE REFERENCE SCHOOL theatre lighting, set up for assemblies, lead
Code Club sessions, and produce graphics
DAN ROBERTS, HEAD TEACHER AT DEVONPORT HIGH SCHOOL FOR BOYS and informatics for school departments.
We currently have over 30 Digital
Devonport High School for Boys was Leaders, with a healthy waiting list. Some
approached to be a Google Reference School of the team are also e-safety ambassadors
and we opted to use Google for Education and run relevant workshops. The students
to reduce costs and improve productivity involved show fantastic problem-solving
and efficiency. More importantly, we value and creative thinking skills. But the most
how the apps empower young people to amazing thing about these students, in my
collaborate, rather than more traditional opinion, is that very few of them are taking
virtual learning environments which limit computer science as an elective at GCSE.
collaboration and learning. Clearly, they have a great relationship with
technology. One of our Digital Leaders,

162 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

n DHSB Learning Commons is a space where

students are encouraged to use digital technology
as a tool for learning and collaboration

George, told me he feels he has improved

his digital skills by being part of the team,
and this had enabled him to take different
elective subjects at GCSE.
“ STUDENTS IN OUR DIGITAL LEADER SCHEME
ACT AS OUR IT HELPDESK AND WE ASSIGN
No time for complacency TECHNICAL SUPPORT TICKETS TO THEM
With constant access to technology, we
need to be mindful that our students don’t
fall into the trap of becoming passive users, meet any specified outcome, and the best
but stay curious and enthusiastic about thing about it is it will be led, of course, by
how technology works. We need to ensure our Digital Leaders.
that we still encourage students who do
not opt to study computer science to find Getting started
technology interesting and relevant. The While having a supportive senior leadership
next step for our school is to implement a team has been key to our success, there are
maker space. Our maker space will be part many small wins available. Setting up a
of the Learning Commons, and students Digital Leader scheme may seem labour-
will be encouraged to experiment there at intensive, but we have quickly seen the
break times and after school. Rather than benefits. Offering a Code Club is simple
being shoehorned into one subject, any — the codeclub.org resources don’t need
teacher will be able to use the space to any planning. A maker space may seem a CLAIRE BUCKLER
create and innovate across the curriculum. lot of work, or expensive, but could be as Claire is director of the Learning Commons
Part of our culture here is to inspire an simple as a few Raspberry Pis or micro:bits, and a teacher of computer science
innovative and entrepreneurial spirit in with some electrical components, most of at Devonport High School for Boys in
all our students. Maker spaces achieve which are reasonably priced. All of these Plymouth, UK. She is a Level 2 Google
this by encouraging students to design, could encourage more students, outside of Educator and Community Leader/Trainer for
experiment, and build in a hands-on those who choose to study computing, to Computing at School (@clairegowland).
environment, without being required to be inspired by technology.

The Big Book of Computing Content 163

 FEATURE

USING TABLETS TO ENHANCE

CROSS-CURRICULAR LEARNING
Charlotte Spenceley shares her experience of incorporating tablets into her teaching
approach, and how this has benefited both her and her primary pupils

am fortunate to work in a school When implementing the use of tablets science curriculum to adapt around the topic
I where significant investments in the classroom, our aims were for pupils of rocks. We began our journey with this
have been made to promote and develop to develop key literacy skills, explore new topic for timetabling reasons, but quickly
the computing curriculum — and one key routes for creativity, and learn how to record adapted the lessons learnt to other areas of
benefit is that every pupil aged seven to and evaluate their work. the curriculum, such as history and English.
eleven has their own tablet. Because of these investments in
Nearly two years ago, I was given the developing the computing curriculum, I have Getting started with the tablets
opportunity to work with an experienced learnt more about using technology in the Our journey began with eliciting the pupils’
computing specialist to develop a cross- classroom in the past 18 months than I have understanding and curiosity by using the
curricular approach to using tablets in the in almost ten years of teaching. Prior to this, PicCollage app to write questions over a
classroom. This opportunity came about my experience of computer science was very photograph of a rock. Straight away, my
through fortunate timetabling and as a limited and I had scarcely been exposed to students and I encountered problems: we
result of my reputation for being interested computing or technology in the classroom. couldn’t get the camera covers off the cases;
in using technology with my students — Tablets were my starting point, and I had one we didn’t know how to capitalise letters;
I’m one of a small number of people who afternoon a week with our specialist, and a and we were afraid to press any buttons
know how to get the interactive display
and sound in the school hall to work at the
same time! The specialist, who was known
to our head teacher, was employed at the
school to lead the computing curriculum,
provide our pupils with stimulating
opportunities, and deliver continuing
professional development for staff.

INTRODUCING
TABLETS TO
YOUR PUPILS
n L et children explore the apps
T each them what key symbols
+ to add
n

mean; for example, press

something
n Introduce one skill at a time
n Using Adobe Spark Video, we were able to bring to
life an investigation into the permeability of rocks

164 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

n Writing on tablets helped to alleviate the apprehension

some of the children felt about writing in books

by written methods can sometimes hinder

engagement and enthusiasm. However, by

“ ONE OF THE MOST POSITIVE CHANGES IN

MY PUPILS IS THE ABILITY TO REFLECT
patiently developing the skills needed to use
tablets as an effective learning tool, children
can grow more confident with taking risks,
ON THEIR OWN EVOLVING KNOWLEDGE and become more engaged, reflective, and
digitally literate learners.

for fear of “destroying the tablets” (to use Growing more confident Overcoming barriers
the children’s words). I questioned myself We were eager to build on our initial I am still working to overcome some barriers:
throughout: was the time used to model exercise, and our subsequent activities balancing book work with technology;
every tap worth it? Was every child making explored different methods of recording. A figuring out how to show constructive
progress from their individual starting point? popular app with my class is Balloon Stickies marking and give feedback on the tablets;
What was the difference between this and Plus, an application that allows you to add and planning the next steps in embedding
the tried and tested strategies? speech bubbles to photos. Not only do they the cross-curricular use of technology in my
Despite these initial hurdles, the dialogue like the name, they also enjoy being able to setting. However, my pupils are becoming
created through this activity allowed for choose between typing and voice recording, “confident”, “reflective”, and “enthusiastic”
thoughtful, memorable, and reflective learning and the freedom to present their work the learners (to use their own words again) and I
among the group. Writing on the tablets way they want to. I have found that taking believe that this shows the strong impact
also helped to alleviate the apprehension away the structure of an exercise book has that tablets can have when used as a
that some of the children felt about writing allowed children to focus on the content and learning tool in the primary classroom.
in exercise books. Misconceptions were creativity of their learning.
identified, understanding was assessed, and One of the most positive changes I’ve
I was able to reflect on my teaching. As with seen in my pupils is their ability to reflect
most things in a school environment, I learnt on their own evolving knowledge. Using
that patience needed to be embraced, and Adobe Spark Video, we were able to bring
that the quality of participation, confidence, to life an investigation on the permeability of
and problem-solving skills witnessed in rocks. We used technology to look back at
one afternoon justified the time needed to prior learning, and this helped to predict and
embed routines. Most importantly, I learnt justify the results. As each experiment was CHARLOTTE SPENCELEY
that children need to be taught how to conducted, the tablets were used to record Charlotte is an upper-primary teacher and
use technology in a meaningful way, and the results visually. Spark Video supported school council lead at Giffard Park Primary
not to assume that all young people are our observations, reasoning, and conclusions School in the UK. She is also a newly
digital natives — a term often used to by allowing us to explain each step verbally qualified teacher mentor and is the health
describe the generation that has grown up and annotate the video with additional and well-being champion at her school.
in the era of technology and the internet. information. Having to record experiments

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 FEATURE

CREATING DIGITAL ARTISTS:

YOUNG PHOTOGRAPHERS
Creating future artists and photographers is much more than just point and shoot

or the past three years, I’ve had the at the start of the year, they’re given a commissioned to take some shots for
F pleasure of running a photography large art pad to be used as their portfolio. the staffroom walls by the deputy head
club for a small group of children. It’s given This is for them to keep and use. It’s not a teacher! This is such a positive experience
me the opportunity to share one of my book that gets marked, but a pad that gets for the kids and is hopefully something
own passions with the pupils, as well as admired. It should be a reflection of their they’ll remember for a long time.
helping them to get creative more often. work and a space for them to show off
In my opinion, too much of primary school their talent. Simple equipment
life is taken up by English and maths! We The second way is our own little When getting started and looking at buying
need to give pupils the chance to let their blog space. The idea is for the pupils to equipment for a club like this, it’s important
creativity flow, and create something keep it up to date and share their work. to remember that the type of camera used
unique and memorable. It looks great and is an excellent way for really doesn’t matter. Honestly!
Each week, the club meets up and them to showcase their photos. The trick We started off with some simple point-
spends an hour playing with a set of with this is to find a blogging platform with and-shoots: bog-standard, cheap, and
cameras in and around our school. I set a healthy storage allowance, otherwise cheerful. The trick was to get the kids
them a challenge or a theme each week, you’ll fill it up pretty quickly. This has also thinking about how they could use them
and we head off to see what we can snap. been a great way for us to share the work in different and interesting ways, and
It might be as simple as giving them a title with students’ parents. I can quickly send how they could make sure the subject in
such as ‘Stone’ or ‘Shadows’ and seeing out the link in an email so they can see the the photograph was captivating. After a
what they come up with. Other weeks, we great work their kids do in the club. few months, I managed to beg, steal, and
might go on quick trips, or maybe look at The last method is a favourite of the borrow from the head to get some Sony
the work of a professional photographer. pupils. Taking a wall in one of the main A5000s. These cameras are great. They
The teaching comes from talking about school corridors, we’ve created our very have all the power of a DSLR, but they’re
photography concepts during each of own Photography Club Gallery. They small enough for little hands. These were
these activities. We talk about lighting, get to pick their favourite snaps (some a bit pricey and are fairly delicate — a
composition, the rule of thirds, and what of them would not be my choice!) and scenario that will fill all primary-school
they think makes a good photograph. display them in frames, labelled with their teachers with dread. So with the little
names and the camera used. All I did was funding I had left, I bought a few ‘rough
Sharing is key buy the cheapest frames I could find at and tough’ cameras. I chose the Ricoh
There’s no point in the pupils taking all IKEA, and they love the gallery. We have WG-30, and I can’t recommend these
these wonderful pictures if they are never a three-month policy on changing the cameras enough. They’re waterproof,
seen again! Our club has a few different photos, just to make sure the gallery stays shockproof, and even have digital
ways of sharing their beautiful work. First, fresh and new. The pupils have even been microscope capability. They really

166 The Big Book of Computing Content

 FEATURE

n On a cold and frosty morning, use the macro

setting for some interesting close-ups

n The DSLR pro photographers! n Use the slow shutter speed on a DSLR to paint with light

n A simple glass ball can create magical images n Broken equipment is given new life in the hands of inquisitive minds

stopped me from worrying when a child shutter speed, you can paint using the light good. I’m not sure how often we get to do
was running down the mud track in the of a torch. So cool! My personal favourite that in a primary school anymore, with all
middle of the Yorkshire Dales! piece of equipment, though, is a glass the pressure of tests. My biggest hope is
Allowing the children to investigate and ball. Pick one up on eBay for little money, that it’s passed on a love and enthusiasm
explore with the cameras has been one of and get ready to take some unbelievable for photography in the pupils, and that it’s
my drives for the club. One way I’ve done pictures. They make even the most novice something they’ll remember doing. I can’t
this is by collecting bits and pieces for us to photographer look like a pro. wait to see some of their portfolios in
use with the cameras. I’ve been to camera future life. Fingers crossed!
shops and bought old, broken, and scrap Three years on…
SLR lenses. They’re great for looking at how Having worked with the same small group
a camera works, but also for holding up to of children for such a long time, I’ve seen MATTHEW MOORE
the lens of your cheap camera and taking them develop right before me. The club Matthew is a computing specialist at a primary
some interesting snaps. I’ve also added a has seen them change into future artists. It school in Bradford, UK. He is also a CAS Master
few small torches for painting with light. Do has instilled in them a sense of aesthetic. Teacher and Hub Leader, as well as a Raspberry
a few Google searches to find out how you It has given them the opportunity to create Pi Certified Educator.
can achieve this; it’s incredible. Using a slow something with the sole purpose of looking

The Big Book of Computing Content 167

 FEATURE

© yellowj/stock.adobe.com
LOGGING ON AND BEYOND
Sway Grantham shares tips on how to teach children under
seven to log on to school computers independently

ust like blowing their noses or tying Teach it explicitly you would eventually intervene, but you
J their shoelaces, logging on to school If you plan a lesson in which the outcome is might set them a personal target to work
computers is a skill young primary-school that learners have logged on successfully, on that specific skill until they got there. We
students need to learn. However, many you can break down each step and take don’t want to impact the children’s attitude
children can find logging on by themselves your time, without feeling the pressure of to computing because they struggle with
quite challenging. Here are some top tips moving on to other lesson content. For those logging on.
to help you get your youngest learners learners who still struggle, a visual prompt Logging on is a skill that many adults
logging on to devices independently. is often useful — you can hand them a chart take for granted, but it is a skill in itself. We
showing each of the steps, to encourage need to give it the amount of time it
Simple usernames and passwords them to continue independently. deserves, so that we can get the majority of
Consider what is making it hard for our learners to do it independently as soon
the learners to log on. If it’s unrealistic Peer support as possible. This not only makes our lives
usernames and passwords, you should Can the children who have mastered the easier, but it also broadens the learners’
speak to the IT manager, or whoever skill support those who haven’t, until they opportunities for using technology across
controls your logins, and make these become more independent? I would often the curriculum in the future.
appropriate for the age and ability of the set table challenges for everyone on one
children. Their first name and a ‘1’ for Year table to get logged on, awarding school
1, and a three-letter password, is more points for the fastest table. This encouraged
than enough for this age group. However, the more capable children to support those
you should avoid them all having the same who were struggling, reducing the time
password, as we do not want to advocate pull on the teacher, and also allowing the
this, even with our youngest learners. learners to learn from their peers. I also had
a rule that the only person allowed to touch
Check and build the foundations the computer was the person who was
There is a range of foundational skills using it, so the helpers could tell them what
that children need before they can log on to do, but not do it for them!
independently, including turning on and
shutting down computers safely, using a Don’t let it be a barrier SWAY GRANTHAM
keyboard, and using a mouse to click in If, after trying all of the above, you still have Sway is a senior learning manager at the
a box. Do your students have these skills some learners who are struggling, they Raspberry Pi Foundation, where she leads
already? If they don’t, it’s worth spending should still be able to access the computing a team developing computing resources for
some time on developing them, so that curriculum with support. Just like if a child primary teachers (@SwayGrantham).
logging on isn’t an overwhelming task. was unable to dress themselves for PE,

168 The Big Book of Computing Content

NOTES
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