MADDA WALABU UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT

EFFECT OF INTER-ROW SPACING ON YIELD COMPONENTS AND

YIELD OF MAIZE (ZEA MAYS L.) AT CHINAKSEN, EASTERN

ETHIOPIA

PROPOSAL

BY

MARCH, 2023
BALE ROBE, ETHIOPIA
 LISTS OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ANOVA Analysis of Variance

ATA Agricultural Transformation Agency

CSA Central Statistical Agency

DAP Di-ammonium Phosphate

EARO Ethiopian Agriculture Research Organization

EIAR Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research

FAOSTAT Food and Agriculture Organization Statistics

 LIST OF TABLES
Table-1. Time Schedule of Research Work-------------------------------------------------11

Table-2. Per-diem expense and Personal cost -------------------------------------------------------12

Table-3. Stationary and experimental supplies------------------------------------------------------12

Table-4. Budget Summary------------------------------------------------------------------------------

12
 TABLE OF CONTENT
LISTS OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS i
LIST OF TABLES ii
TABLE OF CONTENT iii
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Background of the Study 1
1.2. Statement of the Problem 2
1.3. Significance of the study 2
1.4. Objectives 3
1.4.1. General Objective 3
1.4.2. Specific Objectives 3
1.5. The scope of the study 3
2. LITERETURE REVIEW 4
2.1. Agro-Ecologies and Maize Production in Ethiopia 4
2.2. Importance and Uses of Maize 4
2.3. Principles and Facts of Plant Spacing 5
2.4. Importance of Spacing and Optimum Population 5
2.5. Effects of Plant Density on Phenology of Maize 6
2.6. Effect of Spacing and Plant Density on Growth and Development of Maize 6
2.7. Relationship between Plant Density and Yield of Maize 7
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 8
3.1. Description of the Study Area 8
3.2. Description of Experimental Materials 8
3.3. Treatments and Experimental Design. 8
3.4. Management of the Experimental Field 8
3.5. Crop data Collection and Measurement 9
3.5.1. Crop phonological data 9
3.5.2. Growth parameters 9
3.5.3. Yield components and yield 9
3.6. Statistical Data Analysis 10
4. WORK PLAN 11
5. LOGISTICS AND BUDJET BREAKDOWN 12
6. REFERENCES 13
 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the Study
Maize (Zea mays L.) is an important grain crop of the world and it ranks second, after wheat
in hectarage (187,959,116ha) and first in total production (1,060,107,470MT) and
productivity (5.64 t ha-1) (FAOSTAT, 2016). It is recognized worldwide as a strategic food
and feed crop that provides an enormous amount of protein and energy for humans and
livestock.
Although much of the world's maize production is utilized for animal feed, human
consumption in many developing and developed countries is steadily increasing. It is the
most important cereal crop for food in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. Between 2010
and 2050, the demand for maize in the developing world will double, and by 2025, maize is
likely to become the crop with the greatest production globally (Rosegrant et al., 2010).
In Ethiopia, maize has increasingly become a popular crop in the country with steady growth
in production area and yield (Doss et al., 2003). It is Ethiopia’s leading cereal in produced in
by about 10.9 million farmers across about 2.1 million hectares of land in 2017Meher season
(CSA, 2017). As compared to other cereals maize can attain the highest potential yield per
unit area. World average yield for maize is about 4.5 t ha-1 and that of developed countries is
6.2t ha-1 while the average yield in developing countries is 2.5t ha-1. In Ethiopia the national
average yield is about 3.68 t ha-1 (CSA, 2017).
It grows under a wide range of environmental conditions between 500 to 2400 meters above
sea level. The mid altitude, sub-humid agro-ecology is the most important maize producing
environment in Ethiopia (Birhane and Bantayehu, 1989; Kebede et al., 1993). It is mainly
grown in the four big regions of the country: Oromia, Amhara, Southern Nations,
Nationalities and Peoples’ Region and Tigray. Oromia and Amhara contribute to almost
eighty percent of the maize produced. The western part of the country is generally well suited
for the current maize varieties with the largest adoption.
Specifically, the agro-ecology spanning Amhara, Benishangul Gumuz, Eastern Gambela,
Western Oromia, and Western SNNPR are well suited for production intensification, by using
current varieties of improved seed, applying proper agronomy practices and increasing
accessibility to improved farm implements and equipment (ATA, 2013).
Maize is used in many ways than any other cereals. It is used as human food, feed for
livestock and industrial purposes (Dowswell et al., 1996). It is also used for making local
beverages. Additionally, the leaves and dry biomass are used to feed animals and the stalks
are used for construction and fuel. The green fodder from thinning and topping is an
important source of animal feed and the dry fodder is used during the dry season. Moreover,
the crop has potential uses for industrial purposes, serving as a starch, a sweetener for soft
drinks, an input for ethanol fuel production and oil extraction, etc (EARO, 2000).
While significant gains have been made in maize production over the past decade, there
remains large potential to increase productivity. Low productivity of maize in Ethiopia is due
to several constraints: biotic (inadequate improved varieties, pests and diseases), abiotic (low
soil fertility, land and water degradation, and drought) and socio-economic (input
unavailability, lack of storage facility, poor access to markets and lack of appropriate
agronomic practices) (CSA, 2010).
1.2. Statement of the Problem
In order to fully explore its capacity, it is necessary to understand how plants interact
morphologically and physiologically in a community of the plant and to identify management
practices which allow them to maximize the use of growth resources in their environment.
Among agronomic practices, spacing deserves special attention. Optimum inter- and intra-
row spacing varies with soil fertility status, soil moisture, the nature of the crop and degree of
weed infestation (Singh et al., 1997). Andrade et al., (2002) described that both too narrow
and too wide spacing do affect grain yields through competition (for nutrients, moisture, air,
radiation, etc) and due to the effect of shading. In the latter case (too wide spacing), yield
reduction can occur due to inefficient utilization of the growth factors. Normally, as
population increases yield also increases proportionally and after it reaches a certain level, the
yield declines.
A number of factors also influence spacing: fertility status of the soil, moisture availability,
growth pattern of the crop and cultural practices; hence, optimum planting density should be
Determined through conducting experiments. Singh and Singh (2002) described that under
Conditions of sufficient soil moisture and nutrients, higher population is necessary to utilize
all the growth factors efficiently.
1.3. Significance of the study
Optimum plant density is the minimum population that produces maximum yield and suitable
Plant arrangement per unit area allow crops to exploit resource optimally and produce high
yields. However, optimum plant density varies depending on crop species or varietals
differences in vigor, height and branching, time of sowing, and the nature of the season
(Anderson et al., 2004). The response of crops to plant density tended to be less in the low as
compared to the high yielding environments. This can also depend on soil type, management
practices like seedbed conditions and soil moisture, sowing depth, sowing date, presence of
weeds and seasonal rainfall (Matthews et al., 2008).
Chinaksen district, where the study will be conducted, is one of maize producing districts in
East Hararghe Zone. Maize is the 3rd cereal crop in production next to wheat in the area.
According to CSA, (2017) 108384.8 ton of maize was produced on about 33951 ha of land
during 2017 in Meher season with yield of 3.2 ton ha-1.
Most of the maize producing farmers in Chinaksen district do not use the national
recommendation. Realizing the importance of developing appropriate cultural practices such
as plant spacing for optimum production of maize in Chinaksen district in this study will be
envisaged.
1.4. Objectives
1.4.1. General Objective
 To investigate and determine the effect of inter-row spacing and select the better
spacing for greater yield of maize in the study area
1.4.2. Specific Objectives
 To evaluate the effects of inter - row spacing on growth, yield components and yield
of maize.
 To determine the best inter-row spacing for high maize productivity in the study area
1.5. The scope of the study
This study will be conducted at Chinaksen Kebele, Chinaksen Woreda, East Hararghe Zone,
East Ethiopia. It only focuses on the effects inter-row spacing on growth, yield components
and yield of maize.
 2. LITERETURE REVIEW
2.1. Agro-Ecologies and Maize Production in Ethiopia
Maize is a member of the grass family, Poaceae. It is believed that the crop was originated in
Mexico and introduced to West Africa in the early 1500s by the Portuguese traders
(Dowswell et al., 1996). It has never been found growing in a wild state. There is no reliable
evidence that maize reached the old world prior to 1492. Ethiopia is among the major maize
producers in Sub Saharan African countries, where smallholder farmers dominate the major
share of production. Maize, which is originated from South America, is first introduced in
Ethiopia in the 16th to 17th Century (Abdisa et al., 2001).
However, it is increasingly becoming more important than most of the indigenous crops of
the country and has been widely accepted in several ways, namely for human consumption,
as feed grain, fodder crop and for many industrial purposes. The crop requires an average
daily temperature of at least 20oC for adequate growth and development; the optimum
temperature for growth and development ranges between 25-30oC; temperature above 35oC
reduces yields (Brink and Belay, 2006). Frost can damage maize at all growth stages and a
frost-free period of 120 to 140 days is required to prevent damage. Leaves of mature plants
are easily damaged by frost and grain filling can be adversely affected. Maize can be grown
from sea level to over 3000 meters above sea level (m.a.s.l) elevation (Singh, 1997). In the
tropics, maize does best with 600-900 mm well-distributed rainfall during the growing season
(Brink and Belay, 2006).
2.2. Importance and Uses of Maize
Maize is one of the most important cereal crops in the world. Its worldwide economic
importance is due to its use as food for human, cash crop, feed for animals, and an industrial
grain crop. According to FAOSTAT (2016), 1.06 billion tons of maize was produced on 188
million hectares worldwide, with a yield of over 5.64 tons ha-1 in the year 2016. Maize is the
most important cereal crop in eastern and southern Africa accounting for over 39.5% of the
total harvested area of annual cereal crops (FAOSTAT, 2016).
In Ethiopia, about 2.1 million hectares of land was covered with maize with an estimated
production of about 7.8 million tons during the 2017 cropping season (CSA, 2017). However,
the national average yield, 3.68 tons/ha (CSA, 2017) is still far below the world average 5.64
tons/ha, (FAOSTAT, 2016). According to data from CSA, (2017), 10.9 million smallholders
were involved in maize production in the country during 2017 production season.
2.3. Principles and Facts of Plant Spacing
For crops regularly arranged in rows, spatial arrangement can be concisely defined by the
rectangularity, which is the ratio of the inter row spacing to the intra raw spacing (Willy and
Osiru, 1972). Therefore, in this review the term plant density/population used to mean inter
and intra-row spacing as it indicates the size of the area available for individual plant.
Planting arrangement in the field is very important and plays a significant role in determining
plant growth and development. Arrangement of a population is altered by changing row
spacing, by planting seeds singly or in groups, or by changing row direction (Robinson et al.,
2002). Plant spacing should be thought of as existing in two directions, within row spacing
and between row spacing. At a given plant density, as row spacing decreases, the plant
spacing within the row increases and results in a more equidistant plant spacing. At a fixed
row width, as plant density increases the plant spacing within the row decreases and
interplant competition increases. Obviously, both factors can be adjusted to provide optimal
plant spacing and typically plant density increases as row spacing decreases (Adetola, 2004;
Pedersen et al., 2008).
There are two general concepts frequently used to explain the relationship between row
spacing, plant density, and yield. First, maximum yield could be obtained only if the plant
community produced enough leaf area to provide maximum light interception during
vegetative growth (Shibles and Weber, 1966). Secondly, equidistant spacing between plants
affects interplant competition. Hence, it will be imperative to adjust the spatial distribution of
the recommended population in order to have maximum yield (Buttery, 1969).
2.4. Importance of Spacing and Optimum Population
Optimum number of plants is required per unit area to utilize efficiently the available
production resources such as water, nutrients, light, and carbon dioxide. Normally maximum
productions are obtained from plant population which does not allow plants to achieve their
individual maximum potential. Thus, the entire community of plants is considered for higher
production rather than the individual plant performance (Balassubramaniyan and
Palaniappan, 2007). Extremely narrow spacing do affect grain yield through competition for
resources and due to the effect of shading. In too wide spacing yield reduction can occur due
to insufficient utilization of the growth factors. As plant population increases yield also
increases proportionally then decreases after it reaches a certain level (Donald, 1963).
According to Singh and Singh (2002), establishment of optimum population per unit area of a
field is essential to get maximum yield. Under conditions of sufficient soil moisture and
nutrients, higher plant population is necessary to utilize all the growth factors efficiently. The
level of plant population should be such that maximum solar radiation is utilized. The full
yield potential of an individual plant is fully exploited when sown at wider spacing. Yield per
plant decreases gradually as plant population per unit area increases. However, the yield per
unit area is increased due to efficient utilization of growth factors.
Too close spacing interferes with normal plants development and increase competition
resulting in yield reduction, while too wide spacing may result in excessive vegetative growth
of plant and abundant weed population due to more area available. Therefore, use of optimum
plant population per unit area without exceeding the economic threshold can increase the
competitive ability of the crop plants in weed-infested field (FAO, 1989; Murphy et al.,
1996).
2.5. Effects of Plant Density on Phenology of Maize
High plant densities appear to affect the required period for pollen shedding and silk
emergence. Higher plant density (more than 12 plants per m2) delay time of silking and widen
the time gap between silking and pollination (Carcova and Otegui, 2001). Edmeades and
Daynard, (2001) stated that the required time for pollen shedding and maturity time was not
influenced appreciably by plant density. However, time from sowing to silking increased
from 84 to 95 days as densities increased from 5 to 20 plants m 2. Thus the duration between
pollen shedding and silking increased by increasing the plant density from almost 0 to 9 days
in combination with the reality that plants not shedding pollen and not silking was observed
only at the higher densities of 15 and 20 plants m2 of sterility from 0 to 26.7 %. Similar
results were obtained under the same plant densities by Kgasago, (2006).
2.6. Effect of Spacing and Plant Density on Growth and Development of Maize
Plants that grow under high plant density receive a different quality of light, enriched with far
red (FR) and impoverished in red (R) radiation. This high FR/R ratio triggers many
morphological changes in plant architecture, stimulating stem elongation, favouring apical
dominance and decrease in stem diameter (Rajcan and Swanton, 2001). Such changes make
maize stalks more susceptible to breakage and lodging. Plant density exerts a strong influence
on maize growth and yield as a result of different competitive ability of plants at variable
densities. Thus, balanced growth and development of plants need optimum plant density
because optimum density enables plants efficient utilization of available nutrients, soil water
and better light interception coupled with other growth influencing factors (Tinau, et al.,
1993; Gobeze et al., 2012).
2.7. Relationship between Plant Density and Yield of Maize
To increase yield, we must plant maize at proper plant population. If plant population is too
high, then crop net photosynthesis process will be affected due to less light penetration in the
crop canopy as well as increase in the competition for available nutrient which will affect
grain yield and forage production. On the other hand, if plant population is lower than
optimum plant population then per hectare production will be low and weeds will also be
more (Khan, 1972).
According to Singh and Singh (2002), establishment of optimum population per unit area of
a field is essential to get maximum yield. Many experiments have been conducted to
determine the spacing between rows and between plants within the row that maximizes yield.
Muhammad et al. (2006) indicated that there was maximum grain yield 6.6 t ha-1 of maize
against the minimum 3.28 t ha-1 at narrow spacing, although narrow plant spacing (10-15 cm)
caused substantial reduction in yield components such as grain cob-1 and 1000 kernel weight
compared to the wide plant spacing, accordingly they recommend 60 cm by 10 or 15 cm
plant spacing for maximum yield. Grain yield increased linearly with increasing plant density
until production factors were not limiting (Anjum et al., 1992). Optimum plant population
increased number of grains cob-1, 1000-grain weight and grain yield of maize (Sabir et al.,
1987).
 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1. Description of the Study Area
The field experiment will be conducted at Chinaksen Woreda, Marar kebele. It is located
between 9o 30' N latitude and 42o 40' E longitude and an altitude of 1857 m a. s. l. It is
situated in the semi-arid tropical belt of eastern Ethiopia and is characterized by a sub-humid
type of climate with an average annual rainfall of about 600 mm, annual mean temperature of
20oC with mean minimum and maximum temperature of 12 and 28 oC, respectively (Woreda
Agricultural Office). The rainy season of the area is bimodal; the short rainy season stretches
from March to May and the main rainy season from July to September.
3.2. Description of Experimental Materials
Maize variety, Melkassa-II will be used in the experiment. The Melkasa-II is a early and
intermediate maturing variety adapted to low-mid altitude (1200-2600 m.a.s.l) areas with
high protein. It was released in the year 2004 (EIAR, 2008).
3.3. Treatments and Experimental Design.
The treatments will be five inter-rows spacing (85, 75, 65, 55 and 45 cm) and 30cm intra-row
spacing. The gross plot size will be 4.55 x 3m =(13.65m 2) accommodating 5, 6, 7, 8 and 10
rows for 85, 75, 65, 55, and 45 cm inter-rows, respectively. The experiment will be laid out in
randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The blocks will be
separated by 1.5 m wide space and each plot will be separated by 1 m space. As the inter -
row spacing varied the net plot area also varied. Therefore, the corresponding length of net
plot for inter-row spacing of 85, 75, 65, 55 and 45 cm will be 2.55 m, 3m, 3.25m, 3.3m and
3.6m respectively. The central rows left aside for data recording will be 3, 4, 5, 6, and 8 rows
for 85, 75, 65, 55 and 45cm inter-row spacing respectively.
3.4. Management of the Experimental Field
Prior to sowing, the land will be well prepared by repeated ploughing using oxen plough.
Maize Seeds will be planted as per proposed inter and intra-row spacing. Initially two seeds
per hill will be planted and latter thinned to one plant at the stage of 3 to 4 leaves. At time of
planting, all plots will be received a basal application of NPS (19% N, 38% of P2O5 and 7%
S). In addition all plots will be top dressed with Urea (46% N ha-1) in split (at knee height
and at boot stage). All other agronomic and cultural practices like hoeing, weeding, etc were
applied to all treatments as per recommended.
3.5. Crop data Collection and Measurement
3.5.1. Crop phonological data
Days to 50% anthesis (DA): Days to 50% tasseling (the number of days required from
planting to the start of shedding of pollen by 50% of the maize plants) was recorded when
50% of plants in a net plot reached the respective phenological stage.
Days to silking (DS): The number of days taken from the date of planting to the stage when
50% of plants shows extrusion of silk.

Days to 50% physiological maturity (DPM): It will be recorded as the number of days after
planting to the formation of a black layer at the point of attachment of the kernel with the cob
by 75% of the maize plants in the plot.
3.5.2. Growth parameters
Leaf area and Leaf Area Index: Leaf area will be determined at 50% silking from five
plants randomly taken per net plot by multiplying leaf length and maximum width adjusted
by a correction factor of 0.75 (i.e. 0.75 x leaf length x maximum leaf width) as suggested by
Francis et al. (1969). Leaf area index will be then calculated by dividing leaf area per plant
sampled ground area (Radford, 1967).
Plant height: It will be measured as the height from the soil surface to the base of the tassel
of five randomly will be taken plants from the net plot area at 75% physiological maturity.
3.5.3. Yield components and yield
Stand count: Stand count per plot will be recorded after thinning and at harvest from the net
plot area. The final plant stand percentage (final plant stand count at maturity/population
established after thinning x 100) of the respective treatments will be used to determine the
stand loss due to lower spacing treatments.
Number of ears per plant: It will be recorded from the count of five randomly taken plants
in the central net plot area at crop harvest.
Ear length: It will be measured from the point where the ear attached to the stem to the tip of
the ear from randomly will be taken ten ears in the central net plot at crop harvest.
Number of kernels per ear: It will be recorded from average of five randomly taken ears per
plot. This will be done by manually shelling and counting the kernels.
Dry biomass of stover: It will be determined after harvest on the basis of the samples from
which the grain yield will be taken. This will be done after the harvested stover will be air
dried to a constant weight for 20 days.
Thousand kernel weight (TKW) (g): Thousand kernels will be counted from a bulk of
shelled grains from net plot and weighed using sensitive balance adjusted to 12.5% moisture
level.
Grain yield: It will be recorded from the net plot area and adjusted to 12.5% moisture level
Harvest index (%): It will be calculated as the ratio of grain yield to above ground dry
biomass per net plot and multiplied by 100.
3.6. Statistical Data Analysis
The measured related data will be subjected to the analysis of variance using GenStat Release
15 (GenStat, 2012). The differences between treatment means will be compared using Least
Significant Difference (LSD) test at 5% level of significance when the ANOVA show the
presence of significant difference.
 4. WORK PLAN
Table-1. Time Schedule of Research Work

S/ List of Activities Duration

No
1 Site selection and Land preparation May, 2023
2 Soil sampling and analysis May, 2023
3 Sowing date May, 2023
4 Data collection and field operation May -October, 2023
5 Data summarization, analysis and interpretation November - December, 2023
6 Research report write up January, 2024
 5. LOGISTICS AND BUDJET BREAKDOWN
Table-2. Per-diem expense and Personal cost

No of No. of Payment Total

S/ Activity man days (birr/ payment/birr
No days)
1 Land preparation and planting 10 2 200 4000
2 Field Management 2 20 100 4000
3 Harvesting and Threshing 10 5 100 5000
4 For Investigator 1 8 300 2400
5 For Data collector 1 8 300 2400
Sub-Total 17,800

Table-3. Stationary and experimental supplies

S/No Item Unit Quantity Unit price/birr Total price/birr

1 Flesh disk (4GB) No. 1 150 150
2 Photo copy paper Pack 2 200 400
3 Note book /big/ No. 1 100 100
4 Pen no 5 20 100
5 Seed Kg 4 20 80
6 Urea fertilizer Kg 10 50 500
7 NPS fertilizer Kg 10 50 500
8 Sacks No. 15 10 150
Sub-total 1980

Table-4. Budget Summary

S/No Item Sub Total cost (ETB)

1 Per-diem expense and Personal cost 17,800
2 Stationary and experimental supplies 1980
Grand total 19780
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