PART 66 CAT B2

MODULE 13 AIRCRAFT AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURE & SYSTEMS

TRAINEE NOTES

MODULE 13.2 : STRUCTURES – GENERAL CONCEPTS

(PART 66 CATEGORY B2)

WARNING
This document is intended for the purposes of training only. The information contained herein is as accurate as
possible at the time of issue, and is subject to ongoing amendments where necessary according to any
regulatory journals and documents. Where the information contained in this document is in variation with other
official journals and/or documents, the latter must be taken as the overriding document. The contents herein
shall not be reproduced in any form without the expressed permission from the ETD.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

13.2 AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL CONCEPTS ............................................................................................................................. v

Airworthiness Requirement For Structural Strength ............................................................................................................................... 1
Structural Stresses ................................................................................................................................................................................. 2
Hoop Stress ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Metal Fatigue ................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Construction Methods ............................................................................................................................................................................ 6
Terminology ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Fuselage Construction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Truss Construction .................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Monocoque Fuselage .............................................................................................................................................................. 11
Semi-Monocoque Construction ............................................................................................................................................... 13
Drains and Ventilation Provisions ......................................................................................................................................................... 15
Structural Classification ........................................................................................................................................................................ 17
Primary Structure ........................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Secondary Structure ...................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Tertiary Structure ........................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Fatigue ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 18
Fail Safe Structure ......................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Damage Tolerance Concept .......................................................................................................................................................... 21
Aircraft Station Numbers ...................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Fuselage Stations .......................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Wing Stations................................................................................................................................................................................. 23
Water Line ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Butt Line ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 25
13.2.8 Zoning ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
13.2.8.1 Major Subzones ............................................................................................................................................................................. 27
Aircraft Wings ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Typical Wing Construction ............................................................................................................................................................. 29
Wing Spar ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 32

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13.2.9.3 Wing Ribs ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 33

The Empennage ................................................................................................................................................................................. 35
Horizontal Stabilizer ................................................................................................................................................................... 36
Variable Incidence Tail Plane ...................................................................................................................................................... 37
Elevators ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
Vertical Stabilizer ......................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Rudder Construction (Typical) ..................................................................................................................................................... 41
Trailing Edge Flaps ............................................................................................................................................................................ 43
General ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 43
Midflap ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Foreflap ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Aftflap .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Nacelle Structure ................................................................................................................................................................................ 45
Engine Mounts ............................................................................................................................................................................. 46
Pylon Structure ............................................................................................................................................................................ 49
Structural Assembly Techniques ........................................................................................................................................................ 51
Riveting ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 51
Principle of Riveting............................................................................................................................................................... 51
Insertion ................................................................................................................................................................................ 53
Setting ................................................................................................................................................................................... 53
Different Types of Rivets and Rivet Joints............................................................................................................................. 53
Bonding ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 53
Single--Package System ....................................................................................................................................................... 54
13.2.15.2.2 Double--Package System...................................................................................................................................................... 54
Bonding Preparation.............................................................................................................................................................. 54
Safety Precautions ................................................................................................................................................................ 54
Methods of Surface Protection ........................................................................................................................................................... 55
Anodizing and Chromizing ........................................................................................................................................................... 55
Painting ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 55
Surface Cleaning ................................................................................................................................................................................ 55
Mechanical cleaning comprises ................................................................................................................................................... 55

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Symmetry Check ................................................................................................................................................................................ 57

Systems Installation Provisions .......................................................................................................................................................... 59
De-Burring ................................................................................................................................................................................... 59
Installation or Assembly of Pipe Couplings......................................................................................................................................... 61
Installation of Fuel System Couplings .......................................................................................................................................... 61
Installation of Hydraulic System Couplings .................................................................................................................................. 63
Installation of De-icing System Couplings .................................................................................................................................... 63
Installation of Oxygen System Couplings................................................................................................................................... 65
Assembly of Rubber-hose Type Couplings ................................................................................................................................ 66
Installation or Assembly of Flight and Engine Control System Components ...................................................................................... 67
General ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 67
Assembly of Bearing into Pulley .................................................................................................................................................. 67
Pinning of Lever to Shaft.............................................................................................................................................................. 69
Assembly of Sprockets to Splined Shafts .................................................................................................................................... 69
Assembly of Sprockets to Tubes.................................................................................................................................................. 71
Sealing and Jointing .................................................................................................................................................................... 73
Lightning Strike Protection Provision .................................................................................................................................................. 73
Aircraft Bonding .................................................................................................................................................................................. 75
Electrical Bonding ........................................................................................................................................................................ 75
Methods of Electrical Bonding ..................................................................................................................................................... 75
Bonding by Direct Contact..................................................................................................................................................... 75
Bonding by Means of Flexible Jumpers................................................................................................................................. 77
Bonding by Means of a Lined Copper Strip ........................................................................................................................... 77
Bonding ’Pipe to Structure’ by a Pipe Mounting Clip ............................................................................................................. 77
LIGHTNING STRIKE PROTECTION

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13.2 AIRFRAME STRUCTURES - GENERAL CONCEPTS

13.2.1 Airworthiness Requirement For Structural Strength

The structure of an aircraft must be strong enough to carry all the loads to which it might be subjected which include:
 the repeated small to medium loads experienced in normal flight and
 the big loads experienced during extreme conditions.

To fly, an airplane's exterior must have an aerodynamic shape. Into this shape the structural members must be fitted with high strength-to-weight ratios that
are capable of sustaining the forces necessary to balance the airplane in flight. Airplanes are generally designed for a specific purpose that dictates the
structural design required.

The airplane structure must be capable of withstanding much more force than that imposed by its own weight. When the purpose of a particular design is
established, the designers provide structure according to strict standards established by the Federal Aviation Administration to ensure safety. In general,
airplanes are designed to withstand one and one-half times the maximum expected forces.

The loads imposed on the wings in flight are stated in terms of load factor. Load factor is the ratio of the total load supported by the airplane's wing to the
actual weight of the airplane and its contents - i.e. the actual load supported by the wings divided by the total weight of the airplane. For example, if an
airplane has a gross weight of 2000 lb (907 kg) and during flight is subjected to aerodynamic forces that increase the total load, the wing must support to
4000 lb (1814 kg), the load factor is 2.0 (4000/2000 = 2). In this example the airplane wing is producing lift that is equal to twice the gross weight of the
airplane.

Another way of expressing load factor is the ratio of a given load to the pull of gravity, i.e., to refer to a load factor of 3 as "three g's" where g refers to the
pull of gravity. In this case, the weight of the airplane is equal to 1 g, and if a load of 3 times the actual weight of the airplane were imposed upon the wing
due to curved flight, the load factor would be equal to 3 g's.

All airplanes are designed to meet certain strength requirements, depending upon the intended use of the airplane.

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13.2.2 Structural Stresses

External loads which act on the aircraft come from the air in the form of turbulence, or manoeuvring loads, and from the ground during taxying, take-off and
landing, and ground handling.
Any load applied to a unit of material is called a STRESS, and it will tend to produce a deflection or deformation in the material, termed STRAIN.

If the stress applied does not exceed the elastic limit of the material, it will return to its original condition as soon as the stress is removed. This property of
a material is known as ELASTICITY.
When a material is over stressed, permanent damage or deformation will occur.
Strain is the effect of overstressing a part or assembly to the point where a permanent deformation takes place. If an aircraft part has become strained,
the part very likely will no longer be airworthy.

When an airplane is designed, the loads that are likely to be applied to parts or assemblies of the airplane during operation are carefully computed and
analyzed by engineers. This process is called stress analysis. The performance of the stress analysis ensure that the airplane will perform according to
its approved specifications without danger of failure. In addition to stress analysis, fatigue loading is another area that has become an important design
consideration in all classes of aircraft. The increasing performance of modern aircraft and the higher utilization rates have dictated the requirements for the
primary structure to approach infinite service life. Many structural areas, especially those subjected to repeated high loads, are designed by fatigue
requirements. This is accomplished by designing for low stress levels to approach infinite life or by fail-safe techniques that deliberately provide multiple
load paths within

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Refer Figure 1

The stresses (effects of applied forces) to which structural members are subjected are:
1. Compression
2. Tension
3. Torsion
4. Bending
5. Shear.

The following definitions will serve to aid the student in understanding the nature of each type of stress:

Compression is the stress that tends to crush or press together. The landing gear of an aircraft is subjected to compression when the aircraft is landing.

Tension is the stress in a member when a force tends to elongate or stretch it. A bolt tightened to hold parts firmly together is subjected to tension. A
cable is in tension when it is used to lift an aircraft or engine.

Torsion is the stress of twisting. Rotating shafts under load are subjected to torsion.

Bending is actually a combination of compression and tension. When a bar is bent, the portion of the bar toward the outside of the bend is subjected to
tension and the portion of the bar toward the inside of the bend is subjected to compression. The wings of an aircraft are subjected to bending stresses.

Shear is the stress developed when a force tends to cause a layer of material to slide along an adjacent layer. When two strips of metal are joined by
means of rivets or bolts, a tensile force applied to the opposite ends of the assembled strips in a manner tending to pull them apart will produce shear
stress in the rivets or bolts.

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Figure 1: Structural Stresses

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13.2.2.1 Hoop Stress

In pressurized aircraft, the fuselage structure is subjected to a stress that is caused by the difference in pressure between the inside and outside
of the pressurized cabin area. This may be as high as 65.5 kN /m2 (9.5lbf/sq.in.). This stress is known as hoop or circumferential stress. If the
pressurized area is likened to a thin wall cylinder, then the internal pressure will tend to increase the diameter, creating a tensile load in the cylinder
walls. This load is in addition to the bending and twisting loads caused by normal ground and flight operations. The internal pressure also causes
stress along the length of the cylinder.

Hoop stress is mechanical stress applied in a direction perpendicular to the radius of the item in question. Along with axial stress and radial
stress, it is a component of the stress tensor in cylindrical coordinates.

13.2.2.2 Metal Fatigue

If an increasing load is applied to a piece of material, it will stretch and eventually fracture. The load applied divided by the cross sectional area of
2
the piece gives the stress. The maximum stress applied prior to fracture is the ultimate Tensile Strength of the material, and is measured in lbs/in ,
2
N/nm or Hectobars.

In normal circumstances the maximum stress applied to a material would be less than either the Yield Stress or the Proof Stress. This ensures that
when the stress is removed, the material returns to its normal shape, ie. the applied stress was within the elastic range of the material. The material
can be stressed in this way many times and will always return to its original shape when the stress is removed. However, if this cycle is repeated a
great many times, the material will eventually break. This phenomena of fracturing after repeated cyclic stresses within the elastic range is known
as fatigue failure.

Fatigue tests can be applied to metal test pieces to establish a fatigue limit for the material. The fatigue limit is the stress where fatigue failure
should not occur even after, for example 20 million stress reversals have been applied to the test piece.

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13.2.3 Construction Methods

13.2.3.1 Terminology

Certain terms are commonly used in connection with aircraft construction.

Longeron is the main longitudinal member of a fuselage or nacelle.

Strut is the member taking a compression load.

Tie rod (tension rod) is the member taking a tensile load.

Monocoque is the fuselage or nacelle which all structural loads are carried by the skin.

Semi monoque (stressed skin) is the structure where loads are shared between skin and frame work.

Frame is the lateral fuselage or nacelle member giving cross-sectional shape which is often circular. May be reinforced where attachments, eg.
mainplanes are made.

Stringer is the stiffener which assists sheet materials to carry loads along their length. With integral construction they are machined or etched out
of the skin panel.

Spar is the main spanwise member of an aerofoil. Frequently consists of an upper and lower boom separated by a web.

Rib is a fore-and-aft structural member of an aerofoil which has the primary purpose of mainting the correct contour of the covering but is usually
also a stress bearing component of the main structure.

Bulkhead is a partition within the structure. Usually lateral but can be longitudinal. If it forms the boundary of pressurised structure it is called a
pressure bulkhead.

Fail Safe Structure is the structure which retains, after the initiation of a fracture or crack, sufficient strength or the operation of the aircraft with an
acceptable standard of safety, until such failure is detected by normal inspection.

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Safe Life is the period during which it is considered that failure of a component is extremely unlikely. When deciding its duration the effects of wear,
fatigue and corrosion must be considered. If tests show that fatigue will cause failure in 12,000 flying hours, then one sixth of this might be quoted
as the safe life. If wear or corrosion is likely to cause failure before 12,000 hours then it will be the deciding factor. Life may be expressed in flying
hours, elapsed time, number of flights or number of applications of load.

Cleated Construction is found in some large aircraft where the frames and stringers are continuous and are joined to each other by cleats. This is
a form of fail-safe design.

13.2.3.2 Fuselage Construction

The fuselage is the main structure or body of the aircraft. It provides space for cargo, controls, accessories, passengers and other equipment.

There are two general types of fuselage construction, the truss type and the monocoque type.

Truss is a rigid framework made up of members such as beams. struts and bars to resist deformation. The truss can carry both tension and
compression loads.

Frames are constructed of aluminium alloy and maybe riveted or bolted into one piece, with cross bracing achieved by using solid rods or tubes.

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Crack Limiting Joint

Figure 2: Fail Safe Structures

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13.2.3.2.1 Truss Construction

A truss is an assemblage of members forming a rigid framework, which may consist of bars, beams, rods, tubes, wires, etc. The truss-type fuselage may
be subclassified as a Pratt truss or Warren truss. The primary strength members of both Pratt and Warren trusses are the four longerons. As defined
previously, the longeron is a principal longitudinal member of the aircraft fuselage. In the truss-type fuselage, lateral bracing is placed at intervals. The
lateral structures may be classed as bulkheads, although this is not strictly true from a technical standpoint. The spaces between the bulkheads are called
bays.

Refer Figure 3 & 3a

A Pratt truss similar to the type used in present aircraft with tubular fuselage members is shown in figure. In the original Pratt truss, the longerons were
connected with rigid vertical and lateral members called struts, but the diagonal members were made of strong steel wire and were designed to carry
tension only. In the Pratt truss shown in figure, the diagonal members are rigid and can carry either tension or compression.

Refer Figure 3b and 3c

A Warren truss is illustrated in figure. In this construction, the longerons are connected with only diagonal members. Normally, all members in the truss
are capable of carrying both tension and compression. When the load is acting in one direction, compression loads are carried by every other member,
and the alternate members carry the tension loads. When the load is reserved, the members that previously carried tension now carry compression and
those that were carrying compression now carry tension. This reversal of loading is shown in the Figure 3c.

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Figure 3b Warren truss

Figure 3a Pratt truss Figure 3c Reversal of loading on truss

4 X longerons

Vertical &
lateral
bracing

Figure 3: Truss Construction

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13.2.3.2.2 Monocoque Fuselage

Refer Figure 4

A full monocoque fuselage, shown in the figure is one in which the fuselage skin carries all the structural stresses. This construction merely involves the
construction of a tube or cone without internal structural members. In some cases it is necessary to have former rings to maintain the shape, but these do
not carry the principal stresses imposed upon the structure. Very often this type of fuselage is constructed by riveting two preformed halves together.

The monocoque structure can carry loads effectively, particularly when the fuselage is of a small diameter. As its diameter increases to form the internal
cavity necessary for a fuselage, the weight-to-strength ratio becomes more inefficient, and longitudinal stiffeners or stringers are added. The result is that
the most popular type of structure used in structural aircraft design today is the semimonocoque.

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Figure 4: Construction Features of a Monocoque Fuselage

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13.2.3.2.3 Semi-Monocoque Construction

Refer Figure 5

A semimonocoque structure consists of a framework of vertical and longitudinal members covered with a structural skin that carries a large percentage of
the stresses imposed upon the structure. Figure illustrates the construction of an all-metal semimonocoque tailboom. The vertical members of the
tailboom are called frames, or bulkheads. Between the principal vertical members are lighter formers, or rings, to maintain the uniform shape of the
structure. The longitudinal members are called stringers and they serve to stiffen the metal skin and prevent it from bulging or buckling under severe
stress. Use of stringers has enabled aircraft designers to use aluminium skins as light as 0.020 in. thickness for the primary structure on airplanes as large
as light twins. Larger semimonocoque aircraft use progressively thicker skins and still maintain an equivalent stress level in the skin, along with an equally
good weight-to-strength ratio. The construction of a semimonocoque fuselage is also illustrated.

Most aircraft designs are now incorporating components that are called fail-safe components. These major structural fittings are made in two parts and are
joined together by riveting or bonding. Each half of the two structural parts is capable of carrying the full required structural load of the assembly. With this
design philosophy, the failure of one of the fitting components will not result in a structural failure of the attachment fitting, which could result in separation
of components in flight.

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Figure 5: Conventional Stressed Skin Construction

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13.2.4 Drains and Ventilation Provisions

Refer Figure 6

Floor Vents
In large aircraft a venting system is provided in the cabin floor. This is to equalize pressures rapidly above and below the floor, in case of the loss of a cabin
or cargo door. These vents prevent distortion of the floor which can cause damage to the controls and other services passing under the floor

Drainage

External and internal holes and drain paths are provided in aircraft structures to prevent water and other fluids collecting within the structure. These fluids
could cause a fire or corrosion. External drain ports are located on exterior surfaces of the fuselage, wing and tail unit to drain any fluids overboard. These
drains are always open.

Drain valves are fitted along the lower points of the pressure cabin. These drain valves are open when the aircraft cabin is unpressurised, but close when
the cabin is pressurized to prevent loss of cabin pressure. In the simplest type, a rubber diaphragm forms the seal. There are various types of drain valve
available. Sometimes a levelling compound is used to prevent fluid collecting in cavities (hollow space). The compound directs fluid to the drains.

The internal structure of an aircraft is provided with tubes, channels, dams and drain holes to direct the flow of fluid toward external drain points. An
example of this is the holes drilled in stringers to allow fluids to drain down to the bilge area.

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Figure 6: Drain Provision

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13.2.5 Structural Classification

To facilitate the ease of repair, structural strength, etc., the structures in an aircraft are generally classified into:-
Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Structures. The relevant Aircraft Structural Repair Manual will provide information regarding this classification.
Refer Figure 7

13.2.5.1 Primary Structure

Any stressed part of the structure which, if failed, might result in the structural collapse of the aircraft or cause it to go out of control.
EXAMPLES: Spars, Longerons, Engine Mounting & Flying Control Surfaces

13.2.5.2 Secondary Structure

Includes all portions of the aircraft which would normally be regarded as primary structure but which unavoidably have such reserve strength over design
requirements that appreciably weakening may be permitted without risk of failure. It also includes structure which if damage, would not impair the safety of
the aircraft or in other words.
‘Any stressed parts of the structure which failure would unlikely cause structural collapse or loss of control’

EXAMPLES: Internal structure for supporting equipment or components (air bottles, oxygen etc)

13.2.5.3 Tertiary Structure

Includes all portions of the structure in which stresses are low, but which for various reasons cannot be omitted from the aircraft or
Unstressed or lightly stressed parts,

EXAMPLES: Panels and Fairings

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Figure 7: Structural Classification

13.2.6 Fatigue

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Safe Life

The safe life of an aircraft structure is defined as the minimum number of flying hours which should elapse, before a major structural failure occurs. To
minimise the effects of metal fatigue, aircraft designers apply the principles of Fail Safe Construction.

13.2.6.1 Fail Safe Structure

Refer Figure 8

The individual parts of the aircraft structure and even a whole aircraft may be designed to give fatigue free service for a specified number of flying hours.
The structure is usually also designed to have fail safe qualities. A fail safe, structure can be described as a structure having multiple load paths. That
means the loads are shared by adjacent members. If one part fails (breaks), the load it carries will now be carried by the adjacent member for a limited
period, at least until the next periodic inspection. Examples of this type of construction are the use of multiple spars in wings and tailplanes, instead of the
usual two spar layout, and the use of multiple hinges on control surfaces.

Accompanying fail safe design is a maintenance programme which should ensure that cracks/failures are found before they progress too far. The
inspection cycle is determined on the basis that if a crack of detectable length has been missed during an inspection, the structure will allow this crack to
increase in length until the next inspection, before it becomes dangerous. The minimum detectable length of crack is agreed by the manufacturers and the
CAA when the aircraft is being prepared for the issue of its Certificate of Airworthiness.

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Figure 8: Fail Safe Structure

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13.2.6.2 Damage Tolerance Concept

Refer Figure 9

It is an improved design version of a fail safe structure. Fail safe structures tend to be heavier due to the extra structural members required to protect the
integrity of the structure

Figure 9: Damage Tolerance Concept

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Damage tolerant structure eliminates the extra structural members by distributing the loading of a particular structure over a larger area such as aileron
hinge found at the wing’s trailing edge which is made of alclad sheet plate in term of reinforced bracket rather than one large heavy solid piece and highly
stressed member.
This design, during development stage will undergo extensive ground based structural testing so that the points where fatigue cracks occur are known, as
is the approximate airframe life at which the cracks start. The structure is designed to retain sufficient strength so that an aircraft may remain in service
after cracks are found, subject to crack growth rate i.e the crack remains below a known critical length, until a satisfactory repair or modification is carried
out. This concept requires the cracks to be found by routine tests and visualizes a slow propagation or spreading rate for the cracks.
In simple terms, the structure is designed so that the damage can be detected during normal inspection cycles, before a failure occurs
Another method of achieving damage tolerance is by the use of crack limiting joints. Parts of the structures are designed with special joints which will limit
the growth of cracks but will also ensure that these cracks can be detected during normal structure inspection cycles.

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13.2.7 Aircraft Station Numbers

Refer Figure 10

In the service, maintenance, and repair of aircraft, it is necessary to establish a method of locating components and reference points on the aircraft. This
has been accomplished by establishing reference lines and station numbers for the fuselage, wings, nacelles, empennage, and landing gear. For large
aircraft, the Air Transport Association of America (ATA) has set forth zoning specifications in ATA-100 Specification for Manufacturers' Technical Data.
Zoning is discussed later in this section.

13.2.7.1 Fuselage Stations

Refer Figure 10

Longitudinal points along the fuselage of an airplane are determined by reference to a zero datum line (F.S. (fuselage station) 0.00) usually at or near the
forward portion of the fuselage. The position of the datum line is set forth in the Type Certificate Data Sheet or Aircraft Specification for the airplane and
also in manufacturer's data.

In this case, the datum line is located at the forward edge of the wind-shield. Station numbers are given in inches forward or aft of the datum line.
Fuselage station numbers forward of the datum line are negative (-), and station numbers aft of the datum line are positive but are not usually shown with a
position (+) sign.

13.2.7.2 Wing Stations

Refer Figure 10

To locate points on the wing of an airplane, the wing station (WS) numbers are measured from the centre line of the fuselage. This line is also called the
butt line (BL). Wing stations are indicated in inches either right or left of the fuselage centreline.

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Figure 10 Station Number (Wing sta, Fuselage sta, and Water Line sta)

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13.2.7.3 Water Line

The water line (WL) is a line established for locating stations on a vertical line. The term water line originated with the design and building of ship hulls and
was used as a vertical reference. Vertical measurements on an airplane may be either negative or positive, depending upon whether the points are above
or below the water line. WL stations are used to locate positions on the landing gear, vertical stabilizer, and at any other point at which it is necessary to
locate a vertical distance.

13.2.7.4 Butt Line

As mentioned previously, the butt line (BL) is the centre line of the fuselage. Positions on the horizontal stabilizer and elevator are given butt line station
numbers.

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13.2.8 Zoning
Refer Figure 11

As mentioned previously, zoning of large aircraft has been specified by the Air Transport Association of America in the ATA-100 Specification.

A zone is identified by one of three indicators, depending upon whether it is a major zone, major subzone, or simply a zone. Major zone are identified
by three-digit numbers as follows:

Major
Zone No. Area

100 Lower half of the fuselage to the rear pressure bulkhead (below the
main cabin deck)
200 Upper half of the fuselage to the rear pressure bulkhead
300 Empennage, including fuselage aft of the rear pressure bulkhead.
400 Powerplants and struts or pylons
500 Left wing
600 Right wing
700 Landing gear and landing gear doors
800 Doors
900 Reserved for uncommon differences between aircraft types not
covered by standard series numbers

The standard series are from 100 to 800, and the special series numbers are in the 900 bracket.

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13.2.8.1 Major Subzones

Refer Figure 11

Major zones are divided into major subzones by the addition of a second nonzero digit to the major zone number. For example, the major zone 300 may
be subzoned as follows:

Major
Subzone No. Area

310 Fuselage aft of the pressure bulkhead

320 Vertical stabilizer and rudder
330 Left horizontal stabilizer and elevator
340 Right horizontal stabilizer and elevator

Subzones are divided by the used of a third nonzero digit in the three-digit number. The subzone 320 may, therefore, be divided into zones as follows:

Major
Zones No. Area

321 Vertical stabilizer leading edge

322 Vertical stabilizer auxiliary spar to front spar
323 Front spar to rear spar
324 Rear spar to trailing edge
325 Lower rudder
326 Upper rudder
327 Vertical stabilizer tip

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Figure 11: Zoning

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13.2.9 Aircraft Wings

The wings on some aircraft are of cantilever design, that is, they are built so that no external bracing is needed. The skin is part of the wing structure and
carries part of the wing stresses. Other aircraft wings use external bracing, (struts, wires, etc) to assist in supporting the wing and carrying the
aerodynamic and landing loads.

Both aluminium alloy and magnesium alloy are used in wing construction. The internal structure is made of spars and stringers running spanwise and ribs
and formers running chord wise (leading edge to training edge).

The spars are the principal structural members of the wings. During flight, applied loads which are imposed on the wing structure are primarily on the skin.
From the skin they are transmitted to the ribs and from the ribs to the spar. The spars support all distributed loads as well as concentrated weight, such as
the fuselage, landing gear and on multi engine aircraft, the nacelles or pylons.
The wing, like the fuselage may be constructed in sections. One commonly used type is made up of a centre section with outer panels and wing tips.
Another arrangement may have wing stubs as an integral part of the fuselage in place of the centre section.

Inspection openings and access doors are provided usually on the lower surface of the wing. Drain holes are also placed on the lower surfaces to provide
drainage of accumulated moisture or fluids. On some aircraft, built in walkways are provided on the areas where it is safe to walk or step. In some aircraft,
jacking points are provided on the underside of each wing.

13.2.9.1 Typical Wing Construction

Refer Figure 12, 13, 13a & 13b

The wing is made up of spars, ribs and lower and upper wing skin covering. With few exceptions, wings of this type are of stressed skin design (the wing is
part of the wing structure and carries part of the wing stresses.

The top and bottom wing skin covers are made up of several integrally stiffened section. This type of wing construction permits the installation of bladder
type fuel cells in the wings or is sealed to hold fuel without the usual fuel cells or tanks (integral wing tanks).

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Figure 12: A typical Stress-Skin wing Construction

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Fig 13 a - Wing Construction

Fig 13 a – Typical Stress –Skin Wing Construction

Figure 13: Wing Construction

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13.2.9.2 Wing Spar

Refer Figure 14

Spars are principal structural members of the wing. They correspond to the longerons of the fuselage. They run parallel to the lateral axis, or towards the
tip of the wing, and are usually attached to the fuselage by wing fittings, plain beams or a truss system.

Spars may assume many forms. Some spars have no stiffeners, other may contain flanged holes for reducing weight.

Figure 14: Wing Spar

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13.2.9.3 Wing Ribs

Refer Figure 15

Ribs are structural cross pieces that make up the framework of the wing. They usually extend from the wing leading edge to the rear spar or to the
trailing edge of the wing. The ribs give the wing its cambered shape and transmit the load from the skin and stringers to the spar. Ribs are also
used in ailerons, elevators, rudders and stabilizers.

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Figure15: Wing Ribs Applications

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13.2.10 The Empennage

Refer Figure 16

The complete tail assembly consisting of the elevator, horizontal stabilizer, vertical stabilizer and the rudder is often referred to as the empennage.

Figure 16: The Empennage

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13.2.10.1 Horizontal Stabilizer

Refer Figure 17

The construction of the vertical and horizontal stabilizers is similar to that of the wings, that is they include spars, stressed skin and are usually of all
metal and cantilever type construction.

The horizontal stabilizer which is usually constructed is one continuous piece mounted on or through the fuselage, but it may be built in left or right
hand sections.

Figure 17: Horizontal Stabilizer

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13.2.10.2 Variable Incidence Tail Plane

Refer Figure 18

The left and right horizontal stabilizer outboard sections are attached to an adjustable centre section truss located within the fuselage. The movable centre
section pivots on two hinge that's attached to a bulkhead in the fuselage and is operated by a jacks crew mounted at the front spar.

Figure 18: Variable Incidence Tail Plane

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13.2.10.3 Elevators
Refer Figure 19

Elevators are the control surfaces which rotate or stabilize the airplane around the lateral axis. They are normally mounted with hinges on the rear spar of
the horizontal stabilizer. The construction of elevators is they have a front spar, a down spar and a rear spar, inter-connected by pressed sheet aluminium
ribs and inforced by spanwise stringers. Balance weights are secured to the front spar.

Their purpose is to prevent 'flutter' of the control surface. Drain holes are located at the lower surfaces for drainage of moisture that might collect inside the
structure. The ailerons, rudder, and flaps are similar construction.

Figure 19: Elevator Structure

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13.2.10.4 Vertical Stabilizer

Refer Figure 20

The vertical stabilizer is built from three spars; a front spar, a rear and an auxiliary spar. All spars are built as truss assemblies. The chordwise ribs are all
web assemblies. The auxiliary spar is installed inward of the front spar.

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Figure 20: Vertical Stabilizer

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13.2.10.5 Rudder Construction (Typical)

Refer Figure 21

The rudder is built from three spars; a front spar, a rear spar and a main spar. The front spar has three sections so that attach fittings can be installed.

Balance weights are attached with screws to the two top sections of the front spar.

The leading edge is made from fibre-glass composite and is attached to the front spar with counter-sunk screws.

At the lower end of the main spar is attached the rudder lower hinge fittings and torque tube control lever.

The rear spar is installed with fittings to attach the balance tab and the trim tab. The balance tab is the lower tab. Also installed is the trim tab assembly.

The tip of the rudder is a horn balance the rudder is also balanced.

The skin panels have doublers bonded on; they have no stringers. Rivets are used to attach the skin panels to the spars and ribs. Where the rudder
moves through the hinge, the area is skinned over for good aerodynamics. All hinge bearings are self-aligning. All access panels are on the left side.

The rudder is electrically connected to the vertical stabilizer with bondings straps installed at the hinge points.

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Figure 21: Rudder Construction

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13.2.11 Trailing Edge Flaps

Refer Figure 22

13.2.11.1 General

Each trailing edge flap consists of a midflap, a foreflap and an aftflap. The three flap segments are mechanically separated during flap extension. Each
trailing edge flap is supported by two flap carriages which travel on tracks mounted under the wing.

13.2.11.2 Midflap

The inboard midflap consists of ribs, three spars, a honeycomb trailing edge and clad aluminium skins. A hinged flap segment is attached to the outboard
trailing edge of the midflap. Four tracks mounted on the rear spar of the midflap support the aftflap.

The outboard midflap consists of ribs, two spars, a trailing edge beam, two honeycomb trailing edge panels and clad aluminium skins. For tracks mounted
on the rear spar rotrude through the trailing edge beam to support the aftflap.

13.2.11.3 Foreflap

The foreflap is a monospar structure with a honeycomb trailing edge panel and clad aluminium skins. Three curved support beams extend through the
lower surface and connect to three foreflap tracks.

13.2.11.4 Aftflap

The aftflap is also a monospar structure with a honeycomb trailing edge panel and clad aluminium skins. Four carriages are installed on the leading edge
of the aftflap.

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Figure 22: Typical Section - Wing Trailing Edge Flap

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13.2.12 Nacelle Structure

Refer Figure 23

Nacelles are streamline structures used on multi-engine aircraft primarily to house the engine. On twin engine aircraft the nacelle may house the main
landing gear and other related equipment.

An engine nacelle consists of skin, cowling, structural members, a fire wall and engine mounts. The skin and cowling are usually made of sheet aluminium
alloy, stainless steel, magnesium or titanium. Regardless of the material used, the skin is usually attached to the frame work by rivets.

The nacelle structure is similar to that of the fuselage, with longerons, stringers and bulkheads rings and formers.

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Figure 23: Turbine Engine Nacelle

13.2.12.1 Engine Mounts

Refer Figure 24

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Another nacelle member is the engine mount. The mount is usually attached to the firewall, and the engine is attached to the mount by nuts, bolts and
vibration-absorbing rubber cushions or pods. Engine mounts are commonly made of welded chrome/molybdenum steel tubing and forgings of
chrome/nickle/ molybdenum are used for the highly stressed fittings.

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Figure 24: Engine Mounts

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13.2.12.2 Pylon Structure

Refer Figure 25

The pylon is attached to the wing and its construction is similar to the fuselage where longerons, ribs, reinforced skin panels are used. Steel and titanium
are used but the latter is mainly present in areas of high load and temperature.

Cowling refers to the detachable covering of those areas into which access must be gained regularly such as engines, accessory sections and engine
mount of firewall areas.

Cowl panels are generally made of aluminium alloy construction; however, stainless steel or titanium may also be used. Portions of cowling subjected to
high temperature must be constructed of heat resistant material

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Figure 33: Pylon, Engine Firewall and Firewall Structure

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.13.2.13 Structural Assembly Techniques

13.2.13.1 Riveting
Refer Figure 26

13.2.13.1.1 Principle of Riveting

Riveting is a permanent connection of two or more parts joined by means of rivets. The joining element consists of a rivet shank with a set head at one end
and a free end inserted in a hole through the workpieces to be joined. The free end is then shaped to form a closing head at the other end. Separation of
the joint is not possible without destruction of the rivet or the joint components.
Riveting was used in the past on most of all steel construction. As riveting increases the weight of the assembly considerably and
requires a high expenditure of work in accurate setting of holes and rivets, it losses part of its role to other metal joining methods such as welding and
adhesive bonding. Riveting is still applied in bridge, container and general steel constructions and particularly in the field of light metal joining as, for
example, in the aircraft industry, where no reduction of strength from structural changes as in welding must occur.

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Figure 26: Riveting

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13.2.13.1.2 Insertion
The undriven rivet consisting of set head or die head and shank is inserted into the prepared through hole. The supplied rivet length exceeds the through
hole depth (grip length of the rivet) by an allowance. The closed head of the rivet is formed from the allowance material.

13.2.13.1.3 Setting
After positioning the assembly the rivet is inserted into the drill hole. Rested on the dolly, workpiece and die head are pressed up against each other by
means of hammer blows on the rivet set. Compression and Pre—Forming Hammering action upon the shaft end compresses the shank, pressing it against
the walls of the drilled hole and pre--forms the shank end to the closing head shape in vertical and off--axis hammering motion. The final shape of the
closed head (upset point) results in finish forming by the rivet header.

13.2.13.1.4 Different Types of Rivets and Rivet Joints

Universal head and countersunk head rivets are the basic types of rivets which are most commonly used. Tubular shafts can be chosen for low stress
applications, while solid shafts are necessary, where high forces or loads are concerned.

13.2.13.2 Bonding
Metal bonding more and more completes or replaces the usual sheet metal joining procedures. Modern bonding agents also achieve a high strength under
normal conditions and in the future, will replace many known joining procedures. Today, bonding technique is used for outer surfaces and cell components
of aircraft, ships, cars and bridge constructions as well as roof
and window constructions. Additional examples are the bonding of pipes, the bonding of friction linings on clutches and brakes of cars or the bonding of
ceramic cutting in a laminar way onto turning tools and cutting tools. Bonding technique has special advantages when joining different materials, like steel
sheet onto aluminium sheet or aluminium sheet onto glass. There are smooth surfaces, split--free seams, constant strength at the complete cross--section,
insulating effect and weight reduction.

The effect of the bonding agents is based on the adhesion effect between bonding agent and workpiece. There are basically two types of bonding package
systems.

 Single--package systems
 Double package systems.

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13.2.13.2.1 Single--Package System

Single--package systems are bonding agents mixed with a solvent. The hardening happens in the air after evaporation of the solvent, also by deoxidization,
by humidity or heat. The bonding areas may only be joined when the surface of the applied glue film is dry.

13.2.15.2.2 Double--Package System

Double--package systems just act by mixing two components, bonding and hardening agent. As the hardening process starts early, the mixture has to be
used within a certain period of time (pot life).

13.2.13.2.4 Bonding Preparation

The surfaces of the bonding area have to be pretreated to produce a bonding joint. Dirt has to be removed by degreasing, rinsing and wiping, etc., so that
the adhesion works. An active surface is only achieved by slicing additional layers until the ’core material’ is reached. This is achieved by grinding, blasting,
etc. The surface should not only be roughened but a perfect wash primer should be created. The operating instructions of the bonding agent state the
respective treatment of the bonding areas. The selection of the correct bonding agent is very important. The bonding joint requires a tight contact of the
joint parts. Bonding agent and hardening agent are applied to rough surfaces on both sides, to plane surfaces on one side. The layer of the bonding agent
should be between 25 and 100m. Both joint parts must not be displaced until hardening. Many bonding agents require only a light pressure. Contact
adhesive requires a higher pressure. The loosening of bonding joints may be performed mechanically by adhesion or cohesion fracture, by stripping or
peeling. Loosening may also be done by heating (80 °C to 250 °C depending on the bonding agent) whereby thermoplastic bonding agents melt,
duroplastic bonding agents decompose.

13.2.13.2.5 Safety Precautions

The following safety regulations should always be observed when working with bonding agents.

 Solvents and adhesives can cause skin reactions. Skin contact, therefore, should be avoided in any way.
 In case of skin contact, wash immediately with warm water and soap. When skin reaction persists, consult physician immediately.
 Do not carry out bonding work near flames. Do not smoke in working area.
 Gas masks should be worn during extensive bonding work.
 Always ensure proper ventilation.
 Solvents adhesives are easily flammable and are potentially explosive.
 Absolute cleanliness must be observed during every bonding process.

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13.2.14 Methods of Surface Protection

13.2.14.1 Anodizing and Chromizing

Anodizing is only applicable to aluminium. The anodic oxidation process in electrolytes which contain sulphuric or chromic acids
produces very resistant covering layers. These layers, in turn, can be further stabilized and given different colours by chromizing. Cadmium and
magnesium surfaces can also be chromized.

13.2.14.2 Painting

According to requirements, paints can be applied by conventional brushing, by rollers, as compressed--air or high--pressure sprays, by dipping (also
making use of electrophoresis) and by electrostatic spray painting. An adhesion--promoting primer coat is applied to the pre-treated metal surface, and the
actual protective coating is applied on top of the primer. A closed film is formed by solvent evaporation or absorption of oxygen.

Therefore, the surfaces must be perfectly dry, metallic clean and free from grease, rust and other corrosion residues and contaminates. Surface
preparation is done by mechanical cleaning and chemical cleaning.

13.2.15 Surface Cleaning

13.2.15.1 Mechanical cleaning comprises:

 Brushing with wire or steel brushes, manually or using tools.

 Blasting, a method that uses dry sand or grit (small steel balls) blasted by dry compressed air to the surface of the metal to be protected. The
workpiece becomes metallic clean with a roughened surface.
 Grinding with grinding wheels or abrasive cloth or papers.
 Washing with water, soap and brush.
 Ultrasonic washing which uses the suction effect of a cleaning fluid forcing all contaminates off the surface.

Chemical cleaning is degreasing by fuel, kerosene, spirit or solvents and a process called staining. In this process, a low--concentrated acid is used to
remove old paints, films, coatings and platting and, in addition, produces an adhesive surface. Caution is necessary, whenever cleaning solvents and paint
removers are used. The majority of them are a health hazard, being toxic and causing irritation to eyes and skin. Moreover, they can damage rubber and
synthetic rubber components.

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13.2.16 Symmetry Check

Refer Figure 27

Carried out to ensure that the symmetry of the aircraft is correct.

Consists basically of measuring the distances between certain points on the aircraft e.g. a fixed point on the nose to a fixed point at the tip of the
mainplane, a fixed point on the tailplane to a fixed point on the mainplane, and checking that the distances are identical with measurements taken between
the same fixed points on the opposite side.
Usually carried out by using a steel tape ensuring that an equal tension is maintained on the tape. A tension of 51b obtained by a spring balance is
sufficient.

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Figure 27: Symmetry Check

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13.2.17 Systems Installation Provisions

During the initial installation of a joint, check should be made to ensure that the component parts are protected against corrosion, that the edges of holes
are deburred, chamfered or radiused as appropriate and mating surfaces are free from swarf, chips or other foreign matter

Certain requirements are general to the installation of all types of aircraft fluids systems, e.g. the need to avoid ‘U’ bends, the relief of pressure which may
increase as the results of a temperature rise, the isolation of fuel pipes in certain area and the need to reduce the possibility of incorrect assembly. The
maintenance personnel should be thoroughly acquainted with the system, so that any necessary inspection, maintenance or repair, can be carried out in a
satisfactory manner.
Both the component parts and fluids system vary widely in purpose and design, it is essential that any work on particular system is carried out strictly in
accordance with the relevant Maintenance Manual

13.2.17.1 De-Burring
Refer Figure 28

De--burring is required after certain mechanical operations like drilling, milling etc. have been carried out which may have produced sharp corners. These
corners (’burrs’) should be removed in order to prevent stress under load and to ease assembly. De--burring is done manually, or with mechanical aids in
one of the following ways:
 sharp edges of holes may be removed by using an oversize drill
 sharp edges of close--tolerance holes should only be removed with the help of a de--burring tool.

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METHODS OF DE-BURRING

Figure 28: Deburring

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13.2.18 Installation or Assembly of Pipe Couplings

Refer Figure 29

Pipes are commonly (and extensively) used in aircraft systems. They are needed to convey fuel, hydraulic fluid, oil, air or oxygen. There are not only
differences in dimensions and materials, but also in the types of coupling used to join pipe sections. This means that the methods of assembly also differ
according to the type of coupling. Incorrect assembly techniques will lead to leakages and even failure of the coupling(s). During assembly, the open ends
of pipes and couplings should be protected by blanking plugs.
This is done to prevent the ingress of foreign matter, moisture etc.

13.2.18.1 Installation of Fuel System Couplings

Refer Figure 29

The couplings should be assembled as follows:

 the ends of both pipes to be coupled are to be checked for damage
 the nuts and compression rings must have been fitted to both pipe ends before the seals are to be fitted to each pipe in such a way that the
compression ring is positioned between the seal and the nut
 the nuts are to be fitted to the coupling body and fully tightened (a light coat of mineral oil may be applied to the threads to ease assembly)
 after assembly, the coupling is to be wire--locked and bonded according to standard practices.

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ASSEMBLY OF FUEL SYSTEM COUPLING

Figure 29: PipeSystem Couplings

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13.2.18.2 Installation of Hydraulic System Couplings

Refer Figure 30

The major steps of assembling a hydraulic coupling are:

 the flared ends (bell ends) of both pipes should be checked for damage
 the nuts and collars should have been fitted to both pipe ends
 the nuts should be fitted to the pipe union, making sure that the pipes are properly aligned
 the nuts should be tightened; care should be taken not to over tighten them
 after assembly, the coupling should be wire--locked and bonded according to standard practices.

13.2.18.3 Installation of De-icing System Couplings

Refer Figure 30
This type of coupling is designed to allow a limited amount of lateral and axial movement. The major steps of assembly are:
 the ends of both pipes should be checked for damage
 the packing strips and clamps should be slid onto the pipe ends
 the packing strips should be slid onto the bellows and the clamps onto the packing strips
 the clamps should be tightened and torque loaded as specified in the appropriate manual (or according to standard practices)
 after assembly, the coupling should be wire--locked and bonded according to standard practices.

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HYDRAULIC AND DE-ICING COUPLING OXYGEN SYSTEM COUPLING

Figure 30: Hydraulic, De-Icing and Oxygen System Coupling

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13.2.18.4 Installation of Oxygen System Couplings

Different types and sizes of piping are used in oxygen systems. Pipes used in low--pressure oxygen systems are made of aluminium alloy. High--pressure
pipes are made of copper alloys. The couplings may be made of aluminium alloy, steel or brass
and designed to take up flared or flareless pipe ends.
A rubber-hose type of coupling is used in low--pressure systems. The sleeve of a flareless coupling should be preset before final installation in a flareless
seat. Pre--setting is necessary to make the cutting edge of the seal grip the tube sufficiently, to form a seal between the sleeve and the piping. The pipe
ends bottom on to the seats of the flareless couplings. This supports the pipe ends after assembly. The pipe threads should be treated with special type
approved anti—seize compound.

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13.2.18.5 Assembly of Rubber-hose Type Couplings

It should be observed that:

 both pipe ends are clean and free from scores, burrs, etc. on the areas which fit into the hose
 screw clips are opened fully before being slid over the pipe ends
 the hose is first fitted to one of the pipe ends
 the pipe ends are aligned after the second end is fitted to the hose
 the screw clips are properly positioned before being tightened.
 bonding is done after assembly
 the clearance between pipe ends is correct.

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13.2.19 Installation or Assembly of Flight and Engine Control System Components

13.2.19.1 General

Cables, rods and pulleys are standard components used in mechanically operated flight and engine control systems.
Cables are made of strands of steel wire, pleated together to form a ’rope’. Cables should be stored on racks of suitable length, or coiled loosely. It is not
allowed to clamp cable ends in a vise or to use improper cutting tools. The end fittings of the cables should be installed by using proper tools and
techniques.
Refer Figure 31

Cable tension should be adjusted after installation by means of the turnbuckles. Kinking or splaying of the individual strands is to be avoided during
assembly. Control rods are standard components used in flight control systems for push—pull motion. Rods are adjustable at one or both ends. The rod
end (or ball end) connects the rod to a control surface or to the clevis end of another control rod. A pulley is made of synthetic material and fitted with a
bearing. Pulleys support the cables in grooves and allow axial movements of the cables. They may be installed singly or in clusters. The bearing allows
free movement of the cable.

13.2.19.2 Assembly of Bearing into Pulley

Refer Figure 31

It should be observed that:

 the pulley hole has the correct diameter and depth to suit the bearing
 jointing compound is applied to the outer face of the bearing housing and to the pulley hole
 the bearing is correctly positioned
 bearing assembly tools are positioned and held by the clamp bolt
 the clamp bolt, while tightening, presses only on the outer part of the bearing
 the clamp bolt is kept at right angles to the pulley hole, while tightening, until the bearing is fully seated
 the assembly tool (clamp bolt) is only removed after the bearing has been correctly positioned
 the retaining plate (with bolts and nuts) is fitted according to the engineering drawing
 free movement of the bearing is retained after all assembly work is completed.

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Figure 31: Assembly of Engine and Flight Control System Components

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13.2.19.3 Pinning of Lever to Shaft

Refer Figure 32

Figure 32 detail a), illustrates the pinning of a lever to a shaft as a common type of assembly work. The procedure is as follows:
 the lever is first positioned on the shaft
 a hole is drilled through both lever and shaft and reamed
 a pin is driven through the hole to maintain alignment
 a second hole is drilled and reamed
 the lever is separated from the shaft; all holes are de--burred
 the lever is re--fitted to the shaft after applying jointing compound to the mating surfaces
 pins are driven through the holes to pin the lever to the shaft
 the ends of the pins are cut such that they protrude slightly
 the protruding ends of the pins are flattered out by means of a rivet gun.

13.2.19.4 Assembly of Sprockets to Splined Shafts

Figure 32, detail b), shows how sprockets are to be fitted to splined shafts:
 jointing compound is applied to the contact surfaces
 the sprocket is aligned with the master spline and slid onto the shaft; the splines of the shaft should not protrude beyond the face of the sprocket
 the sprocket is secured by means of a washer and a slotted nut
 the shaft end is drilled and the slotted nut secured by means of a split pin.

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ASSEMBLY METHODS USED FOR

FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS (1)

Figure 32: Pinning of Lever to Shaft and Assembly Of Sprocket to Splined Shaft

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13.2.19.5 Assembly of Sprockets to Tubes

Refer Figure 33

Sprockets may have to be fitted to tubes in some cases. This is done as follows:
 the sprocket is slid onto the tube to the required position
 suitable sized holes are drilled in both tube and socket, spaced 900 apart each other
 the sprocket is removed and all holes de--burred
 jointing compound is applied to all holes
 the sprocket is re--positioned and riveted to the tube.

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ASSEMBLY METHODS USED FOR

FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS (2)

Figure 33: Assembly of Sprocket to Tube and Cable to Pulley

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13.2.19.6 Sealing and Jointing

Most aircraft components must be assembled with an appropriate jointing compound. The fitting of many other aircraft components, e.g. skin panels,
access covers, antennae, which are fitted directly to the structure, require the use of suitable jointing compounds as well. Special compounds are to be
used in pressurized sections and fuel tank areas.
The purpose of sealing gaps between faces of components is to prevent loss of pressure, provide leak tightness and protect against corrosion. Complex
jointing processes are described in appropriate specifications.

13.2.20 Lightning Strike Protection Provision

Lightning is a discharge of electricity between highly charged cloud formations, or between a charged cloud and ground. If an aircraft is flying, or on the
ground in the vicinity of such cloud formation, the discharge may strike the aircraft and the result in very high voltages and currents passing through the
structure. All separate parts of an aircraft are electrically bonded together to conduct a lightning strike away from areas where damage may hazard the
aircraft, e.g. fuel tanks or flying controls, and during manufacture special precautions are often taken with non-metallic components such as wing tips,
external; fuel tanks and nose cones

Lightning strike may have two effects on an aircraft;

 Strike damage where the discharge enters the aircraft, and

 Static discharge damage subsequent (follow-up) to the strike.

Strike damage is generally found at the wing tips, leading edges of wings and tail unit and at the fuselage nose, but on some aircraft types, other areas
may be particularly susceptible (at risk), and this information should be obtained from appropriate Maintenance Manual. Static discharge damage will
usually be found at wing tips, trailing edges and antennae

Strike damage is usually in the form of small circular holes in the exterior skin, either in clusters or spread out over a wide area, and often accompanied by
burning or discolouration, blisters on radomes and cracks in glass fibre.

Static discharge damage is usually in the form of local pitting and burning at trailing edges.

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The following are the inspections in general:

 Check the bearings and hinges for pitting and/or stiffness due to the passage of the lightning discharge and all control surfaces should be checked
for full and free movement.
 The bonding of the aircraft should be checked and examined for signs of burning and disintegration (fall to pieces).
 Examine the fuselage skin and rivets generally for burning and pitting
 Check for residual magnetism to the suspected parts or components and demagnetized where necessary
 Functional checks of the radio and radar equipment, instruments, compasses, electrical circuit and flying controls iaw relevant chapters of approved
Maintenance Manual

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13.2.21 Aircraft Bonding

13.2.21.1 Electrical Bonding

The reasons for electrical bonding of all metallic parts of an aircraft are
as follows:
 to provide low resistance earth paths for electrical and radio frequencies
 to ensure the passage of high voltages caused by lightning strikes
 to discharge static electricity from otherwise insulated conducting parts
 to prevent flight crew and passengers from the risk of electrical shock.

For these reasons all parts of the structure and main components (e.g. wing to fuselage, wing to engine) should be electrically bonded.

Bonding connections may be made either by normal contact during assembly or additional provisions, as specified by the manufacturer. Special bonding
methods are laid down in the engineering drawing. Good electrical contact between 2 surfaces is only possible if protective treatments have been removed
by the use of paint stripper and abrasive cloth. The parts should not be damaged during the treatment prior to bonding.

13.2.21.2 Methods of Electrical Bonding

Refer Figure 34

13.2.21.2.1 Bonding by Direct Contact

Electrical bonding using the direct contact method is done in combination with
 external sealing
 conductive sealant

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Figure 34: Methods of Bonding

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13.2.21.2.2 Bonding by Means of Flexible Jumpers

This method of bonding is done on control surfaces and pipe couplings

13.2.21.2.3 Bonding by Means of a Lined Copper Strip

This method of bonding pipes is done in one of 2 ways:

 by use of a floating clamp block bearing
 by a fixed clamp block bonding

13.2.21.2.4 Bonding ’Pipe to Structure’ by a Pipe Mounting Clip

The protective treatment is removed from the pipe, beneath the pipe mounting clip (so--called ’p’ clip) and from the part of the structure below the lug. The
’p’ clip is fitted to the pipe and bolted ’dry’ (no jointing compound, no sealant). After assembly, the ’p’ clip, pipe, bolt and washer are overcoated with
sealant.

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LIGHTNING STRIKE PROTECTION.

Lightning strikes on aircraft generate direct and indirect effects.

Direct effects cause physical damage to the structure of the aircraft due to the high energy content of a bolt of lightning in
the span of a fraction of a second. The aircraft structure, built to represent a Faraday Cage, is thoroughly bonded and in
particular, the many parts made of composite materials, either Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic (CFRP) or Glass Fibre
Reinforced Plastic (GRP) having been treated to be electrically conductive by applying various techniques.

Lightning protection is mainly based on the ability of all structural components; both metallic and non-metallic materials, to
dissipate large amounts of electrical energy without suffering major structural damage, and maintain electrical continuity
throughout the whole structure. The structure is so designed that the lightning discharge can be spread over the whole
structure avoiding areas with significant energy/stress concentration and making sure that the electrical continuity is
maintained at all structural joints.

Indirect effects of lightning strikes are more likely to disturb or generate damage to electrical and avionic equipment. This
damage is due to the electromagnetic fields generated from the circulation of high currents in the structure of the aircraft.

Modern aircraft manufacturers and suppliers of electronic and avionic equipment have made use of the most advanced
technology to protect aircraft against external radiation effects such as Electro Magnetic Interference (EMI) and High
Intensity Radiated Fields (HIRF) e.g. High powered Radar transmissions, and lightning strikes.

One of the protection methods is by segregation of protected components and physical separation of wiring looms and
harnesses.

System components are also protected by suppression filters, allowing only, spike-free voltage and current to access the
functional part of computers. etc. The installation of such protection devices is particularly important on Fly-by-wire
designed aircraft

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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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