NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

COURSE CODE:BUS 720

COURSE TITLE: HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

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 NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

COURSE GUIDE

Course Code: BUS 720

Course Title: HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Course Developer/Writers: PROF. P. E. ORIBABOR

Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife
Mrs. Ihuoma Ikemba-Efughi
National Open University of Nigeria

Course Editor: Professor Chucks . P. Maduabum

Department of Administration,
National Open University of Nigeria,
Victoria Island, Lagos.

Programme Coordinator: DR (MRS) CAROLINE ATURU-AGHEDO

Department of Administration,
National Open University of Nigeria,
Victoria Island, Lagos.

Head of Department: DR (MRS) YEMISI I. OGUNLELA

Department of Administration,
National Open University of Nigeria,
Victoria Island, Lagos.

Dean of Faculty: DR TIMOTHY ISHOLA

Faculty of Management Sciences,
National Open University of Nigeria,
Victoria Island, Lagos.

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COURSE GUIDE

CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction ……………………………….…………………..… 2
What You Will Learn in the Course ………………………..…… 3
Course Aims ………………………………………………..…… 1
Course Objectives …………………………………………..…… 2
Working through this Course ……………………………………. 2
Course Materials …………………………………………….…… 2
Study Units …………………………………………………….… 3
Textbooks and References ………………………….…………… 3
Assignment File …………………………………………………. 3
Assessment ……………………………………………….……… 4
Final Examination and Grading ……………..…………….…….. 4
Tutor-Marked Assignment ………………………………….…… 4
Course Marking Scheme ………………………………………… 4
How to Get the Most from this Course …………………………. 5
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials ………………………………… 5
Summary …………………………………………………………
Introduction
This course, MGS 720 - Human Resource Management is a two (2) credit unit and a second
semester course available to Post Graduate Diploma students in the School of Management
Sciences. The course is made up of four (4) modules with each module consisting of five (5)
units each covering practically al the different aspects of Human Resources Management.
Organisations today face many challenges in the management of their human resources. Every
month brings media reports on organisational reengineering, restructuring, delayering,
outsourcing, workforce diversity and downsizing. Most of these change-management strategies
have implications for human resource management. The purpose of this course is to provide
understanding of developments in the field of human resource management, that managers of
organisation will increasingly face. Most students who take human resource management (HRM)
courses will not necessarily become human resource generalists or specialists. But it is an
accepted fact today that everyone who works in any organisation will come in contact with
HRIsA, (both effective and ineffective). Those who become operating managers must be able to
manage human resource activities, because as elemental management functions, they can have
major consequences for every organisation. The overall aim, therefore, of this course on HRM is
to introduce the student to the fundamentals of managing people in organisations. Human
resource is considered today as the most valuable but problematic resource available to
management. What makes it such a vital resource? How is it being managed? How can it be best
managed? Who should manage it? Traditionally, its management was viewed as the exclusive
role of the personnel manager. Have changes occurred in the management of this vital resource?
It wil be necessary therefore that the student is introduced, not only to the various core functions
involved in the management of people, but whose responsibility it is to do so, both efficiently
and effectively.
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What You wil learn in this course

Course aims
The overal aim of the course can be summarised as introducing you, the student, to the basic
concepts, scope and processes of HRM. This will be achieved in the fol owing ways:
1. Introducing you to the essential areas of HRM;
2. Treating you to concepts and principles relating to the management of people in organisation;
3. Presenting HRM in the context of how it contributes to organizational effectiveness and
efficiency;
4. Making you gain a clear understanding of how each separate HRM function is consistent and
supportive of the corporate strategy through which an organisation achieves its goals and
objectives.
Course objectives
To achieve the broad aims set out above, the course objectives are set out below. Each of the
separate units of the course also has its objectives at the beginning of the unit, to guide your
focus.
Once you have successfully completed the course, it is expected that you should be able to do the
fol owing:
1. Understand and critically discuss the many ways in which HRM contributes to the success
and survival of an organisation.
2. Gain a good insight into the theoretical discussions about the dynamics of human resource
management.
3. Discuss fully the various strategies that management need to put in place to ensure
effectiveness in the acquisition, utilisation, training and development, maintain and reward
employees in your organisation.
4. Identify and contribute to better decisions about the design of strategies for organising
cooperation and managing conflicts in workplace labour management relations.
Structure of the course
This is a three credit units course made up of twenty study units. The course is made up of
twenty study units covering the following four broad areas of personnel/human resource
management:
-5)
-10)
-15)
-management relations (units 16-20)
The specific study units are as fol ows:
Module One: Introduction to HRM
Unit 1: The Scope of Human Resources Management
Unit 2: Human resource management
Unit 3: Human resource planning

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Unit 4: Planning for organizational entry
Unit 5: Communication for effective management

Module Two: Staffing the organization

Unit 1: Strategies and Management Practices in Manpower Planning
Unit 2: Attracting a pool of applicants

Unit 3: Assessing and selecting human resources

Unit 4: Managing performance
Unit 5: Performance appraisal systems

Module Three: Empowering and rewarding employees

Unit 1 Career Planning and Employee Welfare
Unit 2: Employee's training and development

Unit 3: Motivation of employees at work

Unit 4: Job evaluation

Unit 5: Reward systems

4. Module Four: Labour-management relations

Unit 1: Industrial relations context
Unit 2: Discipline and disciplinary procedures
Unit 3: Grievance procedures
Unit 4: Collective bargaining
Unit 5: Managing employee's organisational exit
The first five units concentrate on basic conceptual and theoretical discussions relating to the
nature and dynamics of ;human resource management process and the need to adopt a planned as
opposed to a firefighting approach to HRM.
The focus of the next five units is on staffing the organisation and putting in place effective
structure and processes for performance measurements and appraisal of employees' performance
on their jobs. The next five units address the principles and processes aimed at the achievement
of systematic approach to human resource training and development, and motivating and
rewarding employees for sustained productivity.
Finally, the last five units discuss critical issues on labour-management relations, and the hitherto
neglected function of managing people - organisational exit.

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Assessment
There will be two aspects to the assessment of the course:
1. Continuous assessment - Tutor-marked assignments (TMAS)
2. The written examination - of 3 hours duration
Tutor-marked assignments (TMAs)
In attempting the assignments, you are expected to utilise the information on concepts, theories
and practices gathered during the course. Each assignment, which you will find in a separate
booklet, should be submitted to your assigned tutor, by the cut-off date to be decided by-the
National Open University authority. The assignment will count for 30% of your total course
mark. You are required to submit four(4), one from each module assignments in all to your tutor
(unless the university authority gives a counter directive on TMAs). You will be assessed based
on the best TMAs with the highest scores. Each assignment would count for 10% towards your
total score.
Examination
The final examination for the course will be of three-hour duration and count for 70% of the total
course grade. Typically, all areas of the course will be assessed during the examination.
including the safety and welfare of their employees. It is in this respect that line managers could
be said to be their own personnel managers. It is the line managers who have the immediate and
direct responsibility for effective personnel functions.
The growing importance and awareness of human resource issues at the strategic level in
organisations has raised a number of questions about the role of line managers in recent years.
Key aspect of this is who now has responsibility over human resources management functions?
Specifically, to what extent has the role of a line manager changed?
Recent debate has suggested that human resource decision, by being pivotal to the core
performance of business (Storey, 1992), becomes a central concern of line managers,
encouraging them to assume more responsibilities for staff decisions, as opposed to relying on
the expertise of specialist personnel advice. As a result of the recent developments, it is
suggested that people's management is now integrated with organisation's corporate and
operational decision making, rather than being merely espoused in official policies that may fail
to meet operational needs.
Consequently, more and more of personnel functions, traditionally the domain of the personnel
managers, have passed to the line manager, who are, afteral , responsible for co-ordinating and
directing all resources in their business units, including human resources, in the pursuit of the
strategic objectives of the enterprises. It should be noted, however, that if the human resources
functions are to be effective, there has to be a good teamwork, co-operation and consultation
between line managers and human resource managers.
Whatever the respective roles of the personnel managers and line managers, the personnel
function can only be effective if it is based and implanted on sound policies and procedures. If it
is to be implanted effectively, it requires the commitment oral members of staff, whatever their
duties or positions within the organisation. Because of its elemental nature - it permeates all
levels of organisation and al phases of its operation - it cannot be the sole responsibility of
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selected members of staff, it must therefore be viewed as a shared responsibility among top
management, line managers and
supervisors and the personnel (human resources) manager.

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CONTENTS PAGE

Module 1 Introduction to HRM……………………………………………………….

Unit 1: The Nature and Scope of Human Resources
Management……………………………….
Unit 2 Human resource management……………………………………………….
Unit 3 Human resource planning……………………………………………………
Unit 4: Planning for organizational entry……………………………………………
Unit 5: Communication for effective management………………………………….
Module 2 Staffing the organization…………………………………………………….
Unit 1 Strategies and Management Practices in Manpower Planning………………………
Unit 2 Attracting a pool of applicants……………………………………………………….
Unit 3 Assessing and selecting human resources……………………………………………
Unit 4 Managing performance……………………………………………………………….
Unit 5 Performance appraisal
systems…………………………………………………………
Module 3 Empowering and rewarding employees…………………………………………..
Unit 1 Career Planning and Employee Welfare………………………………………………..
Unit 2 Employee's training and
development…………………………………………………….
Unit 3 Motivation of employees at
work…………………………………………………………
Unit 4 Job
evaluation…………………………………………………………………………….
Unit 5 Reward
systems……………………………………………………………………………..

Module 4 Labour-management
relations……………………………………………………..
Unit 1 Industrial relations
context……………………………………………………………….
Unit 2 Discipline and disciplinary
procedures…………………………………………………..
Grievance
Unit 3
procedures…………………………………………………………………….
Unit 4
bargaining…………………………………………………………………….
Unit 5 Managing employee's
exit………………………………………………..
 organisational
Col ective
Module 1 Introduction to HRM

Unit 1: The Nature and Scope of Human Resources Management

Unit 2 Human resource management
Unit 3 Human resource planning
Unit 4: Planning for organizational entry
Unit 5: Communication for effective management

UNIT 1 THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Nature and Scope of Human Resources
3. 1.1 The Management Process

3.1.2 Understanding Human Resources Management

3.2 The Human Resource Manager‘s Proficiencies

3.3 The importance of Human Resource Management to al Managers.

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

7.0 References /Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit introduces you to the discipline - Human Resources Management, it gives you an
overview of what human resources is all about, its scope and the different roles or functions
that make up human resource management, the four major proficiencies of the human
resources manager and why Human Resource Management is important to al managers.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

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 1. Explain what human resources is, its nature and its scope
2. Enumerate the concepts and the techniques Human Resources Management needs to
perform the people management job
3. State and explain the four major proficiencies of the human resources manager
4. Write a short note that addresses the importance of HRM to al Managers.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Nature and Scope of Human Resources

3.1.1 The Management Process

According to Dessler (2008), most experts agree that there are five basic functions al managers
perform which are planning, staffing, leading and controlling and these functions are collectively
referred to as Management Process. On the other hand some other experts have identified the
functions that managers perform as four which are planning, organizing, motivating and
controlling (Hicks & Gullett, 1981). The difference between the two views lies in staffing and
leading or organizing and motivating.
If you study closely the processes involved in staffing and leading, you will discover that
staffing involves organizing i.e. placing people in departments, dividing work among them and
giving them authority to do that work. Leading on the other hand involves motivating people;
this is because managers work with people, they must create conditions that encourage
employees to perform their jobs well.
It will be right to say all these functions are al encompassing, so if you refer to the functions of
managers as comprising planning, staffing, leading and control ing, you are right and if you
refer to them as comprising planning, organizing, motivating and controlling, you are equally
right.
For the Purposes of this course, Human Resource Management, our focus will be on one of
these functions which is Staffing. Staffing or Personnel Management is basically what Human
Resources is all about.
3.1.2 Understanding Human Resource Management

Human Resources Management is the process of acquiring, training, appraising and

compensating employees and of attending to their labour relations, health, safety, and
fairness concerns (Dessler, 2008). In order to perform the personnel or the people
management job, the human resource manager will require the fol owing concepts and
techniques stated below:
i. Job analysis- this helps to determine the nature of each employees job.

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 ii. Planning labour needs and recruitment of job candidates
iii. Selection of job candidates
iv. Orientation and the training of new employees
v. Managing wages and salaries of employees
vi. Providing incentives and benefits
vii. Performance appraisal
viii. Communication – interviews, counseling and discipline
ix. Training and Development
x. Building employee commitment

The manager should also know about:

• Equal opportunity and affirmative action

• Employee health and safety
• Handling grievance and labour relations

From the definition, concepts and techniques and stated above, it is easy to understand the Scope
or the Span of Human Resource Management, which can be grouped under the following
interrelated topics which are:
i. Recruitment and Placement
ii. Training and Development
iii. Compensation
iv. Employee Relations

Self Assessment Exercise 1

Define Human Resource Management with particular reference to its scope

3.2 The Human Resource Manager’s Proficiencies

Changes are occurring everyday in the society and particularly in different organizations in
the society. These changes which are largely as a result of globalization has brought about
more competition, thereby requiring human resource managers to play an increasingly crucial
and challenging role in managing companies. Therefore for the human resource manager to
be able to execute his role satisfactorily, one study as cited Dessler (2008) found four
categories of proficiencies a human resource manager must possess. These four categories
of proficiencies are:

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 1. Human Resource Proficiencies – these represent traditional knowledge and skills in
such areas as employee selection, training and compensation.

2. Business Proficiencies – these reflect HR professional‘s strategic role which involves

assisting the top management team in strategic planning, marketing, production and
finance. The HR manager should be able to explain human resource activities in
financially measurable terms.

3. Leadership Proficiencies – Human Resource managers need the ability to work with and
lead management groups and to drive the changes required such as implementing new
world –lass employee screening and training systems.

4. Learning Proficiencies – the HR manager needs learning skills to keep abreast with the
new technologies are being continually introduced so as to be able to apply these
technology and practices affecting the profession

3.3 The importance of Human Resource Management to al Managers.

The importance of Human Resources Management cannot be overemphasized; this is

because it provides managers with the concepts and techniques that they require to perform
the people management or personnel management job. The knowledge of these concepts and
techniques will help managers to avoid such mistakes as :
i. Hiring the wrong person for the job
ii. The incidence of high turnover
iii. Having people who are not doing their best
iv. Wasting time with useless interviews
v. Having your company go through unnecessary litigation due to discriminatory actions
vi. Having your company cited under federal occupational safety laws for unsafe practices.
vii. Having some employees think their salaries are unfair and inequitable relative to others in
the company.
viii. Allowing a lack of training to undermine your department‘s effectiveness.
ix. Committing any unfair labour practices.
It is therefore important that you study this course material carefully and acquaint yourselves
with al the concepts and techniques that will guide you as a manager to avoid the mistakes
listed above.

Self Assessment Exercise 11

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State at least seven (7) major concepts and techniques that a human resource manager would
need to perform his job satisfactorily

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you were introduced to the scope, nature and the meaning of human resources. You
were also introduced to the functions managers perform which are collectively referred to as
Management Process. You also learnt the different concepts and techniques that human resource
management provides managers with to be able to perform their jobs as personnel managers
satisfactorily. You also studied the four proficiencies that human resource managers should
possess to be able to withstand the new challenges in the profession, brought about by
globalization; and finally, you learnt the importance of Human Resource Management concepts
and techniques in helping managers to avoid mistakes in the performance of their people
management job.

5.0 SUMMARY

There are five basic functions all managers perform which are planning, staffing, leading and
controlling and these functions are collectively referred to as Management Process. The unit
focused on one of these functions- Staffing. Staffing or Personnel Management is basically what
Human Resources is al about. Staffing, personnel management, or human resources
management includes activities like recruiting, selecting, training, compensating, appraising and
developing employees. Human Resource Management is a part of every manager‘s
responsibilities and these responsibilities involve the placing of the right person in the right job
and then orienting, training and compensating to improve his or her job perfo rmance. Being a
human resource manager in today‘s world is challenging and therefore requires several
proficiencies such as learning, leadership, business and HR proficiencies.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Being a human resources manager today can be quite challenging. What are the proficiencies
you will need to make it as a human resources manager in today‘s challenging global economy?
2. Write a short that addresses the importance of human resources management to al managers.

3. What does management process involve? (B) State the scope of human resources management

7.0REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS

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 Dessler, G. (2008) Human Resource Management. Eleventh Ed. Upper Saddle River: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Hicks, H.G. & Gullett, C.R.(1981) Management. Internat ional Student Edition. New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Stewart, E.B., Belcourt, M., Sherman, A., Bohlander, G.,Snell, S.and Goodman, P.M.(2001)
Essentials of Managing Human Resources. First Canadian Edition. Ontario: Nelson Thomson
Learning.

Werther, W. B. & Davis, K.(1996) Human Resources and Personnel Management. Fifth Ed.
USA: Irwin/McGraw-Hill

UNIT 2 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

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CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Essence of Human Resources
3.2 Personnel management and HRM
3.3 Distinctive features of HRM
3.4 Is HRM different from personnel management?
3.5 HRM and industrial relations
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked assignment
7.0 References and other resources

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we examined the nature and scope of Human Resource management and the
developments in the management function of managing people, an activity commonly referred to
as personnel management. The duties and responsibilities for people's management were looked
at, and we came to the conclusion that the management of people in organisation is a shared
responsibility of management. The growing use of the term human resource management in
place of traditional personnel management calls for some attention. In this unit, therefore, we
shal be taking a close look at HRM and in particular, at the main features of the HRM model.
We shall be asking what is new about it, and the extent to which it has become institutionalized
as a practice in firms.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After getting through the materials of this unit, you should be able to do the fol owing:
1. Explain the essence and nature of human resource management
2. Contrast the nature of human resource management with traditional personnel
management;
3. Analyse human resources management activities and functions.

3.0MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Essence of Human Resource

The centrality of human resource (people) to the life, survival and growth of an organisation,
both large and small, public or private, cannot be controverted. People are the life-blood of any
enterprises; even with the and dynamics of the management of people in organisations, the many
functions in managing people and the shifting nature of the responsibility and authority for

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managing people in the ever growing and complex organisations. Subsequent units of the course
will take a deeper look at each of the elements of managing people in our ever changing
organisations.
.

3.2 Personnel management and HRM

During the last two decades of the twentieth century there emerged an increasing use of the term
'human resources management' (HRM) to replace the traditionally known term 'personnel
management'. This change is, however, still a subject of debate and controversy. The critical
question is whether the set of practices known as HRM is fundamentally different from those of
traditional personnel management. To address this question, it is necessary that we take a close
look at the concept of HRM. What is new about it? What are its distinctive features? How
different (or similar) are they from those of traditional personnel management?

3.3 Distinctive features of HRM

Accounts of HRM are often presented as if they represent a dramatic and fundamental break with
the past practices. It is argued, for example, that it represents a change of paradigm in the
fol owing ways:
i. From a union-dominated and compromise-riddled industrial relations to an individualistic and
strategical y—oriented human resource management;
ii. From the obstructive and bureaucratic personnel department to the business-driven and 'can
do' human resource function;
iii. A focus on individualism rather than collectivism, as the basis of employment relationships.
Storey (1992) presents a classification of the different meanings attached to the concept of HRM
as fol ows:
i. As a synonym for personnel management either loosely in order to substitute for
others, equally loose usage (people management employee relations); or in a rather
shal ow way, to give a more modern ring to unchanged practices.
ii. As a signal that the various techniques of personnel management are being! ought
to be used in a more integrated way, so that performance is improved through a
cycle of strategic human resource interventions. i.e. integration of different aspects of
HRM, in order to produce internal consistency in the execution of various policies.
iii. As a description of a more business-oriented and business – integrated approach to the
management of labour, approached in the same way as the other resources — capital,
land, energy technology etc. — as having the potential to raise the performance and
profitability of the organisation, rather than representing a problem area which can at
best, be neutralised.

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 iv. As an approach to the management of people which is qualitatively different, not only
are HRM intervention firmly linked into a wider business strategy, but they look and
feel different. This is because they tend to focus on the pursuit of employee
commitment rather than the more traditional search for compliance and control.
Wonders of modern technology, the human resources are the most versatile and adaptive
resources available to organisations. It has been suggested that the strategic value of human
resource, amongother things, lies in its discretionary decision-making ability. The critical
element here are knowledge, skills and attitude (K.S.A) which people alone possess, and which
is the source of the distinctive competence of any organisation. Thus, the essential strategic
attribute of human resources is that it represents a firm's capacity to make decision and to
respond to environmental threats and opportunities. This dependence of firm on the quality of
their human resources has increased, as business survival increasingly requires effective
management of PROCESSESS, and not the management of THINGS.
This means, for instance, the management of processes of decision making to bring the right
people together as a team, around an identified, threatening problem, and ensuring that relevant
resources are available on time, and are critically utilised to achieve desired objectives.
The fact is that decision thus far would suggest that without the right mix of human resources in
an organisation, no corporate strategy, however wel formulated in all other aspects, is likely to
be successfully implemented. The essence of human resource goes beyond this.
The human resource is unique in yet another significant way Managing human resources is
complex and problematic. People as individuals or as members of a work group, do not
automatically embrace and take as their own, the objectives of the organisation that employs
them as workers. As psychologists have empirically shown, individuals often have their own
aspirations, expectations and needs (objectives), which they often seek to satisfy by working for
a chosen organisation. People as individuals bring
their own perceptions, feelings and attitude towards the organisation, systems and styles of
managing their duties and responsibilities, and the conditions under which they are working.
Invariably these individual objectives, which are known to influence employees' behaviour at
work, may conflict with the corporate objectives of the firm.
Reasoning along similar lines, Fowler (1987) concluded that 'the real difference between HRM
and personnel management is not what it is, but who is saying it. In a nutshell, HRM represents
the discovery of personnel management by chief executives'. That is, the chief executives have
found out that personnel
management is a major elemental function of top managers. Guest (1987) has described some
broad stereotypes which could be used to highlight the difference between the two models.
Compared with
personnel management, HRM is concerned with the fol owing:
i. Long-term rather than a short-term perspective;
ii.Self-control rather than external control;
iii. A unitary rather than a pluralistic perspective;
iv. An organic rather than a bureaucratic structure;
v. Integration with line management rather than specialist or professional role;
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vi. Maximum utilisation rather than cost-minimization.

A detailed analysis by Storey (1995) identifies twenty seven points of difference between
personnel and human resources management, categorised under four main headings of: beliefs
and assumptions, strategic aspects, critical role of managers and key levers. (see table 1.2).
Table 1.2 Storey's HRM model
1. Beliefs and assumptions
a. It is the human resource which gives competitive drive;
b. That the aim should not be more compliance with rules, but employee commitment;
c. That employees should be very carefully selected and developed.
2. Strategic qualities
a. From the above factors, HRM decisions are of strategic importance;
b. Top management involvement is necessary;
c. HRM should be integrated into the business strategy
3 Critical role of managers
a. Because HRM practice is critical to the core activities of the business, it is too invariant to be
left to personnel specialists
b. Line and Staff managers need to work closely together as both complementary roles have
drivers of the HRM policies;
c. Greater attention should be paid to the management of managers themselves.
4. Key levers
a. Managing culture is more important than managing procedures and systems,
b. Integrated action on selection, communication, training, reward and development.
C. Restructuring and job redesigning to al ow delegation of responsibility and empowerment.
Source: Storey, 1995
Michael Armstrong (1992) has also put forward what he considered as four fundamental
principles on which HRM is based. They are as fol ows:
i.People are the most important asset an organisation has, and their effective management is the
key to its success.
ii.Organisational success is most likely to be achieved if the personnel policies and procedures of
the enterprises are closely linked with, and make major contribution to the achievement of
corporate objectives and strategic plans.
iii. The corporate culture, the values, organisational climate and managerial behaviour emanating
from that culture will exert a major influence on the achievement of excellence. This culture
must be
managed, which means that strong pressure, starting from the top, needs to be exerted to get the
values accepted and acted upon.
iv.Continuous effort is required to encourage all the members of the organisation to work
together with a sense of common purpose. It is particularly necessary to secure commitment to
change.
3.4 Is HRM different from personnel management?
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To what extent is FIRM genuinely new from the respective viewpoints of personnel management
professionals and the wider management community? While noting clear similarities between
FIRM and Personnel Management, Legge (1995) drew attention to some general differences.
First, she identified the fol owing significant points of similarity:
i. Both models emphasise the importance of integrating personnel/HRM practices with
organisational goals;
ii. Both models vest personnel/HRM firmly in line management;

iii. Both models emphasise the importance of individuals fully developing their abilities for
their own personal satisfaction, and to make their best contribution to organisational
success;

v. Both models identify placing the 'right' people into the 'right' jobs as an important means
of integrating personnel/ FIRM practice with organisational goals.
She has however, identified three major differences between the two practices:
i. Personnel management is often viewed as a management activity aimed at non-managers.
HRM has a particularly strong focus on the development of the management team. There is an
image of the
organisation as a team with a common source of loyalty, one focus of effort and one accepted
leader.
In personnel management, the role of line management is an expression of 'all managers manage
people' with most specialist personnel work implefnented within line management's department.
FIRM gives much greater responsibility to line managers - moving beyond personnel
management's sense of developing responsibil ity for the implementation of a set of personnel
policies, that are still for the most
part centrally determined, to a position in which line managers are seen as business managers,
responsible for co-ordinating and directing all resources in the business unit, in pursuit of
bottom-line results.
iii. Most FIRM models emphasise the management of the organisation's culture as the central
activity for senior management.
i. HRM values are unitarist to the extent that they assume an underlying and inevitable
differences of interest between management and workers.
HRM values are essentially individualistic, and seek to avoid operating through group and
representative system. HRM is not necessarily anti-union, but its practice poses considerable
challenges to trade unionism. Thus, the rise of HRM is the reverse side of the coin from the
decline of trade unionism
iv. In reality, HRM tends to see little scope for collective representation or collective bargaining,
and exerts pressure on employees to choose between their loyalty to their trade unions and their
allegiance to the firm.
v. Even where the practice of HRM does not take an overtly anti-union form, it may very well be
introduced through policies, that tend to bypass the unions.
20
vi. HRM, however, presents a major challenge to management competence, and to the ability of
management to sustain the necessary quality of performance, so as to prevent issues arising,
which provide fertile ground for union activity

Drawing the points together

We have looked at the range of ways in which HRM has been conceived and at some of the key
differences between it and traditional personnel management. In summary HRM is based on the
notion of integration — that decisions about the employment and management of people should
not have an independent life of their own. It is highly focused on the relationship with an
individual employee as well as the development of the individual employee, rather than on the
collective regulation of relations
with employees.
We have therefore noted the fol owing distinctive features of FIRM:
i. It is aimed firmly at management and the development of management teams; It is inextricably
bound up with shifting of responsibility for staff management to line managers;
iii. It relies heavily on the active management of organisational culture, as a 'glue' that replaces
the more procedurally-based framework of traditional personnel management;
iv. It is, in the fullest sense, about more systematic exploitation (utilisation) of labour-force, in
pursuit of corporate goals;
v. It represents a shift in the ownership of people-management issues from the 'experts' of
personnel and industrial relations to the mainstream, of the general management line. It is, in
other words, about
the discovery of personnel management by chief executives and general
managers;
vi. It represents a challenge to unions because it is individualistic in focus, and urtitarist in tone
and spirit;
vii. It is a model that seeks to 'fit' the human resource to the organisation's strategic purposes,
rather than seeking to reach accommodation with it (Cave 1994).
What evidence do we have of widespread adoption of HRM in practice and its systematic
replacement of traditional personnel management? It would seem reasonable to conclude that,
for now, there is no clear distinction between the two models. The term HRM has been used by
different authors in different ways. Some used it as a prescription of the way employment . A key
purpose of the model is to act as a classificatory device for determining what is and what is not
human resource to the question, 'what
constitutes human resources management (HRM)?' would be:
HRM represents a set of policies and practices for managing people. This is integrated with the
strategy of the business. HRM describes a set of policies towards employees; notable for its
internal consistency.
HRM represents an acceptance by the organisation, that its corporate strategy should be based on
the capabilities of its human resources. iv. HRM gives line managers a wider set of
responsibilities for policies concerning managing people, and leads to a less prominent role for
personnel specialists.
v. HRM captures the view that people are the prime resources of the organisations.
Torrington and Hall (1991) on their part see the nature and degree of difference between
personnel management and HRM as remaining largely matters of opinion rather than fact, and
21
that the similarities are much greater than the differences. They, however, drew attention to a
substantive difference. Personnel management is workforce-centred, directed mainly at the
organisation's employees. The employees are the starting point, and it is never totally identified
with management interests. The underlying idea in personnel management is the fact that people
have a right to proper treatment as dignified human beings. HRM is more resource-centred,
directed at management needs for human resources to be provided, deployed and utilised. There
is greater emphasis on planning, monitoring and control, rather than mediation in everyday
management—subordinate relationships. Underlying human resource management is the idea
that this is much the same as any other aspects of management (of resources), and an integral
part of it which cannot be separated out for specialists to handle.

3.5 HRM and industrial relations

Industrial relations, as we shall show in a later unit, is a specialized personnel management
function. Here, we are interested in finding out if HRM model is different from that of industrial
relations. Here, Storey (1992) again comes to our immediate help. According to Storey (1992),
the classic definitions of industrial relations refer to it as 'the making and administering of rules
which regulate employment relationships and the study of the institutions of job regulations'. He
listed the distinctive features of HRM as fol ows:
i. It eschews the joint regulative approach and even more so, the craft regulative approach.
ii. It does not subscribe to custom and procedure manuals, and of deferring to personnel and
industrial relations specialists.
iii. It places emphasis on utilising labour to its full capacity or potential. Thus, it is about
exploiting the labour resource more ful y. On his part, David Guest (1999) concluded that the
impact which the adoption of HRM techniques has had on organisations' industrial relations are
as fol ows:
relations should be conducted in today's organisation. It is this normative modelling that has
dominated the literature, and which proposes the three distinguishing features of HRM as
fol ows:
i. A shift of focus from non - management employee relationship to the development of the
management team;
ii. A greater emphasis on line managers, rather than personnel specialists alone, in devising and
driving integrated business and people management strategies;
iii. The need for senior management to manage organisational culture. Other writers have used
the term HRM as a description of the way things are actually changing in organisations.
Unfortunately, empirical evidence is as yet very scanty and by no means conclusive. It seems
difficult, therefore, to escape the thought that HRM is really little more than 'old wine in a new
bottle', associated with personnel management, seeking to enhance their status and influence.
4.0CONCLUSION
In the foregoing discussion, we demonstrated the centrality of human resource to organisational
growth and survival. We have also shown that there is much to admire in the human resource
management* (as opposed to personnel management) approach to the management of people in
organisations. Especially, it can be argued that human resource management represents the
22
elevation of personnel management to a more strategic level, the link with values and corporate
mission, and the integration of al the activities into a framework which integrate these. It is not
so easy, however, to distinguish human resource management from personnel management

5.0 SUMMARY
The discussion in the unit ended with the conclusion that, the extent to which personnel
management can be said to have moved into another historical phase of human resource
management is debatable. Human
resources are clearly the most valuable asset of any organisation, and a resource which needs to
be managed cost-effectively and strategical y. It is pleasing, therefore, to see what appears to be
an increasing emphasis on effective and strategic sourcing for, and securing the involvement and
commitment of staff to the aims of the organisation. This can be argued as one of the
justifications for the increasing use of the terminology 'people management', 'the management of
people' or 'human resource
management'. It remains difficult, however, to escape the feeling that human resource
management is more real than the 'old wine in a new bottle' phrase, usually associated with
personnel managers. To enhance their strategic status and influence within the organisation, there
are no clear-cut distinctions, and titles do not necessarily provide clues. In many organisations,
elements of human resource management approach and the personnel approach co-exit closely It
fol ows therefore that in subsequent units, we are going to use the terms, HR/M and personnel
management, interchangeably
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
1. Many books and articles have been written about the differences and similarities between
personnel and human resource management. What are your views on this debate?
7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS
Armstrong, M. (1992) Strategies for Human Resources Management. London: Kogan
Page.
Cave, D. (1994) Managing Change in the workplace: New Approach to Employee
Relations. London: Kogan Page.
.
Fowler, A. (1987) When chief executive discovers HRM, Personnel Management
W. 19, Pp. 48
Guest, D.E. (1987) Human Resource Management and Industrial Relation, Journal of
Management studies, Vol. 24 (5) Pp. 503 —521.
Legge, K. (1995) Human Resources Management: Rhetorics and Realities Macmillan, London.

Storey, J. (1992) Development in the Management of Human Resources: An Analytical Review,

United Kingdom. : Blackwell,

23
Torrington, D. & Hal, L. (1991) Personnel Management: A new Approach, (2nd Edition) London.
:Prentice Hall.

UNIT 3 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING

24
CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1The need for a strategic HRM process
3.2 Factors encouraging strategic HRM
3.3 Elements of strategic HRM process
3.4 Organisational strategy and human resource
3.5 External human resource environment
3.6 Internal human resource audit
3.7 Human resource management strategy
3.8 Tactical human resource action plans
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked assignment
7.0 References /Further Readings

1.0INTRODUCTION
In Unit 2, the strategic importance of human resource to organizational growth and
competitiveness was full demonstrated. As a result of the strategic importance of 'people' to the
organisation, it is commonly
suggested today that the development of specific business strategies must be based on the areas
of strength that an organisation has. Referred to as core competencies, they are the foundation for
creating the competitive advantage for an organisation. The competitive organisational strategy
of the firm as a whole should be the basis for human resource management planning, which is
the process of analysing and identifying the need for, and availability of human resource, so that
the organisation can meet its objectives. In this unit, the need for a planning approach and the
key characteristics of human
resource planning model are discussed.

2.0OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to discuss why organisations need to adopt a
planned approach to their management of human resources, as wel as define human resource
planning, and fully
discuss the critical elements of the human resource planning model.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

25
3.1The need for a strategic approach to HRM

As we have demonstrated in the discussions in the two preceding units of this course, the
centrality of people to organisational performance and survival is no longer in dispute. Human
resource has been confirmed by managers as having special strategic value for their
organisations. They voiced the idea and have made the claim that their human resources
differentiate them from their competitors — it gives them a competitive edge over their
competitors. This significance of human resource as a source of core competence of an
organisation has been confirmed by a study of 293 USA firms (Huselid et al, 1997). The study
found that HRM effectiveness positively affected organisational productivity, financial
performance, and stock market value. A core competency is a unique capability in the
organisation that creates high value and differentiates itself from its competitors. (Hamel and
Prabalad, 1994) Core competency is the foundation for creating the competitive advantage for an
organisation. A successful development of specific business strategies, is based on the area of
strength (core competence) that an organisation has. Many companies are now developing
competency profiles to describe the array of skills, knowledge and qualities required in a
position. Such competency profiles are often used to define KSA required for specific positions.
It is now recognised by most managers that human resources contributes
strategical y to sustaining a competitive advantage for organisations. Barney and Wright (1998)
have drawn attention to factors commonly referred to as the VRIO Framework, that relates to
human resources as fol ows:
Value - it is human resources that create values and the ability of firms to respond to external
threats and opportunities
Rareness - the special capabilities of people in organisations provide the significant advantage
Imitability - that human resources have a special strategic value when they cannot be easily
imitated by others
Organisation - that the human resource must be planned and organised in order for an entity to
take advantage of the competitiveness of the firm.
Application of the VRIO framework as a foundation for HRM means that people are truly
viewed as assets and not as expenses. It also means that, like other organisational resources, it
must be subjected to effective planning.

3.2 Factors encouraging strategic HRM

Despite the strategic importance of human resource, the need for its planning, that is, treating it
as an integral part of corporate strategic plan, has been given little attention or neglected
altogether in most
organisations. A strategic planning approval to this vital resource would provide a useful
framework in which appropriate actions can be taken to ensure the desired result. Effective
human resource management requires a fundamental shift from the traditional short-term,
26
tactical, fire-fighting approach of personnelmanagement, to strategic planning and management
model. Why is this a managerial imperative in today's business? First, we have drawn attention
to human resource being seen today as a vital and strategic resources that must be managed cost-
effectively like Other organisation's resources. Secondly, whether viewed financially or
behaviourally, human resource is one of the single most costly and sensitive resource in most
organisations. This is particularly true in service-oriented and labour-intensive organisations,
both public and private.
On the financial (or fiscal) side, there are wages and salaries and other fringe benefits, the cost of
which the manager must meet. It is common knowledge that the cost of meeting this overheads,
on an average, can represent more that two-thirds of operating budgets of some qrganisations in
Nigeria. And what is more, trends in labour and social legislations, since the late 1970's, which
have granted workers greater
security of employment and floors of rights and entitlements, have reinforced the upward trends
in labour cost. Workers in Nigeria are now entitled to a galaxy of rights, the cost of which
employers must bear in the process of attracting, utilising, training and developing, maintaining
and disposing of human resource.
Activity
Consult the Personnel or Human Resource Department of your organisation, from where you
will obtain a list of fringe benefits and entitlements workers enjoy. On the behavioural side are
issues of labour satisfaction and dissatisfaction at work, the cost of which are evidenced in
behavioural terms such as: 10w morale, poor productivity, labour turnover, absenteeism, poor
work habits and strikes. Taken together or individual y, each of these issues have serious cost
implications. As trends in the business environment has become more varied, complex and
illiberal (Child, 1973) the desirability of evolving a strategic planning approach to human
resource management becomes imperative. A dominant feature of such an approach is that it
seeks to integrate human resource policies into the corporate strategy with which the
organisation pursues its corporate goals and objective. The advent of corporate planning
generally, has meant that in many organisations, more effort has been put into looking further
ahead and checking that resources, including human, are sensibly organised to achieve agreed
corporate goals and objectives. Those responsible for human resource management have been
able to, or compelled by the growing
complexity of managing change, identify the need to influence corporate decision-making in its
earliest stages.
3.3 Elements of strategic HRM Process
For HRM to be more responsive and capable of meeting the growing complexity of corporate
management, it should form part of corporate strategy, and not regarded as something that stands
in isolation. This demands that the starting point for thinking about human resource policy
should be the identification of correct and future corporate human resources needs, for a given
period, covered by the firm's corporate strategy.
Figure 1.3 Human resource management system
Corporate strategy and Policies
A
External Environment
27
y
Human Resources Strategy in Maintenance
Rewards system Motivation

A
Industrial Relations

c ipl ine

Resourcing

Y.
Training and Development
Career planning

development

Internal Resources Audit

nities and threats 1
The activities of HRM described in unit one can be conceptualised and classified into groups of
essential elements of the strategic HRM process, as depicted in Figure 1.3 on page 20. The
elements shown in the figure describe the core HRM activities, which management must
undertake, if the organisation is to be successful in attracting, keeping, utilising, training,
developing and maintaining its human resources. The specific activities of the sub-processes will
be considered in greater detail in subsequent units of the course.

3.4 Organisational strategy and human resource

We need to specify, however, the key characteristics of the HRM process as depicted in figure
1.3 Chiefly, it is obvious that rather than the management of people being treated as marginal or

28
reactive to corporate strategy, the process emphasises its direct integration and contribution to
the achievement of sustained competitive advantage. HRM strategy is conceived of as an integral
sub-process of corporate
strategic planning. This integration of HRM policies with corporate strategic planning enhances
the value of HRM functions. A precondition, therefore, for cost-effective HRM strategy is that
decision-making is
sufficiently informed by the corporate strategy of the organisation. The outcome of corporate
strategic management decisions should assist management, for example, in identifying functional
activities and
programmes related to the attainment of desired corporate objectives and indicating the required
HRM functions, such as a needed pool of competences — knowledge, skills and abilities, levels,
quantity and quality of human resources. This way, human resources strategy and policy are not
simply reactive to corporate strategy, but contributing to it through the frame of references of the
managers who formulate corporate strategy.
3.5 External Human Resource Environment
Second, the process indicates an integration of HRM planning with the external and internal
environment of business. At the heart of strategic planning is the knowledge gained from
scanning the external environment for changes. Environmental scanning is the process of
studying the environment of the organisation, to pinpoint opportunities and threats. Scanning,
especially, affects human resource planning because each organisation must draw from the same
labour market that supplies other employers. In fact, one measure of organisational effectiveness
is the ability of an organisation to compete for a sufficient supply of human resources with the
appropriate capabilities. The human resource environmental scanning process should take
account of labour market threats and opportunities. The labour market is of strategic
importance because it not only determines the supply of manpower, but also has a major impact
on wage costs and the attitudes of employees. Some of the most significant labour market factors
would include: demographic trends, patterns of employment, workforce composition and work
patterns, levels of competition for labour, developments in the educational system, government
initiatives on employment and other employment legislations, developments in technology and
information technology in particular,
mechanization, and alternative work schedules (such as flexitime).
3.6 Internal Human Resource Audit
The focus of internal environmental assessment is the analysis of existing stock of human
resource, to identify potential strengths and weaknesses. The starting point here is an audit of the
jobs currently being done in the organisation. The fol owing questions would need to be
addressed:
1. What job needs exist?
2. What is the manning levels of each job?
3. What are the reporting relationships?
4. Is such job still essential?
5. What new jobs need to be created?
Next, there will be need to obtain an inventory of current employees and their capabilities, age,
sex, work experiences and other relevant values. Information obtained can be used to determine
29
which additional capabilities would be needed and the long-term needs for staffing and human
resource training and development. Equally important is that the audit of the current stock should
seek to analyse changes in workforce to identify problem spots and likely changes as well as the
labour losses to other, organisations. Data from the above analysis can be aggregated into a
profile of the current organisational workforce. This profile should reveal many of the strengths
and deficiencies in organisations' human resources.

3.7 Human Resource Management Strategy

The third major feature of the HRM planning process is the HRM strategy. Activities in the
foregoing three decision-making points (corporate strategy and environmental analysis)
constitute critical inputs into the HRM strategy formulation process. Essential y, the inputs
enhance management's ability
not only to identify the organisation's human resources need, but also the firm's capability to
meet the needs. Then through painstaking and critical analysis of data from the inputs, managers
are able to generate policy options and develop strategies and tactical plans to meet the
organisation's human resource needs on a continuous basis. The HRM strategy becomes the
means used to aid the organisation in anticipating human resources. It provides the overall
direction for how human resource activities will be developed and managed. The plan provides
what may be regarded as a blueprint for the future, to identify, where employees are likely to be
obtained, when they will be needed, and what training and development they must have. The
HRM strategy also provides the critical inputs into the formulation
of tactical HRM policies, which must be consistent and mutually supportive with one another
For example, the compensation system must fit into the performance appraisal system, which
must fit into the human resource training and development. Above all, the different tactical
human resource activities must be aligned with the general business strategy, as well as the
overal HRM strategy, in order to support business goals and objectives (Mathis and Jackson,
2000).
3.8 Tactical Human Resource Action Plans
Finally, the activities under the tactical action plans are aimed at ensuring the maintenance, on a
continuous basis, of the capability of the organization to achieve its corporate objectives, through
the development of programmes designed to optimise the contributions of human resources. The
specific
action plans are developed to provide more specific direction for the management of corporate
human resource activities. These tactical activities are commonly known as the 'Core' functions
of personnel or human resource management. Management functions in this regards, as depicted
in figure 1.4 involve
drawing up specific plans and procedures, to guide short-term and day-today practices in the
fol owing broad areas of human resource management.
A. Procurement of Utilization
i. Job analysis
ii. Recruitment and selection
30
 iii. Placement and socialization
iv. Utilization
B. Training and development
i. Performance appraisal
ii. Training and development
iii. Management development
iv. Promotion and transfers
v. Career planning and development
C. Maintenance and rewards
i. Motivation and employees' welfare
ii. Remunerations and rewards
iii Retirement and pensions
D. Labour-management relations
i. Union recognition and development
i . Collective bargaining procedures
i i i . Joint consul tat ion
iv. Grievance and dispute procedures
v. Heal th and safety
vi . Redundancy and retrenchments
Some important points emerge from the model in terms of specific implications for human
resource planning and management. First, the formal framework for organisational planning
provides an explicit and comprehensive umbrella, within which specific planning for human
resource should be developed. Planning for human resources, as part of a total corporate
planning activity, therefore includes analysis, objective setting, determination of action,
commitment of resources, and checking the outcomes against the objectives. The second
implication of the formal planning framework for human resource planning, is to raise the
fundamental issue of the stage, at which 'people' influence the corporate planning decisions of
the organisation. Hitherto, many organisations limit human resource planning to the traditional
role of merely ensuring an adequate supply of suitably skilled employees, to carry out tasks
necessary for achieving defined, organizational objectives. Some would now argue that human
resources should directly influence the development and choice of particular corporate strategies.
To do this implies a much more central role for human resource planning, as well as a much
more comprehensive human resource management information system to back it up.
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit has taken a close look at one of the newest and most significant personnel functions,
human resource planning. The growing importance of human resource to organisational growth
and survival will definitely increase the practice of strategic human resource planning and
management. A strategic planning approach to HRM that we have shown, links human resources
to organisational goals and objectives, which further lead to a systematic evaluation of the
effectiveness of HRM programmes and activities. The model also links HRM planning to
environmental (internal and external) scanning and analysis. Finally, the model requires tactical
31
action programmes which will be internally consistent and supportive, and must align with the
corporate strategy of the organisation.

5.0 SUMMARY
Human resource strategies are critically important to organisational success in today's highly
charged competitive environment. Human resource strategies guide development of a more
flexible, adaptive organisation. There are plans which address opportunities, so as to gain and
sustain competitiveness through the management of people. The capacity to implement business
strategies requires implementation of human resource strategies, focusing on people-related
issues. Human resource plans are designed to help management anticipate and manage
increasingly rapid, even tumultuous change. They provide the means of aligning the management
of human resources with the strategic context of the business. The planning approach, as we have
discussed, defines human resource strategy in the context of the organisation's overal strategic
management process. In this way, all other core functions of HRM become integrated parts of a
dynamic process for managing strategic change.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. Outline the major steps in human resource management planning process and comment on the
principal considerations at such steps.

7.0 REFERENCES /FURTHER READINGS

Barney, J.B. & Wright, P.M. (1998) On Being A Strategic Partner: The Role of Human Resource
in Gaining Competitive Advantage, Human resource Management, Spring, pp. 31-46.
Child, J. (1973) Organisation Structure, Environment and Performance: The Role of Strategic
Choice sociology, Vol. 6, pp. 1-20.
Hamel, G. & Prahalad, C.K. (1994) Competing For Future, Harvard Business School Press,
Cambridge M. A.
Huselid, M.A., Jackson, S.F., and Schuler, R.S. (1997) Technical and Strategic Human Resource
Management Effectiveness as Determinants of Firm Performance, Academy of Management
Journal Vol. 40 pp. 171-188.
Mathis, R.L. & J.H. Jackson (2002) Human Resources Management, 9" Edition, USA: South-
western College Publishing,

UNIT 4 PLANNING FOR ORGANIZATIONAL ENTRY

CONTENTS

32
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1Theoretical approaches to organisational entry
3.1.1 Person-job fit
3.1.2 Social negotiation
3.1.3 Person - organisation fit
3.2 Job analysis
3.2.1 Importance of job analysis
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References /Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The most important function in any organisation is effective staffing. Everything about
organisation comes back to people, as was argued in an earlier unit. Replenishing the stock of
human resource is therefore a vital activity in al organisations. If you don't appoint staff with the
right temperament and knowledge, skill and attitudes (KSA) to perform appropriately defined
and assigned responsibilities and duties, al those fancy theories of motivation, empowerment
and commitment are not likely to be of much use. Since the staffing process either opens the
firm's door to prospective employees (or slams it in their faces), the proficiency with which it is
managed is of critical importance to efficiency and effectiveness in the organisation. The process
should be conceived of as a series of intertwined, decision-making sub-processes,
complementary but each of which is important in its own right. The basic element in the process
are presented in the figure 1.4 below:
Basic elements in staffing process
-Assessing and analysing the job
-Attracting a field of candidates
-Assessing and selecting employees
-Placing and integrating employees
Figure 1.4. Shows the staffing process as made up of four major sub processes. The cumulative
result of these sub-processes invariably determines the future health of an organisation. Each of
these sub-processes is treated as a separate unit that makes up the module on organizational
entry. The discussion in this unit is therefore confined to assessing and analysing
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
1. Explain the different theoretical approaches to the staffing proce

33
2. Understand the importance of job analysis as a pre-requisite for sound and effective staffing;
3. Comprehend the work involved in job analysis.

3.0MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Theoretical Approaches to Organisational Entry

This section considers three different approaches to organisational entry, person-job fit, social
negotiation and person-organisation fit. Each is based oi different assumptions about people and
about what
determines .2haviour at work. You need to be clear about these assumptions.
3.1.1 Person-job fit
This traditional approach to staffing is based on the view that organizations should specify as
closely as possible, the requirements of the job, and then look for individuals whose personal
attributes fit those requirements. Hence, it is often called the 'person-job fit approach'. The
underlying assumption is that human behaviour is determined by factors external to the
individual, and the clear implication is that staffing techniques should be concerned with
accessing and measuring these internal, personal factors,
which can then be matched against those required for the job. The reliance on this approach often
involves the utilisation of a wide range of tests both informal and structured.
3.1.2 Social negotiation
The fol owing ideas are central to this alternative organisational entry paradigm:
i. People are constantly changing;
ii.People's self-perceptions are important;
iii. Job are constantly changing;
iv. Selection is of both parties;
v. Information is exchanged;
vi. Negotiation takes place;
The purpose is to establish a psychological contract or discover that one is not feasible. The
expected outcome of this approach — the psychological contract involves the creation of a work
environment, favourable to good job performance. Importantly, this approach has highlighted the
critical role
of both parties - applicant and organisation - in decisions about organisational entry. This
approach emphasises the need to help the newcomer perform better by enhancing their
understanding andinotivation during the process. In contrast, the person - job fit approach aims
only to identify the person who will perform best on the job. The two approaches are built on
fundamental y different assumptions about the determinants of people's behavour. The person -
job fit approach states that the determining factors of people's behaviour come from within the
individual - the personality traits that are consistent and enduring. In contrast, the social
negotiation approach is based on the idea that factors
external to the individual have critical bearing on the individual's behaviour. Consequently, if
you plan to develop appropriate staffing strategies, you would need to address the fol owing
questions about people's behaviour:
34
i. Does behaviour come from within, or is it determined by the situation in which we find
ourselves?
ii.Is behaviour consistent across situations, or do people behave differently in distinct situations?
iii.Can behaviour be predicted?
It is important to note that after over three decades of argument between, the trait and situational
theorists of a work behaviour, a consensus has developed. Many previous trait theorists have
come to think of personality traits as ranges of possible behaviours which depend on the
requirements or demands of the situation. Similarly, many situationalists now accept that human
behaviour, while being driven by the situation, also has a degree of stability and predictability.
3.1.3 Person - organisation fit
While the above development unfolds over the decades, personality theorists with an
interactional perspective have appeared on the scene. This approach believed that human
behaviour stems from an interaction of person and situation, or internal and external
characteristics. This has important implications for organisational entry.
1.Several interactionalists have suggested that, if you want to predict people's behaviour and
their performance, you need to analyse their 'fit' with the organisation's culture.
2. An interactional perspective on organisational entry highlights the importance not only of
assessing job-related performance, but also of creating an environment that suits newcomers, and
of creating a job
that is satisfying and motivates the individual.
3. The interactional perspective acknowledge that high performance in one situation does not
necessarily mean that the person will perform well in a new situation. Therefore, this perspective
prompts the
manager to explore the reasons why a person has performed well in their existing situations - that
is, how the person interacts with the situational factors in their current jobs - so that he or she can
consider
how the person will behave in a new situation.
4. Organisations are affected by people, and people are affected by organisations. Therefore,
when choosing who to recruit, the manager is influencing the future of the organisation. The
discussion so far on the approaches to organisational entry is summarised in table 1.5 below. In
practice, the distinction between these approaches may not be clear cut. This is because the
person – organization fit approach incorporates the person - job fit approach to some extent, and
considers a number of other factors as wel . It is also the case that the social negotiation approach
incorporates the person - organisation fit approach. Hence, the difference between the three
approaches are a matter of emphasis, with the new approaches striving to take account of a
broader range of factors associated with the entry process. And it is precisely that relative
importance of different factors that will determine which approach should form the basis of an
entry strategy in a particular situation.

35
Activity
a. How important is ability to do a job, to both the person – organization fit and social
negotiation approaches?
b. How would you react to the claim that the person - organisation fit and social negotiation
approaches are impractical in most situations, because they would be costly, difficult and time
consuming?

3.2 Job Analysis

Central to effective staffing is job analysis. As the steps involved in the staffing process is
sequential, any error made during job analysis will cascade down through the whole process,
creating greater problems
elsewhere. Job analysis is therefore the total process by which you derive, first, a job description,
leading to second, a person specification. Information about a specific job is obtained through
observation, questioning, using tests, critical incident analysis and so on. This information is
typically assembled to gain a full understanding of the critical component of the job and the
context of the job. The entire human resource management function rests on effective job
analysis.
Figure 1.6 below gives a graphic representation of that which we have discussed in the
foregoing.
Figure 1.6 Job analysis, Job description and person specification

Job analysis
i. Job description
i. Major duties and responsibilities
ii. Reporting relationships
iii. Working conditions
iv. Supervisory responsibilities
v.Job title, purpose of post
ii.Personal specification
i. Age and sex
ii. Qualifications
iii. Experience
iv. Skills
v. Abilities
vi Personality
A job description tells you about the total requirements of the job. It tells you precisely what a
job is, its purpose, the duties, activities and responsibilities attached to it, and its position within
the formal structure of an organisation.
A person specification is an extension of the job description. It not only tells you about the job,
but also provides a blueprint of the 'ideal' person to do the job. Typically, it details the personal
attributes and qualities associated with successful performance of the job, for example;
36
acceptable qualifications, experience, technical skills, physical characteristics, health and
personality, and any special requirements necessary to carry out a specified job. An example of
job description and person specification is
illustrated in figure 1.7 below.
Figure 1.7 An example of job description and person specification

3.2.1The importance of job analysis

Despite possible limitations, the process of job analysis can aid managers in the fol owing human
resource decision - making points:
i. Assessment of where the organisation stands, and where it wants to get to with regards to
the tasks that must be performed, the skills required to do the work, and the roles that
need to be performed;
ii. Analysis of how the job might develop, and what qualities will be needed for the
individual to develop within the organisation;

iii. Analysis of the organisational environment which involves the job that the newcomer
will do, the subculture and work group they will join, the organisation's mission, objectives,
value and dominant culture, the technologies that are used, and the external environmental in
which the organisation is located. As you progress through this course, you will encounter
several tools and techniques for environmental scanning and analysis of organisational
change.

Activity
Consider a job you have had. State briefly what was done by the unit in which you worked.
Explain how your job fits in with others in the organisation and identify the purpose of your
position.

4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have discussed different theoretical approaches to the staffing process. The need
to have an accurate idea of a job, and the particular skills and attributes that it demand, as a pre-
requisite to effective staffing was treated under job analysis, job descriptions and person
specifications. We also tried to explain what is involved, and the benefits of preliminary sub-
processes.

5.0 SUMMARY

37
It is worth stressing that a vital work in effective staffing of organization lies in the preliminary
stages of knowing the job, and the particular demands of the job in terms of KSA. Through this
unit, your understanding of the theoretic assumption about people in work organisation, and the
concepts
of job analy,is, job description and person specification, and how they are closely intertwined,
ought to have been enhanced. Above all, it would have become obvious that if you are going to
identify and select the right person for the job, you need to have an accurate idea of the job.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Explain the fol owing human resources management techniques and show their relevance and
signification in human resources management processes: Job analysis, job description and job
specification
7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS
Cowling, A.G.& Mailer, C.J.B., (1981) Managing Human Resources, London: Edward Arrold
(Publisher) Ltd.
Denerley, R.A.& Plumbley, P.R., (1969) Recruitment and selection in full - employment
economy, London:Institute of Personnel Management
The text also draws material from the fol owing Open University (UK)

UNIT 5 COMMUNICATION FOR EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT

CONTENT

38
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Why communicate?
3.1.1 Understanding communication process
3.2 Barriers to effective communication
3.2.1 Technical and physical barriers
3.2.2 Socio-psychological barriers
3.2.3 Perception
3.2.4 Serial distortion
3.3 The communication climate
3.3.1 The open, supportive communication climate
3.3.2 The closed, communication climate
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6,0 Tutor-marked assignment
6.0 References and other resources

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Communication for effective management in an organisation is the theme of this unit. When we
communicate, we are trying to establish a 'commonness' with someone; that is to say, sharing
information, ideas and attitude. Conducting relationships implies communicating with people,
and your work as a manager is filled with instances of communicating with others.
Communication is a major activity of business organisation. The ability to communicate clearly
and accurately is one of the most valued skills in business. In this unit, we shall take a closer,
analytical look at communication. We shal introduce the idea of communication as a process,
and then explore some of the barriers to effective communication. We shal also examine some
of the ways in which the quality of communication in an organisation is determined.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to do the fol owing:
1. Explain why communication is important to the managers;
2. Analyse the ways in which your work as a manager involves communication of various kinds;
3. Explain the relevance of the communication process;
4. Recognise the common barriers to communication that arise within an organisation, and
suggest how they might be overcome;
5. Understand and explain the following concepts, feedbacks, serial distortion and perception, as
active process and technical and human models of communication.

39
3.0MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Why Communicate?

In the modern era of the information explosion, nothing is more central to an organisation's
effectiveness than its ability to generate and transmit relevant, accurate, meaningful and
understandable information among its stakeholders. All the advantages of organisation —
economics of scale, technical and financial resources, diverse competencies, are of no practical
value, if the organisation's stakeholders are unaware of WHAT is required of WHO, HOW,
WHEN and WHERE. These must be communicated by management, who are charged with the
responsibility of achieving desired results through cost - effective utilisation of resources.
Interacting and conducting required relationship with these stakeholders implies
communication. Managers are the nerve centre of the organisation. Effective communication is
the crucial tool a manager has at his disposal for developing and sustaining a smooth, functioning
work-team, for directing the employees, and for coordinating and control ing their activities
towards the accomplishment of corporate goals and objectives, as well as satisfying the
aspirations and expectations of employees.
A manager, who wants to successfully accomplish his objectives of managing work and people,
occupies many work roles simultaneously, and all the roles demand that the manager is effective
in communicating.
Executives have estimated that they spend approximately 90 percent of their time
communicating in form of; reading, writing, speaking, or listening (Lewis, 1980).
Mintzberg (1991), a management guru, confirmed that a sample of the Chief Executives he
studied, spent 78% of their working time on verbal communication alone. Of the ten managerial
roles, Mintzberg identified communication is of prime importance. For example, let us consider
the manager's role as a decision maker, which requires making discriminating choice. Here, the
manager would request for data, facts, ideas, reports, opinions, and make observations to enable
him or her monitor work in progress, control and take appropriate decisions to guide and direct
the organisation towards the achievement of objectives and targets. t is through effectiveness in
communicating that the manager is able to
do the fol owing:
i. Inform—establish and disseminate information;
ii. Influence—lead, motivate and mobilise;
iii. Activate—direct, instruct and control.
Communication has as its ultimate purpose, the integration of managerial and employee
functions. Furthermore, it is through effective communication that managers can perform all the
core functions of
managing people within the organisation.
3.1.1 Understanding Communication Processes

40
Communication, as we have noted, is the capacity of an individual to convey ideas and feelings
to another individual, and where necessary, to evoke a discriminating response. Effective
communication means the successful transfer of information, meanings and understanding from
a SENDER to a RECEIVER. This is usually referred to as a process of imparting ideas, and
delivering objective, accurate and timely information from a source to a receiver through a
channel. Figure 1.8 below shows the conventional model of the communication process.

Figure 1.8 Conventional model of the communication process

What comes out clearly from the above model is the sender, who initiates the communication
process, encodes the message, chooses a channel for transmitting the message so that it can reach
the receiver, who decodes it. In other words, the sender sends the message through a channel to
the receiver, who interprets and deciphers the message, and sends meaningful feedback for the
former sender, to in-turn decipher. The ultimate aim is for the meaningful feedback to be the
same as the message 'received'.
The exchange of information is successful and effective only when mutual understanding has
taken place. Unfortunately, communication seldom results in effective transmission of
information for a number of reasons:
i. If the information is distracted;
ii. If the receiver is unable to interpret or use the information;
iii. If there are other forms of barriers to effective communication.
Feedback is a process of checking and clarification, through asking questions and repeating the
message to ensure that the encoding and decoding result in mutual understanding of the message.
This is an essential but often neglected part of the communication process. The feedback process
also draws our attention to the fact that true communication is a two-way process. The major
benefit of the feedback process is that it provides opportunity not only for clarifying the original
message, but also
for new insights and perspectives on the original ideas, which may then be notified.

The Communication Process

Sender
information source
Who codes
Noise
Transmission Channel
carrier of information
Receiver
Who decodes
Noise Noise
Feedback

41
3.2 Barriers to Effective Communication
A number of barriers to effective communication exists in all organisations. These can be
classified into two, namely physical or technical, and socio-psychological barriers.
3.2.1 The Technical or Physical Barriers
These barriers are those that can minimize the opportunities for effective communication to
occur These may include, among others:
i. Poor means of communication such as typing facilities, photocopying, telephone breakdown,
poor audio-visual aids, and other related facilities.
ii. Time constraints that prevent the opportunity to communicate. Most physical barriers are
relatively easy to remove, once they are known to exist.

3.2.2 Socio-Psychological Barriers

The more difficult sets of barriers are the socio-psychological barriers. These usually arise from
perceptual differences of persons in communication relationships. Many of the problems may be
the result of attitudes, norms, values and beliefs held by parties. For example, the sender
determines what
he or she wants to communicate, how to phrase the message which is often influenced by his
perception of himself, the image he has of the receiver, and his conception of this role in the
organisation. What you must be aware of, as a manager, is that the process of communication is
an active (not a passive) process. People do not simply encode and decode messages passively,
they actively select and interpret them, try to make sense of them, and strive to give expression
to their thoughts. Consider, for example, the sender, who initiates the communication process.
The message he intends to communicate is rarely self-evident; it often consists of half-formed
thoughts and ideas. To communicate, he has to give expression to those thoughts and ideas by
putting them into acceptable words (languages) and symbols. This is a complex process, which
would require you to choose appropriate language (technical and socially acceptable), the
symbol and expression. As for the receiver, we need to be aware that people do not passively
receive messages; they select, filter and interpret them. If people think that a message is unlikely
to be interesting or unimportant, they may ignore it altogether. Even when we have decided to
concentrate on something, our mind may wander and we may switch our attention to some other
things. Each of us, because of our unique background and socialisation, develop our own frame
of reference, which influences our perception of the world around us, and the way we see and
respond to it.
3.2.3 Perception
This is the process by which we actively make sense of the world around us and respond to it,
taking in information that is consistent with our frames of reference, and filtering out information
that does not fit. If our personalities and perceptions were identified, we would al tend to think
alike and communication problems would be rare.

42
3.2.4 Serial distortion
There is what is commonly referred to as serial distortion process. A common problem in a large
organisation is that messages often have to travel long distances, and go through several people,
before they reach their final destination. When this involves oral communication, the chances are
that the message received would be somewhat different from the original message — because
everyone involved in receiving and transmitting it will inevitably add their own interpretation. In
what ways can messages
be so distorted?
a. Particular points in the message may be highlighted, that is to say, given an increased
prominence and importance.
b. New information may be added (or subtracted) to make the message sound more interesting
and palatable.
i. Certain details may be modified to suit either the receiver or the sender. The order of the events
may be altered - often done to make the message seem more logical, but it can affect the
accuracy.
iii. Gaps may be filled-in to make sense of the message, and make it sound more credible.
Sometimes, these distortions are deliberate. People may decide that a particular message reflects
badly on them, or they may want to withhold it from others in order to exercise their own power.
We must bear in mind that information can rapidly assume a political perspective in an
organisation. Often, however, the intention may not be malicious. It is simply that as we decide,
interpret and decode any message we convey, and the more stages it passes through, the more
room there is for distortion.
.
3.3 The Communication Climate
Why is it that communication often seems to flow more smoothly within some groups of people
than others? One reason is that the prevailing communication climate directly influences the
extent to which
communication is a positive or negative force in art organisation. An open or supportive
communications climate promotes co-operative working relationships, and is therefore
conducive to effective information gathering and transfers. A closed and defensive
communication climate has the opposite effect.
Communication climate is not something that exists beyond the people who work together in the
organisation; it reflects the skills and dispositions that people bring to the work situation and
modified by their interactions and experiences in the organisation. A conducive communication
climate has to be created and nurtured by management.
3.3.1 The 0pen Supportive Communication Climate
It has long been observed that people are more likely to have a sense of worth and importance,
and feel free to speak without fear of reprisal, in an open and supportive environment. This kind
of situation promotes an understanding of what each team members wants to accomplish, and
also encourages working together towards common goals. Supportiveness is communicated most
clearly with the fol owing kinds of response.
43
i. Descriptive response: statements that are informative rather than evaluative.
ii. Solution-oriented response: a focus on problem-solving, rather than an emphasis on what
cannot be done.
iii. Open and honest response: even if criticism is expressed, there are few hidden messages; the
aim is to help and improve.
iv. Caring response: puts an emphasis on empathy and understanding.
v. Equalitarian response: communication that values everyone, regardless of their role or status.
vi. Forgiving response: recognising the inevitability of error or misjudgments, and the likelihood
of taking action to minimize repetition.
vii. Feedback response: these are seen as a positive and essential part of maintaining good
working relationships and high levels of performance.
Management style is a critical factor in determining whether the communication climate is open
and supportive. If there is a history of suggestions being welcomed and acted upon, mistakes
being used as an
opportunity to learn, and crises being dealt with in an even-handed way, then staff are more
likely to be open in their communications. They will feel trusted, secure and confident in their
jobs and in the organisation as a whole. Effective team-working, flexibility and a sense of
involvement—al
contribute to (and benefit from) an open and supportive climate.
3.3.2 The Closed Communication Climate
Effective communication is one of the first casualties in a closed and defective work
environment. When the environment is highly 'political', competition for approval, promotion or
resources is invariably high on the hidden agenda. In this kind of environment, 'information is
power'. People often become very possessive and territorial about the information to which they
have access. Control is maintained through the suppression of open forms of communications.
Information is given or withheld to reinforce a
person's position rather than to contribute to effective working. Communication behaviours that
are likely to predominate in a close communications environment have been found to include the
fol owing:
i. Judgment behaviour: people are explicitly expected to conform to certain types of behaviour
and to inhibit or change attitudes and behaviours that are inconsistent with the norm.
ii. Deceptive behaviour: messages tend to hold a hidden meaning, or are expressed insincerely or
in a manipulative way.
iii.Non-caring behaviour: communications tend to be detached and impersonal, and show little
concern for others.
iv. Superior behaviour: people's ways of interacting with each other tend to emphasise their
differences in status, skills or understanding.
v. Dogmatic behaviour: there is little discussion and an unwillingness to accept other points of
views or to compromise.
vi. Hostile behaviour: there is a predominantly negative approach, which places little importance
on the needs of others. Effective managerial communication, in these circumstances, tend to
breakdown to such an extent that the interaction between individuals is minimal; certain topics
44
are simply not discussed and verbal aggression becomes more commonplace. Communication
still exists, but it can easily become defensive and covert.

4.0 CONCLUSION
An important way to achieve behavioural effectiveness in the workplace is to communicate
effectively. Effective communication is one of the major ingredients of the manager's job. It
involves a process of passing information and understanding from a sender to a receiver.
Managing communication involves understanding the numerous barriers to effective
communication and knowing how to overcome them. The unit examined some of the barriers
that arise from time to time, and also introduced a number of ways to underline the
communication culture.

5.0 SUMMARY
Communication is what al managers spend most of their working day doing as the 'nerve' centre
of the organisation. It is a major part of their role. In particular, communication is about people
in an organisation. It is essential to the main function of management — managing people.
Communication cannot take place outside a network of people encoding, transmitting, decoding
and interpreting information. As we shal find in subsequent units of the course, effective
communication is integral and supportive of each of the core functions of managing people in
organisations.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

What is the value of effective communication skills in the workplace?

7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS

Lewis, P.V. (1980) Organisational communication: Essence of effective management, 2" Ed.
Ohio: Grid Publishing.
Majors, R. E. (1990) Business communication, New York: Harper and Row Publishers.

Material was drawn from the Open University course B800 book 6: Managing People: A wider
view, Session 2. Communication.
Mintzberg, H. (1975) The Manager's Job: Folklore and Facts, Havard Business Review, July —
August, pp. 49-61.
Mintzberg, H. (1991) The Manager's Job: Folklore and Facts, Prentice Hall, Englewood, Cliffs,
NJ.

45
Oribabor, P. (2000) Effective communication: A tool for successful management in Oribabor, P.
E. &
Ogunbanjo O.A. Ed., Introduction to industrial Sociology, Ile- Ife : O.A.U. Press Ltd.
Torrington, D.& Chapman, J. (1979) Personnel Management, Prentice Hall, NJ.

MODULE 2 STAFFING THE ORGANIZATION

Unit 1 Strategies and Management Practices in Manpower Planning

46
Unit 2 Attracting a pool of applicants

Unit 3 Assessing and selecting human resources

Unit 4 Managing performance

Unit 5 Performance appraisal systems

UNIT 1 STRATEGIES AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN MANPOWER

PLANNING
CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Employment Planning
3.1.1 Strategic Planning
3.1.2 Forecasting Personnel Needs
4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

7.0 References / Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The recruitment and selection process starts with manpower planning or perso nnel planning.
This unit introduces you to employment or personnel planning process, the strategies and
management practices involved in manpower planning. It explains strategy and the relationship
between strategic planning and human resource planning. You will also learn the tools that
mangers use to forecast or project personnel needs.
2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Define Employment or Human Resource Planning

47
 2. Enumerate the benefits of Human Resource Planning
3. Discuss Strategic Planning and its importance in HRM
4. Explain the main techniques used in employment planning and
forecasting

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Employment Planning

Employment or personnel planning (human resource planning) is the process of deciding

what
positions the firm or the organization has to fill and how to fill these positions or vacancies, from
office attendant to the Chief Executive positions. It embraces both the current and future needs of
the company and develops the road map to get there. However, the process of deciding to how to
fill executive jobs is referred to as Succession Planning.
The purpose of human resource planning g is to ensure that the people required to run the
company are being used as effectively as possible, where and when they are needed in order to
accomplish the organization‘s goals.
Employment planning is expected to flow from the firm‘s strategic plans. For instance, plans to
enter new businesses, build new plants, or reduce costs al influence the types of positions the
firm will need to fill or eliminate. Human Resource planning is more common in large
organizations because they benefit more from the gains of HR planning than smaller
organizations. Such benefits include:
• The ability to integrate strategic demands with appropriate staffing
levels
• The ability to improve the utilization of human resources
• The ability to match HR activities and future organizational objectives
efficiently
• The ability to achieve economies in hiring new workers
• The ability to expand the HR information base to assist other HR
activities and other organizational units
• The ability to make demands on local labour markets successfully
• The ability to coordinate different HR programs such as affirmative
action plans and hiring needs.

3.1.1Strategic Planning

48
An organization becomes competitive by means of its people. It is therefore important for an
organization to look strategically at its people and the skills they require to accomplish the
strategic and operational goals of the organization.
You may want to ask, ―What does strategic mean?‖ According to Stewart et al (2001), strategy
has many definitions‖. However, they have chosen to define strategy from the management point
of view. According to Stewart et al, a company’s strategy lies in determining its key goals and
actions it needs to take to achieve those goals.
Strategic Human Resource Management includes al the HR policies, processes and practices
that help the company achieve its key goals through its employees. It is therefore important that
the line manager link the goals of the company to the skills of the people employed. If the
organization is not staffed with the right number and types of people, strategic, operational and
functional goals may not be achieved. More and more executives are realizing that wel -
conceived HR plans are essential to achieving strategic success.

Self Assessment Exercise 1

What do you understand by human resource planning and of what use is it?

Answer

i. Human Resource planning is the process of deciding what positions the

firm or the organization has to fill and how to fill these positions or vacancies, from
office attendant to the Chief Executive positions. It embraces both the current and
future needs of the company and develops the road map to get there.

ii. The purpose of human resource planning g is to ensure that the people
required to run the company are being used as effectively as possible, where
and when they are needed in order to accomplish the organization‘s goals.

3.1.2 Forecasting Personnel Needs

49
Like al good plans, management builds employment plans on basic forecasts which are the
personnel needs, the supply of inside candidates, and the supply of outside candidates. We will
discuss the first, which is a personnel need.
In forecasting personnel needs, managers consider several factors and fol ow a process of:

• Forecasting revenues, then

• Estimating the size of the staff required to achieve the sales volume
• Considering the projected turnover( resignations and dismissals)
• Considering the decisions to upgrade or downgrade products or
services, technological change, and the department‘s financial resources
Managers use several simple tools or techniques for projecting personnel needs and these
include:

i. Trend Analysis
This involves studying the variations in a firm‘s employment levels over the last few
years for example you can compute the number of employees at end of each of the
last three years or more or the number of employees in different departments like,
marketing, production, administration, operations, etc. The purpose of the trend
analysis is to identify trends that might continue in future. It helps to provide an initial
estimate of future staffing needs.

ii. Ratio Analysis

Another approach used by managers to forecast personnel needs is ratio analysis.
Ratio analysis involves making forecasts based on the historical ratio between
• Some casual factor like sales volume and
• The number of employees required for example number of sales
people.

iii. The Scatter Plot

A scatter plot shows graphically how two variables, such as a measure of business
activity like sales, and a firm‘s staffing levels are related. If they are related, that
means you can forecast the level of business activity and you should also be able to
estimate the personnel requirement of the sales department or whichever department
being projected.

Self Assessment Exercise 11

What are the factors involved in Strategic Human Resource Management?

50
Answer

Strategic Human Resource Management includes al the HR policies, processes and practices
that help the company achieve its key goals through its employees.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we discussed Strategies and Management Practices in Manpower Planning and this
unit, such topic as employment or human resource planning was treated and we noted that the
purpose of human resource planning is to ensure that the people required to run the company are
being used as effectively as possible, where and when they are needed in order to accomplish the
organization‘s goals. The strategies and management practices involved in manpower planning
were also discussed. The several factors that managers consider when forecasting personnel
needs were discussed as wel as the process they follow. The techniques involved in or projecting
personnel needs were discussed too.

5.0 SUMMARY

You learnt that Employment or personnel planning (human resource planning) is the process of
deciding what positions the firm or the organization has to fill and how to fill these positions or
vacancies, from office attendant to the Chief Executive positions. It embraces both the current
and future needs of the company and develops the road map to get there. You also learnt that a
company‘s strategy lies in determining its key goals and actions it needs to take to achieve tho se
goals and that Strategic Human Resource Management includes all the HR policies, processes
and practices that help the company achieve its key goals through its employees. You also learnt
that management builds employment plans on basic forecasts which are the personnel needs, the
supply of inside candidates, and the supply of outside candidates. In forecasting personnel needs,
managers consider several factors and fol ow a process which includes Forecasting revenues,
then estimating the size of the staff required to achieve the sales volume. Managers use several
simple tools or techniques for projecting personnel needs and these include: trend analysis, ratio
analysis, etc.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Human Resource planning is said to be more common in large organizations because they
benefit more from the gains of HR planning than smaller organizations. Enumerate these benefits
they stand to gain.
2. Define Strategy from the management‘s point of view and state what Strategic Human
Resource Management comprise of.

51
3. State and explain the tools or techniques that managers use for projecting personnel needs.

7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS

Dessler, G. (2008) Human Resource Management. Eleventh Ed. Upper Saddle River: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Stewart, E.B., Belcourt, M., Sherman, A., Bohlander, G.,Snell, S.and Goodman, P.M.(2001)
Essentials of Managing Human Resources. First Canadian Edition. Ontario: Nelson Thomson
Learning.

Werther, W. B. & Davis, K.(1996) Human Resources and Personnel Management. Fifth Ed.
USA: Irwin/McGraw-Hill

52
UNIT 2 ATTRACTING A POOL OF CANDIDATES

CONTENTS

1.1 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0Main Content
3.1 Recruitment: what is it?
3.2 Responsibility for recruitment
3.3 Sources of recruitment
3.3.1 Internal recruitment
3.3.2.External recruitment
3.4 Evaluation of recruitment methods
3.5 Shortlisting
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked assignment
7.0 References and other resources

1.0 INTRODUCTION
A company's ability to recruit new employees, depends to a large extent on its enterprise, in
making known the opportunities it has to offer. For the position to be satisfactorily filled, only
prospective candidates who meet the person-specification is prompted to apply. Consequently, it
is essential
to approach the task of attracting suitable applicants in a systematic way. As we noted in an
earlier unit on staffing, the cornerstone for effective recruitment is to have a job description and a
person specification on hand, to assist in the identification of potential candidates from a pool of
applicants. Thus, the recruitment process is the second sub-process in the staffing process. It lies
at the heart of the employment function, which starts the relationship between the employee, his
job and its environment, and the enterprise which employs him or her.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
1. Define what recruitment is all about;
2. Name the various sources you can use for attracting the desired types of candidates;
3. Explain and evaluate the various methods of recruitment.

3.0MAIN CONTENT

3.1Recruitment: what is it?

It is important to know where suitable applicants are likely to be found, how best to make contact
with them, and to secure their application. This involves a thorough knowledge of sources of

53
labour and methods of recruitment. The most appropriate means of attracting suitable applicants
will depend upon the nature of the organisation, the vacant position, and possibly the urgency of
need. Essentially, recruitment process involves all sets of activities, which organisations use to
identify, search for and
stimulate candidates who have the abilities and attitudes needed to help an organisation achieve
its objectives. In practice, three initial conditions must be fulfilled before the search
begins:
i. Confirmation of the need to fill the vacancy;
ii. Reference to the manpower plans;
iii. Completion of an appropriate job analysis process.
The decisions that are made about recruiting help dictate not only the kinds and numbers of
applicants, but also how difficult, successful recruiting efforts may become. It is important to
note that recruiting requires planning decisions. The strategy entails identifying the kind and
number of required recruits,
where to recruit, who to recruit and what the job requirements will be. A key consideration will
be deciding about internal and external searches that have to be made.
3.2 Responsibilities for Recruiting
In a small organisation, the owner-manager is usually solely responsible for recruiting of staff
into the organisation. He might do so by utilizing informal methods, and where situation
demands, he might outsource the task to a consultant agency Figure 2.1. shows a typical
distribution of recruiting responsibilities between human resource department and line managers
in large organisations, where recruiting is generally a shared responsibility
Figure 2.1 Typical recruiting responsibilities
HAM Line managers
• Forecasts recruiting needs • Anticipates needs for positions to be filled
• Prepares for recruiting drive • Determines required KSA
• Plans and conducts recruitment • Provides job requirement information to assist
recruiting drive
• Audits and evaluates al recruiting activities • Reviews recruiting activities

3.3 Sources of Recruitment

There are two sources for potential employees; the internal and external labour market. The
former is made up of current employees, the latter is the pool of potential applicants outside the
organisation. Figure 2.2 details the merits and demerits of both sources
Figure 2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of recruitment sources
Sources Advantage Disadvantages
Internal • Promotes morale • In breeding
• Better assessment of abilities • Poor moral problem of those not promoted
• Lower cost for some jobs • Need for managerial – development programme
• Motivator for good performance
• Results in succession of promotion
54
External • New board • May select unfit ones.
• Cheaper and faster than training • Large adjustment or orientation line
• May bring new industry insights

3.3.1 Internal recruitment

When a vacancy exists, the first place you look to fill it is naturally inhouse. To this end, most
organisations have a formal policy of filling vacancies through internal recruitment. This often
takes the form of promotion, transfer, re-deployment, and even demotion. Where feasible,
internal recruitment is favoured for some of these reasons:
i. It helps build morale and motivation among existing staff;
ii. It is less costly in terms of advertisement costs, interview costs and other placement costs;
in. Management's knowledge of this employee is likely to be more accurate, and thus provides
better prediction of success than information on external candidate.
While internal recruitment is generally recognised as a good source of employee, it is not without
its shortcomings. Typically, it could lead to what is commonly referred to as 'in-breeding' a
situation whereby applicants from the same organisational culture, with little new things to offer,
are employed to fill vacancies. This often discourages new blood from being injected into the
organisation. Also, those who apply for job and are rejected can become disgruntled employee.
3.3.2 External Recruitment
When qualified candidate cannot be found within the firms, the external labour market is tapped.
The external source typically includes college graduates, the unemployed with a wide range of
skills and abilities, and some retired experienced persons. Like internal recruitment, there are
merits and demerits of external recruits. It provides a wider market. It also brings new blood into
the organisation. However, the organisation has to make longer investment in its recruitment
selection, socialisation, training and integration of staff into its (organisation's) fold.
An effective external search process involves analysing the market, to define appropriate
catchment areas, so as to design the most appropriate communication strategies for reaching out
to the prospective candidates. What ways or methods are there for an organisation to contact
possible new staff? Jot down as many as these methods that you know of.
The type of position on offer invariably determines which communication strategy will be used,
and which segment of the labour market will be searched. As a company manager, you would
not use thesource method to reach out to an experienced accountant and a typist. Unskilled
labour are usually recruited through job posting in company's newsletter and employee referrals.
The positions that require specialized skills and knowledge will require a different strategy. For
this type of candidates, advertisement in professional journals, the use of executive
selection/search and consultants might be more appropriate. Recruiters may also require a more
direct search by organising school, college and university visits to search for students about to
graduate. What is also interesting to note is that all the methods of recruitment can be grouped
into the fol owing three categories:

55
 Direct methods — School and university visits; employee contacts with the public;

Indirect methods — through advertisement in newspaper, on radio, television and Internet, as

wel as in professional and technical journals.
Third-party method — this includes various agencies, placement in professional associations,
managing consulting firms.
The advantages and drawbacks of some of the above methods of recruitment are summarised in
figure 2.3 on page 44:
Figure 2.3 Methods of recruitment
S/N Method Advantages Drawbacks
1. Internal advertisement - Maximum information to - There is a limit to number of suitable all
employees, who might then act as recruiters.
applicants
- Opportunity for al suitable - In-breeding
internal employees to apply - Internal candidates not matched
- If internal staff is appointed, the cost of induction is saved against outsiders.
2. Vacancy list is placed outside the premises
- Economical way of advertising, particularly if on a busy thorough-
- Vacancy list seen by few people and passersby
fare - Usually only barest information is put out.
3 Advert in National - Information reaches large - The cost press population.
- Newspapers are acceptable - Much may be 'wasted' in medium for important job searchers.
reaching inappropriate people
4 Advert in technical press
- Reaches a specific population with minimum waste of time
- Inappropriate for non-specialists
- The standard of applicants can be guaranteed.
- Infrequent publication
5. Job centres and labour - Socially responsible and secure - Registers are mainly for the offices -
Can produce applicants very unemployed rather than of the quickly employed, seeking a change
- Availability of data
- Access to nationwide employers
6 Commercial - Little administrative hope for the - Can produce staff who are likely to
employment agencies employer stay only for a short time.
7 Executive search - Can approach 'known' individuals – Cost consultants directly - Potential
candidates outside

56
- Useful for small business and employers with little or no previous experience in specialist
fields.
the network are excluded.
8 Schools/ University - Inexpensive and administratively - Interviewers tend to be enquirer visits
convenient rather than applicants
- Can produce a regular annual - Interviewing schedules can flow of enquires be laborious.
Source: Adapted from D. Torrington J. Chapman

Activity
Recall your appointment to your current organisation and prepare a brief
write on the sources of recruitment that was used by the organisation.

3.4 Evaluation of recruitment methods

Naturally it will not be necessary to utilise al the recruitment methods listed earlier, but it cart be
helpful to be aware of the variety of sources available in case of need. It is vital that you conduct
periodic evaluation of the methods. Many indexes can be used to evaluate effectiveness of a
recruitment method. You want to evaluate and judge in terms of the degree of success in
obtaining competent personnel. Periodical y, it is useful you conduct a survey of al areas of
recruitment, so as to ascertain which methods have proved most productive. One form of
evaluation is to try to correlate the source of the applicant with ultimate efficiency rating.
Another is to check elapsed time between order placement and subsequent referrals. Although
conclusion may not necessarily prove definitive, they will at least serve the purpose of indicating
fairly well, which method appears to be most productive, and which brings satisfactory results.
This would aid ultimate decisions on which methods to continue to utilise and which to
discontinue.
3.5 Shortlisting
The ultimate objective of recruitment should be to produce a shortlist of candidates who are
worth selecting. A good recruitment drive should provide you a degree of choice, to enable you
match the information on the application forms against the person-specification. You would need
to sort out the applications into three categories of 'Probable', 'Possible' and
'Unsuitable'.Shortlists can then be made up from the first two categories, while the unsuitable
applicants are politely declined. It is vital that you promptly and courteously notify unsuitable
candidates. A sloppy attention to this aspect of the process does nothing to enhance the
reputation of the organisation in general.
4.0 CONCLUSION
As we have attempted to show, recruitment is the process of finding suitable applicants, who
meet the requirements identified, by analysing the job. The unit has helped us to fol ow the

57
process of identifying sources of recruitment, and to gain a good understanding of the various
methods, that can be utilised to reach out to suitable applicants. It has also helped us to realise
the various merits and demerits of those methods of recruitment.

5.0 SUMMARY
Two conditions must exist for effective selection to occur. First, the organisation must have a
candidate, who it is willing to employ. The second condition is that the candidate must be wil ing
to accept an offer.
Recruitment is the process of finding and attracting candidates who meet both of these
conditions. The process begins, as we have shown, when the organisation through job analysis,
determines its qualitative need for personnel. Also, job analysis leads to a description of the
duties and responsibilities of the job. Recruitment starts when the organisation knows the type of
person it is seeking and it lays a good base for effective selection process.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Question
Explain the fol owing human resources management techniques and show their relevance and
significance in human resources management processes: job analysis, job description and job
specification

7.0 REFRENCES / FURTHER READINGS

Cole, G.A. (1993) Personnel Management; Theory and Practice, London: ELBS with DP
Publications.
Cowling, A.C. & Mailer, C. J. B. (1981) Managing Human Resources, London: Edward
Arnold (Publishers) Ltd.

Torrington, D. Y. & Chapman, J. (1979) Personnel Management, , London: Prentice Hal

International.

58
UNIT 3 ASSESSING AND SELECTING HUMAN RESOURCES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Selection — what it involves
3.2 Methods of selection
3.2.1 Interview
3.2.2 Other selection techniques
3.2.3 Limitations of selection tests
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked assignment
7.0 References and other resources

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the two preceding units, it was emphasised that recruitment and selection sub-processes of the
staffing process, should be thought of as a matching process. This concept is fundamental.
Having assessed the demands of a job and you know, through the person specification; the
yardstick against which you can assess the suitability of the candidate, the next practical step is
to decide the methods by which you shall recognise the presence or absence in individual
candidates of the attributes you are seeking. Simply
put, you will be seeking to obtain, analyse and interpret information about people who have
responded to your recruitment drive. In doing so, your aim would be to narrow the field of
candidates by progressively eliminating those who do not measure up to your person(man)
specification.

2.0 OBJECTIVE
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
1.Explain the need for selection;
2. Identify an appropriate combination of methods to aid selection
decisions;
3.Explain the purpose of and problems of interview as a selection tool;
4. Identify the strengths and limitations of other selection methods.

59
3.0MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Selection — what it involves

This is an important sub-process of the broader staffing process. Once you know about the job
requirements, and your recruiting drive has attracted job application, you must seek to evaluate
each applicant and select the most suitable candidates. Selection is therefore the process by
which you choose from a list of applicants, the persons who best meet the criteria for the position
available, considering current environmental context. The aim is to compare the demands of the
job with the candidates capabilities and inclinations, by various techniques. The intent of such a
process is to generate information from the applicants, that will predict their job success, and
then to hire the candidate predicted to be most successful. The importance of selection is that it
represents the final stage of decision-making in the recruitment process.

3.2 Methods of Selection

In practice, selection is not that simple. How you go about it will depent' on a number of factors.
The first of this, is the theoretical approach you take to the process of organisational entry
(OUUK 2000). Managers who take a person-job fit view of the process will use tests designed to
expose key psychological traits thought to be related to the intended job. Such a test might take a
variety of forms but the purpose is to measure a person's fitness to the job. Selectors who prefer
the person-organisation fit approach will seek to guage the extent to which the person's KSA
complements those of the organisation.
Several different selection instruments can help to discriminate between candidates as illustrated
by the Candidate/Applicant's attracted Successful/selected candidate
Although in practice, the formal interview remains an almost universal part of the selection
process, recent research has shown an increasing use of other selection methods. Most large-
scale and complex organisations in Nigeria, like her counterpart in the United Kingdom, now
regularly use some forms of testing — ability, aptitude, etc., in their selection process.

3.2.1 Interview
The interview is commonly referred to as a conversation with a purpose. You will notice that the
interview is used in almost al organisational entry exercise for all jobs, despite the fact that
much current research has indicated their poor predictability of performance by applicants. For
example, an often cited researcher's study, reports that interviews have a predictive validity of
0.14, on a scale of 0 (chance prediction) to 1 (perfect prediction). A vast literature describes the
problems with interview as
fol ows:
i) Impressions formed in the first five minutes greatly influence the selection, but are based on
very little information;
ii) Interviewers tend to look for reasons to reject rather than for reasons to accept interviewees,
which suggests the 'list bad' applicant gets the job;
iii) Halo and horns - the interviewer's perception of one good or one bad comment contaminates
their perception of other comments;
60
iv) Appearance affects an interviewer's judgement, Interviews

Application forms
Reference checks
CVs
Personality tests
Literacy/numeracy tests
Ability/aptitude tests
Assessment centres
Others
v) It is difficult to assess skills and attitudes in an interview,
vi) The interviewer's recent experiences in his or her work environment disproportionately
influence the decisions taken. Effects to reduce problems, like the above, have led to the
development of structured and situational interviews. By listing suitable questions and perhaps
developing a rating scheme for answers, much of the problems of instructed interviews may be
reduced. Contradicting the traditional view of interviews, a recent review by McDaniel et al
(1994) has produced an authoritative statement, of how
well, interviews predict the performance of individuals.
Activity
Think deeply and critically of a formal job interview in which you took part.
(a) What were the strengths of the interview as an interviewer?
(b) What did you find to be the major weakness of the interview technique?
(c) What can be done to make the interview more effective?
Interviews are useful for assessing personal characteristics such as interpersonal skills, practical
intelligence, social interaction and communication skills. The interview can also be used for
answering
applicants' questions, selling the organisation and for negotiating terms and conditions. It is a
matter of some debate, whether the interview accurately assesses ability at work, relevant
experience and work skills. Two final points need to be made about the interview. First, during
the interview, applicants develop much of their impression of what it would be like to work in
the organisation. Therefore, the manner of the interview plays a major role in shaping the
psychological contract between individual
and organisation. Second, the interview is the only technique which currently exists for assessing
the interaction of individuals and environments. If you adopt a systematic approach to the
investigation of
this interaction, perhaps using a structured or semi-structure interview, you can gain evidence
that should lead you to make a more objective decision about the interviewee's fitness to the
organisation.
3.2.2 Other Selection Techniques
Table 2.7 on page 51 summarises the strengths and weaknesses of the main types of selection
tests.
61
 Table 2.7 Summary of main types of selection techniques

SELECTION DESCRIPTION STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES

TECHNIQUES
Physical ability Tests that . Good validity Mainly limited to unskilled or
tests measure semi-skilled jobs.
whether the Danger of unfair
applicant is discrimination if not used on
physically able job-related criteria.
to do the job
Literary and Tests that Good for screening Not always easy to identify
numerical tests measures applicants the type of intel igence
applicant's from school, or for you want to measure. Trained
levels of literacy unskilled psychologists are needed to
and workers. administer the test. This can
numeracy Suitable for be expensive.
relatively few jobs Not always easy to identify
Intelligence tests
Tests that measure
many
different types of
intellectual
or cognitive
functions
High validity and
reliability.
Intelligence is
likened to
trainability and
problem
solving,

Personality tests Tests that Useful if you know It can be expensive if used in
measure exactly what isolation, and it has a poor
personality traits. personality trait you 62
are looking
for and why
Trained psychologists
are required to
administer these
tests and provide
feedbacks
Analogous tests Tests that
stimulate the
predictive validity.
Only
useful for a limited number of
 work the jobs.
newcomer will May just indicate who has
be doing done the tasks before, or
the trainability of applicants.
Assessment centre A which uses a Moderate validity. Expensive and
process, rather than number Also useful time-consuming. How do
a place of selection for staff you combine the results of the
techniques in development. High diverse range of tests?
combination validity rate, It is quite artificial

Typically, information relevant for preliminary screening of candidates are provided by a review
of candidates' application forms and/or Curriculum Vitaes (CVs). Applicants who do not have
the relevant training, experience, or who possess other desirable characteristics can easily be
screened out at this point. The use of tests, after the preliminary screening, is becoming a
growing practice in many large scale business corporations in Nigeria. This has become a major
practice, for example, in the banking and financial sector. These tests may be designed to
measure general intel igence and knowledge, aptitude for the work, skill levels, work motivation
and personality Performance tests, such as asking a typist to type a letter, or questions about the
job, are also commonly used to determine applicant's level of abilities and skills. The use of
reference checks is a traditional practice. It is however, a growing practice for organisations to
design their specialized forms, which they send to referees to obtain information about the
applicant's past performance. Physical examination can tel if an applicant has the physical and
mental requirements for a position. The general practice in Nigerian firms is for successful
candidates to be required to be medically examined before taking up appointment.
Activity
If you were a small-scale business manager, which of the selection methods would you use in
considering applicants for a job? Which one or ones would you drop out?

3.2.3 Limitations of Selection Tests

An intrinsic merit of tests is that tests can measure some attributes which are difficult to assess
by interview. They can help to reduce the area of subjective judgement and of possible human
error in the selection process as a whole. A word of warning is necessary here. Tests in the hands
of untrained persons can be more misleading than helpful. Tests will serve no useful purpose if
they are not properly constructed, selected and administered. It is advisable that those who have
to administer tests should

63
either take some formal training course in psychological testing, or refrain from dabbling with
such tests. In other words, test design, scoring, administration and interpretation should be done
only by persons with technical competence and training in testing.

4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit has helped you to fol ow and understand the process of assessing and selecting, from
job applicants attracted during the recruitment drive. It has helped you to gain an insight into the
major activities involved in the process and the vital tools available to enhance your
effectiveness in
selection.

5.0 SUMMARY
By now, it should be obvious to you that the basic goal in selection should be al round
assessment of candidates, using a number of different sources of information, rather than a
decision based on just one criteria. We have seen that selection is a decision-making process
during which the manager
utilises various tools or screening devices to assist him in choosing and matching candidates
(attracted to the organisation), with the suitable requirements for the right job — as specified by
job analysis. It must be mentioned that the ideology, norms and values of the managers as wel as
the organisations' politics do influence the final selection decisions which managers make.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Describe the features of a selection hopper.

7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS

Cowling, A.G. & Mailer, C.T.B. (1981), Managers of Human Resources, London: Edward
Arnold (Publishers) Ltd.
McDaniel, M.A. et al (1994), 'The Validity of Employment Interviews: A comprehensive and
meta-analysis', Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 79 pp. 599-616.
Open University UK (2000) Core Functions in Managing People Book 5, Session 2.

64
UNIT 4 MANAGING PERFORMANCE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is performance management?
3.2 Performance management system
3.3 Measuring Performance
3.3.1 Objective measures
3.3.2 Subjective measures
3.4 Taking appropriate action
3.4.1 Continuing unchanged
3.4.2 Correcting performance
3.4.3 Revising the standard
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References and other resources
1.0INTRODUCTION
This unit discusses performance management, the performance management system, how
performance is measured, which involves the objective and the subjective measurement. The unit
also discusses the taking of appropriate action in managing performance such as continuing
unchanged, correcting performance and revising the standard.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
1. Explain what performance management is
2. Discuss the performance management system
3. Recognise the limitations involved in choosing measurement criteria, and
4. Discuss the place of management judgments in performance management.

3.0MAIN CONTENT

3.1What is performance management?

Performance Management can be defined as a systematic approach to the management of people,
using performance goals, measurement, feedback and recognition, as a means of motivating
them to realise their maximum potential (Alo, 1999). It embraces all formal and informal
methods adopted by organisations to increase commitment, as wel as individual and corporate

65
effectiveness. It consists of an interlocking series of processes, attitudes and behaviours that
together provide a coherent strategy for
improving performance. It provides the means for an organisation to translate strategy into
results. A key feature of performance management, therefore, is the emphasis it puts on linking
departmental, individual goals and objectives with the broader, corporate, strategic goals and
objectives.
Armstrong (1994) defines performance management as a process which is designed to improve
organisational, team and individual performance and which is owned and driven by line
managers. Performance management is a much broader concept than performance appraisal
which as we shall see in a later unit, is traditionally concerned with judging the individual's
performance, giving the individual feedback about his performance, and helping the individual to
improve by systematically motivating them to work harder.
Performance management is concerned with improving not only the performance of the
individual, but also the performance of the team and organisation. As a process, it is concerned
with the effectiveness of the individual, the team and the organisation. Performance management
forms part of the human resource management approach to managing people. Performance is
basically a shared process between managers, individuals and teams, in which objectives are
agreed and jointly received, and targets are set to integrate corporate, individual and team
objectives. Performance appraisal schemes form part of the techniques used in a performance
management system. Apart from performance appraisal, performance management
uses a range of other techniques which may include, team building, quality circles, and total
quality management. These techniques are, however, not discussed in this course.

3.2 Performance Management System

There is no single, universally accepted model of performance management in use. But the
management literature is replete with models, which typically contain and link a common set of
elements, that can be
expressed as a performance measurement System (PMS). A more detailed way of thinking about
managing performance is to use the control loop framework. The loop involved three main
elements:
i) Setting specific performance objectives and targets;
ii) Measuring outcomes by monitoring the extent to which targets are attained;
iii) Taking appropriate actions which may involve granting rewards linked to outcomes, and
iv)Revising standards and setting new targets.
Take action to correct Performance
Revise the standards
Continue unchanged if corrective action is not needed
Set standards (or Target, objectives etc)
Measure Performance
Compare performance with standards and decide whether corrective action is needed
66
This analysis of performance management assumes that management is, in essence, a rational
activity. From this perspective, performance management and appraisal can be seen as part of a
range of mechanisms by which management seeks to exert control.

Activity
What do you consider as the main features of a PMS? List and attempt a brief description of
them.
Management, when thought of as a rational activity assumes implicitly that:
i) An organisation's goals can be expressed in terms clear enough, that they can be used to
construct actual policies, standards and targets;
ii) It is possible to measure — or at least estimate reliably, the extent to which an individual
or a group is helping to achieve these standards and targets;
iii) Human performance can be analysed as a series of interlocking causes and effects;
iv) This series can be managed — in other words, poorly performing parts of the chain can
be 'repaired' or at least 'improved' by the action of 'managers'.
How realistic is this rationalist model of performance in real work situation? It is important that
individuals have their performance monitored, for reasons other than those associated with
control. Individuals feel more secure and valued, when they receive constructive feedback from
their manager, on how they have performed. This process will happen during day-to-day
management, individual review sessions or appraisal. The emphasis is placed on encouraging
high performance overall, rather than on control loop-style management, related to individual
tasks carried out in pursuance of particular plans.
In the context of managing performance, one of the theoretical bases of the control loop is goal-
setting theory, which was first put forward by Edwin E,ocke (1981). He argued that goals
pursued by employees can play an important role in motivating superior performance. In aiming
to achieve goals, people examine the consequences of their behaviour. If they think their current
behaviour will not al ow them to achieve their goals, they will either modify their behaviour or
choose different goals. If managers can intervene to set goals, in such a way that the individuals
think the organisation's aims are worth achieving, then they should improve their staff's
performance.
There are many reasons why the day-to-day control of human resources is more 'messy' than the
rationalist model of performance. First, very few managers are able to identify and articulate
clear strategic objectives. Often, there may be too many objectives, and some of them may even
be mutually contradictory, or competing. If the organisation is unable to set out explicitly its
strategy, it is unlikely to be able to carry out the next step which is to identify particular
dimensions of performance, that are most likely to achieve its goals (Mabey et al 2001). Second,
objectives may be changing so fast that any attempt to base a system of performance on them
would be useless. Even when the objectives are relatively stable, the standards to be attained and
maintained may
not be so clearly specified. For example, how do you satisfactorily measure increasing customer
satisfaction? Another danger lies in assuming that the manager has to be involved in the error
67
correction process. In many cases, it will be sufficient to feed back information to the employee
who will then be able to correct performance without the need for managerial intervention. Also,
if corrective action is needed, it will not always be clear what is appropriate, nor will the results
of an action be totally predictable.

Activity
List the most common means of monitoring and measuring performance you know of and
identify the strengths and weaknesses of each one.

3.3 Measuring Performance

One of the key implications of the control loop as a metaphor for managing human resource is
that there should be standards against which an individual can be assessed. This raises the issue
of measurement, and there are essentially two types: Objective measures (based on
independently verifiable data) and Subjective measures (based on human judgment).

3.3.1 Objective Measures

These are usually numerical measures of how wel an individual or a group is meeting the main
objectives set. They might specify targets, such as timescales and deadlines, quantities, costs and
resource usage.
For example, many organisations will have financial health as one of their objectives, and so
monitor their financial performance regularly. Organisations also generate a whole range of
quantitative data such as sale figures, output, productivity, absenteeism.

3.3.2 Subjective Measures

Not al aspects of performance can be easily measured and quantified. As a result, subjective
measures of performance are made in all organisations. Many aspects of performance identified
for inclusion in a
performance management system may, if they are to be assessed at all, rely not on quantitative
measures, but on qualitative judgments. Most people will have a complex picture of the ability
and performance of their colleagues, which is based only in part on formal results. These
subjective judgment may be useful in deciding who to promote within a department, for
example. In other words, if subjective assessments are wel designed and thoroughly audited,
they may offer a more accurate gauge of performance than many objective measures. The
challenge for a performance management system according to Mabey et al (2001) is that its
procedures should be auditable, so that it can be verified that the measures are being used fairly
and effectively. This tends to result in a move to formalise the process of subjective performance
measurement. The most common way in which this is carried out is via a system of appraisal. A
detailed discussion of appraisal system is taken up in a subsequent unit.
68
Activity
Make a note of two aspects of your own work, in your organisation, which you could easily
measure; assess your own performance against specific targets. Who set these targets? Are they
realistic and achievable?

3.4 Taking Appropriate Action

Ensuring effective control demands that appropriate action is taken when there is a difference
(good or bad) between planned and actual performance. Three options are generally possible as
demonstrated earlier in the control loop:
i) Continuing unchanged;
ii) Taking action to correct or improve performance;
iii) Revising the standard.
In reality, you may respond to a problem with a mixture of al three.
3.4.1 Continuing Unchanged
This option is less straight forward than might appear. Perhaps your monitoring suggests that not
only is an individual not likely to meet his or her targets, but also there are reasons why the best
option might be to avoid taking corrective action. For example, it might be that the gap is so
insignificant that you might have to delay intervening and allowing more time to establish
reasons for the observed disparity.

3.4.2 Correcting performance

This option might involve insisting that the work is done again or improved, getting directly
involved yourself to resolve difficulties, arranging additional training for staff or any other form
of appropriate, corrective action. Whenever you have to take any corrective action, think
critically about what it is you are correcting. There may, of course, be occasions when you have
no choice but to cure the effect while seeking the cause. On some occasions, discipline must be
enforced to ensure that standards are not compromised, undermined or ignored. In dealing with
this type of situation, you will need to take into acdount other aspects of the social aspects of
work, including leadership, motivation, power, conflict and disciplinary procedures.

3.4.3 Revising the Standards

The standard or target may need revision when a standard is exceeded. Do not simply raise the
standards as a 'reward'. Where you feel that the standard is unrealistic and should be revised, it is
important to consider whether you wil cause more problems by changing than by holding firm.
For example, by changing would you:
i) Encourage people to ignore any future standards ( or targets) you set?
ii) Remove a good incentive, even if the standard (or target) cannot quite be achieved?

69
iii) Make those who have really exerted themselves feel it was a waste of effort?
iv) Be setting no more realistic standards (or target) than you had before?
v) Engender a feeling of failure?
These are crucial points to consider before embarking on taking decisions on revising set
standards. Their consideration may also help you to decide that the original standard (or
objective) was not appropriate and
needs modifying. The conclusion one can make from the above discussion is that continuous
improvement of performance will only happen, if individuals are able to make a realistic
assessment of their performance, and modify their targets and plans, if they are no longer
appropriate or effective.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have discussed what performance management system is all about, and utilised
the concept of the control loop framework to show how performance management can be carried
out in theory. The detailed steps involved as wel as the problems involved in the practical
application
of the framework have been described and discussed.
5.0 SUMMARY
Performance monitoring and management are designed to encourage managers and individuals
to work and organise their behaviour in such a way that they help the organisation achieve its
goals and objectives. A useful framework through which to approach the problem is framework
that involves setting individual or group standards, measuring performance, applying corrective
action where appropriate, and revising the objectives where necessary. The feasibility of this
framework is still open to debates.
The performance management framework, however, provides a theoretical backcloth for
meaningful discussion of performance appraisal system.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
List and briefly discuss four main operational imperatives of PAS.
7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS
The unit draws material from the Open University (UK) B800 People Book 5 (Managing
Performance).
Alo. 0. (1999), Human Resource Management in Nigeria, Business & Institutional Support
Associates Ltd, Lagos.
Armstrong, M. (1994), Personnel Management, Kogan Page, London.

Locke, E.A. et al (1981), 'Goal setting and Task Performance 1969-1981', Psychological
Bulletin, Vol. 90, pp. 125-52
Mabey, C.; G. Solomon & J. Storey (2001), Human Resource Management. A Strategic
Introduction, Blackwell, Oxford.

70
Unit 5 PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL SYSTEM

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The need for a performance appraisal system (PAS)
3.2 Setting up a PAS
3.3 Methods of appraisal
3.4 Problems of validity and reliability
3.5 Making PAS more effective
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked assignment
7.0 References and other resources
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Of all the activities in HRM, performance appraisal is arguably the most contentious and most
popular among those who are involved. Line managers do not seem happy doing it, employees
see no point in it, and personnel or human resources managers, as guardians of an organisation's
appraisal policy and procedures often have to stand by and watch their work fall into disrepute.
Since improved performance is a basic criterion for individual and organizational growth,
individual employee's performance and progress need to be evaluated against established goals
on specific set of expected behaviour. By appraising individual's performance, areas of relative
strengths could be identified and reinforced, while areas of weakness or shortcomings can be
communicated to the employees, and thus be encouraged to redirect their work habits. It has
therefore become an accepted part of management orthodoxy, that there should be some means
by which performance can be measured, monitored and controlled. In this unit, critical issues
relating to performance appraisal as an information- processing system, providing vital data for
rational, objective and efficient decision-making, regarding effective human resources
management will be examined.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to do the fol owing:
1. Identify the purpose and uses of appraisal system;
2. Understand and explain some of the important operational imperatives that should guide the
choice of appraisal techniques;
3. Identify different methods of appraisals;
4. Appreciate some of the problems and obstacles to a successful PAS.

71
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The need for a performance appraisal system (pas)

Appraising others is not only inevitable, but also natural in human existence. Whenever we have
to make a social choice, such as a friend, a political candidate or an employee, it is unavoidable
for people to rate one another. Performance appraisal, which can be either formal or informal can
be viewed as a systematic process, through which an individual employee's behaviour is
evaluated and measured. The major aim of appraising and measuring an employee's behaviour is
to judge the relative worth or ability of the employee in performing a given task or responsibility.
Such appraisal, if well conducted, enables management to obtain feedback information about the
effectiveness of organisational processes, including the performance of employee. It is therefore
a systematic method of obtaining, analysing and recording information about an employee.
Every organisation needs feedback information for monitoring and reviewing performance, so as
to al ow for appropriate adjustments to be made with respect to:
i) Assisting management to manage efficiently;
ii) Assisting the individual employee to know how wel he is doing and plan his future;
iii) Providing employer with a rationale for making and adjusting many personnel decisions.
Thus, the performance appraisal system can serve an auditing and a central device, by generating
information necessary to direct (and re-orientate) organisational processes towards desired
objectives.
In the context of FIRM, performance appraisal serves two major purposes, namely: evaluation,
administration and development.
The evaluation aspect involves its use as a check on the effectiveness of the fol owing:
i) Job analysis, job description and specification process;
ii) Job evaluation;
iii) Wages and salary administration;
iv) Staffing processes — recruitment and selection;
v) Promotion, discipline and dismissal.
As a developmental tool, PAS can facilitate the following:
i) The identification of training needs;
ii) Evaluation of training practices;
iii) Effective communication and feedback between supervisors and subordinates with respect to
role clarification;
iv) Career planning and development;
v) Effective motivation of employees;
vi) Manpower planning.
Figure 2.10 summarises the range of purposes that can be served by performance appraisal
schemes:
Figure 2.10 Role of performance appraisal
Giving real effect to the multiplicity purposes of PAS means paying considerable attention to the
construction and integration of PAS as a whole, and to the way in which it is managed by
everyone involved.
72
3.2 Setting up a PAS
The wide variety of performance evaluation techniques will be discussed later. It is not very
difficult to assemble a list of reasons why any of the PALS methods will fail to work. Much of
the responsibility for choosing a suitable technique and operating it effectively rests directly on
your shoulder as the manager. To achieve effectiveness, therefore, there are a number of
operational imperatives to guide your action.
First, the success of any technique largely depends on selecting a technique (or a combination of
techniques) that matches the objectives you seek
to attain.
Figure 2.11 below provides some illustrations.
Figure 2.11 Matching PAS objectives and techniques
Purpose of PAS Suggested techniques
1. To provide back-up data for management Simple graphic scale, essay formforceddecisions
on merit, pay increase, promotion redeployment, dismissals and so on choice rating, ranking
methods.
2. To assist supervisiors to observe subordinates Work standard technique, BARS graphic more
closely and observe effective performance rating, forced choice, MBO critical incidents.
3. To motivate employee and provide MBO, critical incidents, BARS ranking feedbacks,
coaching and counselling, methods, work standard technique.
4 To improve identification training and development needs, career development, and
effectiveness of HRM practice
Critical incidents, MBO field review, BARS. Administrative

HRM practices procedures Developmental

of individuals
ng needs

The important point to emphasise here is that as a manager, you should endeavour to undertake a
matching of techniques with objectives, if many of the common pitfalls of appraisal system are
to be avoided. The second requirement is informed by the belief that PAS is designed to measure
individual performance. This demands that critical or relevant performance criteria (what counts
for success or failure on the job) are identified, isolated, measured, evaluated and selected. In
choosing such criteria,
a distinction is generally made between personality or traits and observable work-related factors.

73
In choosing trait-related criteria, it is assumed that there are traits which lead to productivity.
Commonly accepted traits include: reliability, initiative, drive, determination, integrity, job
knowledge, judgment, attitude, cooperative commitment and temperament. The second
assumption is that objective measures of employee's productivity can be made on the basis of
process and output measure. This focuses on the way people interact and go about their work,
and the results actually achieved. Typical examples would include the following: punctuality at
work, ability to plan and organise, relationship and cooperation
with colleague, quantity and quality of work, accuracy, time management, meeting deadlines,
compliance with rules and regulation and so on.
Expert opinion suggests that personality oriented criteria are notoriously difficult to correlate
with job performance, because it largely measures rater-ratee interaction, while work related
methods are easier to observe and more susceptible to objective measurement. Serious effort
must be made, however, to select a mix of performance criteria, considered relevant to success
on the job. A third critical imperative for successful implementation of PAS is that it is made
acceptable and wel understood by the parties involved in the PAS process. PAS is an important
means of achieving a joint problem-solving
approach to performance management and improvement. When both the chosen assessment
techniques and its applicability are clearly understood, then you can expect to attain the mutual
problem-solving approach, that is crucially needed as a sound basis for a productivity-oriented
PAS. As the manager with direct responsibility for a result-oriented PAS, the open involvement
of employee affords you the opportunity to discover the strengths and weakness of the employee,
as wel the employee's views
and definition of contextual problems retarding his or her performance.Thus, implementation
should offer opportunity for employee to complete some parts of the PAS form (i.e. a self-
appraisal section be designed into the form) sign the completed form and add any comments on
their perception
of the accuracy of the assessment. Finally, it is imperative to bear in mind the recognition that,
proper
administration of a result-oriented PAS is an outgrowth of organizational culture that values
performance (productivity), and fosters beliefs and norms of behaviour that supports such values.
As was suggested in an earlier unit, values are the basis of human behaviour, and it is upon them
that missions, goals and objectives of organisation rest. Organisational cultures that profess to
value high performance are illustrated
Figure 2.12 Cultural norms in organisations which value performance Organisational values:
High performance/productivity Actions by supervisors
_
Objectives wel defined and well communicated !early specified targets
Reward based on results Promotion bases on capacity and achievement
Emphasis on people's development
Belief
Appraisal of performance is worthwile and necessary
74
Norms
Performance appraisal is done with priority and care

relationship
Relief people development Appraisal of performance is considered unless and
unnecessary

Norms
Performance appraisal is poorly conducted
Source: Roy Serpa. Why many organisations often fail to give employees fair and useful
performance reviews' Management
review (American Management Association) Vol. 73 (7) July, 1984 Pp. 41 —45; Management by
objectives
(MBO) to avoid the feeling.
The sequence on 'A' outlines the actions that are contrary to the value of productivity and the
resultant beliefs and norms of behaviour. The contrast is a performance-oriented culture where
appraisals are conducted with seriousness. In the sequence on 'B', the superior defines and
communicates clearly defined objectives and targets, rewards employees on the basis of results
achieved, promotes on capability and emphasises development. These actions are consistent with
productivity-oriented values and thus foster a belief that performance appraisal is worthwhile.
The conclusion to be drawn is that if an organisation values, high performance, the management
must ensure a congruence between value statements and actions taken. Thus, creating and
developing suitable work culture that values high productivity and appraises performance fairly
and equitably, is a vital ethical issue, which management must give serious
consideration.
Activity
Reflect on the PAS of the organisation which you work for or which you are familiar with:
1. Write out the features of the PAS to show the extent to which it meets the above operational
imperatives.
2. Outline all the processes that have been put in place to ensure employee's active participation
in the operation of the system.
3.3 Methods of appraisal
Performance can be appraised by a number of methods. Unfortunately, not only are there no
acceptable standards to determine which method of appraisal produces the best results, there also
no commonly acceptable and utilised norm. In figure 2.13 , various methods of PAS are
categorised into four major groups and compared on a number of characteristics.
Method Techniques Major purposes
Evaluation (E)
Development (Di
75
Typical content

E and D
E and D
E
Variable
behaviour; Traits
behaviour; traits and
result

E and D
E and D
E
Traits and behaviour
Traits and behaviour
Traits and behaviour

E
E
E
Overall assignment
Overall assignment
Overall assignment
4. Behaviour and
objective
E and D
E and D
Behaviours, traits and result
Behaviours, traits and result
Let us take a brief look at some of these methods.

1. Essay appraisal
In its simplest form, the rater is asked to write a paragraph or more on the employee's strengths,
weaknesses, potential and so on, without making a distinction on performance dimensions. The
assumption is that an honest and informed statement from someone who knows the employee, is
as

76
valid as more formal and complicated methods. The major drawbacks are their subjectivity,
variability in content, as wel as the problem of comparability

2. Graphic-rating Scales
This usually allows you as the rater to assess an employee's performance on a continuum.
Because of its simplicity, it is a most frequently used method. Typically, a graphic scale assesses
an employee on the quality and quantity of his or her work (as outstanding, above average,
average or unsatisfactory), and on a variety of other factors that vary with the job, and usually
include personality traits, and some specific performance items. Although it remains most widely
used, trait-rating scales are extremely vulnerable to problems of halo effect, recency, leniency
and central tendency rating that would seriously affect their validity and reliability of rating.
3. Critical Incident Appraisal
In this method, you are required to keep a record on each employee, and to record actual and
observed incidents of positive or negative behaviour, over a given performance period. The
information so obtained can be used to review the performance of the employee. The major
drawbacks are, that you set the standard often without inputs from employee, and you have to
determine which incidents are critical to job performance. The record keeping can also become a
chore.

4. Comparative Method
Under this method, you are required to provide art overal evaluation of performance of your
employees by checking one of the fol owing: Top 1%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 50%, with those in
Top 1% - 50% as highest, 30% as marginal and 50% as unsatisfactory. Alternatively, the ratings
of employee's performance are distributed along a bel -shaped curve, which typically ranges
from outstanding, very good, satisfactory marginal to unsatisfactory. The major drawbacks of
these methods are these:
a) The size of difference among individuals is not always wel defined, and
b) Supervisors may resist placing any individual in the lowest (or highest) group. Then there is
the difficulty and cost of developing forms.

5. Management by Objective
MBO was a vogue in Nigerian public sector fol owing the Udoji commission report of 1974/75.
Under this method, objectives and standards should be set, preferably jointly by you and
subordinate, whom you are required to appraise. Appraisal will then be based on the extent to
which the objectives / targets have been met in relation to the predetermined standards.
Typically, MBO has not lived up to expectation, possibly due to the absence of necessary
precondition for its success, such as training to provide
needed KSA and the culture that favour's joint problem-solving approach.

77
Activity
Obtain a copy of the performance appraisal method used in your organisation, and describe the
features of the firm, and evaluate their advantages and limitations. 3.3 Problems of validity and
reliability There are many problems and obstacles to the success of formal PAS. It is important,
for example, that you should be aware of the problems that can affect the validity and
dependability of the PAS. Validity problems
Performance appraisals are intended to evaluate performance LIcl potential of employees. But
they may not be valid indicators of what they are intended to assess because of a variety of
limitations on their use.
1. The halo Effect
This is rating a person high or low on al items because of a specific characterist ic. It involves a
tendency to generalise from a predetermined overal impression for the appraisal of specific trait
or characteristic.
2. Recency Effect
This occurs when a rater gives greater weight to recent events when appraising individuals.
Giving an employee a high rating even though he made a quota only in the last two weeks of the
rating period.
3. Central Tendency
This involves rating all employees in a narrow 'safe' band in the middle of the rating scale (i.e.
around the midpoint).
4. Leniency and Strictness Error
Leniency error occurs when a rater artificially assigns all or a specific group of employees high
performance ratings and all or certain scores cluster at top levels of the scales. Strictness occurs
when a rater uses only the lower part of the scale to rate employees.
5. Rater Bias
This covers error that occurs when a rater's values or prejudices distort the rating. You as a rater
may be biased for many reasons such as ethic, regional or religious background, interpersonal
conflict, etc. It may happen that you do nor personally like the person you are evaluating. Age,
sex, appearance or other arbitrary classifications may be reflected in appraisals if the process is
not properly designed.

Activity
From your experience, prepare a list of errors and biases which are present in the PAS used in
the organisation you work for. Suggest possible ways of overcoming or reducing such errors.
3.4 Making PAS more effective
For performance appraisals to be successful, they should be based on perfo rmance standards and
multiple assessment, and should result in face-to-face performance review.
• Be based upon multiple assessment.

78
1. Result-oriented schemes
These form of schemes embody the principles of management by objective, first developed by
Douglas Mc Gregor and popularised by Peter Drucker. Their principles suggest that emphasis in
performance appraisal should be shifted from evaluation to analysis. To them, this would imply a
more positive approach, since the subordinate would be more involved in examining and
identifying not only his weaknesses but also his strengths and potential. He becomes an active
agent, not a passive object to be appraised by you, the manager.
This procedure offers the fol owing advantages:
a) The subordinate is given the opportunity to make his own evaluation of achieved results. By
this process of participation, he develops a sense of 'ownership' of his results, and gains an
insight on how he can improve his own methods and behaviour.
b) Your job as a manager shifts from that of criticising to that of helping the employee to
improve his performance.
c) It is consistent with the belief that people work better and are more committed when they
participate in defining objectives to be achieved within a given time frame.
2. Performance Reviews
The purpose of performance reviews is to analyse what a person has done and is doing in his job,
in order to help him to do better by developing his strengths, or by overcoming his weakness. It
is a deliberate stock-taking exercise. In a wel conducted performance review session, you should
ensure that the employee is able to freely discuss work problems and be encouraged to bring out
his own solution to them. As indicated in an earlier section of this unit, joint-problem solving
system should be encouraged. In today's effective organisations, managers are trying to make
their appraisal system into one based on a shared process in which the emphasis is on mutual
development rather than traditional, one-way judgments. This means that managers are now
faced with multiple responsibilities and demands.
3. Multiple Appraisals
To reduce problems of validity and reliability, it may be more useful to use multiple rating than
single evaluations. While the rating of one supervision may not be valid, the overal pattern of
several ratings do provide anindication of overal performance and potential for development.
Peer rating and self-rating are attempts that have been made recently to improve the PAS. More
positively including self-rating is a useful development, because active participation can improve
the quality and acceptability of PAS process.

4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit is focused on sharpening your understanding of performance appraisal as an important
managerial tool, and as a technique of organizational intervention. It has attempted to increase
your knowledge and sensitivity as an appraiser or appraisee, by bringing into focus the manifold
problems that beset the PAS — its purpose, methods and implementation strategies. A
knowledge of these, it is hoped, would have increased your skills for evaluating the PAS of an
organisation more systematically and
objectively.
79
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has examined an important way in which performance appraisal can be designed, put in
place and administrated. PAS are introduced as we saw for a wide range of reasons, and it is
important to be clear about the purpose, scope, and processes of the scheme in your organisation.
6.0 Tutor-marked assignment

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

List and briefly discuss four main operational imperatives of PAS

7.0 REFRENCES /FURTHER READINGS

Indira Gandhi National Open University, MS —2 , Managing Men, 3, Motivation, Job design
and Appraisal.
Oberg, W. (1972), Making performance appraisal relevant, Harvard Business Review, Jan - Feb,
Vol. 50.
Serpa Roy (1984) Why many organisations often fail to give employees fair and useful
performance reviews, Vol. 73, (7) July, Pp. 41 —45.
This unit also draws on materials from the Open University (UIC) courses; B800 B5 Core
functions in Managing people.

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MODULE 3: EMPOWERING AND REWARDING EMPLOYEES

Unit 1 Career Planning and Employee Welfare

Unit 2: Employee's training and development

Unit 3: Motivation of employees at work

Unit 4: Job evaluation
Unit 5: Reward systems

UNIT 1 CAREER PLANNING AND EMPLOYEE WELFARE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Basics of Career Planning
3.2 The Roles in Career Planning

3.3 Benefits of Career Planning

3.4 The Role of Employee Welfare

4.0Conclusion

5.0Summary

6.0Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0References / Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit focuses on how you as a student, employee, business owner (employer) or a
manager can effectively manage your career and help your employees to manage their

81
 careers and also to be socially responsible to your employees through indirect compensation
or Welfare Programmes. The topics to be discussed in this unit are the Basics of Career
Planning, the Roles in Career Planning, Career Planning Benefits and the role of Employee
Welfare.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to :

1. Define Career Planning

2. State the relationship between career planning, Career development and career
management
3. Advise someone about the major points in career planning as regards the role the
individual and others have to play.
4. Discuss the benefits of career planning

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Basics of Career Planning

First of all, you may be wondering and asking yourself, ‗what really is a career?‘ There is
nothing absolutely wrong with your wondering and asking to know what a career is because
almost everyone asks these questions at some point during his or her working life and the
answers help to identify the actions needed to further one‘s career.
What then is a Career? Career may be defined as the occupational positions a person has had
over many years ( Dessler, 2008). Werther & Davis (1996) refer to career as consisting of all the
jobs held during one‘s working life – for some people, those jobs are part of a careful plan and
for others a career is simply a matter of luck.. Having defined career, we can now go further to
learn what career planning is all about.
Career Planning may be defined as the deliberate process through which someone becomes
aware of his or her personal skills, interests, knowledge, motivations and other characteristics;
acquires information about opportunities and choices; identifies career-related goals and
establishes action plan. (Dessler, 2008).
It is important to note that apart from planning a career, other factors such as education, hard
work and superior performance, experience and occasional al play important role in making an
individual successful. Employers have a huge influence on employees‘ careers as some institute
formal career management processes, while others do little.
You may like to know what Career management is. Career Management can be defined as a
process used to enable employees to better understand and develop their career skills and

82
interests and to use these skills and interests most effectively both within the company and after
they leave the firm (Dessler, 2008). Specific career management activities include career –
oriented appraisals and formal career development activities.
Career development is the lifelong series of activities such as workshops that contribute to a
person‘s career exploration, establishment, success and fulfillment.

3.2 The Roles in Career Planning

Like we discussed earlier, the employer, employee and the manager all have roles to play in
planning, guiding and developing the employees‘ career. These roles are summarized as below:

1. The Roles of the Employee

The employee is expected to:

2. The Roles of the Manager

The manager is expected to:
imely and accurate performance feedback

3. The Roles of the Employer

The Employer is expected to:

of career paths
-oriented performance feedback
-direction

83
Self Assessment Exercise 1

How does career development differ from career planning?

Answer

Career development is the lifelong series of activities such as workshops that contribute to a
person‘s career exploration, establishment, success and fulfillment; while Career Planning may
be defined as the deliberate process through which someone becomes aware of his or her
personal skills, interests, knowledge, motivations and other characteristics; acquires information
about opportunities and choices; identifies career-related goals and establishes action plan.

3.3 Benefits of Career Planning

In as much as the employer and manger play roles in guiding employees‘ careers, one
task no employee should ever abandon to his or manager or employer is career planning
(Dessler, 2008). Nevertheless, the involvement of the Human Resource department in
career planning has grown in recent years because of its benefits (Werther & Davis,
1996). There are so many benefits to be derived from career planning, below is a partial
list of those benefits as identified by Werther et al (1996).
i. Aligns strategy with internal staffing requirements – by assisting
employees with career planning, the Human Resource department can
better prepare them for anticipated job openings identified in the HR plan,
resulting in a better mix of talents.
ii. Develops promotable employees - Career planning helps develop internal
supplies of promotable talent to meet openings caused by retirement,
resignation and growth.

iii. Facilitates International Placement – Global organizations use career

planning to help identify and prepare for placement across international
borders.

iv. Assists with workforce diversity – when employees are given career
planning assistance, those with diverse background can learn about the
organization‘s expectation for self growth and development.

v. Lowers turnover – increased attention and concern for individual careers

can generate more organizational loyalty and lower employee turnover.

84
 vi. Taps employees potential – career planning encourages employees to tap
more of their potential abilities as matching individual strengths and
weaknesses with occupational opportunities and threats enables the
individual to pursue occupations, jobs and a career that capitalize on his
interest, aptitudes, values and skills.

vii. Furthers personal growth – career plans and goals motivate employees to
grow and develop.

viii. Reduces hoarding- career planning causes employees , managers and the
HR department to become aware of employee qualifications, preventing
selfish managers from hoarding key subordinates.

Self Assessment Exercise 11

List 5 benefits of career planning

Answer

i. It taps employees potentials

ii. It furthers growth
iii. It facilitates international placement
iv. It develops promotable employees
v. It reduces hoarding.

3.4 The Role of Employee Welfare

Employee welfare or benefits represent an indirect form of compensation intended to

improve the quality of the work lives and the personal lives of employees. In return for
these benefits, employers generally expect the employees to be more committed to their
jobs, be productive and supportive of the organization.
Some companies go beyond pay and the usual benefits and provide services for their
employees. These services provided and the cost of providing these services is largely
dependent on the policy decisions of the organization‘s Human Resource Management

85
strategies. According to Werther & Davis (1996), the most common of these of welfare
services are:

i. Educational Assistance
Studies reveal that tuition refund programs are among the more common
employer services with 97 percent of the 617 companies in one survey offering
this assistance.. these programs partially or completely reimburse employees for
furthering their education but may be limited to courses that are related to an
employer‘s job.

ii. Financial Services

This is probably the oldest employee welfare service, which is very common
among retail stores and consumer goods manufactures. It al ows workers to buy
products from the company at a discount.
Credit unions or cooperative societies are another well established employee
service. The interest collected on loans and investments is distributed to members
in the form of dividends, which are allocated in proportion to the amount
employees have in their share saving accounts.
There are also stock purchase programs which enables employees to buy
company stock, usually through payrol deductions.
There are also insurance benefits, which allow financial risks encountered by
employees and their families to be spread by insurance. These risks are shared
when funds are pooled in the form of insurance premiums and when insured risks
occur, the covered employees or their families are compensated.

iii. Social Services

A wide range of social services are provided by employers as they adapt to a

changing and diverse workforce, which ranges from footbal leagues to
comprehensive employee assistance programs designed to help employees with
personal problems ranging from drug and alcohol issues to family problems to
people who may be HIV-positive.
Other social services include Child care – childcare is fast becoming an
important benefit. A huge number of women who have children during their
careers, return to work within one year. Some employers such as new generation
banks, oil and gas industries provide on-site child care or crèche for the nursing
mothers under their employ, where their babies are taken care of while they work
and during break periods, they can go to the crèche to attend to their babies.
There is also Elder care- this is however not common in this part of the world. It
is very common in the western world where elderly parents present a special

86
 problem because of the limited day-care options available to their working
children. A growing number of employees are sandwiched between the
responsibilities of caring for children and aging parents. And this has resulted to a
growing number of Human Resource departments developing ―dependent care‖
policies (Werther et al, 1996)
Relocation care is also included among the wide range of social services
provided by employers. Relocation programs consist of the support in cash or
services that a company provides to transferred or new employees. This benefit
includes for moving expenses, in some cases, some employees receive fully paid
house-hunting trips with their spouses to the new location before the move,
temporary living expenses, subsidized home mortgages etc.

4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit discussed career planning and the role of employee welfare. It explained the
basis of career of career planning and also explained the clear distinction between career
management and career development. The unit also exposed you to the various roles that
the employee, the manager and the employers have to play in order for career planning to
be effective. The unit also enumerated and explained the various benefits both the
employee and the employer stand gain from career planning. Employee benefits which
take the form of compensation which is intended to improve the work lives and personal
lives of employees were also discussed.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we defined career as the occupational position a person has had over many
years and career planning on the other hand was defined as the deliberate process through
which someone becomes aware of personal skills, interests, knowledge, motivation and
other characteristics; acquire information about opportunities and choices; identifies
career related goals and establishes action plans to attain specific goals.
We listed and discussed the benefits of career planning which includes: aligning strategy
with internal staffing requirements, reduction of employee turnover, development of
promotable employees, facilitation of international placement, assisting workforce
diversity , etc.

87
 You also learnt about the role of employee welfare and we discussed some of the very
common employee services which include: educational services, financial services and
social services.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Compare and contrast the roles the employee, the manager and the employer play in
career planning.
2. List and explain seven of the benefits to be derived from career planning

3 Some companies go beyond pay and the usual benefits and provide services for their
employ, discuss these services.

7.0REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Dessler, G. (2008) Human Resource Management. Eleventh Ed. Upper Saddle River: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Stewart, E.B., Belcourt, M., Sherman, A., Bohlander, G.,Snell, S.and Goodman, P.M.(2001)
Essentials of Managing Human Resources. First Canadian Edition. Ontario: Nelson Thomson
Learning.
Werther, W. B. & Davis, K.(1996) Human Resources and Personnel Management. Fifth Ed.
USA: Irwin/McGraw-Hill

88
UNIT 2 EMPLOYEES’ TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

CONTENT

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is training and development?
3.2 Responsibility for training
3.3 Thinking about training
3.4 Planned approach to training
3.4.1 Formulation of training policy
3.4.2 Training need analysis
3.4.3 Specifying training objectives
3.4.4 Programme implementation
3.4.5 Evaluation of training programmes
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
One of the objectives of PAS as you can recall, is its use of a check on the effectiveness of other
HRM activities. Periodic and effective appraisal and monitoring often highlight obstacles to
employee's ability to contribute fully to the objectives of the organisation. Some of these
obstacles may centre on the employee lacking the KSA required to perform well and indicate an
opportunity to use training to acquire the missing KSA. In this unit, we shall consider the
importance of training and what has to be put
in place so as to attain effectiveness in the conduct of training.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After you have read through this unit, you should be able to do the fol owing:
1. Explain what training and development are al about and the difference between them;
2. Explain the responsibility structure for training function in an organisation;
3. Explain the features of a planned approach to the training functions.

3.1 What is Training and Development?

Human resource training and development are vital input in the management process, aimed at
improving and enhancing the output of organisations, both quantitatively and qualitatively.
Through systematic
training and development, organisations' employees are equipped with appropriate knowledge,
skills, abilities and attitudes relevant to the cost effective performance on the job. Both training
and development are integral part of the total framework for effective management. The purpose
89
of both training and development is similar. The main difference between the two is in respect to
the levels of employees for whom they are meant, and the contents and techniques employed.
Training tends to be a short-term process, utilising a systematic and organised procedure, by
which employees (mostly non-managerial) acquire essential technical knowledge and skills for a
definite purpose. It refers to instructions in
technical and mechanical operations, such as acquiring knowledge and skills of using a computer
package. It is often for a short period, and for a specific job-related purpose. Development is a
long-term educational process, which utilises a systematic and organised procedure, by which
personnel (mostly
managerial) acquire conceptual and theoretical knowledge. This refers not only to technical
knowledge and skills in operation, but also to philosophical and theoretical educational concepts.
It involves broader education and its purpose is long-term development. Training and
development are necessary for al organisations, particularly in today's world of fast changing
technology, changing values and environment. Both training and development can therefore be
thought of as a form of investment of human capital. Not only can both forms of intervention
contribute to the organisation's ability to achieve its objectives, but they can transform the lives
and prospects of the individuals who benefit from them.
Emphasis in this unit will, however, be devoted to training as a management intervention tool,
aimed at equipping employees with relevant
Activity
Recall all the programmes attended by you since you joined your present organisation and
mention in respect of each, whether it was a training or a development programme.
3.2 Responsibility for Training
Training is a stupendous task, and a basic elemental task of all those who manage people.
Typically, the total responsibility for training is shared in organisations among the fol owing
people:
i) The top management who are responsible for formulating and authorising the basic training
strategies and policies, reviewing and approving broad outlines, training plans and progam me,
and approving training budgets;
ii) The personnel (or HRM) department, which should plan, establish, monitor, coordinate and
evaluate training programmes;
iii) The line (or functional) manager who should not only supply the various training and
development plans, but also implement them;
iv) Individual employee who attends the programme, and should provide feedbacks and
suggestions for a continuous review and improvement in the programme.
3.3 Thinking about Training
Training as we have confirmed earlier is one of management's vital tool for achieving
organisational objectives, by ensuring that the right caliber of employees are available on a
continuous basis. Training costs money, and hence it represents a vital investment; in fact, it is

90
commonly regarded nowadays (this will be discussed in the next unit on human resource
development) as an investment in human capital.
As with any investment, you like the assurance of knowing that expenditure on training is well
spent - i.e. there is value for money. This you can only realise when training benefits the relevant
organisational
stakeholders, namely: the organisation, the trainee and society at large. You should therefore
consider a number of vital issues, before coming to the conclusion to embark on training. There
are a number of non-training measures which are perhaps cheaper, and their effects more basic
and long lasting than training remedies. Here are a few of them:
i) Incentive programmes to stimulate and motivate employees to high morale, motivation and
productivity;
ii) Redesigning of equipment;
iii) Redesigning of procedures and work rules to make them more appropriate;
iv) Reallocation of tasks and duties;
v) Methods improvement;
vi) Improved information system;
vii) Improved control system;
viii) Job enlargement and enrichment;
ix) Improved management and supervisory styles.
This list is not exhaustive, but the important point you need to note is that not al work-related
problems require training intervention.
HRM unit
training policies and plans
for training and development and organisational development
for off-the-job training
Line managers
policy formulations
-training materials
-the-job training
growth and future needs

training interventions may be cheaper and their effects more fundamental.

There are, however, many factors that can give rise to the need for training such as:
i) Employment of new and experienced employee would require detailed instructions for
effective performance of the job;
ii) People have not only to work, but work effectively, with minimum supervision, minimum
cost, waste, and spoilage and to produce quality goods and services;
iii) Increasing use of fast changing techniques in production and other operations requires
training into newer methods for the operatives;
iv) Older employees need refresher training to enable them to keep abreast of changing
techniques and the use of sophisticated tools and equipment;
91
v) Training is necessary when a person has to be moved from one job to another, as a result of
transfer, promotion or demotion.
A systematic approach (wel -planned and implemented) to training (as well as development)
should result in education in waste and spoilage, learning time, supervisory burden, grievances,
machine breakage and
maintenance costs and accident rate. It should also bring about an improvement in methods of
work, quality of products, production rate, efficiency and productivity, as wel as in morale. It
should also create wider awareness among participants, and enlargement in skill and personal
growth.
3.4 Planned Approach to Training
There are usually problems associated with training effort in themselves, and in the design,
structuring and sequencing. Often, amateurish approaches to the training function prevails in
many organisations. This takes one form or another. In one form, training functions are
undertaken without a training policy to guide action. In another form, training programmes are
selected without any attempt made to assess their relevance to the organisation's needs, or
employees, whose training needs have never been identified, are nominated to undergo training.
Worst still, there is often noformal procedures for evaluating the effectiveness of the training
programmes undertaken by employees. If training efforts are to be purposeful, you need to put in
place a policy to guide the actions of managers. Put bluntly, a training policy is a necessary pre-
requisite to a cost-effective training activity. This is even more necessary since most of the
traditional personnel management functions (especially so in the case of training) are now being
taken up by line managers, as we saw in the introductory unit of this course. A planned approach
to training is presented in Figure 3.1 on page 82. As you will recall, training is one of the action
plans that is usually derived from the HRM strategy of the organisation.
Activity
Does your organisation have a definite plan for developing managers for assuming higher
position? Do you know about the plan?
1 If your answer is yes to both questions, give a detailed description of the plan.
2. If no, reflect on day-to-day practices in your organisation and give a description of forms of
development in your organisation, even if informally, i.e. without a definite plan.
As we discussed in the preceding unit on training, management development should begin or
derive from the HRM plans of an organisation. Such plans should deal with analysing,
forecasting and identifying the organisational needs for human resources. It helps to identify the
capabilities that will be needed by the organisation in the future.. Figure 3.2 below provides an
illustration of a management development
process. Human resources management strategy and policies Developement need analysis
Developement approach Evaluation of programmes
3.4.1 Needs Analysis
Much as with HR training, employee development must begin with an attempt to analyse the
needs of both the organisation and individuals. Evidence from organisations, howeYer suggests
92
that this analysis of an individual's management development needs is often not given adequate
attention in most organisations.
You can anticipate development needs from corporate business decisions.
Consider the fol owing examples:
• A large Nigerian National Bank decides to merge with another in Ghana to create one of the
largest banks in the ECO WAS region;

maize. The common

feature in the above situations is that they involve transitions by the organisations concerned.
Transitions like these are familiar, and to a large extent, predictable responses to environmental
changes. Organisations go through phases of formation, growth, establishment and maturity, or
they decide to undertake a different type of work (by diversifying into related or fundamentally
different line of business), or they adopt a new
policy demanding new KSA and making new demands on staff. Likewise, an individual's
involvement within an organisation often goes through several different stages as he or she
becomes responsible for a
wide range of activities. The more clear-cut transition, the more likely it is that those involved
will appreciate — and request — the chance to learn skills and knowledge that will help them in
their new or future role, or to share experiences with others in comparable positions.
Activity
Think of the last major change your department or organisation went through.
What were the staff development implications for you and for those with whom you work?
Apart from transition-related changes, there are other day-to-day development-related problems.
For example, if someone is having problems coping with work, or a team is not working well
together, they may benefit from opportunities to learn new ways of handling difficulties. What is
important is that you will need to conduct some forms of assessment, which must involve all
relevant stakeholders. Appraisal sessions, as we recognize in an earlier unit, often lead most
appropriately to a joint-problem solving
approach to management development needs analysis. It may be profitable for you or a HR
development officer, in collaboration with the relevant line managers, to conduct a detailed
training and development analysis. This could be as detailed as you saw in the preceding unit on
training analysis (TNA).
For the purpose of emphasis, we saw that in such TNA, you would need to do the fol owing:
i) First, identify what the job involves — through job analysis, to determine the purpose,
area of responsibility key activities, tasks and demands of the job.
ii) Next, with the aid of job or persons' specification, you will work out the competences,
knowledge, attitudes that are required to do the job, distinguishing as far as possible
between those that are essential, those that are desirable, and those that are a liability
to possess.
iii) Then draw up a profile of the existing skills of the persons doing the job, on the basis of
their past experience, qualifications and demonstrated abilities in the workplace.
93
 iv) You will then match these with your list of KSA required. If significant gaps are
apparent between the required job and the existing ICSA, especially if they are so
vital for the job, then this is identified as development (and training) need.
The above approach has important benefits. It is systematic, and so helps to prevent you jumping
to the wrong conclusion. It also help, set priorities for varied training needs that are based on
organisational requirements. However, it works best with well-defined jobs, that require specific
skills or techniques, that can be reliably cultivated among people who are willing to acquire them
Some of the problems that may complicate the use of this approach especially as you move up
the management hierarchy, are as fol ows :
i) The work is unstructured and rather fluid. In addition, the smaller the organisation, the less
specialised and defined will be the roles.
ii) The skills and knowledge may not be so obvious from the lists of the key activities. It may not
be easy to train a person in the abilities required.
People who offer particular skills may resent heing told they are 'deficient' and need training; the
organisation may do better to fit the role to what the person can offer. A corollary from the above
is the need for caution. A formal training-and development analysis may not always be fruitful or
appropriate.
3.4.2 Development Approaches
You have earlier in the preceding unit, studied various methods of training workers and
supervisors. Similar to the approaches for this group of staff, a number of job-site and off-the-job
methods are available. A major difficulty with development that takes place on the job is that too
often, many unplanned activities are regarded as development. Depending on the size of the
organisation, the number of people involved and the complexity of what it is that needs to be
learned, the fol owing methods are
readily available. In reading through, you will notice that what makes the major difference
between training and development approaches, is that in the latter, the emphasis is not on the
skills but more on handling of situations, people, and managerial problems.
i) Job rotation: encouraging members of a team to be able to work proficiently in each
other's jobs, thus creating greater flexibility and skills within the team as a whole.
ii) Special assignments/projects: Increasing the skills base of individuals by arranging
supervised project work in preparation for greater responsibilities.
iii) Action learning: a group of individuals who work on their own chosen problems, but
share advice and approaches to solving each other's problems.

iv) In-house courses: a means of conveying knowledge and skills to groups of

individuals through trainers (either from the organisation or from external providers).
v) Course provided by external agencies: again to convey knowledge or skills to a group of
individuals.
vi) Distance learning: A course such as this one.
vii) Creation of assistant to positions: here, the supervisor can act effectively as the teacher and
can judge the assistant's decision-making and leadership ability

94
viii) Understudy: this is a person selected and being trained to assume, at a future time, full
duties and responsibilities for the position presently held by his supervisor.
ix) Acting up: the candidate is moved up to the next rung of the managerial hierarchy and tested
for his/her performance and made accountable during the period.
x) Coaching: this is the oldest on-the-job development technique; which involves daily
observation, training and feedback given to employee. Effective coaching requires patience and
good communication skill from you as a manager. See box 3.3 below for a summary of the ideal
approach to coaching
Coaching is a way of transferring knowledge and skill from a more experienced person to a
less experienced person. At al times, the fol owing principles applies:
together. This is to define
the problem.
own
solutions.
t which a decision is made. Ensure that the individual being coached has all
the information, they need.
benefits of a rather better result from the work, against the benefit for the individual of pursing
their own course of action.
Source: adapted from Leigh (1984)
Mentoring: this is similar to coaching, the difference being that a mentor should not be the
individual's line manager. Mentoring is a relationship in which managers at the midpoints in their
careers aid individuals in the earlier stages of their careers. Technical, interpersonal and political
skills can be conveyed in such a relationship from the older to the younger person. Mentors
provide support, encouragement and opportunities for development, and act as a sounding board
for ideas.
The attributes of a mentor include:

the strengths and weaknesses of the protégé, and the ability to

formulate developmental and remedial activities.
(and with their line
manager) and to carry out coaching.
Mentoring is often seen as a three-way relationship of mentor-protégéprotégé's manager,
although it has been suggested that four roles are more appropriate.
Mentoring is usually viewed as optional and treated as a private, one-on one activity. If it is to be
more structured and form part of an organisation's policies for human resource development, the
preparation for mentoring programme should include the fol owing:
development
programmes;

95
 fective involvement of all four participants in the
mentoring model;

There will be occasions when you will be unable to provide adequate facilities in-house to meet
your staff development needs, and you wil be obliged to seek provisions away from the
workplace — off job site.
The market-place is saturated with providers of all kinds, and you are faced with the extremely
difficult task of choosing the most suitable facilities. In considering where to look for suitable
help, one useful approach is to consider first what local facilities are available, and then to move
on to regional and national facilities.
Activity
What management development programmes have you attended in your organization so far?
State in respect of each, how have you benefited as a manager?

4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit has helped you to understand why it is necessary to develop managers in an
organisation, as well as measures and process that you need to put in place to enhance your
ability to achieve effective development of your managers.

5.0 SUMMARY
If anything, this unit must have successfully brought into preeminence the ways in which
management development needs in your organisation can be recognised, and acted upon as part
of the wider process of performance management.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

What are the advantages of a planned approach to employee's training and development?

7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS

Becker, G. (1975) Human Capital: Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, University of Chicago
Press, Chicago.
Indiran Grandhi National Open University MS —2 Managing Men, Employee selection,
Development and Growth.
Institute of Personnel Management (1990) Continuous development - people and work, IPM,
London

96
Leigh, A (1984) Twenty ways to manage better, Institute of Personnel Management, London.

This unit has drawn materials from the Open University, UK, Course B500 B5 Core functions in
Managing people and 8824.U7, Competences and Capabilities

97
UNIT 3 MOTIVATION OF EMPLOYEES AT WORK

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is motivation?
3.1.2 Forms of motivation
3.1.3 Fear motivation
3.1.4 Financial incentives
3.1.5 Advancement motivation
3.1.6 Affiliate motivation
3.1.7 Competence Motivation
3.2 The use of theories of motivation
3.2.1 Abraham Maslow
3.2.2 Herzberg's tow factor theory
3.2.3 MclIeland's learned needs theory
3.2.4 Vroom's Expectancy Theory
3.3 Motivation: implication for management
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked assignment
7.0 References /Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
'You either do it my way or you're fired'. This type of motivation may have worked at the turn of
the'century, but today, many employees would tel their supervisor to 'take this job and shove it'.
Today's 'new breed' of employees don't respond to 'traditional' values that might have motivated
employees twenty or thirty years ago. Employees in today's organizations are better educated,
more highly skilled, and work with more advanced technology. They have significantly higher
expectations, which create difficult
challenges for managers. Invariably, work is an activity that is expected of all people of any
nation,
irrespective of tribe or religion, unless one has a mental or physical handicap. Even in the Bible,
we were told of how Adam and Eve were mandated to make their living through hard works,
after their disobedience.
In several places in the Bible, hard work is commended, while laziness is condemned.
Apart from providing economic security, work adds meaning to life. It gives one an identity and
feeling of self-worth. It bestows status and a feeling of belongingness to people who work in a
given organisation. A satisfying job can be self-fulfilling. Invariably, work has a bearing on one's
emotional state and physical wel -being. It has an effect on marital, parental and community
roles of people. In spite of the above facts, research has shown that many people are not satisfied
with their jobs. Job satisfaction has been linked with variables like absenteeism, labour turnover,
98
labour performers and productivity levels. Industrial work observers are concerned that the gap
between potential and actual performance is widening. It is believed that appropriate
motivational (strategies) moves by management will result in considerable benefits to both
parties (Labour and Management). However, management should . try to find out the reason why
an individual wants to work. Behaviour scientists have found out that certain needs drive people
towards certain goal achievement. This drive is known as motivation. This drive
within human beings might lead them to get involved and to use their intellect to achieve desired
goals.
In view of these major developments, the manager must ask, 'How do I motivate my employees
to perform more effectively and efficiently?' This question reflects one of the most challenging
aspects of a manager's job, and managers in all types of organisations frequently ask it.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After you have read through this unit, you should be able to do the fol owing:
1. Provide a comprehensive definition of motivation;
2. Discuss the various content and process theories of motivation;
3. Describe the applications of these theories by management.

3.1 What is Motivation?

Motivating a worker today is considerably more complex than the simple application of the
'carrot and the stick' approach used by many managers of yesterday The dictionary of sociology
defines motivation as the process of initiating conscious and purposeful action. It defines
'motivation' as the process of supplying an incentive, adequate to induce deliberate and
purposeful action. However, motivation in relation to work could be defined as the condition of
being influenced to do something. It is the process of
influencing workers to give off their very best to their organisation. Simply put, it is the driving
force that stimulates an individual, i.e. a worker, into action in order to achieve his or her
organisation's objectives. It is also described as the wilful or volition act on the part of an
individual. However, the key to understanding motivation lies in the meaning and relationship
between needs, drives and goals. The needs set up drives to accomplish goals. A need simply
means deficiency Needs per se are created as a result of physiological or psychological
imbalance.
Drive can also imply motive, while goal is defined as anything that can alleviate a need and
consequently reduce a drive. How best to motivate an individual to achieve desired objectives,
has long been one of the world's most important, difficult and controversial problems (Vroom,
1964). This problem has since the medieval period attracted the attention of Social Scientists,
Philosophers, as well as Novelists in different parts of the world. The interest of psychologists in
this
problem dated back to the early part of the twentieth century which is reflected in the emergence,
and development of industrial psychology and vocational guidance (Vroom, 1964). It is true that
people participate in an organised enterprise in order to achieve some goals that they cannot
attain as individuals. But this does not mean that they will necessarily work and contribute all
they can to be sure that these goals are accomplished. A motivated worker would surely perform
99
his duties, contribute to the achievement or organisational goals. On the other hand, even though
frustrated and coerced workers may be forced to contribute to production, yet it must be realised
that while it is possible to push-start a stalled car or stwitch on and off a faulty machine, the
human being is none of these. Hence, force will hardly make much in getting human beings to
perform their assigned tasks satisfactorily . Critically looking at the Nigerian situation, the
conflicts, strikes and related problems often experienced in our industries, may not be
unconnected with the lack of motivation.

3.1.2 Forms of Motivation

According to Davis (1977), four motivation patterns that are especially significant are
achievement, affiliation, competence and power. We shal consider these one after the other.
3.1.3 Fear Motivation
Fear as a motivation is one of the oldest and perhaps the most widely used for motivating
workers. This type of motivation plants fear in the minds of employees. Such employees get
things done on the platform of threat or punishment, loss of job or dismissal, loss of status, loss
of facilities to the workers who do not conform to laid down rules and regulations. Fear
motivates subordinates to work harder and produce more goods and services. It is also assumed
that people would work best when they are forced into a situation in which they must produce or
be punished.

3.1.4 Financial Incentive

This has something to do with increase in pay rise, granting of bonuses on the basis of personnel
appraisal, rather than according to an automatic standard. Money is an important incentive in
society, because it represents the power to save and the power to spend money, buys thing that
people
value, thus providing a psychological life through the acquisition of economic goal (Tobes et al,
1977).
However, it should be recognised that money is necessary in satisfying the demand of the society
as defined by our cultural value. Managers in industry and trade union leaders tend to place
major reliance on pay, bonuses and other financial incentive, because they are easier to
manipulate. In Nigeria, Adebo inquiry (1970), Udoji Award (1974) and very recent Economic
Relief Package (1980), Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) relief of Babangida (1997)
Abubakar's new minimum wages and finally
Obasanjo's latest minimum wage are typical examples.
3.1.5 Advancement motivation
Advancement-motivation simply means regular promotion of workers, based on adequate
personnel appraisal scheme, which could form the basic core of the employee motivation for
high job performance in organisations. The concept of job security is gradually taking firm root
in our various organisations. Workers feel secured when their voices are heard, when old age
pension, unemployment insurance, accident and sick benefits are guaranteed. For the voices of
the employees to be heard, Trade Union
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used. Achievement-motivation is a desire to overcome challenges. C,, the countries where
achievement-motivation dominates are those that made the most socio-economic progress.
Achievement-motivation leads to higher levels of aspiration, so that the people work harder, and
make more progress.
Achievement-motivated persons are the best source of competent leadership in the nation's
organisations, and those persons with more achievement- motivation tend to rise to the highest
positions. Achievement-motivated persons seek accomplishment for its own sake. They are not
strongly 'money conscious', although they may acquire wealth in their drives to achieve. They
work because of the sense of challenge, accomplishment and service. Monetary rewards are
more of a lure to people who are low in achievement-motivation.
3.1.6 Affiliation Motivation
Furthermore, affiliation motivation is a drive to relate to people. Comparisons of achievement-
motivated employees with affiliated ones will illustrate how the different motivational patterns
influence behaviour. People with achievement-motivation work better when they are
complimented for their favourable attitude and co-operation. Achievement-motivated persons
select assistants who are competent, regardless of personal feelings about them. However,
affiliation-motivated people select friends to surround them.

3.1.7 Competence motivation

Competence-motivation is a drive to do quality work. Competence-motivated employees often
are so interested in the technical aspect of their job that they are blind to the human factor at
work. They seek job mastery and professional growth. However, the results of various studies on
motivation and performance have led to the proliferation and application of different types of
motivational
strategies such as fear or coercive motivation, financial incentive, job security, opportunity for
advancement, just to mention a few. Knowledge of motivational patterns help management
recognise those employees who are self-motivated, as distinguished from those who depend
more on external incentives. Management can then deal with people differently according to
their personal motivational patterns.
3.2 The Use of Theories in Motivation
For adequate understanding of motivation and workers, attempt is made here to explain certain
motivation theories. These can be grouped into two major categories: i.e. the content and process
theories. The content theories focus on the factors that are within the person that actually directs,
sustains energise or really stop behaviour. In other words, they attempt to determine specific
needs, which motivate people. However, process theories focus on the provision of description
and analysis of the process of how behaviour is energised, directed, sustained and stopped. In
fact, the process theories focus attention on needs and incentives that cause behaviour. However,
under the content theories of motivation, we shall examine three important ones viz: Maslow's
need of hierarchy, Herzberg's two-factor theory and McClelland achievement theory. However,

101
two process theories will also be treated, and they are Vroom's expectancy theory and
reinforcement theory

3.2.1 Abraham Maslow

Abraham Maslow was a psychologist, who developed the theory of human motivation, and
classified human needs into five categories in a hierarchical manner; that is, movement from one
need to another particularly after a need has been satisfied. The five needs according to Maslow
are enumerated below.
Physiological need—The need for food, drink, shelter and relief from pain. They are required for
maintaining the body in a state of equilibrium i.e. survival Safety and security needs—The need
for freedom from threat i.e. threatening events and situations. The need not necessarily means
physical safety,
but it also includes psychological safety and security; for example, provision for future,
insurance scheme, confirmation of appointment. Belongingness and love needs—The need for
friendship, affiliation, interaction and love. This is also called social needs. Management can
reinforce
these needs by providing recreation facilities for workers to enhance interaction.
Esteem needs—These include the desire for self-respect, strength, achievement, competence,
confidence, independence and freedom. It also includes the desire for reputation or respect or
esteem from other people, status, dominance, recognition and attention. However, these needs
can be. satisfied
through acquisition of power in the work environment or place. Self-actualisation needs—The
need to fulfil ourselves by maximising the use of abilities, skills and potentials. However, it
could be said that emergence of these needs rests upon prior satisfactory of the other needs
earlier discussed.
Activity
List al the 'goodies' the management of your organisation have just put in place, to motivate
employees to work harder.
3.2.2 Herzberg's two-factor Theory
Fredrick Herzberg propounded two factors theory of motivation. He says that man has two
different sets of needs. One 'lower level': for example basic needs and 'higher-level set of need.
This is however unique to human characteristics; the ability to achieve, and to experience
psychological growth. However, the two factors are also called dissatisfies-satisfies, the hygiene
motivators or the extrinsic-intrinsic factor theory. There are a set of extrinsic job conditions
which result in dissatisfaction among employees and they are not present. However, if they are
present, they do not necessarily motivate workers. These conditions are needed to maintain a
level of 'no dissatisfaction':
i) Salary
i i ) Job satisfactory

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i i i ) Working condi tions
iv)Status
v ) Company procedure or administration
v i ) Quality of technical supervisor
v i i ) Quality of interpersonal relations among peers, with supervisors and with subordinates
Wages and salary— These are actual y the reward of labour. However, employee rewards are of
two types-financial and non-financial. Wages and salary are financial rewards, and include such
forms as insurance coverage, profit sharing and pensions. While non-financial rewards include
good working conditions, recognition for exceptional achievement, and other types of job
benefits. In fact, a company should be careful in the administration of wages and salary. If
workers are underpaid, they become dissatisfied. If they are overpaid, a company's products may
be overpriced in a competitive market.
Job satisfaction—This is the favourableness or unfavourableness with which employees view
their work. It results when there is a fit between job characteristics and the wants of employees.
In fact, it expresses the amount of congruence between one's expectations of the job and the
regards that the job provides. Therefore, job satisfaction involves expectations compared with
receivable reward. Job satisfaction may refer to either a person or a group. It can even apply to
parts of an individual's job. Working condition—Each organisation has its own cultures,
traditions and methods of action, which in there constitute its climate for people. Therefore,
within the organisational climate, certain working condition must be
provided to motivate workers. Working condition will include wages rates, seniority recognition,
pensions, and paid holidays and other fringe benefits. Status—This is referred to as the social
rank of a person in comparison with others in a social system. Status may be both formal and
informal. Formal status refers to the rank of people as designated by the authority structure of an
organisation, while informal status refers to the social rank according rank accorded to people
because of feelings toward them. In fact, it is the position that one has in an informal social
system. Company procedure/policy or administration—Each organisation, no matter how small,
has its own policies concerning how people will be governed within the organisation. His is
regarded as company procedure. It includes, personnel policies, marketing, production, etc.
Hence, to motivate workers, al these must be adequately put in place. Quality of interpersonal
relations—This refers to the type of interaction, which exists between persons within an
organisation. There is a chain of relationship within any organisation as wel as interactions to
exist. Therefore, the interpersonal relationship between the managers and managers,
managers and supervisors, etc. must be conductive and not hostile, so as to motivate workers. On
the other hand, there is a set of intrinsic job conditions, which exist and operate within the job
that can increase the level of motivation and good job performance. However, if these conditions
are not present, they do not prove highly dissatisfying. These set of factors are called satisfiers or
motivators. They may include:
a) Achievement
b) Recognition
c) Responsibility
d) Advancement
e) The work itself
f) The possibility of growth
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In conclusion, Herberg's model provides new insights into organizational behaviour. One major
insight is the idea of job enrichment. According to Herzberg, building more motivation factors
into them should enrich jobs.

3.2.3 McClelland's Learned Needs Theory

McClelland's proposed a theory of motivation, which closely associated with learning concepts.
He believed that many needs were acquired from culture. However, he laid emphasis on the three
needs– namely: the need for achievement (Narch), the need for affiliation (Naff) and the need for
power (Npow). McClelland has found that everyone has each of these needs to some degree. For
example, one person may be very high in his need for achievement, but low in his need for
affiliation and power.
Need for achievement—Here, a person tends or likes to take responsibility for solving problems.
i) The person tends to set moderate achievement goals and is inclined to take calculated risks;
ii) The person desires feedback on performance
The need for affiliation—This actually reflects a desire to interact socially with people. A
person with high needs for affiliation is concerned about the quality of personal relationship.
This then implies that social relationships is given priority over task accomplishment or such a
person.
Need for power—A person with a high need for power concentrates on obtaining and exercising
power and authority. He is concerned with influencing others and winning arguments. Power can
be positive if it expresses persuasive or inspirational behaviour, and can be negative if it
emphasizes dominance. Further still, the main theme of McClelland's theory is that their needs
are learned through coping with one's environment. Since needs are learned, behaviour, which is
rewarded, recurs at a higher frequency

3.2.4 Vroom's Expectancy Theory

Expectancy theory centres mainly -on how motivation occurs. There are three major elements in
the expectancy theory according to Vroom; they are:
i ) Choice
ii)Expectancy
iii) Preference
i.Choice—This simply represents the individual's willingness and freedom to select and pick
from a number of alternative behaviours. If fact, the theory suggests that individuals are
motivated at work to make choices among different behaviours or intensities of work effort. For
example, a worker may decide to work fast or slow, hard or moderate, stay at home or come to
work. However, in some cases, working fast may lead to more pay if compensation is simply
based on the number of units produced. If a worker believes that his or her effort at the work will
be rewarded adequately, he or she will make a choice of working, so that he/she can receive the
104
reward that fol ows. Therefore, the logic of expectancy motivation is that 'individuals will exert
work effort to achieve performance, which will result in preferred rewards.'
ii.Expectancy—Expectancy is the belief that a particular act will be fol owed by particular
outcomes. Put in another form, it is the belief that a particular behaviour will or will not be
successful. It is a subjective
probability. It represents employee judgment of the probability that achieving one result wil lead
to another result. Expectancy would be '0' if a person believed that it was impossible to produce,
say 20 units of output per day. It would be to '1' if a person believed or felt certain that he or she
could produce 15 units per day.
iii.Preference—The values a person associates with various outcomes are regarded as
preference. The outcome here can be in form of rewards or punishment. According to Vroom,
the preferences are also referred to as valences. Therefore, valence refers to the strength of a
person's preference for one outcome in relation to others. It is an expression of the amount of
one's desire for a goal. Take for exarnplejf an employee strongly wants a promotion, it is said
that the promotion has high valence for the employed.
The valence arises out of employee's internal self, as conditioned by experience, and it varies
from person to person. Valence may be positive or negative, depending on the preference for the
outcome. However, if a person is indifferent to an outcome, then the Valence is zero.
Instrumentality— This is another issue covered in the expectancy model of motivation. It is the
probability that a person assigns to the performance outcome link. It is the probability that a
particular performance level will lead to a specific outcome (Donnel y, 1988).

3.3 Motivation: Implications for Management Practice

From our discussion of the theories of motivation, several implications for managers can be
derived. They are as fol ows:
1. Managers should recognise and try to develop a better understanding of human behaviour, if
they are to create a climate that encourages greater employee's performance and satisfaction.
2. Human needs that are reasonably well-satisfied motivate behaviour. Thus, management should
devote more of its attention towards providing a climate for the satisfaction of the upper-level
needs of esteem
and self-actualisations.
3. Personnel have been underutilised and over-managed. Organisations should try to provide
more responsible and challenging jobs, that al ow a greater degree of self-control by the
individual.
4. Creation of recreational facilities in many organisations such as staffclubs, company canteens
etc., are by-products of motivational theory. All these were borrowed from Maslow's social
theory of needs, and
are greatly in use today by managers.
5. The increased popularity of vertically expanding jobs, to al ow workers greater responsibility
in planning and control ing their work, can be largely attributed to Herzberg s findings and
recommendations.
105
6. Employees have been successfully trained to stimulate their achievement need. If the job calls
for a high achiever, management can select a person with a high achievement drive.

4.0 CONCLUSION
We have discussed several theories and concepts of human motivation that may be useful to
managers. From our analysis, it should be clear that there is no one best approach (or theory) to
motivate, that will be effective or appropriate for al employees in an organisation or work unit.
The theories of motivation provide approaches a manager can use in motivating employees.
However, the manager must adapt his or her motivational style to meet the needs of the situation.
A number of situational factors must be considered before a manager is able to optimise his or
her ability to motivate (internal) environment such as objectives, structure, technology,
management approach personal).
5.0 SUMMARY
All employees have different needs and aspirations; the motivational factors for one individual
will not be the same for another person. Thus, a manager must evaluate each person, in order to
determine what will stimulate that person to exert effort above and beyond what is normally
expected. If possible, an environment should be created so that each employee can be motivated
to his or her fullest potential. Thus, the manager must be capable of adapting his or her
motivational approach to meet the needs of
personnel in a changing environment. In addition to the major theories of motivation, managers
should also develop an understanding of the role of money as a motivator, and the importance of
equity between an individual's performance and the pay he or she receives.

6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Explain one of the content theories of motivation you are familiar with.

7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS

Davis, P. (1975) Human Behaviour at Work, NewYork: Tata Mc Graw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.
Maslow, A. H. (1970) Motivation and Personality, New York: Harper and Row, New York.

McGregor, D. (1960) The Human Side of Enterprise, New York: McGraw-Hill,

McClelland, D. C. (1963) The Achievement Motive, New York: Appletor Century Crofts,

Tobes, J. L. Mckinrtey, (1970), Management and Motivation, New York:Harper & Row

Vroom V. H. (1965) Work and Motivational, New York:Harper & Row,

106
UNIT 4 JOB EVALUATION

CONTENT

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1Nature and perspective of job evaluation
3.2 Principles of job evaluation
3.3 Job evaluation schemes
3.3.1 Non-analytical schemes
3.3.2 The ranking method
3.3.3 Paired comparison method
3.3.4 Classification method
3.3.5 Analytical method: point rating
3.3.6 Factor comparison
3.4 Recent variations and trends
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Job evaluation is a generic term covering methods of determining the relative worth of jobs. In
this context, a job is described as being all the tasks carried out by a worker or a group of
workers, in the completion of their prescribed duties. As with all management techniques, job
evaluation involves the acceptance of certain basic assumptions, such as, that different kinds of
jobs have different values, and that this value is affected by the supply of labour and the demand
for the results of the work. The immediate objective of job evaluation is to find out the value of
work. Its aims is not to create a rate, but to discover what that rate is at a given time and place .
When job evaluation is used in the design of a
wage structure, it helps in rationalising or simplifying the system by reducing the number of
separate and different rates. These characteristics of job evaluation wil be considered in this
unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you should be able to do the fol owing:
1. Define and explain the nature and principles of job evaluation;
2. List and discuss the major non-analytical and analytical methods of job evaluation;
3. Comment on the merits and demeiits of each of the basic methods of job evaluation.

107
3.0MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Nature and perspective of job evaluation

Job evaluation is about the value of work. How much is a job worth? What are the relative
differences between jobs? How should these differences be reflected in remunerations? These are
many ways of determining pay scales.
Job evaluation is but one. It is consistent with a performance-based remuneration policy, which
implies that job contributing most to corporate objectives should receive the highest level of
remuneration, and that relative worth is a sound basis on which to achieve fairness. (Smith,
1983). Job evaluation tackles internal consistency in pay differentials. External consistency falls
into the realm of collective bargaining and, or market mechanisms. Job evaluation is itself a
generic term and comprises a range of techniques.
By the application of judgment and analysis, their essential characteristic is to appraise the
salient features of a job.
This is done according to the range and degree of the human demands, which it makes upon
incumbents, and according to the relative contribution of the job to the organization us a whole.
This is to provide yardsticks for assessment, and to provide basic data on which to come to
conclusion, and agreement about the rate for the job in monetary terms. The aim of job
evaluation is to provide a systematic and consistent approach, to determining and defining the
relative worth of jobs within a
workplace or multiple site organisation. It provides a fair basis for a fair and orderly grading
structure. In job evaluation, it is the job that is evaluated, not the person doing it. Its overall
objectives are to produce a
rational, coherent pay structure, with a consequent reduction in anomalies and grievances, to help
ensure equal pay for equal work, and to provide a basis for fixing differentials where a case for
these cart be
demonstrated. As a way of summary, job evaluation strictly speaking, is concerned with
determining the relative position of one job to another. It is a preliminary exercise for the
establishment of grades and associated wage or salary levels. It seeks to determine the value of a
job relative to other jobs within the
same organisation. Through job evaluation, the importance of a job to the organisation as a
whole can be established, and it can then be placed in the appropriate position within an overall
job-grade structure.
3.2 Principles of job evaluation
Job evaluation should begin with a factual study of work content. This means that jobs must be
analysed and subjected to the process of job analysis, which systematically reviews duties and
activities undertaken by a job incumbent, the degree of responsibility and discretion exercised,
and the skills brought to bear in the execution of the job. In an earlier unit of this course, we
discussed the relevance of job analysis to most core functions of managing people in
organisations. The information obtained by the process of job analysis would be used to produce
specification, which would be utilised in comparing one job with the others in the organisation.
The success of a job evaluation exercise depends in the long run, upon its
108
acceptability to the relevant stakeholder—employees and employers. Thus, in the conduct of job
analysis, it is advisable to involve the concerned parties. Typical y, a job evaluation committee is
normal y constituted, which wil have the tasks of evaluating job and hearing grievances. After
the comparison have been made, jobs are normally grouped into grades in which either
a. Jobs of broadly similar values are grouped together, or
b. Jobs are formed representing natural division in the existing organisational structure.
The translation of job grades into levels of payments is a separate exercise, requiring either
unilateral negotiation or settlement by management, after a consideration of market rates and the
type of remuneration policy they would like to see emerge, consistent with the ranking produced.
Job
holders should be kept fully informed of the procedures at al stages. Grievance and appeal
procedures should be set up, through which individuals (and groups) may seek redress if they
feel aggrieved by their
relative position.
3.3 Job Evaluation Schemes
There are a variety of job evaluation schemes in existence. We shall seek to give, in what
fol ows, a brief outline of some of the more commonly used types of job evaluation schemes.
This can be divided into non-analytical and analytical schemes, and we shall consider each of
these groups in turn

3.3.1 Non-analytical Schemes

The non-analytical job evaluation schemes compare whole jobs rather than analysing the
components of each job, and assessing them factor by factor. The three common types of non-
analytical schemes are:
- whole job ranking
- paired comparison
' - job classification

3.3.2 The ranking method

This is the simplest method of evaluating a job. Each job is considered as a 'whole'—an overall
view is taken of the demands of the job and its contributions to the organisation. There is no
detailed analysis oi
examination of the individual components of the job. It places jobs in order, ranging from the
highest to lowest in value to the organisation. The content of each job, in terms of job description
is compared with that of various benchmark jobs and the jobs are each given a ranking. The main
attraction of the ranking method is that it is relatively simple, inexpensive and it can be done on
time. Its simplicity is also its major source of weakness. There are wide margins for error or
misjudgment, and precisely because the scheme lacks detail, in terms of information and clear
standards, there is no formal means of providing substantive evidence for the decisions reached.
Thus, the advantages of ranking methods are simple, cheap to operate and easy to understand.
However, its disadvantages are subjectivity, lack of analysis of jobs to explain reason for rank
order, and difficulty in usage with large number of jobs.
109
3.3.3 Paired Comparison
This is also a simple method of job evaluation, but it is slightly more refined arid systematic than
whole job ranking. In this method, assessment of jobs are not simply made against benchmark
jobs, or against one or two 'proximal' jobs, but under it, each job is compared with all the others
in turn. In each case, the assessor is faced with a pair of jobs and must take a decision as to
which is the more important. It still does not analyse particular jobs in detail and, although the
numerical values attached to each job create an impression of objectivity this is really not the
case as there is nothing to indicate what the criteria used might be. The use of modem computer
facilities facilitates the complex computations needed to produce results. However, like ranking
scheme, this method has its own advantages:
I. It is simple and easy to understand,
II. Its slightly more systematic than job ranking, and
III. it is easy to fit new jobs into this system.
The disadvantages, which are similar to the ranking method are as fol ows:
I. it is subjective, and no analysis of jobs are done to explain reason for ranked
order.
II. There is also the need for an enormous number of calculations, if it is to be used with a
large number of jobs.

3.3.4 Classification Method

This method is similar to job ranking but uses a different approach. It starts by trying to establish
a logical structure for job grades. The numbers/groups of jobs or pay grades, and the relationship
between them
are determined, and a general job description is produced for al the jobs in each of these groups.
Box 3.4 below shows an example of the grades and definition of clerical jobs.
Source: B800 People Book 5
Box 3.4 Clerical Job Grading
Scale 'D' Routine Clerical Work
Scale 'C' Work requiring specialised training, knowledge and experience of particular spheres of
work. Very good personal qualities required. High degree of reliability and accuracy essential.
Work should be acceptable without checking. Exercise of initiative and individual responsibility
in order to interpret instructions and adapt to the routine accordingly may involve supervision of
smal or medium-sized groups. Scale 'A' Work requiring highly specialised or wide general
knowledge and experience of particular spheres of work. Ability to organise and carry out
procedures and systems on own initiative. May be responsible for work and behaviour of large
groups of staff. A high degree of responsibility in work involving leadership or personal contacts
both inside and outside the organisation.
110
An individual job that is considered to typify the group of jobs, is then used as a bench- mark.
Each job is compared with the benchmark jobs and the general job description, and placed in an
appropriate grade. Like ranking, the method assesses the job as a whole; there is no subdivision
and comparison of component factors.
The main advantage of the method is that it is based on an explicit grading structure that is open
to scrutiny. It is relatively simple and inexpensive to operate, and its easy to understand and
apply. It is easy to fit new jobs into job classification structure. Its disadvantages are that it is
difficult to use
with a wide range of jobs.
3.3.5 Analytical Method: Point Rating
This is a most widely used method. It is more sophisticated than the non analytical schemes. It is
an analytical method, which compares jobs on various factors r4ther than comparing 'whole'
jobs. It breaks down jobs into various comprehensible factors and places weights, or points on
them. Typically, a table of factors and sub-factors is drawn up, which can be used to analyse
each job. There may be as many as 40 or fewer. According to the International Labour
Organisation (1986), the most frequently used job
factors comprise the fol owing:
Accountability
Complexity
Decision making
Initiative
Knowledge
Mental effort
Physical effort
Planning effort
Supervision given
Training
Responsibility for equip.
Analysis and judgment
Creativity
Dexterity
Judgment
Skill
Mental skill Physical
skills Resource central
Supervision received
Responsibility for cash
Responsibility for data
Accuracy
Effect
Education
Know-how
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Mental fatigue
Physical demands
Problem solving
Social skills
Work pressure
Experience
Work condition
It is obvious that many of the above factors would overlap. However, it is unlikely that al factors
will be of equal value or that they will each make an identical contribution to the performance of
the job. Some factors will be more important than others, and should be weighted accordingly.
Each job is analysed on each of the factors, and points are allocated according to an assessment
of the degree to which each factor is required. The main advantages of the point-rating scheme
are as fol ows:
i. It focuses on points, which means it is less likely to be influenced by existing rates of pay
than other methods of job evaluation;
ii. It is easy to understand and it is more objective since each job is assessed on a range of
explicit, quantitative scales. This means it can be used to explain the extent of
differences between jobs, and hence, to justify subsequent difference in pay

The main disadvantages are as follows:

i. It is complex and expensive to install, and requires considerable technical skills;
ii. It can be time-consuming and costly to develop and implement;
iii. Although the scheme is analytical, there is, an element of subjectivity in al job evaluation
schemes, including point rating, as subjective decisions have to be made .

3.2.6 Factor comparison

The factor comparison method is a quantitative and complex combination of the ranking and
point method. It involves first determining the benchmark jobs in an organisation, selecting
compensable factors, and ranking all benchmark jobs factor by factor. A compensable factor,
determined from job analysis, is one used to identify a job value that is commonly present
throughout a group of jobs.
Next, the jobs are compared with market rates for benchmark jobs, and monetary values are
assigned to each factor. The final step is to evaluate all other factors in the organisation by
comparing them with the benchmark jobs. A major advantage of the method is that it is tailored
specifically to an organisation. Each organisation must develop its own key jobs and its own
factors. Furthermore, it not only tells which jobs are worth more, but also indicates by how
much, so that factor values can be more easily converted
to monetary wages. The major disadvantages are its difficulty and complexity. Its not easy to
explain to employees, and it's time consuming to develop and establish. It is also found to be
inappropriate for an organisation with many similar types of jobs.
112
3.3 Recent Variations and Trends
Recent attempts to update traditional methods of job evaluation have introduced certain trends.
According to Cowling and Mailer (1990), the first of these is emphasis upon participation and
consensus. In part, this
arises from the general social pressures towards greater consultation, and in part, the growing
realisation that workers have something useful to contribute. Consequently, it is common
practice to set up joint management union committees, to monitor the progress of job evaluation
schemes. Secondly, the trend is towards modern technology, with particular reference to
computers. This is evident in large organisations, where many jobs need to be compared and
benchmark jobs may exceed fifty in number. Increasingly, organisations are linking the
components of wages and salary programmes through computerised and statistical techniques,
because of the advanced expertise needed to develop and computerise the integrated
systems.

4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit has examined the conventional approaches to job evaluation. It does not purport to
describe the nature and application of methods in any detail. The aim has been to consider the
principles involved in job evaluation as a technique, and the various methods that are available in
the field.
We have seen that job evaluation can provide the base for a rational pay structure and that it
takes into account the basic pay for the job and not the total earnings for the individual
employees doing the job.
The five conventional methods-ranking, paired comparison, grading, points and factor
comparison-have many weaknesses including lack of a logical premise, subjectivity and the
inability to compare jobs of dissimilar families. Yet, they can be made to provide very
worthwhile benefits for both workers and management. The point-rating method, which is the
most popular, is also the most complex and pseudo-scientific, but has the advantage that job-
ranking information is provided in a form that is helpful
to final, collective bargaining.

5.0 SUMMARY
Investment in job evaluation is probably expensive in the short term but a sound prospect in the
long run, for the effective determination of wage rates and wage differentials, among jobs within
an organisation. As we have seen, job evaluation is a systematic approach in determining the
relative value or worth of each job in an organisation. This job evaluation of same kind is a
necessity in modern organisations. The hub of the matter, is that the method used must be
113
acceptable to those concerned. Its continued success requires ongoing maintenance and review.
In the immediate fol owing unit, we shall examine the role of job evaluation, in the operation of
effective reward systems.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Distinguish between ranking method, grading or classification and point rating method of job
evaluation.
7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS
Cowling, A. & Mailer, C. (1990) Managing Human resources, 2"d Edition, London: Edward
Arnold,
Foot, M. & Hook, C. (1998) Introducing Human resource Management, , London: Longman
ILO (1986) Job Evaluation, Ilo, Geneva.

Smith, I (1983) The Management of Remuneration London: Institute of Personnel Management,

The Unit draws on Material from Open University text B800B5 Care Functions in Managing
People.

114
UNIT 5 REWARD SYSTEMS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Why have a reward system?
3.2 Developing competitive pay system
3.3 Monitoring the market
3.4 Pay and motivation
3.5 Designing reward systems
3.5.1 The time and flat-rate system
3.5.2 Annual increments
3.5.3 Collective bargaining
3.5.4 Performance-related pay
3.5.5 Profit sharing
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
It is extremely important to have a well-designed compensation system in an organisation. If the
effort reward exchange is a basic one in our modem society, the organisation's reward system
(compensation) is the device for administering that exchange. In agreeing to work for an
organisation, an individual is agreeing to exchange effort for reward. The various rewards that
people get from work can be divided into two parts: intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic rewards
arise directly from doing the job itself. Extrinsic
rewards are provided by somebody else. These include: social rewards, such as praise and
recognition, and material rewards, (such as pay). This unit focuses on extrinsic material rewards,
especially pay, which organizations have to design and operate, not only to attract and retain
valued employees, but also to motivate them for desired productivity.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to do the fol owing:
1. Discuss why an organisation needs a wel -designed reward system;
2. List the criteria that a well-designed material reward system should satisfy and apply them to
particular arrangements and proposal;
3. Explain in some detail, the main types of payment system in common use, the elements within
them and the circumstances in which they are likely to be appropriate;
4. Contribute to the planning and implementation of any changes to the pay system within your
organisation.

115
3.0MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Why have a Reward System?

Organisational effectiveness can be defined as an organisation's capacity to acquire and utilise its
scarce and valued resources, as expeditiously as possible ii the pyrsuit of desired, operational
goals and objectives. Human resources has been accepted as a vital resource of the organisation.
The compengation a firm offers is an important factor which can affect how and why (and for
how long) people choose to work for a firm. Compensation contributes to organisational
effectiveness in a number of ways, and can be designed to achieve the fol owing objectives:
i. To attract qualified employees to the organisation, and who are most likely to be highly
productive;
ii. To retain competent and valued employees. Although retaining valued staff is contingent on
many other factors, compensation policies help by maintaining an equitable and internal pay
structure;
iii. Align the interests of employees with the success of the organisation
iv. Serve as an incentive to motivate employees to put forth their best efforts, and develop
required KSA;
v. Encourage employees to achieve their job and organisational objectives;
vi. Channel employees' effort to directions desired by management;
vii. Encourage employees to work the hours required by the organisation;
viii. Encourage the employee to engage in flexible and team-work relationships;
ix. Minimising the cost of compensation can contribute to organizational effectiveness since
compensation is a significant cost for most employers— in some organisations, compensation
can take up a third or more of recurrent expenditure;
x. Recognise the contributions people make to the organisation. What is most important for you
as a manager is the need to be reasonably competitive in the choke and design of reward package
so as to be effective in attracting, acquiring, retaining, utilising, maintaining and rewarding
performance in your organisation.
Effective management of rewards lies at the heart of successful human resource management.
Compensation or reward, is related in some way, to almost every other functions you perform in
managing people. This relationship is clearly illustrated below
Human resources Planning: specifies HR goals which can be furthered by reward system
Staffing process: reward system used to attract scarce and valued applicants
Rewards: provides direct financial rewards to employees in exchange for effort and performance
Job analysis: provides data for conducting job evaluation for designing pay system
Performance evaluation: a factor in pay, promotion, training and development as motivator
Career planning and development: pay associated with some jobs may influence HR
development activities.
Labour-management relations: Wage reflects effort-reward negotiations between labour
management
and state agencies
Compensation: represents both a cost and an investment to the organisation. It is the largest cost
item for many employers, especially those in labour-intensive organisations. Consequently,
studious attention to budgeting and control is paramount. It is also an investment because it
116
represents money spent in pursuit of productivity. Ensuring that money devoted to rewards is
invested wisely is the prime objective of a company's reward policy.
3.2 Developing Competitive Pay System
The basic requirement of an organisation's reward system is that it should be sufficient to attract
and retain enough staff with appropriate competencies, to perform the work needed to secure its
objectives. Failure to offer competitive rewards invariably lead to high labour turnover, and
inability to recruit valued staff. Consequently, a pay policy should aim to facilitate the attraction
and retention of valued employees, to motivate productive workforce, and encourage cooperation
as wel as a willingness to adapt to
change. To be competitive, two elements are relevant: the level of pay and its structure. The
structure depends on the norms for different jobs — for example, sales force usually expect to
have a significant element of commission in their remuneration, whereas a bank clerk may be
more averse to risk and not join a firm in which pay is quite so indeterminate. Paying rewards at
a competitive level but no more than necessary, is a difficult policy to carry off. First, you need
to define the job in question, to make comparison. Some jobs are easy to categorise, yet it may
be more difficult to delegate jobs that are more general, in their scope, or those that are more
specific to a particular employer. Several techniques for job evaluation have been established for
use in these situation.. The aim of job evaluation, as we have seen in a previous unit, is to
establish some form of ranking of jobs, based on an explicit analysis of each job's content, rather
than or market forces. The ranking can then be used to established agreed rates of pay for the
different jobs. The main methods of job evaluation was the focus of the last unit.
3.3 Monitoring the Market
Once you have, through the use of job evaluation techniques, established the internal relativity of
a job, you need to know what competitors are paying for the same job. Given that it wil vary
from place to place, and over time, this requires detailed and ongoing local knowledge.
Information on external pay can be accessed in several ways. The most common methods
include the fol owing:
1. Monitoring Advertisements
Many personnel departments monitor the local press for information on the pay rates of rival
employees, particularly in their industrial level of environment. This is especially true for less-
skilled jobs.
2. Industrial Associations
Some industrial associations offer a service in which they gather information on pay rates from
their member firms, and then summarise the information for the benefit of members, without
revealing the pay rates of particular firms— i.e. the industrial pay rates
3. Professional Pay-monitoring Services
Some organisations, including specialist firms and consultants, in particular fields, offer a service
in which they keep their clients informed of pay developments in their sector.

117
4. Pay Surveys •
A pay survey is a collection of data on compensation rates for workers performing similar jobs in
other similar organisations. An employer, if the can afford it, may use surveys conducted by
himself (or other organisations). The desirability of monitoring the market pay levels is another
argument for retaining some centralised HRM specialism. If many departments in the
organisation recruit for similar jobs, a common information source will prevent any duplication
of (and wasteful spending on) intel igence
gathering. Also under collective bargaining systems, the pay-setting functions are more
specialised and formal. Pay negotiation typically takes place at a national level between
employees' representatives (usually industrial Trade Union) and Senior Negotiators from the
employers' side, supported by specialist
industrial-relations functions. Rates for the jobs and annual increases would then apply
uniformly across the organisation's operations. This system is currently under pressure in some
industrial sector of the economy, such as the Banking and finance sector, where the centralised
approach is being replaced by company-based compensation system.
Activity
How is the level of pay for pour job determined and reviewed periodically? How did your
organisation set pay levels for staff? Did it use any of the formal methods we have discussed
here? Which one? Attempt a full description of how it was done?

3.4 Pay and Motivation

Most managers know from experience how complex individual motivation can be. People are
motivated by money and by a lot more things. Money can be used in a number of different ways
to motivate people. Pay policy has to reflect the complexity of human nature if it is to succeed in
its objectives. Both the amount of money and the manner in which it is offered have to be kept
under continuous review in order to achieve optimal results. Organisations must make sufficient
payments to attract (and indeed retain) the employee they need. To that extent, the organisation
views people as a resource, and pays the market price for labour just as it does for capital and
raw materials.
As we saw in unit two, however, managing people is fundamentally different from managing
other resources. This then is the principal reason for motivation. The rewards which
organisations pay can have important effects on the motivation of employees. For example, the
expectancy theory of motivation tells us that employees are likely to be motivated to perform in a
certain way only if the employee genuinely believes in these three things: effort will cause an
observable result (expectancy), the result will lead to a reward (instrumentality), and the reward
is desirable (valence). Often, at least one of these conditions is fulfilled. Equity theory predicts a
general and unintended consequences of reward system:
If employees consider their rewards to be unfair, relative either to their own efforts or to those of
their colleagues, they may lose their desire to work for the organisation. An important factor in
judging whether we think the rewards we receive from work are fair is the contribution: reward
ratio, or effort: reward ratio (see table 3.6) Whether people view their own ratio as fair will
118
depend on how they think their own ratio compares with those of other groups of similar
workers, either within or outside their organisation.

Table 3.6 Factors determining perceived fairness rewards

S/N FACTORS EXAMPLES

1. Contribution Rewards Inputs Skill, Experience
and Efforts
2 Activities
Responsibility
3 Outputs task identity
Quantity of work
and quality of
4 Intrinsic Reward work
Responsibility,
5 Social Reward Achievement
6 Material Reward Belonging
Pay, Pension

The many factors involved in the contribution.: reward ratio means that the potential for
disagreement over pay and other rewards is huge: This is exacerbated because people are likely
to perceive and value their own contributions and other people's contributions in different ways.
As wel as being 'fair', reward systems must reflect a wide range of organizational factors and
external pressures and constraints, as shown in table 3.7 below.
Increasingly, reward systems need to be flexible. With the growing rate of change, both within
organisations and in the external environment in which they operate, adaptability is now crucial.
Table 3.7. Factors Influencing Pay and Material Reward System
External factors Internal factors
Legislation (e.g Minimum - Organisation's value wage policy) - Organisation's Policies
Government guidelines - Workforce and Attributes
Labour market Comprising:
Competition - Workforce attitudes
Founders and satisfaction
Competitors - existing agreements
Compliant - financial position
Client groups
3.5 Designing Reward Systems
Periodically, every organisation will need to introduce a new or revised payment system, to meet
changing circumstances. Such a choice should reflect the organisation's circumstances, especial y
the nature of its product, the production system, and the characteristics of the workforce. In
addition,
119
the system should take account of prevailing economic factors, such as the appropriate labour
market and relations with the employee. The discussion below provides an overview of some of
the elements which can be included in a reward system. Table 3.8 on page 119 summarises some
of the conditions under which different types of payment systems are appropriate.

Figure 3.8 Conditions for appropriate types of payment systems Flat/Time Rates
employees
flow
Annual increments/ I experience
Performance related pay
individual/group
ctuation in product market
Merit Pay
, although it may be hard to measure objectively.
successfully for other purposes

3.5.1 The Time and Flat Rate Systems

Time or flat-rate systems, which are used in very many organisations, link pay to the work done.
Pay is usually expressed as an hourly, weekly or annual rate. Jobs are usually graded according
to the difficulty of the risks involved, the skills needed or the degree of responsibility. Pay is
often determined through bargaining, or from what is thought to be market rate for the job.
Activity
Interact with the personnel department of the organisation you work for and obtain information
from about time rate. What did you discover as the main advantages of this system? Has it any
drawback?
Once pay rates have been established, this system has the advantage that it is easy to administer
and control. The system is easily understood by employees and causes few disputes, except
perhaps over basic rates. A potential disadvantage is that pay is unrelated to relevant inputs (such
as effort) or output (such as effectiveness). So, it can provide little incentive to improve
productivity or quality of work. Poor performance may earn as much as good ones, which can
cause dissatisfaction. If volume or quality of work cannot be measured objectively, or if they are
affected by factors largely outside the employees' control, then flat rate may be the fairest way of
determining pay. However, a flat-rate system is
often combined with other payment systems.

3.5.2 Annual Increments

Many organisations use pay grades with incremental scales within each grade. Usual y,
regardless of any improvement in performance, individuals receive an increment each year. An
increment may be regarded as a reward for long service. In jobs where long-term experience is a

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considerable asset, there may also be a link with performance. However, it may cause resentment
to these who are newer to the job, particularly if they feel they are performing as well as the
'older hands'

3.5.3 Collective Bargaining

The room for discretion in designing pay policies may be limited by agreements with trade
unions or other organisations representing employees. In many organisations, collective
bargaining is between management and employee representative. As well as negotiating over pay
rises, and rates for particular jobs, collective bargaining often includes formal discussion about
working conditions.
3.5.4 Performance-Related Pay (PRP)
PRP refers to a range of payment systems which share the common characteristics of linking
employees' income to either their own performance, that of the group, or that of the organisation
as a whole. Particular forms of PRP include piece work, merit pay and profit-related pay
3.5.5 Profit Sharing
This is a system in which a proportion of organisational profits is distributed to employees.
Typically, the proportion of the profits distributed to employees is agreed on by the end of the
year before distribution.
The various ways to share profits to employees include: equal payment to al employees,
employee earnings, years of service, contribution or performance. Unions are sometimes
skeptical of profit sharing plans, because such plans only work when there are profits to share,
and the level of profits is influenced by factors not under the employee's control.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In the foregoing, we have argued that paying rewards at levels competitive with other employers
is an essential precondition for an organization to succeed in meeting its objectives. Two
elements go into the design of a pay policy: the level of pay and its structure. We also showed
that achieving competitive levels of pay involves determining the job in question, and then
monitoring the labour market for jobs of that type. The unit ended by taking the reader through
different, common types of payment systems.

5.0 SUMMARY
This discussion in the unit, among other things demonstrated the centrality of payment system to
HRM functions. It showed how structured payments can play an important role, not just in
attracting recruits, but in the motivation of employees for desirable performance, self-training
and development and career planning.

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6.0 TUTOR-Marked ASSIGNMENT
Distinguish between ranking method, grading or classification, and point rating method of job
evaluation.

7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS

Henscrson, R.I (1994) Compensation Management 6th Edition, New Jersey: Copper Saddle
Rivers, Prentice-Hall
Moorhoad, G. and Griffin, R.W., (1988) Organisational Behaviour: Managing People and
Organisation 4th Edition) Boston: Hunghton Mifflih
Stone, T.H (1982) Understandifng Personnel Management, Chicago:The Dryden Press,

This text drew heavily from the open University (UK) B800B5, session 4: Managing Rewards.

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MODULE 4 LABOUR MANAGEMENT RELATIONS

Unit 1 Industrial relations context

Unit 2 Discipline and disciplinary procedures
Unit 3 Grievance procedures
Unit 4 Collective bargaining
Unit 5 Managing employee's organisational exit

UNIT 1 INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS CONTEXT

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The unitary and pluralistic perspectives
3.1.1 The unitary perspective
3.1.2 The pluralist perspective
3.2 What is industrial relations?
3.3 Actors in industrial relations
3.3.1 The state
3.3.2 The worker and trade unions
3.3.3 Reason for restructure of trade unions
3.3.4 The employer
3.4 Problems in industrial relations
3.5 Managerial responsibility for industrial relations
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/ Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The manager, as practitioner in industrial relations soon realizes that the subject involves attitude
as a significant factor, arid what people believe can be as important as what is. In no other field
of management is generalized assertion accepted so readily as a substitute for facts. Even the
experienced
manager will make important and costly decisions on labour matters, based on personal
judgment, without any substantive data to support them. This unit, therefore, gives an insight into
the context of industrial relations, the institutions and beliefs that interweave the fabric.

123
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After you have read this unit, you should be able to do the fol owing:
1) Describe the contrasting frame of references that inform industrial relations practices of
managers;
2) Explain the meaning and features of industrial relations;
3) Describe the structure and processes of the three main actors in an industrial relations system;
4) Identify and discuss the common types of, and methods of expressing conflicts in industrial
relations;
5) Explain the role of managers in achieving effective industrial relations.
3.0MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Unitary and Pluralistic Perspective

The types of labour-management relationship, and the techniques that are utilised to regulate this
relationship, are influenced by the beliefs (frame of reference) of the employer. In the search for
effective employee relations, and a common commitment to the goals of the organisation,
consideration should be given to .the contrasting approaches which present two major ways of
perceiving work organisation — the unitary and pluralistic perspective.

3.1.1 The Unitary Perspective

Unitarists believe that al members of an organisation have the same interest, that is to say that,
the firm is viewed as an integrated and harmonious whole, with managers and staff sharing
common interests and objectives. There is an image of the organisation as a team, with a
common source of loyalty one focus of effort, one acceptable leader, and source of authority.
Conflict is perceived as disruptive and unnatural, and can be explained by poor communication,
personality clashes or the work of agitators. Trade Unions are seen as an unnecessary evil and
restrictive practice, as outmoded or sponsored by trouble makers. The unitary perspective views
the company and trade union loyalty as mutually exclusive. This raises the question of hurnan
resource management as a reformation of a unitarist managerial ideology Developments in
HRM, (as we have seen in earlier units) in seeking to optimise co-operation and organizational
loyalty, can be seen as imposing new forms of labour-management control system.

3.1.2 The Pluralistic Perspective

The pluralistic perspective views the organization as made up of powerful and competing sub-
groups, with their own legitimate loyalties, objectives and leaders (Fox, 1966). From this
perspective, conflict in an organization is seen as inevitable and induced, in part, by the very
structure of organizations.
Conflict is not necessarily a bad thing. The unitary employer is more likely to resist unionization,
and pluralist employers are likely to accept unionization more readily. Unionization implies the
existence of different sets of interests and the will to set up strategies and mechanisms for
managing conflicts.

124
Unitarists expect everyone to have the same goals, such that there should be no conflict, and
therefore no need to have mechanism for representing different points of view and resolving
conflicts. These are important points to bear in mind as we move to talk about industrial
relations1n a workplace.

Activity
Consider what you have just read about the unitary and pluralist approaches to employee
relations. Which would you consider to be more likely to accept unionization and which is more
likely to resist it? Give reasons for your choice.

3.2 What is Industrial Relations?

At its simplest, industrial relations can be operationally defined as labour management
employment policies, procedures and practices for organizing co-operation and managing
differences of interests between labour and management. Every work organisation— public or
private, and regardless of size and complexity has such a system of labour-management relations
through which interests and differences are adjusted on a continuous basis. The system may be
relatively crude, with one side simply imposing his
wish on the other through the use of naked force, or it may be relatively subtle, emboding many
levels of jointly agreed rules and various checks and balances of power.
It may be highly formal with many levels and forms of rules and regulations to guide
interactions, or it may be extremely informal, based on customs and practices developed over the
years. But whatever is its character, one can always identify an industrial relations system within
an employment situation. In so far as the system can be said to function effectively, you as the
manager is the leader of the social partners that make up the system. Thus, the function of cost-
effective organisation of co-operation and of managing the inherent and endemic conflicts of
employment relations is primarily that of the manager, who must view this as an integral part of
his/her overal responsibility for marshal ing resources in the conduct of corporate business.
Industrial relations has also been viewed as concerned with job regulation, that is, with
institutions concerned with the making of rules to regulate and guide the conduct of social
partners, (Labour and Management) in an employment situation (Flanders, 1968). In this
connection, two sets of rules, substantive and procedural, form the main outputs of an industrial
relations system. Substantive rules are concerned essentially with issues of terms and condition
of employment, such as the rates and periodicity
of pay, hours of work, holidays, fringe benefits and other employees' entitlements. Procedural
rules, on the other hand, relate to 'HOW and WHO' has authority to make specific rules on
substantive issues, and the methods to adopt in the decision-making processes. For instance,
whether decision on pay should be unilateral y or jointly taken by employee and management,
and the procedure to adopt when disagreements arise during either the -decision making and/or
the implementation process. Both sets of rules may be derived from a number of sources
including:

125
i) Legislation, decrees and regulations;
ii) Trade unions and professional associations rules;.
iii) Collective bargaining agreements;
iv) Conciliation, arbitration, tribunal and industrial courts;
v) Managerial policies and practices;
vi) Customs and practices.
From the foregoing, it is obvious that industrial relations is about the management of people as
actors in an employment situation.

3.3. Actors in Industrial Relations

Three main actors are identifiable in any industrial relations system. Each of these actors
normally presents an infinite permutation of goals, objectives, and values which influence, shape,
sustain and transform the industrial relations processes at the firm, indust ry and national levels. It
must be
added that the context or environment in which these actors operate sets limits a well as create
opportunities for behaviuor that is optimal. The actors in the industrial relations system include:
the state and its agencies, the workers and their representative trade unions, and the employers of
labour. We shall briefly consider these features of each of these actors.
Activity
Consider the organisation you work for or one you are familiar with. List all the main actors of
industrial relations that operate in it. Identify the objectives of each of the actors, how each is
organised and how each operates.
3.3.1 The State
In Nigeria, as in most other countries in the world, the government's role as employer of labour,
manager of the nation's economy, and maintenance of law and order in the wider society,
influences the development and operations of Industrial relations system. Specific agencies of
the state also include, the industrial Arbitration Panel (IAP), the National Industrial Court (NIC)
and the Productivity Price and Income Board (PPIB). A detailed description of these institutions
can be found in Fasoyin (1980). It is
common knowledge that since the late 1960's, through the 1970's, the state's traditional policy of
non-intervention in industrial relations has drastically changed (see Oribabor, 1988) The
establishment of more and more quasigovernmental, industrial relation institutions are evidence
of government intention to be more actively involved in monitoring the activities of all decision
makers in the industrial relations system.
3.3.2 The Worker and Trade Unions
In terms of industrial relations, this include employees as individuals as work groups and
workers representatives such as trade unions and professional association. The enactment of
series of Decrees (now Acts) between the late 1960's and 1970's has led to a major
transformation of the Nigerian trade union movement. Unions have become a formidable force in
Nigeria and also active in general, social and economic spheres of individual industry and the
nation as a whole. What are trade unions? The Trade Unions Act of 1973 defines a Trade Union
126
as any combination of workers or employers, whether temporary or permanent, the purpose of
which is to regulate the terms and conditions of employment of workers. From the definition, it
will be appreciated that for an organisation to qualify as a trade union, it must fulfil the fol owing
conditions: the combination must be of workers or employers, and it must be for established
purpose of regulating the terms and conditions of employment of workers. The general mission
of the trade union has traditionally been that of protecting the individual worker, and improving
his lot through collective action. The pre-1976 trade union structure in Nigeria was characterised
by
mushroom house (and few industrial) unions, numbering over a thousand .The Trade Union
Central Labour Organisation Decree No 44 of 1976, cancelled the trade unions' four centres, and
the Trade Union (Amendment) Decree No 21 of 1978 formally restructured the unions into 42
junior unions,
affiliated to the Nigerian Labour Congress, as the only labour centre. Of recent, the unions have
been reorganised. With the promulgation of the Trade Union (Amendment) Decree No. 4 of
1996, a further restructuring of trade unions different from that of 1978 has come into force.
There are now twenty nine trade unions affiliated to the Nigerian Labour Congress (see Table
4.0)
These developments have important implications for the vital role the trade unions must now
play as 'managers of discontent' in the industrial relations systems.
3.3.3 Reasons for the Restructuring of Trade Unions
In December 1975, the Government published its National Labour Policy which represented a
fundamental shift in the mode of state intervention in labour relations in Nigeria. It emphasised a
shift from an absentionist (Laissez-faire) to an interventionist posture (Oribabor, 1988) The
principal objectives of the new policy are as fol ows:
a. The need to give a new sense of direction and new image to the trade union movement;
b. The desirability of removing completely from the trade union arena, ideological or external
influences which have plagued Nigerian trade union unity for more than a quarter of a century.
Table 4.0: The new list of Trade Unions
Agriculture and Al ied Workers Union
Amalgamated Union of Public Corporation
Civil Service, Technical & Recreation Service Employees
Medical & Health Workers in Nigeria
National Association of Nigerian Nurses & Midwives
National Union of Air Transport Employees
National Union of Banks, Insurance & Financial Institution Employees
National Union of Chemical, Footwear, Rubber, Leather
Non-Metalic Workers
National Union of Civil Engineering Construction Workers
National Union of Electricity Workers
National Union of Food, Beverage & Tobacco Employee
National Union of Hotel & Personal Service Workers
National Union of Petroleum & Natural Gas Workers
National Union of Postal & Telecommunication Employees
127
National Union of Printing, Publishing & Paper Products Employees
National Union of Road Transport Workers
National Union of Shop & Distributive Employees
National Union of Textiles, Garment & Tailoring Workers in Nigeria
National Union of Civil Service, Secretarial & Stenographic Works
Nigeria Union of Journalists
Nigeria Union of Mine Workers
Nigeria Union of Pensioners
Nigeria Union of Railway men
Nigeria Union of Teachers
Non-Academic Staff Union of Educational St Ass. Institutions
Radio, Television & Theatre Workers Union
Steel & Engineering Workers Union of Nigeria
c. The need to rationalise the structure and organisation of trade unions and to ensure they are
self-sufficient financially and not dependent upon foreign sources of finance;
d. The need to provide facilities for trade union education, in order to improve the quality of
trade union leaders;
e. The need to strengthen the labour's administrative system, through the provision of adequate
material and human resources for the Ministry of Labour, for the enforcement of labour laws and
regulations.
It was in pursuance of these objectives that the Decrees noted earlier were enacted. Today,
Nigerian Trade Unions are now:
—Nigeria Labour Congress;
-sufficient;

Activity
Visit a Trade Union office of the organisation you work for, obtain information onthe
organisation and the operation of its union. Prepare a write up on the union for your file. The
information should cover the history, structure and activities of the union

3.3.4 The Employer

This category of actors in the industrial relations, comprises of individual managers, group of
managers as a collective group and employers as an association — such as the Nigerian
Employers Consultative Association (NECA) which came into existence in 1957, and function
particularly in
the private sector, as the sole employers' representative to Government on labour-management
matters. Changes in the environment of businesses, and most importantly changes in the role of
state in industrial relations and the growth of trade unionism, have all had great impact on the
structure and processes of NECA (see Fashoyin, 1992). In a free-enterprise economy such as it
128
operates in Nigeria, the primary responsibility for managing the industrial relations structure and
processes of an organization falls on management. How this could be achieved by management
is treated later. Suffice to say here that every managerial decision directly or indirectly shapes or
influences the structure and tone of industrial relations
of n enterprise. For example, management policies and practices in the fol owing areas shape
industrial relations at the workplace:
i) Work-organisation and hence workgroup structure and the contour of occupational groups and
trade union structures;
ii) Manning levels;
iii) Work rules and procedures — limits to workers control;
iv) Promotion and deployment procedures;
v) Wages and salary systems — rates, levels, methods of pay determination etc.
vi) Supervision and control systems;
vii) Union recognition and facilities for operation;
viii) Grievance and disciplinary procedures;
ix) Collective bargaining structures and processes.
All these practices are influenced and shaped by the philosophy— whether unitary or pluralistic
managers are subscribed to. A final point to note, in terms of the interaction between the actors
in the industrial relations system, is that 'good' industrial relations is viewed as a shared
responsibility of all the three main actors (or stakeholders) in the system.
Activity
What are the common labour-management problems that you are aware of in the organisation
you work for

3.4Problems in Industrial Relations

In the minds of many people, industrial relations problems are equated with strikes. The absence
of strikes in an enterprise is claimed as a good indicator of industrial harmony. Strikes are not the
sole indicators of industrial conflict, much less are they the sole indicator of good, industrial
conflict. Conflict, however, needs to be seen, not only in such dramatic manifestation as strikes,
but as the total range of behaviour and attitudes, that express opposition and divergent
orientation between management and employee. In terms of the variety of conflict, its means of
expression are as unlimited as the ingenuity of man. It may take the fol owing forms:
Peaceful bargaining, go slow, overtime ban, absenteeism, rag-wearing at work, boycott,
grievance, work-to-rule, sit-in, indiscipline, labour turnover, sabotage and strike. Some of these,
such as absenteeism, labour turnover, poor-time keeping, may take place on individual
(unorganised) basis. Others, such as work-in or sit-in, overtime ban and strikes, generally take
the form of collective/ group (organised) action. In some cases, they can be substituted.
3.5 Managerial Responsibility for Industsial Relations
Without doubt, this is the duty of management. This position is underscored by the Trade
Dispute Act of 1976, which places the responsibility for initiating and maintaining an effective
labour-management relations framework within each enterprise, squarely on management. To
129
ensure an effective managerial initiative and control at al times, management should seek to
develop industrial relations policies and action plans, that command the respect and confidence
of employees. The aim should be to establish
a philosophy governing the nature of work within which industrial relations activities can be
conducted on a day-to-day basis.
A first requirement in this direction, would be for managers to formulate industrial relations
objectives it would seek to achieve. Some may consider objectives such as:
i) Developing an atmosphere of mutual trust and cooperation;
ii) Proffering of solutions problems which arise through agreed proceedings, with the minimum
expenditure of time, expense and disruption of work;
iii) Promotion of high employees' morale and commitment to organisational goals and
objectives;
iv) Development of human resources' skills and the encouragement of high productivity.
Having defined objectives, the next step is to put in place principles or guidelines for action,
aimed at encouraging the orderly and equitable conduct of labour-management relations on a
day-to-day basis. Such rules for action could be established to cover: pay and productivity,
disciplinary issues, grievance and disputes procedures, wages and salary system, union
recognition, dismissal and redundancy, health and safety collective bargaining and employee
participation. Although the principles and guidelines on the above are not exhaustive what has
been listed should provide effective and consistent frame work
which day-to-day actions can be taken. Above all, such rules would promote the fol owing:
i) Orderliness and equitability in the conduct of industrial relations;
ii) Consistency in management behaviours;
iii) Elimination or minimisation of uncertainties which could exist when reliance is placed on
customs and practices;
iv) Easy communication of company's policy by acting as an objective reference point;
v) A basis for change by enabling management to plan ahead and anticipate events;
vi) Ability to secure and return initiative changing situation.
4.0 CONCLUSION
From the foregoing, it is obvious that industrial relations, more than anything else, has to do with
people and the structures and processes they design to accommodate their divergent interests,
which are constantly generated in their employment relations. While conflict is endemic and
inherent in all work situation, it needs not be disruptive. The key to a realistic basis for
cooperation and effective management of conflict lies in the formulation of, and implementation
of appropriate rules for action, to guide
day-to-day workplace relations.
5.0 SUMMARY
The theme of the discussion in this unit has been that while there is no panacea for industrial
relations problems, managers, influenced by their philosophy and ideology, can do much to
develop effectiveness in this area. Effective performance of industrial relations functions is
linked to managers' ability to diagnose objectively and dispassionately the nature of problems.
130
Without a set of policy guidelines, consistency in day-to-day management of industrial relations
can be difficult to achieve. A policy should
form an integral part of the total strategy, as we pointed out in unit three, with which
management pursues its corporate objectives.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

What is industrial relations?

7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS

Flanders, A. (1968) Collective Bargaining: A theoretical Analysis, British Journal of Industr ial
Relations. Vol. VI, pp. 1-26 Fox, A. (1966) Industrial
Society and Industrial Relations, HNSO, London
Oribabor, RE. (1988) From Laissez-Faire To Corporatism: The Impact of Military Rule on
Nigeria's Industrial Relations in Sanda A et al, ed. The Impact of Military Rule on Nigeria's
Administration, 0.A.0 Press, lie-lie.
Fashoyin, T. (1980) Industrial Relations in Nigeria, Longman, London. —(1992) Industrial
Relations in Nigeria: development and Practice
(2nd Ed.) Longman Nigeria Ltd, Ikeja Yesufu, T.M. (1982) The Dynamic of Industrial Relations,
OUP, Ibadan.

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UNIT 2 DISCIPLINE AND DISCIPLINARY PROCEDURES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning and nature of discipline
3.2 The need for disciplinary action
3.3 Fundamental causes of disciplinary action
3.4 Disciplinary procedures
3.4.1 Rules
3.4.2 Offences
3.4.3 Penalties
3.4.4 Procedural steps
3.5 Essential features of disciplinary procedures
3.6 Appeal Procedure
3.7 The role of personnel managers
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked assigment
7.0 References / Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Organisation involves bringing people together to achieve defined goals and objectives. In such
an organisation, however good the management and however highly motivated the workforce,
there will be occasions when problems or difficulties Occur between management and
employees. In order that employees are able to work to their optimum performance, and that the
problems do not turn into even bigger issues, suitable ways of dealing with them need to be
devised before they occur. If problems arise from the behaviour or attitude of an employee,
disciplinary action may be called for. That is to say that, in a disciplinary procedure, an employer
is concerned with something unsatisfactory in the employee's performance. As we shal find out
in the discussion on grievance in the next unit, discipline is in many ways the converse of
grievance. In grievance, a problem has risen from something that a manager has done. In what
fol ows, the concept of discipline is examined, with a view of identifying what constitute the
elements of a framework for organizational justice (Torrington and Chapman, 1979).
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to do the fol owing:
1. Understand the meaning of discipline;
2. Explain the causes of disciplinary action;
3. Explain the importance of disciplinary procedures;
4. Describe the main stages in a disciplinary procedure and design a simple disciplinary
procedure;
5. Understand the role of human resource manager and line managers in discipline handling.
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3.0MAIN CONTENT

3.1Meaning and Nature of Discipline

The shorter Oxford English Dictionary defines discipline in the fol owing ways: to subject to
discipline is to educate or train; to bring under control. The term discipline can be used in
various ways. It can refer to self-discipline, where an individual, as a result of practice and
training, works in an ordered, self-controlled way. This is self-control or voluntary submission,
arising from the inner motives of the individual to organise and regulate his/her behaviour in a
systematic and acceptable manner. Increase in selfdiscipline often reduces the need for
supervisory control in the place of work. It can also be used to refer to esprit-de-corps. This is
concerned with orderly behaviour within an organisation, similar to self-discipline. It involves a
spirit of loyalty and dedication or devotion, to group norms and values, which unite and integrate
the members of a group who are engaged in a common endeavour. In an organisation it calls for
monitoring of group behaviour and control of group performance, to ensure compliance with
rules and to correct deviations. It can refer to a judicial process. This involves the monitoring and
enforcement of obedience, and applying established rules, so as to avoid occurrence of
undesirable and unacceptable acts. It assumes that in group efforts, some individuals will
occasionally break established rules. Thus, some processes must be put in place for deviations to
be brought to light, and the need for improvement ensured by applying some form of punishment
or sanctions. It is obvious from the above discussion, that the concept has three basic meanings:
i) It is training that moulds behaviour;
ii) It is control gained through enforcement of obedience;
iii) It is punishment or sanction.
3.2 The need for Disciplinary Action
The need for discipline lies in the desire of an organisation to direct its employees towards an
acceptable standard of behaviour. Discipline is indispensable to management control. It assists
management in the
maintenance of harmonious relations in the workplace. Employees need to be motivated and
rewarded for their contribution towards the accomplishment of corporate objectives. They also
must be controlled and
punished if they flout the laid down rules and regulations. Disciplinary action therefore ensures
just and equal treatment of employees, efficient and effective communication, and serves as a
tool or device for enforcing organisational standards. On the one hand, its major purpose is to
ensure that employee
behaviour is consistent with the firm's goals, and encourage employees to comply with
established standards and rules, so that infractions do not occur (preventive discipline). On the
other hand, it seeks to discourage further infraction of rules, so that future acts will be in
compliance with desired standard (corrective discipline).
3.3 Fundamental Causes of Disciplinary Action
Disciplinary actions usually come out of dissatisfaction of the manager with flouting of work
rules, and intentional deviation from role prescriptions by an employee. Formal behaviour that
may elicit disciplinary actions vary from organisation to organisation, but often depends on the
size, complexity, nature of product, management policies, materials dealt with, processes
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involved and clientele of the organisation. Common causes of the need for disciplinary action
include the fol owing:
a. Attendance problems
i) Unauthorised absence from work;
ii) Chronic absenteeism or irregular attendance;
iii) Excessive lateness and tardiness;
iv) Leaving office without permission;
v) Time recording offences.
b. On-the-job behaviour problems
i) Loafing or sleeping on duty;
ii) Insubordination;
iii) Fighting a customer or staff while on duty;
iv) Intoxication at work/smoking in restricted area;
v) Gambl ing;
vi) Wilful breach of safety rules;
vii) Delay in performing official duties, so as the elicit gratification;
viii) Failure to report injuries/damages;
ix) Abusive or threatening language to supervisor.
c. Dishonesty and related problems
i.) Falsification of company records or complicity with such acts;
ii) Deliberate faking of records/payment bills;
iii) Altering or use of forged documents;
iv) Entering into unholy alliance with others;
v) Stealing or complicity in the act;
vi) Malicious/wilful damage to company property;
vii) Disloyalty, including failure to disclose knowledge of misconduct committed or about to be
committed against the firm;
viii) Working for competing firms;
ix) Espionage or complicity in such act;
x) Collusion with the aim of defrauding the firm;
xi) Fraud or complicity in such act.
It would be impossible to itemise fully the range of behaviours that might result in disciplinary
action being taken. Employers seem to regard the more common offences as being issues about
absenteeism, or time keeping, or poor performance at work. Many employers divide offences
into two categories, depending on the seriousness with which they are viewed within the
organisation. They list issues that they regard as disciplinary offences, and then ifemise some as
gross misconduct and as other offences, that they consider to be more serious.
Activity
Consider any organisation that you know reasonably well, perhaps one where you have worked
yourself
1. What disciplinary rules did the firm have?
2. How were the disciplinary rules made known to you?
134
3. What were considered to be disciplinary offences?
4. Which offences were regards as serious? List them.
3.4 Disciplinary Procedures
A procedure is a series of steps or stages through which a matter may be processed towards a
decision or conclusion. A disciplinary procedure should specify the following key elements:
rules, offences, penalties, procedural steps and appeal procedures.
4.1Rules
An ideal disciplinary procedure provides for working rules and arrangements, that are tailored to
the specific needs for the organisation. For example, the minimum standards for the performance
or conduct of employees are referred to as work rules. Most employers state those rules in the
organisation's handbook or disciplinary procedure code book. Typically, work rules specify
standards affecting matters, such as listed below:
i) Working hours;
ii ) Time for break;
ii i) Safety rules and reporting of injuries;
iv) Reporting of lateness; absence due to illness;
v) Designated areas for smoking;
vi) Standards of personal conduct;
vii) Theft, fraud or dishonest;
viii) Immoral conduct;
ix) Falsification of records;
x) Sabotage of company material or property.
3.4.2 Offences
When a rule is broken, an offence has been committed. A disciplinary procedure must seek to
identify offences with would attract disciplinary action. In practice, offences are commonly
classified into minor, serious, or gross misconduct.
3.4.3 Penalties
These are measures for dealing with specific offences. They may also be referred to as 'negative
rewards'. The objectives of penalties are: to reform offenders, deter would-be offenders, and
maintain the integrity of the organisation. Another way of putting it, is to see penalties as
educative, corrective and punitive. Most formal disciplinary processes often employ what is
often called 'progressive discipline'.
i) Warning; oral/written(informal/formal);
ii) Suspension and downgrading;
iii) Fines, withholding annual increment or promotion;
iv) Retirement or outright dismissal or termination of appointment.
Invariably, penalties for minor offences are aimed at educating and counsel ing employees, and
giving them opportunity to learn and adjust.

135
3.4.4 Procedural Steps
These are usually guidelines which set out the operational drills, associated with the imposition
of penalties for offences, and for appeal ing and challenging the penalties. The procedural steps
will involve the fol owing:
i) Specify who has the responsibility and authority to make relevant decisions — immediate
Superior, Department manager, General Manager, Managing Director, Personnel
manager, Disciplinary Committee, Appeals Committee etc.
ii) Provide for a right of appeal to a level of management not previously
involved in the action;
iii) Specify the mode of imposing various penalties which must be
proportionate to offences or misconduct committed.

3.5 Essential Features of Disciplinary Features

Disciplinary procedure should possess the-fol owing essential features:
i ) Be in a written form;
i i) Specify to whom they apply;
i ii) Provide for matters to be dealt with quickly;
iv) Indicate the disciplinary actions which may be taken;
v) Specify the level of management which have the authority to take the various forms of
disciplinary action, ensuring that immediate supervisors do not normally have the power to
dismiss without reference to senior management;
vi ) Provide for individuals to be informed of the complaints against them, and to be given the
opportunity to state their cases before decisions are reached;
vi i)Ensure that, except for cases of gross misconduct, no employees are dismissed for a first
breach of discipline;
vi )Ensure that disciplinary actions are not taken until the case has been carefully investigated:
ix) Ensure that individuals are given an explanation for any penalty imposed;
x) Provide a right of appeal and specify the procedure to be fol owed (Cole, 1986).
If rules are not written down, people are likely to reriiember the rules differently and varying
approaches to discipline will occur. Employees may be uncertain as to what they can and can't
do, and supervisors and managers may adopt different approaches to discipline between different
departments, with some supervisors unsure of what authority/power they have, and can put to
use.
3.6 Appeal Procedures
The 1,-6.1 section of the disciplinary procedure should indicate what the emplo‗ cc should do, if
he or she is not happy with the action taken against him or her. There should be a clear appeal
procedure, with time limits for the submission of appeal stated. It would be too important to
leave disciplinary decisions solely to the discretion of immediate superior or committee, no
matter how powerful they are, without providing
opportunity for an appeal. Therefore, it is essential that there be some ways for employees to
initiate a review. The fol owing channels of appeals against disciplinary actions are usually
adopted.
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a. Up-the-line approach: Here, the employee should have the right to appeal, first to the
supervisor, and then the step-by-step process may continue up the line, through the Departmental
Head, Personnel
Department, General manager, and the Managing Director and Committees.
b. Personnel Director's intervention: In this approach, the appellant would simply appeal to the
Personnel Director for intervention and possible settlement.
c. Disciplinary and appeals committee: In mbst organisations, this is the committee which is
given authority to receive, hear and settle employee's appeal arising from disciplinary action. The
committee
could either overrule a line manager's decision or uphold it.
3.7 The Role of the Personnel Managers
Discipline is a sensitive issue requiring skil ful handling, and in many organisations, it has
traditionally become a function that has been left to the personnel or human resource managers.
This has been partly due to the fact that personnel managers were more likely to be trained in
skillful handling of sensitive interpersonal issues, but also many line managers were often
unwilling to handle issues that might result in their unpopularity and cause difficulties in
maintaining a suitable relationship with someone they had to work with on a daily basis. This
attitude is said to be changing as more and more human resources functions are being devolved
to line management. Line managers in many organisations are nowadays expected to handle
disciplinary matters that arise in their sections, at least, in the early stages.
The personnel or human resources managers still have several important roles to play. They
should devise the disciplinary procedure, provide specialist advice, ensure that everyone is aware
of and acts consistently with the procedures. In addition to these, they are to monitor the
effectiveness of the procedures and ensure that changes in policies are brought about when
necessary.
4.0 CONCLUSION
We have shown in this unit, the meaning and importance of disciplinary procedures in the
organisation. Both line managers and human resource managers have an extremely important
role to play in the design and implementation of procedures that are fair to all, and that cases of
discipline are dealt with in accordance with the organisation's procedures.
5.0 SUMMARY
Organisational discipline, as we have shown, arises out of the need for management to be able to
control the conduct of employees and to re-direct their energies towards the attainment of
corporate mission and objectives. Discipline is management action that encourages and ensures
compliance with laid-down rules and regulations, governing the smooth operation of an
organisation. It is management's responsibility to develop and maintain effective discipline
within the organisation. As in most peoples' management functions, discipline is a joint or shared
responsibility of all managers — human resource managers as wel as line managers:
Management must learn to maintain discipline by applying standards in a consistent, fair and
flexible manner. In the next unit, we shall have a look at the importance of grievance procedure
and consider how it is closely related to the issue of discipline.
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6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

What is discipline? List the fundamental causes of disciplinary action in industrial organisations.

7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS

Cole, G. A. (1986)Management Theory and Practice 2"° Edition, London: D.P. Publication
Ltd.,
Foot, M. and Hook, C. (1988) Introducing Human Resources Management, London:Longman,
Pigrors, P. and Myers, C.S. (1977) Personnel Administration, 8' Edition, New York: McGraw-
Hill, NY.
Torrington, D. and John Champam (1979) Personnel Management, London: Prentice
Hall,
Torrington, D. and Hall, L. (1995) Personnel Management: HRM in Action 3'd Edition,
London:Prentice Hall,

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UNIT 3 GRIEVIANCE PROCEDURES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The meaning and nature of grievance
3.2 Grievance versus discipline
3.3 Dealing with grievances
3.3.1 Grievance procedures
3.3.2 Purpose and scope of the procedure
3.3.3 The principles that underline procedure
3.3.4 The stages in the grievance procedure
3.3.5 Expectational circumstances
3.3.6 Appeals
3.4 Weakness in grievance procedures
3.5 The use of peer review
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit deals with areas of conflict which centre on particular type of disagreement within an
organisation. We shall therefore, concentrate on handling of issues of grievance. In a grievance
procedure, as noted in an earlier unit, when an employee is concerned with something
unsatisfactory
in the employer's performance, a procedure is put in place to enable the employee raise some
complaints about his/her dissatisfaction. The position of the discussion on grievance procedure is
that employer
and employee, through such procedures, are seeking to establish a good employment
relationship. Through it, both the employer and the employee have an opportunity to remedy
their dissatisfactions with each other. Through the processes of grievance, an employee seeks
adjustment to his/ her perceived dissatisfaction. In what fol ows therefore, the nature and
meaning of the concept of grievance is examined.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After you have completed this uhit, you should be able to do the fol owing:
1. Understand the meaning of the term grievance;
2. Distinguish between discipline and grievance;
3. Describe critically the main stages in a formal procedure for handling grievances within an
organisation;
4. Understand the role of human resource managers and line managers in grievance handling.
139
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
The meaning and nature of grievance The shorter Oxford English Dictionary defines grievance
as the infliction of wrong or hardship on a person, injury, oppression, a cause or source of injury
Pigers and Myers (1977) give us a useful approach to the quest ion of grievance by drawing a
distinction between the terms dissatisfaction, complaints and grievance as fol ows:
Dissatisfaction: Anything that disturbs an employee, whether or not he expresees his unrest in
words;
Complaint: a spoken or written dissatisfaction brought to the attention of the supervisor.
Grievance: a complaint which has been formally presented to management representative or to a
union official.
We shall use the term grievance as a form of dissatisfaction, about which an employee feels
sufficiently strong, that he or she formally raises the issue with his or her management
representative or supervisor. The grievance step according to Torrington and Chapman (1979), is
when a complaint is presented formally and triggers the procedural machinery, moving the issue
out of the narrow confines of the particular workplace in which it began. Grievance may arise for
a multitude of reasons. An employee may
become dissatisfied with his or her hours of work or working conditions, or he/she may feel a
supervisor shows unfair favouratism to others. Some grievance may become a collective issue
with negotiations between management and a trade union, arising over an issue such as a
collective grievance about pay or working conditions. In this unit, we shall fo cus solely on
grievance as an individual issue.
3.1 Grievance versus Discipline
Discipline action is, as we have seen in the preceding units, normally initiated by management to
express dissatisfaction with, and bring abprut changes in employee behaviour. Grievance, on the
other hand, is normally initiated by employees for similar reasons, but in respect of management
or co-worker's behaviour. That is, in a grievance situation, an employee is concerned with
something unsatisfactory in the employer's performance. There is a need for fairness and justice
in both procedures, although they
are initiated by different parties. For this reason it is sometimes suggested that they should be
viewed as complementary processes in industrial justice.
Activity
Consider what you have just learned about grievance and discipline. Write out the ways you
consider discipline and grievance to be opposite. Are there any facts which make you think that
they are not truly opposites?
As we have shown, discipline and grievance are both concerned with fairness and justice. They
differ in that the people who initiate the action in each case differ. The management initiates
disciplinary action against employees, and employees initiate grievance mainly against their
supervisor and managers. In this way, they may be considered to be opposite faces of industrial
justice. However, this disregards the balance of power in these cases.

140
3.2 Dealing with Grievances
Many factors can contribute to the extent to which a grievance may be actual or potential,
relatively unimportant or potentially serious. These include the fol owing:
i) Individual and group attitudes;
ii) Beliefs and perceptions about employee's rights;
iii) Working practices and norms;
iv) The relationship between parties, the balance of power between them and the degree of:trust
and openness;
v) The culture of the organisation also has a part to play; in role-based cultures differentiation,
between what people are expected to do or not do, grievance usually relates to rules or norms
being ignored or
broken. In cultures where rules are minimal and where autonomy is prevalent, individual
perception and interpersonal or inter-group conflict.
According to Bouwen and Salipante (1990), there are four distinct stages through which a
grievance can pass, although the time taken at each stage wil vary in individual cases. The first
of these is the individual's perception of dissatisfaction or private formulation of a grievance. The
person feels
unfairly treated or perceives an action taken by someone else as being unfair. The person feels
unfairly treated and keeps his/her dissatisfaction private. The second stage is when he/she
decides to talk to another person about it — public formulation of a grievance. At this stage, the
person is seeking
support in respect of the grievance. In the foregoing stages, it is possible to prevent the grievance
from
becoming serious. This means being aware of what is going on and more importantly, listening
to what your staff have to say. An 'open door' policy whereby employees know that you are
available to discuss their problem as they occur, is likely to provide opportunities for them to
come to you in the early stages of a grievance. Spending time with your staff, showing them
interest in what they are doing, keeping them informed about developments in the organisation,
recognising their individual differences, will al contribute to an atmosphere of trust. Perceived
fairness is important in work situations. The third stage of grievance — action fol ows the public
formulation of the grievance. This may involve a formal or informal statement of grievance to
people with authority over the situation, or such action as working to rule, decreasing
productivity in the level of service, calling in trade union support, and so on. The final stage is an
outcome in which the grievance may be settled or it may result in some form of loss to the
individual or the organisation through the ruling of an outside agency
3.3 Grievance Procedures
A grievance procedure is commonly thought of as the method, by which.an individual raises
some query or complaint about his/her pay or working conditions, and the steps which are laid
down for dealing with the matter. In order that both employees and managers are clear about
how to handle
grievances, a grievance procedure should be designed and issued to employees. A suitable
format for the grievance procedure might be to use similar headings to those used in the design
of a disciplinary procedure. This could be: the purpose or scope of the grievance procedure, the
141
principles that underlie the procedure, the stages in the grievance procedure, exceptional
circumstances and the appeals procedure.
3.3.1 The purpose and scope of the procedure
This section would indicate which employees are covered by the particular procedure. It should
also state the aim of the procedure which is to settle any grievance as near to the source of the
grievance as possible. The procedure should be simple to use, timely and rapid in operation.
3.3.2 The principles that underlie the procedure
This is likely to include some statements concerning the employer's views on fairness and
justice, and how these will be achieved. Some of these are stated below:
i) All employees have a right to raise a grievance without fear of recrimination against
themselves;
ii) Grievance will be promptly investigated within specified time limits and concerned staff
notified of outcomes;
iii) At each stage of the procedure, employee will enjoy the right to be accompanied by a trade
union representative or a chosen person;
iv) If employee is not satisfied with the outcome, they wil have a right of appeal.

3.3.3 The stages in the grievance procedure

Typically, four levels have been found to prove adequate for most grievance procedures. The
common main stages include the fol owing:
Stage 1: The employee should raise the grievance, either orally or in writing with the immediate
supervisor, who will reply within a specified time, usually days. The time-limit principle ensures
that matters are debated with some reasonable speed.
Stage 2: If the grievance has not been resolved, the employee should request an interview with
the manager, within a specified time, usually one week, to discuss the grievance.
Stage 3: If it failed to be resolved at stage 2, the employee fluid raise the grievance with the
General manager or
Stage 4: Subject to the agreement of both parties, if they still not resolved, an outside body might
be asked such as a grievance committee or external conciliation or arbitration.
The grievance of an individual can nevertheless, have collective implications. For this reason,
there is customarily an extension of grievance procedure where trade unions are recognised, to
al ow for collective endorsement of an individual grievance with which an employee has not
been successful. At such a time; it turns itself to a collective dispute (Torrington and Chapman,
1979).
3.3.4 Exceptional Circumstances
In exceptional circumstances, it may not be practicable to raise the grievance with the immediate
supervisor or managers. This may be, among other reasons, because the grievance is caused by
the manager, or to deal with the grievance with the urgency that it deserves. In such exceptional
circumstances, the grievance may be taken to the next level of management.

142
3.3.5 Appeals
A right of appeal should be specified for each step, with specified time limits within which the
appeal should be heard.

Activity
Asses your organisation's grievance procedure in terms of How simple and rapid in
operation it is.
Does it involve the immediate supervisor at any stage?
Does it provide for an appeal mechanism?
The strengths and weakness of the grievance procedure.

3.4 Weakness in Grievance Procedure

Weakness in grievance procedures which are apparent in most organizations include the
fol owing:
i) There are too many stages and the process takes too long. It should never be necessary for the
number of stages to exceed the level of management.
ii) Too few stages in practice. Often the first stage involving the immediate line managers is left
out. This undermines the line manager's position and can make the problem more difficult to
resolve.
iii) Lack of clarity about the situation while the grievance is being discussed. A dispute can be
exacerbated if there is no clear agreement, or established custom and practice, about the position
of
the aggrieved if, for example, the despute is about a change in working practice.
iv) Lack of a clear appeal mechanism, including at what point an employee is entitled to go to
external forms of mediation/conciliation/ arbitration. It is important to develop a positive attitude
towards grievances. Complaints from employees usually indicate that something is wrong, and if
ignored, employee satisfaction, morale and motivation are likely to diminish with concomitant
loss of performance. If an organisation has strong grievance procedure and actively encourages
its use, employee can express grievance openly, in the knowledge that action will be taken and
they will not be branded 'trouble makers' . Without appropriate outlet, grievances will be
repressed and ultimately debilitate the organisation. The active and sensitive uge of grievance
procedure serves to highlight potential areas of serious conflict. For example, frequent claims for
higher wages when changes have been made to job content or working practices can indicate a
need for the organisation to communicate more effectively
with its staff about planned changes. Complaints about organizational policies can point to
confusion about how they operate and the need for clarification, effective communication and
increased employee participation in decision making and / or implementation. Effective
communication of organisation's policy towards the expression of grievance and the procedures
to be fol owed is vital. In many cases, the
development and creation of such an atmosphere means that many grievances need not reach the
formal stage. If supervisors and managers encourage open relationships with their employees, the
first signs of
impending trouble can be recognised and dealt with immediately and effectively.
143
3.5 The use of peer review
A method of handling grievances which is gaining favour and popularity in some organisations is
that of peer review. In this process, grievances that cannot be resolved at supervisory or
managerial levels are referred to a committee of 'Peers' group of other employees in the
organisation — from whom a smal panel is selected by the person with the grievance, and his/
her supervisor. The benefit of this method includes the fol owing:
i) Efficiency — training peers is less costly to the organisation than bringing in outside help;
ii) Speed — grievances can be dealt with faster than through more conventional means;
iii) Perceived fairness — employees are more willing to accept the judgments of their peers than
of their supervisor in many cases;
iv) Peer review can help develop an organisational culture which includes conflict resolution,
team-work, decision making at lower levels, and employee empowerment and ownership. There
are, of course, disadvantages in peer review. It is costly in terms of time for other employees and
training is necessary. There are also occasions when employees would pre@ not to discuss
personal grievances with their peers.
4.0 CONCLUSION
We have shown in the foregoing the meaning and importance of grievance and grievance
procedures to organisation. Altmartagers, line and specialist human resource, have a vital role to
play, in the design and operation of procedures that are fair (and just) to al . It is important that
cases of grievances are dealt with promptly.
5.0 SUMMARY
As we have shown in the discussions on grievances, for grievances to be dealt with effectively, a
framework of organisational justice, as seen in the case of discipline, should be put in place. The
rules, the clarity of roles, and the steps to be taken must be clearly set out. Grievances are to be
encouraged
and not avoided as they are the tip of the dissatisfaction iceberg. If they are dealt with quickly
and fairly without delay, they wil reduce dissatisfaction, with its negative implication for
employees' performance.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Consider what you have learned about grievance and discipline. What is grievance? In what
ways do you consider discipline and grievance to be opposite?
7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHR READINGS
Foot, M. and Hook C. (1998) Introducing Human Resource Management, London: Longman,
Pigon, P. and Myers, C.S., (1977) Personnel Administration 8th Edition, New York:McGrow-
Hill,
Torrington, D. and Chapman J. (1979) Personnel Management, London: Prentice Hall,
Torrington, D. and Hal 4, (1995) Personnel Management: HRM in Action,V London:Edition,
Prentice Hall,
The unit draws on Material from B800 SR People 2, Supplementary Resources.

144
UNIT 4 COLLECTIVE BARGAINING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is collective bargaining?
3.2 Key conditions for effective, collective bargaining
3.3 Negotiation and consultation
3.4 Levels of collective bargaining
3.4.1 Industrial or centralised systems
3.4.2 Company or decentralised systems
3.5 Bargaining units
3.6 The bargaining process
3.6.1 Preparation and initial demands
3.6.2 Continuing negotiations
3.6.3 Settlement and contract agreement
3.6.4 Bargaining impasse
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked assignment
7.0 References and other resources
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Whenever people are employed in an organisation, it is necessary to establish the terms and
conditions of their employment. This may be achieved through various methods. It may be
achieved through unilateral
decision of the employer, or by an agreement between an individual employee and the employer.
It may be achieved through the government, through some kind of legislative arrangement. It
may be a collective
agreement between a group of employers organised in a trade Union/ Professional Association,
and the employees. A vital element in any modem form of constructive industrial relations, is
seen as the development of appropriate instituticinal framework, for collective determination of
terms and condition of labour. In other words, collective bargaining has come to be accepted as
the most desirable
machinery, for the regulation of labour-management relations. Thus, in what fol ows in this unit,
you will be introduced to the basic elements of collective bargaining.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
When you have completed this unit, you should be able to do the fol owing:
1. Define the collective bargaining concept;
2. Discuss the key conditions for effective collective bargaining;
3. Distinguish between negotiation and consultation;
4. Identify and discuss levels of collective bargaining, and the merits and demerits of these
levels;
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5. Explain the concept of bargaining unit.

3.0MAIN CONTENT

3.1Collective Bargaining
Collective bargaining has been variously conceived and defined. It has been defined as a process
of decision making, and its function has been recognised as a rule making process [Flanders,
1969]. As a rule-making process, the main objective of collective bargaining is to replace
unilateral action by employers, by a system in which both the employers and employee jointly
share the responsibility for the content of rules and their observance. Through the process of
collective bargaining, employment
relations has evolved from a 'prerogative contract', according to which labour power carries with
it few, if any, prescriptions on its acquisition and utilisation by management, to the 'constitutive
contract', which establishes procedures and regulations for the utilisation of labour. Collective
bargaining has also been described as a form of industrial gdvernment. As a form of internal
government of industry, it serves to
generate a common interest between employees and management, in the survival and growth of
the enterprise. Collective bargaining has also been described as a method of management, and a
method of furthering basic trade union purpose of involvement in decision making, relating to
working conditions and control over work relations. As a synthesis of the above views of
collective bargaining, it can be
regarded a§ the institutionalisation of conflict in the labour-management relations. In this
regards, it serves to displace conflict from the shop floor or workplace, where it can lead to
disruption of operations, and reconstitutes conflict in a framework of negotiations at the firm or
industrial (national) level. In organising or institutionalising conflict this way, collective
bargaining generates a common interest between employees and management, restricts
managerial or trade union arbitrary rule, and enhances the participation of workers in decision
making, relating to employment relations. This participation by employees in industrial
management can also represent a way of working towards industrial democracy.
Finally, collective bargaining has been said to represent a form of modification of market
determination of the price of labour, within a quasipolitical system. Collective bargaining, as a
decision-making process, is seen as not restricted to economic decision. It brings into the process
of decision making, ideas of social justice, distributive justice and adaptation of rules to changing
socio-political circumstances. In this form, collective bargaining represents politicisation of
labour-management relations, from the management of things to the governance of man.
3.2 Key Conditions for Effective Collective Bargaining
For effective collective bargaining to survive as a viable joint decision making process, a number
of important characteristics must evolve or be stimulated. The fol owing are some of the
prerequisites of effective, collective bargaining.
a. The social partners — labour, management, the state and its relevant agencies must evolve
appropriate organisations. Effective collective bargaining demands, among other things, the
existence of a strong
and virile trade union movement, which is willing and able to engage in meaningful negotiation
with its members, and yet not so strong as to pose a challenge to managerial responsibility for the
organisation,
146
and control of the production process. Similarly, the employers of labour (including the state)
should be well organised.
b. Social partners must demonstrate their genuine interests and readiness to enter into
meaningful agreement by the establishment of machinery for that purpose. That is, there should
be in place a negotiating machinery, which clearly spells out the power and authority of each of
the partners, as wel as define the relationships between them, the structure and scope of
collective bargaining — al to facilitate joint authorship of rules.
c. Partners must respect and observe the agreements reached at the bargaining meetings.
d. Lastly, the interest and support of the state is critical to the survival of collective bargaining, as
a process of institutionalisation of industrial conflict. The state is interested in constructive
labour-management relations, among other reasons, because of its role as a leading employer, the
manager of the economy, and above all, the maintenance of law and order in the wider polity. It
is therefore, the
responsibility of the state to seek, through the enactment of facilitative and supportive legislative
measures, to encourage the development of collective bargaining machinery, procedural and
substantive rules.
3.3 Negotiation and Consultation
According to Ubeku (1975), there is a general practice in industry that not al demands brought
by workers are subject to negotiation. Employee handbooks of several companies contain certain
items that are reserved exclusively for collective bargaining and others that are'for consultation.
Among the items for collective bargaining are wages, hours of works, leave and leave pay,
overtime pay and so on. More and more items are added to this list from time to time. Those for
consultation, where the parties do not negotiate but discuss include staffing, promotion,
discipline, training, some aspects of welfare
and safety at work. Under these agreements, the workers can go on strike if a final deadlock is
reached over items which are negotiable, but are not expected to do so over items that can only
be discussed.
3.4 Levels of Collective Bargaining
Collective bargaining can take place at various levels. Typical y, this could be at the industry or
plant levels.
3.4.1 Industrial or Centralised System
This seeks to determine, at the industry or national levels, all procedural and substantive rules,
with interpretative issues settled at local or company/ plant levels Usually, certain issues such as
disputes and basic wages and benefits are centralised, in order to ensure fairness and consistency
in decision and application. A centralised system has a number of advantages, some of which are
as fol ows:
i. It facilitates uniformity of wage rates and employment conditions, for al similar jobs
within the industry.
ii. It ensures a common approach and procedure, for the resolution of disputes and
grievances.
iii. It stimulates joint-union approach on recognition matters, and enhances negotiating
status of unions
iv. It al ows for greater predictability and control of labour cost.
147
 iv. It minimises the problems of parity claims and wage drift.
v. It facilitates the development of coherent policy on trade union recognition.
A centralised system is not without its disadvantages, some of which are the
fol owing:
i. Difficulty of accommodating the industrial relations requirements of diverse technology
products and local labour markets demand.
ii. It poses the problem of alienating lower levels of labour and management, in the
decision-making process.
iii. There is problem of effective communication when under stress.
iv. It could lead to excessive formalisation and standardisation, and thus render the
industrial relations system too inflexible to meet changing circumstances.
iv. It can induce delays in the dispute procedures as issues are pushed upwards which can
lead to erosion of the authority of local social partners.
3.4.2 Company or Decentralised System
This is a system in which guidelines on major issues on items and conditions of employment are
determined at local plant or company levels. The common merits of this model are as fol ows:
i. It provides shorter lines of communication and therefore facilitates speedier resolution of
disputes.
Local labour and management are more likely to have greater view of their responsibility for
their industrial relations.
ii. It enables management to adopt a flexible approach to local labour market demands.
The problems of this approach are many, some of which are listed below: i. Plants may be
exposed to parity claims.
It leaves a company particularly susceptible to actions by strategic groups of employees.
iii. There is difficulty of ensuring equity and uniformity for similar jobs throughout the industry
With the promulgation of the Decree 22 of 1978, decentralised labour relations in Nigeria
yielded place to a centralised labour relations system, which has since made joint collective
bargaining the practice at the national level; while each company at the plant level is left alone to
implement the final agreements.
3.4.3 Bargaining Units
This refers to the specific group or category of workers that are covered by a particular collective
agreement. Specifically, there is a relationship between bargaining levels and bargaining units.
While the former focuses on the management side of the negotiating table, the notion of unit is
concerned with the representative role of the trade unions. Individual unions or group of unions
may function as the bargaining agents for workers within given bargaining units. In some cases,
the structure of bargaining units may differ from level to level. For instance, at the company or
firm level, negotiation may be conducted separately for different categories of workers, while at
the industrial levels, agreement on certain subjects may apply to al workers in the industry, and
the bargaining unit may be industry-wide.
For the process of collective bargaining in Nigeria, perhaps the most important regulation that
was aimed at bringing some order into labourmanagement relations is the Trade Union
(Amendment) Decree No 22 of 1978. This has among other things, made it compulsory for
employers to recognise trade unions and senior staff associations. It has also streamlined
employees' representative unions into (i) industrial unions and (ii) senior staff associations
148
(white-collar unions) as representatives of clearly defined bargaining units, for the purpose of
collective bargaining. This Decree, coupled with the various Trade Disputes Decrees (Acts), can
be said to have provided a foundation for the development of comprehensive agreement,
applying to a given (or specified) group of workers.
3. 6The Bargaining Process
The collective bargaining process is typically made up of a number of stages which are discussed
below:
3.6.1 Preparation and Initial Demands
It is usual practice for labour and management to spend some time studying the situation and
preparing for negotiation. A wealth of relevant data on items like wages, benefits, working
conditions, productivity and others are collected and studied by social partners. The typical
bargaining would include initial proposals of expectations by both side.
3.6.2 Continuing Negotiations
After opening positions have been taken, each side would attempt to determine what the other
values highly, so that the best bargain can be struck. For example, the union may be asking the
employer to pay for meal break benefits, as part of a package that also includes increased wage
demands and retirement benefits. However, the union may be most interested in the wages and
retirement benefits, and may be willing to trade off the meal break for more wages.
3.6.3 Settlement and Contract Agreement
After the initial agreement has been made, bargaining parties usually return to their respective
constituencies to consult and make up their minds. A crucial stage is the ratification of the
agreement, when members vote to accept the terms of a negotiated agreement.
3.6.4 Bargaining Impasse
Regardless of the structure of the bargaining process, labour and management do not always
reach agreement on the issues. If an impasse occurs, then the disputes can be taken to further
levels for settlement. These may include the fol owing:
a. Mediation
This is a process whereby a neutral, third party enters the labour dispute when a bargaining
impasse occurs. The objective of mediation is to persuade the parties to resume negotiation and
reach a private settlement. A mediator has no power to force a settlement. Successful mediation
depends on the
tactics, diplomacy, patience and perseverance of the mediator. Section 4 (1) of the Trade Dispute
Act of 1976, provides that if within fourteen days of the date on which a mediator is appointed,
the dispute is not settled, the dispute shal be reported to the Minister by or on behalf of either of
the parties.
b.Conciliation
Section 6 (2) of the Trade Dispute Act of 1976, stipulates that the person appointed as conciliator
shal inquire into the causes and circumstances of the dispute, and endeavour to bring about a
settlement by negotiating with the parties. If a settlement of the dispute is reached within
149
fourteen days of his appointment, the person shal report the fact to the Minister. If a settlement
of the dispute is not reached within the fourteen days, and the conciliator is satisfied that he will
not be able to bring about a settlement, he shall report to the Minister, who shall, within fourteen
days of the report, refer the dispute to the industrial Arbitration Panel (IAP)
c. Arbi t ration
This is a process in which a dispute is submitted to an impartial, third party, which the IAP, to
make a binding decision. As stipulated in section 7 (3) of the Act, the IAP shall consist of a
chairman, vice-chairman and not less than ten other members, al of whom shal be appointed by
the Minister. The IAP shal make its award within forty two days of its constitution or such
longer period as the Minister may in any particular case al ow. On receipt of the award of the
IAP, the Minister shal notify the concerned
parties: Specifying the time (usually 21 days) within which to communicate acceptance or
rejection of the award. If notice of objection to the award is given to the Minister within the
stipulated period, the Ministex will, in a manner specified under section 9(3) of the Act, further
refer the dispute to the National Industrial Court, which was established by the Act.
d. National Industrial Court
Section 14(1) of the same Act provides for the establishment of a National Industrial Court,
which has jurisdiction and powers with respect to the settlement of trade disputes, the
interpretation of collective agreements, and matters therewith. The court has jurisdiction: i. to
make awards for the purpose of settling trade disputes, and to determine questions as to the
interpretation of any collective agreement, any award made by an arbitration tribunal or by the
court. on terms of settlement of any trade dispute, as recorded in any memorandum under section
6 of the Act. The award of the court is final and binding on the parties. No appeal shall lie to any
other body or person from any determination of the courts.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In the foregoing, we have looked at the concept of collective bargaining and discussed what it
means to many schools of thought, and the preconditions for its effectiveness as a useful tool, for
handling of the inherent and endemic conflict in labour-management relations. The structure of
collective bargaining and its various levels were fully examined and attention drawn to their
merits and demerits. Lastly, collective bargaining as a process and the stops in the process, which
include both internal and external decision-making processes, were discussed. It is obvious from
the discussion that collective bargaining provides a useful tool for the institutionalisation of
labour-management conflict.
5.0 SUMMARY
Collective bargaining, as the discussions in that unit have shown, occurs when management
negotiates with representatives (trade unions) of workers over wages, hours of work and other
working conditions. The issues subject to collective bargaining fall into three categories:
mandatory, permissive and loyal. The process of collective bargaining, as we have shown,
includes preparation, initial demands, negotiations and settlement.When an agreement is signed
between the parties, it becomes a document governing what parties can and cannot do. When an
impasse occurs, external processes are brought into play in efforts to achieve harmonious
relations between the parties. It is obvious therefore that while it is accepted
150
that labour-management conflict is endemic in industry, efforts have been made, through
collective bargaining, to institutionalise the conflicts of industrial relations.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
What is collective bargaining? List and discuss the necessary conditions for effective collective
bargaining.
7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS
Fashoyin Tayo (1977) 'Arbitration in Nigeria', Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, Vol. XIII
No. 2 pp. 155-6
Flander, A. (1969) The Nature of Collective Bargaining in Flanders (ed) Collective Bargaining,
London:Penguin,
Oribabor (1993) 'Recent Strike Trends and the Dynamics of Nigerian Economy', Quarterly Jour.
Of Administration vol. 1 XVII No. 192, pp. 29-49.
Yusuf, T.M. (1962) An Introduction to Industrial Relations in Nigeria, Oxford: University Press,

151
UNIT 5 MANAGING EMPLOYEES’ K20 ORGANIZATIONAL

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The need for organisational exit
3.1.1 Voluntary exit
3.1.2 Resignation
3.1.3 Retirement
3.2 Methods of redundancies
3.3 Drawbacks of strategies for voluntary redundancy
3.4 Managing redundancy
3.5 Managing dismissal
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Organisational exit is the last phase of the functional human resource management cycle. It is a
difficult phase for both the organisation and the employee. Whether employees leave through
retirement, resignation,redundancy or dismissal, the departure of employees is a traumatic time
for the organisation, as personal relationships have to be forged, working patterns altered, and
the motivation of the remaining staff buffeted. The importance of managing this exit would
suggest that this HRM function be studied most carefully, to provide some tested guidelines,
which will enable managers to effectively and sensitively manage the process. To date, it is one
aspect of the FIRM function most under-researched and underdocumented. Our aim in this unit
therefore is to sensitise you to the issues involved in this process.
2.0 OBJECTIVE
After studying the unit, you should be able to do the fol owing:
1. Recognise the importance and difficulty of exit in your organisation;
2. Recognise the different ways in which retirement may be managed and the potential benefits
for both the individuals and the organisation;
3. Weigh up the advantages and disadvantages of different ways of implementing redundancy
programmes.
3.0MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Need for Organisational Exit
The one certainty for people working in organisations today is the certainty of change. The
driving force for organisations in both the private and public sector or in both large and small
scale, is the challenge that comes from operating in a competitive and increasingly hostile
environment. In addition to environmental factors that influence organisational change, there is
152
the need to introduce process improvements, often in response to technologydriven change.
Given this, it is not surprising that the organisation's need for human resources in terms of the
number of people and their competencies will also be subject to change, and that this change will
sometimes require redundancies. These redundancies may be made across the organisation (what
has been termed the downsising of the organisation) or be limited to certain newly, redundant
jobs. Exit does not happen only because of the changed needs of the
organisation. People, too, may want to bring their employment to an end, for reasons that include
a more attractive offer from another firm, a move to a different area for personal reasons, or the
decision to retire from work. In other words, exit may be a result of the changing needs of the
people, or the changing needs of the organisation. In a rapidly changing world, it is likely that
both organisational entry and organisational exit will be more frequent in the lives of individuals
and companies than in the past, when
to some extent, they represented the monumental 'beginning' and 'end' to people's working lives.
Activity
a) How many organisations have you worked for so far in your working life?
b) How many more do you estimate you will work for before you retire?
c) How many organisations did your parent(s) work for in their professional life?
While the answers to these questions will, of course vary from person to person, most people we
asked reported that their parents had worked for significantly fewer organisations, than they
themselves expected to in their careers. There is another cause of employees' departure from the
organisation,
one which is not attributable to changes in the needs of the employer or employee: dismissal or
termination. Dismissal (or termination) may fol ow from disciplinary proceedings for
misconduct or demonstrated incompetence (declining productivity), or other incapability to do
the job. Most countries regulate dismissal with rules, to which every organization must adhere, if
the dismissal is to be considered 'fair' and legally acceptable. Unfair dismissal can leave
companies open to compensation claims and
can prove very expensive. It is therefore important that you, or someone in your organisation is
familiar with the law governing employment.
Activity
Estimate how many people have left your organisation during the last two years.
What proportion of this number left for the following reasons?
a) Changes in the needs of the organisation;
b) Changes in personal needs (including retirement);
c) Dismissal for misconduct or incapacity.
Managing exit involves different issues, depending on whether the reasons for exit correspond to
any of the above. It is useful therefore to know the relative size of each of the above categories.
Indeed, it may be important to monitor the proportion of people exiting of their own accord,
since a high rate of labour turnover (or brain drain) can represent an undesirably high outflow of
human capital. As you may recall,
'brain drain' became a major problem nationally in Nigeria in the early 1990's to merit the setting
up of a National Commission, to examine the reasons for it and identify a way out of the
153
problem. We shal now take a more detailed look at the form organisational exit takes. In
particular, we shall concentrate on three forms: retirement, redundancy and dismissal.
3.1.1 Voluntary Exit
Many instances of employees' exit will be voluntary. Changing personal needs will lead
individuals to rgsign from their jobs to pursue other activities, or to retire. This rational action of
staff ,while it may be
instigated by the employee, has important consequences for the organisation. If there is no
change in the organisation's need for human resources, it must ensure that staffing and/or training
programmes are put
in place to meet the needs of employees, with capabilities to continue to meet the organisational
goals and objectives. One of the traditional, functional tasks of personnel specialists has been to
collect information
on labour turnover rate, in order to plan ahead for timely replacement. Typically, labour turnover
may vary from one occupational group, or unit of the organisation to the other.
3.1.2 Resignation
Resignation can tel you a lot about your organisation. Some people will always leave for
unavoidable reasons, such as fol owing a partner to other parts of the country, (or out of the
country i.e. emigration). Others will quit the organisation because of dissatisfaction, of one kind
or another. You wil recall the rate of voluntary exit among employees in the Federal Civil
Service, in the late 1980's as a fol ow up to the move from Lagos to Abuja. Just as the
observation that a firm's customers are 'voting with their
feet' by switching their loyalty to another product, the labour turnover rate should be carefully
scrutinised for the message it conveys about an organisation. A sudden increase in resignations
or a level of turnover above that of experienced by other companies competing for similar staff,
may indicate problems that are specific to a unit, department, professional or occupational group,
or general to the organisation.
Traditionally, many organisations use exit interviews to glean further information on people's
reason for leaving or resigning. These interviews have advantages and disadvantages. On the one
hand, an employee may be inclined to be more frank and open, than they would otherwise be,
given that they do not have to face the consequences of being associated with negative views as a
continuing employee. On the other hand, the decision to leave is a major one for most people. A
detailed questioning of their motives may put people on the defensive, with a consequent loss of
candour.
3.1.3 Retirement
Sooner or later in their working career, most people retire from work. Retirement may seem an
automatic event: someone reaches the magic age, a big 'do' is arranged, the clock, water-colour,
golf clubs, wal clock or whatever are presented, and that is that. It is as if as a manager, you
have no influence in the matter. There is a strong sense in which this is an irrational way of
structuring retirement, both for the organisation, and for the individual. People do not became
unemployable over night. There are several retirement options available for you as a manager to
bear in mind and consider. Many may require decisions at the organizational level, but you may
be able to influence those decisions. Others you may be
154
able to do something about yourself. They will, however, mainly involve a change to the contract
of employment that will need to be agreed by both parties. The first range of options involves a
phased withdrawal rather than an abrupt one.
In option (a), there is the traditional abrupt end to employment. A typical example of this option
was the monumental mass retirement of the 1970's, when many civil servants were suddenly
retired for one reason or the other from the public sector. Option (b) involves reducing the
demands made on
the employee before retirement (in terms of reduced hours of work or reduced level of work).
Some employees approaching retirement, particularly if their health is less than perfect, may
welcome either parttime work, or work at a lower level of responsibility. In either case, the
person will have more time and energy to start expanding their out-of- work activities, so that
when retirement comes, they are more prepared. This approach, therefore, can have benefits for
the individual and for the employing organisation. However, even with this approach, the
organisation may be losing out. The retiring person does not at 60 or 65 automatically become
worthless to the organisation. All the training and experiences gained over the years may still be
extremely relevant. Many organisations are aware of this, and continue to employ the person,
sometimes on short, fixed-term contract. This employment may be either (as in 'phasing out') at a
reduced level or part-time, Or the individual may be employed as a consultant or an
outworker. Sometimes, organisations provide the machinery or other equipment to make this
form of employment possible. Options (c) and (d) represent these opportunitir
Activity
a) Consider anyone who is due to retire in the next two years in your own unit
of the organisation. How abrupt is the transition likely to be?
b) What could you as the manager do to make the transition smooth?
c) What problems might be associated with taking the above steps?
For the organisation, two of the principal problems associated with retirement in phases or
gradually are overheads and pensions payment. An employee, whose retirement is being
introduced gradually may still
feel entitled to an office, a secretary, as well as other benefits allotted to the position. If the
output of the employee is gradually declining, it could be that, even with a salary which is
shrinking pro rata, employment overheads may make it no longer worthwhile for the employer to
continue the relationship. Another problem is pension. In most organisations, occupational
pension schemes tend to be based on payments calculated as a proportion of the employee's final
salary. Under such schemes, it obviously makes no sense for the employee's retirement to be in
phases, with a shrinking salary.
3.2 Methods of Redundancies
Ideal y, the need for redundancies should be related to particular areas of work, rather than an
'across the board' affairs. Having decided to institute a programme of redundancies, several
methods for achieving the required savings are open to organisations. Depending on the
reduction in the number required, and the annual labour turnover rate of the organisation, the
easiest policy may be to restrict new recruitment and simply wait for the process of attrition to
reduce the organisation's staff to the desired number.
155
The pros and cons of this approach are similar to those of another common policy, which is to
offer a package of compensation to people willing to opt for voluntary redundancy. The
attractions of the voluntary redundancy route are reasonably easy to see: the organisation may
achieve its target reduction without forcing distress onto any of its valued employees, which in
turn may ensure that morale among the employees that remain does not suffer. IBM, for
example, reduced its staff by almost 80,000 between 1986 and 1992 without a single compulsory
redundancy This reflected the policy of top management, which stated that compulsory
redundancies change the culture of a company completely The relationship
between the enterprise and the individual changes forever, and that such a change should be
avoided, if it can be avoided. In certain industries, typically cyclical businesses, such as the
construction industry, a policy of last-in-first-out (LIFO) has been the traditional way of
al ocating redundancies among staff. The redundancies methods discussed so far share common
characteristics. They are all predicated on a perceived 'fairness' to employees, rather than on an
analysis of the needs of the business. Each of the methods mentioned has an essential roundness
from the point of view of the business. For example, a hiring freeze may disproportionately
affect one department rather than another, undermining its ability to function Voluntary
redundancy packages may see the organisation lose its star performers to competitors. 'Last-in,
First-out' may result in promising, new recruits being discharged early, while longer-serving but
mediocre performers are retained. This is not to say, however, that organisations are necessarily
misguided in using such strategies. If they are the best way to maintain staff morale, or curtail
industrial relations disputes, such methods may commend themselves. On the one hand, it is
entirely possible that
these strategies are not adopted thoughtful y, but instead reflect 'head in the sand' approach to
this traumatic issue, one which removes the need to have to choose individuals for redundancy
based on assessments of their performance or potential. A more considered strategy might be
based on a thorough assessment of the skills and competences, that will be required to meet the
future needs of the organisation. The aim should be to avoid the loss of people with key skills
and expertise.
3.3 Drawbacks of Strategies for Voluntary Redundancy
Although voluntary redundancy programmes are a popular means of achieving reductions, they
have several important drawbacks, some of which are discussed below:
i. It can cut swathes across the organisations in a random manner, since the 'volunteers' can
come from any part of the organisation, and the objective is to reach predetermined
numbers of redundant posts, rather than to focus on retaining key skills.
ii. It tends to attract employees nearing retirement age, for whom redundancy packages are
more attractive, because of long service. This can mean that the redundancy
programme may be very expensive.
iii. It creates unease in the organisation. Those who remain may begin looking for jobs
elsewhere, fearing that the next phase of restructuring may mean compulsory
redundancies.
iv. People who apply for redundancy but were not successful may feel demotivated, even if
they were not selected because they were regarded as key staff.
v. There may be syndicating, if the organisation has previously made public statements
about valuing and investing in people.
156
 vi. Additional stress is placed on those employees who remain, who are often required to
take on the responsibilities and absorb the workload of colleagues who have left.
vii. The people most likely to accept a voluntary redundancy package are those who are most
confident that they will easily be able to find jobs elsewhere — in other words, the
best skilled people may leave, and the less skilled and poorer workers may stay.
viii. People leaving may wel be older workers close to retirement. Their departure may
suddenly deprive the organisation of experience, and place too much responsibilities
in the hands of the relatively inexperienced.
3.4 Managing Redundancy
One of the reasons why redundancy is so problematic (to both managers and theorists) is that it
runs counter to many of the new but popular theories of management. In particular, those
definitions of human
resource management which emphasise the need to secure the commitment of employee to the
organisation. It is clearly problematical to attempt to secure employee commitment to the
organisation, while a programme of compulsory redundancieS is being implemented. Creating
redundancies, therefore, require careful management, if it is not to have consequences that will
undermine the policies which affect many employees of the organisation.
3.5 Managing dismissals
At some time during your career as a manager, you will probably be
required to take disciplinary action against one of your employees. In the
most serious or most persistent cases, this action will result in the dismissal
of the employee.
Your organisation should have a set of disciplinary procedure which it
utilises to handle cases of dismissal. The nuts and bolts of such a procedure
is discussed in a separate unit of this course.
Activity
Can you recall the name of any senior staff of your organisation who had to be dismissed? What
were the offences he committed?
Employees could be dismissed form their organisation for various " reasons, some of which
might include the following: Dismissal for striking: While an employer might dismiss al those
taking part in a strike, al must be re-engaged without discrimination against some, in an unfair
Way. That is to say that the striking employees must be treated as a single group.
Dismissal for misconduct: This is by far the most common cause of dismissal. However, it is
important that you have clearly specified disciplinary procedures, that employees are aware of
these procedures,
and that you fol ow the established procedures closely, if the dismissal for misconduct is to be
seen to be fair. A tribunal that would be set up, would want to be sure that the organisation's
procedure had been fol owed; so it is very important that a written record is kept of the actions
taken or agreed to, at each stage of the disciplinary procedure. The tribunal would also want to
be satisfied that dismissal was a reasonable step to take in the circumstances.
4.0 CONCLUSION
157
In this unit, we have addressed important issues relating to organizational exit, including what
typically gives rise to it, types of exits and strategies for managing them. The need for
organisational exit arises as a result of the changing needs of both the organisation, the individual
employee, or as a result of actions taken after a breach of the contract linking the firm and the
employee. Voluntary departure from the organisation was also discovered to reveal a possible
underlying dissatisfaction.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, issues relating to managing, an employee's exit have been discussed. Although exit,
(commonly referred to as retirement). From organisations, and its management normally receive
comparatively little attention in management literature, the need to make people redundant or
for people to withdraw from the organisation, has become increasingly common in many
organisations. The organisation's decision to lose members of staff is inevitably difficult and
sensitive. Similarly, dismissal is fraught with pitfalls. All issues relating to exit from the
organisation require effective management, because of the implication of its poor handling
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Define organisational exit and explain its scope.

7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS

The materials in this unit relied heavily on the Open University U.K. B800B5
Care Functions in Managing People, Session 6.

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