Vietnam National University – HCMC

Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology

Faculty of Civil Engineering

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
LABORATORY REPORT
Lecturer Nguyen Thai Binh
Lecturer Le Duc Thanh
CI2008 - CC01

TRAN VU KIM SON

1952962
[email protected]
Contents
LAB 1,2: TENSION EXPERIMENT OF DUCTILE AND BRITTLE MATERIALS ..........................................................2

LAB 3,4: COMPRESSION OF DUCTILE AND BRITTLE MATERIALS (STEEL AND CAST IRON) ...........................8

LAB 5: ELASTIC MODULUS E WHEN PULLED OR COMPRESSED .....................................................................11

LAB 6: ELASTIC MODULUS G WHEN TWISTED ................................................................................................17

LAB 7: DISPLACEMENT AND ROTATION OF CANTILIVER BEAMS SUBJECTED TO ASYMMETRIC BENDING. .21

LAB 8 :DISPLACEMENT OF CANTILIVER BEAMS SUBJECTED TO COMBINED BENDING MOMENTS ..............27

LAB 9: CRITICAL AXIAL FORCE ..........................................................................................................................30

1
LAB 1,2: TENSION EXPERIMENT OF DUCTILE AND BRITTLE
MATERIALS
1.1 The purpose of this experiment.
-Understand the relationship between force and strain when pulling steel and cast
iron samples, and identify mechanical characteristics of steel and cast iron:
+About steel: Find - Yield stress  y

- Ultimate stress  u

- Relative axial deformation (longitudinal elongation) %

- Necking ratio %
+About cast iron scissors: Find ultimate stress  u

1.2 Theoretical basis

-In the chapter about tension and compression, we can know the graph of the
relationship between tensile force and deformation. The length of the tensile specimen is
as follow:

Figure 1 Figure 2

The relationship between P-∆L when pulling cast iron

Stress limits Steel Cast iron

Yield stress  y = Py /A0 N/A

Ultimate stress  u = P u /A0  u = Pu /A0

2
Ductility properties for steel:
L1 − L0
Relative elongation (%) =  100%
L0

F0 − F1
Necking ratio (%) =  100%
F0
In which L1 is the length at failure;
L0 is the original length;
F1 is the cross-sectional area at failure;
F0 is the original cross-sectional area.
1.3 Test specimen
Based on TCVN 197-85 (197-2000), the test sample is shown in the Figure 3. The cross
section of samples can be circle or rectangle as shown in Figure 4.

For circular cross-sectional samples:

+ The length L0=10d0 or 5d0.
+ The length L= L0 + d0.
+ d0o is the diameter of the cross section.
For rectangle cross-sectional sample
+ The cross sectional area A0 = a0 x b0

+ The length L0 =11.3√𝐹𝑜 for long sample; L0 = 5.65 √𝐹𝑜 for short sample;
L0 = 4√𝐹𝑜 for brittle sample.
+ The length L = L0 + b0/2
The radius R and the head size of specimen depend on the testing machine.

3
1.4 Experimental tools
- A caliper with precision 1/50mm.
- A technical scale with precision 0.01g.
- A marking tool to mark spacing on the sample.
- Tension testing machine M.A.N.
1.5 Preparing for the experiment
- Measure the diameter do, L0 for rectangular samples or a0 and b0 for circular samples.
- Marking N equal 1-cm intervals on the length Lo of specimens. These marks are then used
to determine the length L1 at failure.
- Predict the materials’ stress limits and tensile strength of the specimen to determine the
appropriate load levels.
- Select the tensioning clamp and load level of the machine appropriately to the specimen.
- Place the specimen in the tensioning clamp, control the force and pen on the plotter.
1.6 Experiment procedure
Slowly increase the tension force, monitor the force meter and the plotter, and read the yield
force Py (where the force does not increase but the deformation increases), and the ultimate
force Pu (maximum force when the specimen is failed) based on the force-deformation
graph.
When the specimen is failed, release the force and take the specimen.
1.7 Calculation
For steel
We have 10 divisions based on L0 =14 cm
Determine the length L1 of the specimen at failure: L1 =17.102 cm
L1 − L0 17.102 − 14
Relative elongation (%):  =  100% =  100% =22.16%
L0 14

F0 − F1
Calculate the necking ratio:  =  100%
F0

With d0= 1.414 cm => F0 = (1.4142𝜋)/4 = 1.57 (cm2 )

d1= 0.944 cm => F1 = (0.9042𝜋)/4= 0.64 (cm2 )

With d0, d1 are the initial and failure diameter of sample

F0, F1 are the initial and failure area of cross section

1.57 − 0.64
 =  100% =59.24%
1.57
Through the experiment, we can determine that Py = 49000 N, Pb 56000 N
4
 Yield stress  y = Py/F0 = 31210.2 (N/cm )
2

Ultimate stress  u= Pu/F0 = 35668.8 (N/cm )

2

Graph P-∆L

56000N

49000N

∆L
For cast iron
Ultimate stress  u = Pu/F0 = 38500/1.57 = 24522.3 (N/cm2)

Graph

1.8 Comments on the results

- After clamping the sample, start increasing the force step by step. In the first stage, we see
that the force increases and the strain also increases. P and ∆L are related to each other in a
first-order straight line. This stage is called the elastic phase.
-Then continue to increase the load, but the load meter increases insignificantly while the
strain gauge increases rapidly, the graph has an almost horizontal curve. This stage is called
the yield phase. We can determine Py = 49000(N), the stress of yield strength is  y =
31210.2 (N/cm2).

5
- Continue to load the load meter increases and the strain meter also increases, so the
material begins to cope with the force, the graph has a curve that does not follow a definite
function. This stage is called the re-stable stage, Pu =56000 (N) is determined, the stress of
the ultimate strength is  u = 35668.8 (N/cm2) and at this position the sample begins to
appear constricted. .
- Continuing to increase the load, we see that the strain gauge increases but the load meter
fluctuates and after a while, there is an explosion and the sample is broken at the knot
position.
- Then take out the sample to check, we see that the diameter at the waist is only 0.944
(mm), 0.47 (mm) down compared to the original, the relative constriction is 59.24%. The
length after breaking is 17.102 (cm), increasing by 3.102 (mm), we determine the relative
elongation is 22.16%.
- When starting to increase the load for P, the strain increases, after a period of time, until P
is large enough to make the ribbed steel bar break. Observing the severed steel section, the
knot formation is not significant.

Testing specimens

Testing machine

6
 Cast iron

Steel

7
LAB 3,4: COMPRESSION OF DUCTILE AND BRITTLE MATERIALS
(STEEL AND CAST IRON)
2.1 Objectives
Find yield compression stress for steel and ultimate compression stress for cast iron.

2.2 Theoretical background

In this chapter, the relationship between longitudinal elongation L and the tension force P as
shown in the Figure 8.

Figure 8 Figure the relationship between P-∆L

when compress cast iron

Yield stress: y =Py/A0

2.3 Test specimen

Cylinder specimen with the height h, the depth d0 and 1 h/d0  3 is shown in figure 9

2.4 Experimental tools

A caliper with precision 1/50mm

8
2.5 Preparing for the experiment
-Measured d0 and h

-Calculate A0, the predicted largest force for determining the load level of the machine.

- Place the specimen between the two compressing plates to be ready for axial compression.
- Adjust the number 0 (if required), control the diagram plotter.

2.6 Experiment procedure

- Turn on the machine to increase the force slowly.
- Observe the force-deformation diagram and read force Py in the yield stage, continue to increase
the force to 70-80% of the load level and then stop.
- Release the force and take the specimen.

2.7 Calculation
For steel
20

Figure of steel before Figure of steel

being compressed after being compressed

For cast iron

Ultimate stress when compression:u =Pu/F0 =123000/(𝜋1.642/4) = 58227 (N/cm2)
Pu: Force when the sample is damaged

F0: Area of cross section, F0= (𝜋d2/4)

9
 Initial Failure

2.8 Comments on the results

- Mechanical properties of steel in compression.

Steel is a material that has good compressive strength and does not break apart like it does when
pulled.
In the compression process, it is very difficult to determine Pch.
Two compression and drag processes for σchk≈ σchn. P increases much, ∆L increases little under
compression.
Explain the type of steel sample and failure mode after testing.
The sample has the shape of a drum after compression because under the action of force P and the
friction of the table, it prevents the expansion of the two ends, leading to the sample having a blank
shape (different from the hypothesis of a round prismatic shape).
- For a flowing (horizontal) material there is no plastic deformation, other than showing elastic
deformation. One feature of crevice failure is that the two broken faces can be joined together to
restore the original material form. The stress-strain curve for flowing materials has a linear form.
Mechanical testing on many identical samples will have different stress-strain results. The tensile
strength is very small compared to the compressive strength and it is generally assumed to be zero
for many applications. It can be explained by the Stress Strength Factor associated with defects in
the material.
-When P reaches the value of PB, the sample is broken, because on the contact surface between the
sample and the table there is no lubrication, so the crack is inclined at an angle of 450 to the
direction of the shaft. The broken cross-section in the above experiment is an ellipse.

Cast iron Steel

10
LAB 5: ELASTIC MODULUS E WHEN PULLED OR COMPRESSED

1. Objectives
Determine the elastic modulus E when pulled or compressed steel specimens and check the Hooke's
law.

2. Theoretical background
In the elastic stage of axial loading, materials follow Hooke's law and we have:
𝑃⁄
𝐴0 𝑃𝐿0
E= 𝐿⁄ =
𝐴0 𝐿
𝐿0

Where:
P : tension (or compression) force;
Lo : initial (original) length.
L : elongation of the length Lo when subjected to force P.
Ao : cross-sectional area of the specimen.
Because L is small, so it is determined using an optic strain gauge.

Measure strain using optic strain gauges:

An optic strain gauge is a magnifying tool which is used to measure small deformation. The gauge
system consists of an absolutely rigid metal rod represented for a standard level (1), one end is
pointed, other end has V-groove (see figure); The rhombus knife (3) is attached to the rigid metal rod
with reflective mirror. A linear ruler of the order of magnitude to mm (5) is attached to the tripod
system, and this tripod has a system of lens (6), the system of lens can be adjusted to clearly see the
image of the ruler reflecting via the mirror.

11
12
Using the optic strain gauge to indirectly find the deformation L corresponding to the initial Lo of
the specimen under the effect of the force P with two strain gauge on the sides of the specimen under
zero force (or force Po), the mirror is in the initial position, looking through the lens we read the
reading A0 on the ruler A, and B0 on the ruler B; Applying the P force to the specimen (at which
the force acting is P1 = P0 + P), the Lo specimen elongates an amount L, the rhombus end
contacting to the specimen also move accordingly; consequently, the mirror is rotated an angle α and
the reflecting light rotates an angle 2α so we read the number A1 on the ruler A and B1 on the ruler
B .... Set the distance A0A1 = A1, the distance from the mirror to the ruler is L, the diagonal of the
rhombus knife is a as shown, since α is a small angle, we have:
L
  tan  =
a
A1
2  tan 2 = ;
LB
Thus :
𝛼
L = 𝐴1
2LB

We see that the readings A1 and B1 on the A and B scale corresponding to the elongation LTB
of the specimen times the magnification factor m.
m = 2L / a (e.g. mB corresponds to LB ...) with a = 4.5mm
So from a small deformation L on the specimen, we used the amplifier to read a large value L
through the magnification factor m.

For example: with a = 4.5mm, LB = 2250mm the magnification factor is:

m = 2x2250 /4.5=1000 times
We can change m by changing LB; The larger LB is, the larger the magnification factor is, but when
the distance between the LB is large, the lens system is far away from the ruler, thus the reading will
not be clear.
Test specimen
Similar to the specimen subjected to axial loading, the cross section can be rounded or rectangular.
The length of the specimen depends on the gauge length which is 100 or 200mm. The specimen end
depends on the clamp.

3. Experimental tools
1. A caliper with precision 1/50mm
2. Steel ruler
3. A pairs of optic strain gauges A and B with the magnification factors mA and mB.

4. Preparing for the experiment

Measure the dimension of the cross section, calculate Ao and predict the yield force in order to set
the force level for the machine.
Place the specimen into the machine clamps, install strain gauge and adjust to clearly see the ruler.
13
Measure the distances LA and LB from the mirror to the rulers of the two strain gauges.
5. Establish the result Table:

No. Loads Readings

Force Increment A B
P(kG,N) P Reading Increment Reading Increment
P0 A0 B0
1 P1 P=P1 -P0 A1 A=A1 -A0 B1 B=B1 - B0

2 P2 P=P2-P1 A2 B2
. . . . ……….. . ………….
. . . . .

n Pn P=Pn-Pn-1 An An=An -An-1 Bn Bn=Bn - Bn-1

 Ai  Bi

6. Experiment procedure:
Increase the force from zero to the initial force P0 =100 kG (1000N) or 200kG(2000N) in order to set
tup the initial state of the experiment.
Increase the force each equal amount P, record the readings ion the two strain gauges.

7. Experiment data :

P= 400 kg
a = 4.5mm
LA = 1,22 m
LB= 1,26 m
d0 = 26 mm → Area = 531 mm2
L0 = 100 mm

No. Loads Readings

Force Increment A B
P(kG,N) P Reading Increment Reading Increment
800 12.4 30.3
1 1200 400 12.6 0.2 30.5 0.2
2 1600 400 12.8 0.2 30.65 0.15
3 2000 400 13 0.2 30.85 0.2
4 2400 400 13.2 0.2 31 0.15
5 2800 400 13.4 0.2 31.2 0.2
1 0.9

14
 8. Calculation
Calculate the average increment of the readings on the left and the right:

 A  B
𝐴𝑎𝑣𝑒 = , 𝐵𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2𝐿𝐴
, and the magnification factors: 𝑚𝐴 =
𝑛 𝑛 𝑎

1
ave = = 0.2 (cm) = 2 mm
5
0.9
ave = 5 = 0.18 (cm) = 1.8 mm

2𝐿𝐴 2×1220
mA = = = 542.2
𝑎 4,5

2𝐿𝐵 2×1260
mB = = = 560
𝑎 4,5

Calculate the average elongation:

1 𝐴𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐵𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝐿𝑎𝑣𝑒 = ×( + )
2 𝑚𝐴 𝑚𝐵

1 2 1.8
𝐿𝑎𝑣𝑒 = ×( + ) = 3.45 × 10−3
2 542.2 560

Calculate the elastic modulus :

P. 𝐿0
𝐸=
𝐿𝑎𝑣𝑒 . 𝐴0

400 × 100 𝑘𝑔
𝐸= = 21834.66 ( )
3.45. 10−3 × 531 𝑚𝑚2

Draw the graph representing the relationship between Pi and the reading Ai and Bi.

Relationship between Pi and the reading Ai

13.6
13.4
13.2
13
A (cm)

12.8
12.6
12.4
12.2
12
11.8
800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800
P (kg) A

15
 Relationship between Pi and the
reading Bi
31.4
31.2
31
30.8
B (cm)

30.6
30.4
30.2
30
29.8
800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800
P (kg

Column3

9. Comments on the results:

- The average increment of the readings A and B are arounds 𝐴𝑎𝑣𝑒 and 𝐵𝑎𝑣𝑒 with a
very small error so we can state that they are P constant
- From the result and graphs, we can determine Hooke’s law accuracy
- Graph describe relationship between P and A or B is a straight line
- Accuracy of measuring instruments, measurements and calculation methods are quite
accurate, not too complicated for experimenters. Pay close attention to the process of reading
results so that the error is minimal
- Compare the E result found in the experiment with E calculated by the formula:
-
Etheory= 20000 kg/mm2
-
Ecalculated = 21834.66 kg/mm2
- For E obtained from the experiment we can calculate :
𝐸𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 − 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 20000 − 21834.66
%∆= | | 𝑥100% = | | 𝑥100% = 9.17%
𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 20000
- With a error %∆= 9.17 %, so the results are relative accurate.

16
LAB 6: ELASTIC MODULUS G WHEN TWISTED

6.1 Objectives
- Determine the shear modulus G of the steel and test Hooke's law.

6.2 THEORETICAL BASIS

- In pure twisting of a circular cross-section bar, the relative torsion angle between the two
cross sections A and B at a distance LAB equal to:
𝑀 𝐿 𝑀 𝐿
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑧 𝐴𝐵 => G = 𝑧 𝐴𝐵
𝐺𝐼𝑃 𝐼𝑃 .𝐴𝐵
Where: Mz - torque (constant over LAB length)
IP - the polar moment of inertia of the cross-section. If we determine get Mz ,
LAB, IP and measuring AB, G can be inferred.

6.3 SAMPLE FOR EXPERITMENT

Measuring instruments slip modulus G
The test specimen (1) is a bar with a circular cross-section, one end is clamped to the jaw,
the other end put in ball bearings (bearings) (2) can be rotated freely, outside there is 1 spare
end to attach a crossbar (3) for hanging weights producing torque Mz. Between mount and
ball bearing fitted with 2 crossbars (4) at A and at B, at the end of each crossbar, place a
successive displacement (see figure).
When placing the weight, the bar is subjected to pure torsion, at A, B there are torsion
angles A, B (angle absolute twist between A, B with the jaws) causes the two horizontal
bars (4) to rotate and the ends of the two rods horizontal displacement. With the
displacement meter we can measure the displacements A, B and have.
∆𝐴 ∆𝐵
𝐴 ~
̃ 𝑡𝑔𝐴 = 𝜑𝐵 ≈ 𝑡𝑔𝜑𝑩 =
𝑎 𝑎

From there we get: 𝜑𝐴𝐵 = 𝜑𝐴 − 𝜑𝐵 displacement meter

6.4 TOOLS – EXPERIENCE EQUIPMENT

- Calipers; Weighing hangers and weights
- Two displacement meters accurate to 0.01mm

17
6.5 TEST PREPARATION
4
- Measure the inferred diameter of the sample 𝐼𝑃 = 𝜋𝑑
32
0

- Measure distance b to deduce the maximum load class (weight) placed on the system
- Measure distance LAB and a
- Attach the weight hanger to the system
- Set the displacement next to the horizontal bar
- Create a table to record the results as follows:

No. Load Readings on displacement (x10-2mm)

Force Increments A B
P(kG,N) P Readings Difference Readings Difference
P0=1 A0=0 B0=0
1 P1=2 P=P1-P0=1 A1=5.8 A1=A1-A0=5.8 B1=2.9 B1=B1-B0=2.9
2 P2=3 P=P2-P1=1 A2=11.8 A2=6 B2=6 B2=3.1
3 P3=4 P=P3-P2=1 A3=17.8 A3=6 B3=8.9 B3=2.8
. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .
P=1 nAi=17.8 nBi=8.8

6.6 CONDUCTING EXPERIMENT

- See the weight of the hanger and crossbar (3) as the initial load P0, read A0, B0 over 2
displacement meters (reads can be adjusted to 0) - Put a 1kG weight on the hanger (i.e. P1 =
P0 + P= P0 +1kG) read the readings A1, B1 corresponding.
- Place one more 1kg weight in turn on the hanger and read the corresponding readings.

18
6.7. CALCULATION
- a=100mm, b=380mm, d0=20mm, LAB=100mm
- Calculate the torsion moment (torque): Mz = P.b = 1.380 = 380 kg.mm
- Calculate the average of the two reading numbers on displacement meters:
∆𝐴𝑖 17.8x10−2 ∆𝐵𝑖 8.8x10−2
∆𝐴𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑛
= 3
= 5.93𝑥10−2 𝑚𝑚; ∆𝐵𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑛
= 3
= 2.93𝑥10−2 𝑚𝑚
- Calculate the average angle of twist at A and B:
∆𝐴𝑎𝑣𝑒 5.93𝑥10−2 ∆𝐵𝑎𝑣𝑒 2.93𝑥10−2
𝜑𝐴,𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑎
= 100
= 5.93𝑥10−4 ; 𝜑𝐵,𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑎
= 100
= 2.93𝑥10−4
- Calculate the average relative angle of twist between A and B:
∆𝜑𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝜑𝐴,𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝜑𝐵,𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 5.93𝑥10−4 − 2.93𝑥10−4 = 3𝑥10−4
- Calculate the elastic modulus G when twisted:
∆𝑀 .𝐿 380𝑥100
𝐺 = 𝑧 𝐴𝐵 = 𝜋𝑥204
= 8063 kg/mm2
∆𝜑𝑎𝑣𝑒 .𝐼𝑃 3𝑥10−4 𝑥
32

- Plot the relationship between P and the numbers Ai and then Bi.

Relationship between P and A Relationship between P and A

20 10
18 17.8 9 8.9
16 8
14 7
12 6 6
A (x10-2)

11.8
B (x10-2)

10 5
8 4
6 5.8 3 2.9
4 2
2 1
0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
P (kG) P (kG)

6.8. COMMENT ON THE RESULTS

- Comment on the linearity of the readings on the displacement (Hooke's law test):
The graph represents the relationship P and the readings Ai and Bi are straight lines
because the values of ∆A and ∆B fluctuate slightly around the mean value. Combined with
the graph, we see that Hooke's law is satisfied.
- Compare the G result found in the experiment with G calculated by the formula:
𝐸
𝐺𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 = or Gtheory=8100kg/mm2
2(1+𝜇)

- For E, μ obtained from the experiment we can calculate Gtheory. (E = 200.000N / mm2,  =
0.3)
𝐺𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 − 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 8100 − 8063
%∆= | | 𝑥100% = | | 𝑥100% = 0.46%
𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 8100

- With a small error %∆=0.46%, so the results are relative accurate.

19
- Accuracy of measuring instruments, measurements and calculation methods are quite
accurate, not too complicated for experimenters. Pay close attention to the process of
reading results so that the error is minimal.

20
LAB 7: DISPLACEMENT AND ROTATION OF CANTILIVER BEAMS
SUBJECTED TO ASYMMETRIC BENDING.
7.1. Objectives
Measure the displacement (deflection) and the angle of twist (at a number of cross sections)
of a rectangular beam under asymmetric bending. Compare the measured results with the
value calculated according to the formula in order to check the formula.

7.2. Theoretical background

A cantilever beams with the stiffness EIx is subjected to the force P as shown The
displacements at B, C and D are:
𝑃𝐿3𝐶 𝑃𝐿2𝐶 𝑃𝐿2𝐵
𝑦𝐶 = ;𝑦 = (3𝐿𝐷 − 𝐿𝐶 ); 𝑦𝐵 = (3𝐿𝐶 − 𝐿𝐵 )
3𝐸𝐼𝑥 𝐷 6𝐸𝐼𝑥 6𝐸𝐼𝑥

𝑃𝐿2𝐶
𝜑𝐶 =
2𝐸𝐼𝑥
It is possible to use displacement meters to directly measure the displacements at points B,
C and D on beams, and then compare with the displacement calculated using the theoretical
formula above. In addition, the beam's elastic line in the CD segment is the first order, so
it is possible to calculate the angle of twist at C based on the displacements:
𝑦𝐷 − 𝑦𝐶
𝜑𝐶 =
𝐿𝐷 − 𝐿𝐶

D B A

yC
yD yB LB

7.3. Test specimen

The specimen is a rectangular cross sectional beams (or any shape) beams as shown below:

21
7.4. Experimental tools
A caliper with precision 1/50mm
Steel ruler
Electronic displacement meters (mm)
Weights

7.5. Prepating for the experiment

Measure the dimensions b and h of the specimen cross section and distance LB, LC, LD.
Install the displacement meters at positions B, C, D.
Place the weight to create the force at C.
Record of the results:
Load Reading (mm)
p ∆p at B at C at D
No kG (N) kG (N) Reading Increment Reading Increment Reading Increment

1 P0 0 0 0

2 2 0.22 0.3 0.4

3 4 2 0.62 0.4 1.3 1 2.02 1.62

4 6 2 1.01 0.39 2.29 0.99 3.62 1.6
5 8 2 1.39 0.38 3.27 0.98 5.25 1.63
6 10 2 1.78 0.39 4.23 0.96 6.9 1.65

Therefore,
∑ △𝐵 = 1.56; ∑ △𝐶 = 3.93; ∑ △𝐷 = 6.5

7.6. Experiment procedure

-Consider the weight of the hanger is P0, adjust the displacement meter to 0.

22
- Place the weights to create the force P1, P2, P3, ... with the constant loading increment of
ΔP.
- Control the number of readings by the linearity between force and displacement.

7.7. Calculation
𝑏ℎ3 30.64
E= 175000 (𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 ) ; 𝐼𝑥 = = = 160 (𝑚𝑚4 )
12 12

(a)
𝑃𝐿3𝐶 2. 3503
𝑦𝐶 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 = = = 1.02 (𝑚𝑚)
3𝐸𝐼𝑥 3.175000.160

𝑃𝐿2𝐶 2. 3502
𝑦𝐷 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 = (3𝐿𝐷 − 𝐿𝐶 ) = (3.500 − 350) = 1.677 (𝑚𝑚)
6𝐸𝐼𝑥 6.175000.160

𝑃𝐿2𝐵 2. 2002
𝑦𝐵 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 = (3𝐿 )
𝐶 − 𝐿𝐵 = (3.350 − 200) = 0.405 (𝑚𝑚)
6𝐸𝐼𝑥 6.175000.160
(b)
∑ △𝐷 6.5
𝑦𝐷 = = = 1.625 (𝑚𝑚)
𝑛 4

∑ △𝐵 1.56
𝑦𝐵 = = = 0.39 (𝑚𝑚)
𝑛 4

∑ △𝐶 3.93
𝑦𝐶 = = = 0.9825 (𝑚𝑚)
𝑛 4
(c)
△𝑃 𝐿2𝐶 2. 3502
𝜑𝐶 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦 = = = 4.375 × 10−3 = 0𝑜 0′ 15.75"
2𝐸𝐼𝑥 2.175000.160

𝑦𝐷 − 𝑦𝐶 1.625 − 0.9825
𝜑𝐶 = = = 4.283 × 10−3 = 0𝑜 0′ 15.42"
𝐿 𝐷 − 𝐿𝐶 500 − 350
(d)

23
 Relationship between Force and displacement A
12

10

8
P (N)

0
0 0.22 0.62 1.01 1.39 1.78
B (mm)

Series 1

Relationship between Force and displacement B

12

10

8
P (N)

0
0 0.3 1.3 2.29 3.27 4.23
B (mm)
Series 1

24
 Relationship between Force and displacement C
12

10

8
P (N)

0
0 0.4 2.02 3.62 5.25 6.9
B (mm)

Series 1

Angle of twist
Displacement at Displacement at Displacement at
at C Note
B (mm) C (mm) D (mm)

Theory 0.405 1.02 1.677 0o0’15.75”

Experiment 0.39 0.9825 1.625 0o0’15.42”

Error (%) 3.7% 3.67% 3.4% 2.1%

25
 7.8. Comments on the results
The read numbers are almost linear. Based on the graph, we see that the values of
△ 𝐵𝑖, △ 𝐶𝑖, △ 𝐷𝑖 are almost constant. The graph of the relationship between forces and
displacements B, C, D is a linear function. This means that when the force P increases by
a constant amount of △ 𝑃, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 △ 𝐵,△ 𝐶,△ 𝐷 increase by a constant amount. Observing,
we see that the recorded data has errors between the practical values and the theoretical
values. The cause may be due to inaccurate operator mamipulation, inaccurate reading and
recording data, testing tools and testing procedure.

26
LAB 8 :DISPLACEMENT OF CANTILIVER BEAMS SUBJECTED TO
COMBINED BENDING MOMENTS
8.1. Objectives
Determine the direction and total displacement f of cantilever beams (console beams) subjected
to combined bending moments.
Compare with the theoretical results.

8.2. Theoretical background

A cantilever beam are subjected to a force P, the angle between the force P and the symmetry axis
y is , the displacement at the free end of the beam consists of:
𝑃𝑦 𝑙 3 𝑃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑𝑙 3
• The displacement in y direction: fy = =
𝐸𝐼𝑥 𝐸𝐼𝑥

𝑃𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑𝑙 3 𝑃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑𝑙 3
• The displacement in x direction: fx = =
𝐸𝐼𝑦 𝐸𝐼𝑦
𝑏ℎ3 𝑏ℎ3
In which, l is the distance from the load P to the fixed end; 𝐼𝑥 = ; 𝐼𝑦 =
12 12

The total displacement of the center O: 𝑓 = √𝑓𝑥2 + 𝑓𝑦2

𝑓𝑥
The angle between the displacement f and the symmetry axis y is : 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 =
𝑓𝑦

The displacements f x and fy can be measured by using displacement meters. Then, the total
displacement f and the angle  are determined.

8.3. Test specimen

The steel cross-section bxh and suspension system are arranged as shown in the following figure:

27
8.4. Experimental tools

A caliper with precision 1/50mm

A plumb line
A protractor
8.5. Preparing for the experiment
+ Measure b, h and l.
+ Place the specimen, measure the angle , place the displacement meters and the
+ Place the specimen, measure the angle , place the displacement meters and the weight
hanger.
+ Record the results:

No Load Reading (10-2mm)

P ΔP X axis Y axis
(kG,N) (kG,N) x Δx y Δy
1 33 23
1 2 1 70 37 56 33
2 3 1 109 39 91 35
3 4 1 147 38 122 31
4 5 1 188 41 155 33
5 6 1 222 34 189 34
189 166

8.6. Experiment procedure

- Consider the hanger weight and bar weight as the initial load P0, read the numbers on two
displacement meters x0, y0.
- Place the 1kG weights (i.e. add P = 1kG) to create the load P1, P2. Record the displacements
x1, y1, x2, y2 corresponding to each load.
- The increment of the displacement should be a constant. If not, it is necessary to review the
layout of the experiment and redo.
8.7. Calculation:
b = 12mm; h = 18mm; 𝜑 = 300 ; L = 500mm; 𝛥P = 1kG; E = 20 000 N/mm2
𝛴𝛥𝑥 𝛴𝛥𝑦
- Calculate 𝑓𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑒 = , 𝑓𝑦,𝑎𝑣𝑒 = .
𝑛 𝑛

𝛴𝛥𝑥 1
=> 𝑓𝑥,𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑛
= 5 ⋅ 189 = 37.8(10−2 𝑚𝑚) = 0.387(𝑚𝑚)
𝛴𝛥𝑦 1
=> 𝑓𝑦,𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑛
= 5 ⋅ 166 = 33.2(10−2 𝑚𝑚) = 0.332(𝑚𝑚)

- Calculate Ix, Iy.

𝑏ℎ3 12⋅183 ℎ𝑏 3 18⋅123
 12
= 12
= 5832𝑚𝑚4 ; 12
= 12
= 2592𝑚𝑚4

28
 𝑓𝑥
- Calculate 𝑓 = √𝑓𝑥2 + 𝑓𝑦2 and tan𝛼 = 𝑓𝑦 => 𝛼

=> 𝑓 = √𝑓𝑥2 + 𝑓𝑦2 = √37 ⋅ 82 + 33.22 = 50.3(10−2 𝑚𝑚) = 0.503(𝑚𝑚)

𝑓𝑥 37.8
=> 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛 33.2 = 48.710

- Draw graph representing the relationship between the load P and 𝑓𝑥 , 𝑓𝑦

Relationship between P and fy

200
180
160
Reading y axis

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8
Load P ( kG,N)

Relationship between P and fx

250

200
Reading x axis

150

100

50

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Load P ( kG,N)

- Calculate 𝑓𝑥 , 𝑓𝑦 based on theory

𝑥 𝑃 𝑙3 𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑𝑙 3 1⋅𝑠𝑖𝑛 300 ⋅5003

=>𝑓𝑥 = 3𝐸𝐼 = 3𝐸𝐼𝑦
= 3⋅2000⋅2592
= 0.402𝑚𝑚
𝑦

29
 𝑃𝑦 𝑙 3 𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑𝑙 3 1⋅𝑠𝑖𝑛 300 ⋅5003
=>𝑓𝑥 = = = = 0.309𝑚𝑚
3𝐸𝐼𝑥 3𝐸𝐼𝑥 3⋅2000⋅5832

8.8. Comments on the results

- The graph shows that the relationship between P, fx, fy is a linear first-order relationship.
- The difference between the theory and experiment.
𝑓𝑥,𝑡ℎ − 𝑓𝑥,𝑒𝑥 0.402−0.378
=> %𝛥𝑓𝑥 = | |= | | = 5.97%
𝑓𝑥,𝑡ℎ 0.402
𝑓𝑦,𝑡ℎ − 𝑓𝑦,𝑒𝑥 0.309−0.3332
=> %𝛥𝑓𝑥 = | 𝑓𝑦,𝑡ℎ
|= | 0.309
| = 7.44%
𝑓𝑡ℎ − 𝑓𝑒𝑥 0.507−0.503
=> %𝛥𝑓𝑥 = | 𝑓𝑡ℎ
| = | 0.507
| = 0.79%

- High accuracy
- The cause of the error: reading the measurement result cannot be accurate, the device is
not stable

LAB 9: CRITICAL AXIAL FORCE

9.1. Objectives
Determine the critical axial force of a bar and compare the experimental value with the
theoretical value.
9.2. Theoretical background
The critical axial force of a bar is determined by Euler's formula as follows

- Two pin connections μ = 1 (case 1)

- One pin and one fix μ = 0.7 (case 2).

30
- Two fixed ends μ = 0.5 (case 3)
- One fixed end and one free end μ = 2 (case 4)

Thus, determine the critical force by direct method as follows:

We need to gradually increase the value of the compression force P and note the force value
when the bar is bent without returning to the original form and the theory has shown that
the force P is the critical force.

9.3. Test specimen

The pattern is a straight line, having a rectangular section bxh, length L, connected at two
ends corresponding to four cases in the left-to-right order with the experimental model as
shown below.

9.4. Experimental tools

A caliper with precision
1/50mm Weights
The device consists of a steel frame (1) containing four steel bars (2). The grid
board (3) isinterlaced to clarify the instability of the steel bars. The connections allow
illustrating all types of instability Euler. While the lower connections (4) are fixed
permanently to the frame, the upper connections (5) can move vertically (and
horizontally in the second case) and have a plate (6) to place the weights. The steel bars
are fixed with vis (M5) at the connections.
Steel bars (2) are made of spring steel of cross section b x h and the length L with
elastic modulusE.

31
 The load is applied using a set of 5N and 1N scales.

9.5. Preparing for the experiment

Measure the cross-sectional dimension bxh and the length L of the sample, calculating
the critical Euler force according to theoretical formula to determine the maximum load
for four cases.
𝑁
( b= 0.5mm, h= 12mm, L= 180mm, E= 210000 )
𝑚𝑚2

Check that the sample is properly positioned and upright.

𝜋2 𝐸𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜋2 ×210000×0.125
Case 1: 𝑃𝑡ℎ = (𝜇𝐿)2
= (1×180)2
= 8𝑁
𝜋2 𝐸𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 2
𝜋 ×210000×0.125
Case 2: 𝑃𝑡ℎ = (𝜇𝐿)2
= (0.7×180)2
= 16.3𝑁
2
𝜋 𝐸𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 2
𝜋 ×210000×0.125
Case 3: 𝑃𝑡ℎ = (𝜇𝐿)2
= (0.5×180)2
= 32𝑁
2
𝜋 𝐸𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 2
𝜋 ×210000×0.125
Case 4: 𝑃𝑡ℎ = (𝜇𝐿)2
= (2×180)2
= 2𝑁

9.6. Experiment procedure

- Place the weights from the P1, P2,..., P4 values and monitor until it becomes unstable.
- Record the destabilized bar value and redraw the instability profile for the four cases.
- Carefully slowly place the weights.
- Record the results in the table.

32
 Pth(theory) Pth (experiment) Error % Note
(N) (N)
8 7 12.5 𝜇=1
16,3 16 1.84 𝜇 = 0.7
32 31 3.125 𝜇 = 0.5
2 2 0 𝜇=2

9.7. Comments on the results

From the results, the errors between theory and practice is quite insignificant, the
accuracy of the experiment is also high. The cause is due to friction, the bar is not
straight, not stable, errors of tools and equipment. However, the errors of the results are
acceptable. The determination of Pth is highly accurate.

33
34