Assignment no 1

Name Zarmeena Israr

Reg No 21PCR0091

Course code 8610 (Humam Development and Learning)

QUESTION NO 1: Explain general principles of development?

Introduction

Development is a process that entails the entire life-span of an individual, from conception to death.
Some of us are intrigued to understand how does development evolve over the years, what are the
changes that occur and how do they occur during the life-span? A study of all changes throughout the
life-span of an individual is referred to as developmental psychology, developmental science or human
development (Keenan & Evans, 2009). However, when we focus our attention to understand the
growth, changes and consistencies, on a rather narrower portion of life-span, from conception through
adolescence, we are referring to the study of child development.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

The terms growth and development are often used interchangeably or paired up in a rather similar way,
which causes ambiguity over their meaning. It is, therefore, important to understand the difference
between these two terms right at the outset.

Growth
The term growth implies an addition or increase in the bodily aspects that can be measured, for
example, height, weight, size, muscles and length (Woolfolk, 2014). It is based on biological processes
that naturally occur over a period of time and are relatively not or less influenced by context except for
extreme illness or undernourishment. It eventually stops when the body parts reach the peak of their
growth.

Overall, growth refers to the natural, spontaneous, specific, genetically programmed and measurable
quantitative gains in a human body. Most of the child's physical gains fall within this category. Some
of the developmental psychologists also refer to these changes as maturation.

Development
While growth refers to the physical changes that an individual undergoes, development refers to certain
changes that occur within the life-span of an individual, that is, from conception till death (Keenan &
Evans, 2009). It not only involves growth, but also entails disintegration and eventually decay (death).
However, not all changes are considered as development. Rather, it applies to those changes that
appear in orderly ways and are considerably permanent. Most of these changes are qualitative in nature
and influenced by context, for example, changes in behavioral, social, moral and intellectual aspects of
an individual. Overall, these changes result in better, adaptive, organized and complex human
behaviors.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Paul Baltes' life-span developmental framework informs our understanding about the general
principles of child development in a coherent way (Baltes, 1997). Baltes articulated the basic
principles of life-span development which are applied as a coordinated whole to view the nature of
human development. These include the following principles:

Development is life-long
The life-long view of development has two aspects. First, development extends throughout the life-
span of an individual. Second, new processes and changes may spur throughout the constantly
emerging nature of life-span development.

Development is both multidimensional and multidirectional

A healthy development involves multiple dimensions and directions. This implies that development is
neither limited to a single criterion (e.g., an increase and decrease in the physical ability), nor is it
restricted to a single direction (e.g., only increase or decrease). Rather, it involves multiple abilities
which may change over time in multiple ways.

Development involves both gains and losses

According to Baltes, any type of developmental process comprises both, growth and decline. For
example, a gain in cognitive abilities of a child during formal schooling also characterizes a loss of his
creative abilities as a result of following the school's rules etc. However, the gains and losses should
not be treated as equal since the balance between these two may change over time.

Development is plastic
Baltes suggested that the process of development is characterized by plasticity. This implies that
human being are open to changes and modifications in response to influential experiences. For
example, an infant's brain has the tendency to change, modify and/or pick up the functions of other
parts of the brain as a result of injury. Yet, plasticity has certain limitations within various domains of
human functioning.

Development is situated in context and history

Children grow up in different contexts which are characterized by their personal, social, and
environmental circumstances. These varied circumstances influence the course of their development.
In this way, development is situated in context and history. For example, two children growing in rural
and urban areas have different types of influences and experiences which can result in different paths
of developmental changes for both of them. Similarly, the historical time period in which children
grow affects their development in significant ways.

Development is multidisciplinary
Baltes argued that the study of human development is multidisciplinary in nature. Therefore, a single
perspective or methodology is not sufficient to develop a holistic understanding of the multiple
processes involved in human development. For example, psychological methodologies are not
sufficient to reveal the sociological processes involved in development. In this way, multiple
perspectives and approaches are needed to better understand the nature of human development.

Some other Principles of Growth and Development

1. Principle of continuity

2. Principle of lack of uniformity in the developmental rate

3. Principle of individual differences

4. Principle of interrelation

5. Principle of interaction between Heredity and Environment

6. Principle of Predictability

7. Principle of Association of Maturation and Learning

REFERENCES

Baltes, P. B. (1997). On the incomplete architecture of human ontogeny: Selection, optimization, and
compensation as foundation of developmental theory. American Psychologist, 52, 366-380.

Berk, L. E. (2013). Child development (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, U.S.A: Pearson Education Inc.

Best Start. (n.d.). Factors affecting child development. Retrieved November 11, 2015, from
http://www.beststart.org/OnTrack_Englsih/2-factors.html

QUESTION NO 2: Why is good physical health necessary for good learners?

Introduction

Physical development is one of the major topical areas in the study of child development. It focuses on
the ways in which the overall body's structure including the brain, nervous system, muscles, organs,
senses and the bodily needs (e.g., hunger, thirst) determine an individual's behavior and development.
For example, a developmental psychologist might be interested to see how malnutrition affects the
physical growth of a child.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS

It is important to consider the physical characteristics of learners, since their physical needs influence
the nature of instruction and learning environment. Although children who form an educational group
at a school usually share similar physical attributes due to same age and rather similar socio-economic
backgrounds, yet growth patterns and physical characteristics may vary with regards to gender and
prior experiences. This section highlights the physical characteristics of the pre and elementary school
children.

Children need to move

Children at the pre and elementary school level have an inherent need to move their bodies. It is, thus,
difficult for them to remain static with little or no body movement while working on sedentary
activities.

Improved eye-hand coordination

Eye-hand coordination, also referred to as visual motor integration skills, begin to develop during
infancy. It controls the hand movement of a child guided by his/her vision. Although this coordination
is not sophisticated during infancy, it reaches to the point of near independence during the pre-school
years, and continues to improve through middle childhood.

Improved body coordination

Balance and coordination are critical physical attributes which help the child to maintain a controlled
body position while performing a task. While the pre and elementary school children show increased
body coordination in high energy activities such as running, climbing etc, they can still fall easily. It is,
thus, important to remain vigilant and ensure safety and injury prevention measures.
Improved perceptual abilities
Although the five basic senses are well-developed at birth, the child continues to develop perceptual
abilities during pre and elementary school years. These improved abilities help the child to interact
with the physical and social world in an effective way.

Improved gross and fine motor skills

The motor skill development follows the 'general to specific' growth pattern among children. Children
tend to develop gross motors well in advance before they start to develop fine motor skills. Pre and
elementary school children develop better upper body mobility and coordination. They continue to
develop improved gross motor skills through age 7 and beyond. This results in refined fine motor
skills for children which help them to manipulate sharp objects etc with greater precision. The
development of fine motor skills is crucial for other activities which require increased physical
controls and skills such as writing, painting, etc.

Children who exercise daily have good nutrition and sleep well were more likely to attend school and do
well at school.Good physical health is benifical for all.How erver children and youmg people across the
OECD are not engaging enough in the behaviors they need to be healthy. Education is uniquely placed to
positively influence the health of students.

Regular physical activity promotes growth and development and has multiple benefits for physical,
mental health that undoubtedly contribute to learning.

Physical activity can improve mental health by decreasing and preventing conditations such as anger,
anxiety and depression,as well as improving mood and other aspects of well-being.

Improve learning through physical activities in Schools

Physical activities play a critical role in developing the basic movement skills of children. Since it is
difficult for children to work on sedentary activities for longer duration of time, this section presents
some ideas about developing physical activities for children in the pre and elementary school years.
These ideas can be modified and expanded in certain other ways to support the physical development
of children.
Preschool and Kindergarten
Preschool children are generally aged between three to five years. At this age, children tend to develop
sufficient control over their fine motor skills which help them to draw, write, copy shapes and engage
in activities that require precise control of hand and body movement. Children at this age learn best
through intrinsic interests and physical involvement.

Some traditional physical activities for this age level involve running, jumping, hopping, skipping,
drawing, coloring, painting, cutting, pasting, gluing, using play dough, rollers, and shape cutters etc.
However, teachers, caregivers or parents can certainly extend this network in some non-traditional
ways. This may involve using outside play as a reward for children, free play days, dramatic play, role
play, sand, wet mud or clay play, collage, cooking, building and relaxation (e.g., stretching, breathing
in and breathing out, closing eyes) activities etc. Besides, manipulative activities (e.g., lego, science
experiment with magnets) and musical, group and movement activities (e.g., locomotors movements
which involve children rapidly moving from place to place, non-locomotors movements which involve
children performing while keeping stationary, and manipulative movements which involve children
using their body parts to manipulate an object) may provide excellent opportunities for a healthy
physical development.

Overall, physical activities that are meaningful and enjoyable are more likely to produce positive
learning outcomes among young children. Such activities lay the foundation for many other skills such
as literacy, numeracy, creativity, and emotional stability which are needed in later years.

The school age children continue to develop their gross and fine motor skills. With this refinement,
they become adept at activities which require precise hand and body control, for example, writing.
Daily physical activities should be incorporated into the school routine of elementary school children
to maintain active physical development. This can be done in different ways, for example, introducing
health and physical education classes and integrating physical activities into other areas of curriculum.

Besides physical education classes, there are many other ways in which teachers can engage students
in physical activities. These include, for example, allocating some time for physical activity on daily
basis, incorporating concepts from other areas of curriculum into physical activity time and vice versa,
and providing children with hands-on experiences as much as possible (e.g., rather than teaching them
the concepts of living and non-living things within the four walls of classroom, taking them out on a
school round and helping them understand the concept from their surroundings). Moreover, physical
activities described in section 2.5.1 can also be effectively used for elementary school children by
adding consistent yet realistic challenges. For example, the sequential patterns for locomotor
movements can be made more complex as the child learns to coordinate and control his body
movements.

The overall goal of such activities should be to make children move their bodies at a moderate or
rigorous level of intensity for at least 20 minutes during the school time. Some educationists also argue
that engaging students in effective physical activities at elementary school is likely to have a positive
impact on their overall health and wellbeing during adulthood by incorporating a life-style change.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Berk, L. E. (2013). Child development (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, U.S.A: Pearson Education Inc.

Keenan, T., & Evans, S. (2009). An introduction to child development (2nd ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE.

QUESTION NO 3: Give an overview of intellectual development?

Introduction

Intellectual development refers here to the changes that occurs as a result of growth and experience in a
person's capacities for thinking, reasoning,relating,judging etc. In particular it concern such changes in
children.

Cognitive or intellectual development means the growth of a child's ability to think and reason. It's about
How they organize their minds,ideas and thoughts to make the sense of the world they live in.

DEFINITION OF INTELLIGENCE
The term intelligence has been described differently by different experts with little agreement over
what factors or dimensions comprise its structure (Berk, 2013; O'Donnell, Reeve, & Smith, 2012;
Woolfolk, 2014). This is because it is an abstract and broad concept which is not directly measurable
like some other human traits such as height, weight etc.

Generally, intelligence is thought of a combination of different attributes, for example, the ability to
solve problems and adapt and learn from experiences, creativity, and interpersonal skills. Although
many experts agree that intelligence has several characteristics, there is a little consensus about the
nature of these characteristics. Similarly, some agree that these characteristics are closely related to
each other; whereas others argue that they are distinct features. Besides, some view intelligence as a
single capacity while other believes that it is a collection of loosely related abilities. These varied
beliefs have influenced the theoretical positions as well as the measures of intelligence.

Theoretical positions

There is a continuous debate among psychologists about whether intelligence is composed of a single
capacity or a number of specific capacities. Spearman suggested that there is a general ability or
intelligence (g) which is responsible for an individual's overall success in different tasks. For example,
people who have good memory and information processing mechanisms are likely to perform better at
problem solving tasks. Overall, general intelligence includes abstract thinking or reasoning, the
capacity to acquire new knowledge and problem solving ability. However, other theorists argue that
individuals have more than one specific ability, and thus view intelligence as multifaceted.

i. Triarchic theory of intelligence.

Robert Sternberg proposed that intelligence is composed of three basic components including
analytical, creative and practical components. The analytical component deals with a person's ability to
solve problems by analyzing ideas and thinking critically. Creative intelligence refers to the ability to
combine different ideas to form something novel by thinking outside of the box. Whereas, practical
intelligence involves applying knowledge and skills into different kinds of environment. Based on the
triarchic theory of intelligence, Sternberg further argued that successful intelligence brings success to
one's life within one's own goals and contexts.
ii. Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence
In contrast to the view that intelligence is composed of a single or a small number of overarching abilities,
Howard Gardner suggests that an individual may exhibit several types of intelligences. He categorized
these intelligences into eight identifiable forms and argues that there could be possibly more than these
forms. His list of intelligences includes the following: logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, musical,
bodilykinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic.

MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE
A number of standardized tests have been used to measure intelligence. Although these test give
information about a rather narrow range of an individual's capabilities, they are popular with
psychologists and educators because they provide a reasonably fair picture of future success.
Generally, intelligence tests have been divided into two broad categories, including the individual and
group intelligence tests (see Berk, 2013).
The Stanford-Binet test and the Wechsler scales are the two most commonly used individual tests to
measure intelligence.

Alfred Binet constructed a measure of intelligence in response to the French government's call in 1904.
He developed the concept of mental age (MA) which represents a child's mental development in
relation to the other children. His test consisted of 30 items to assess mental processes and behaviors.
Later, in 1912, William Stern introduced intelligence quotient (IQ), which represents an individual's
mental age (MA) divided by chronological age (CA) multiplied by 100.

Binet's test has been revised and adapted several times. In 1916, it was adapted for use with the
English speaking children at the Stanford University, and named as the StanfordBinet Intelligence
Scale. The latest version of Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale takes into account general intelligence
along with complex mental processes including fluid intelligence, knowledge, quantitative reasoning,
visual-spatial processing and working memory. This test is successfully conducted with individual
ranging from 2 years to adulthood. A special version of the test, named, the Stanford-Binet Intelligence
Scales for Early Childhood, includes less items with verbal and non-verbal mode of testing for
children aged between 2 to 7.3 years.

Another commonly employed intelligence test is called the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children IV
(WISC-IV). It targets the children aged between 6 to 16 years and offers a measure of both general
intelligence as well as other intellectual factors such as verbal reasoning, perceptual reasoning,
working memory and processing speed. Besides, an ageappropriate version is also available for
children aged between 2.6 years till 7.3 years, and is referred to as the Wechsler Preschool and
Primary Scale of Intelligence- III (WPPSI-III).

Furthermore, aptitude and achievement tests are also used as indicators of an individual's intelligence.
Aptitude tests refer to the person's potential to perform a particular task in future, whereas
achievement tests assess the actual knowledge and skill of the person.
While the above mentioned tests provide appropriate measures for children and adults, there are
special tests which are designed to measure the infants' intelligence as well. These include, for
example, the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development. These scales are suitable for use with
infants as young as one month old up to 3.5 years.
A rather quick and cost-effective way of measuring students' intelligence is to conduct the test in a
group. This helps to reduce the related expenses and saves time. There are tests that are specifically
designed for this purpose, for example, the Lorge-Thorndike Intelligence Test and the Otis-Lennon
School Ability Test (OLSAT).

However, group intelligence tests should be used with caution since they have certain limitations. For
example, they do not allow the examiner to develop rapport and determine the students' level of anxiety. It
is generally suggested that the scores obtained from group intelligence test should be supplemented with
the information from other sources.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT FROM INFANCY TO CHILDHOOD

Children gain cognitive maturity as they age. With time and experience, they advance their thinking
skills and make transitions from simple to complex cognitive processes which add to their intelligence
as well. This section emphasizes the processes (cognition) rather than the products of mental activities
(intelligence). It examines how do children make cognitive and intellectual advancements from infancy
to childhood. In doing so, it also highlights the cognitive characteristics of learners at different periods
of time.

Piaget's theory of cognitive development

Piaget believed those children’s cognitive development progresses through four stages which involve
sensori-motor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational periods. These stages are
treated as fixed and universal and represent a general sequence which is observable in all types of
cognitive change.

Piaget argued that children's thinking and the ways through which they make sense of their
experiences (schemes) change with age. The infancy period is marked by sensori-motor action patterns
during which a child acts on the objects around him/her to form schemes. Soon, he/she begins to form
mental images which help to transform thinking and experiences into meaningful, manageable and
memorable patterns. This transformation in thinking is supported by two critical processes including
adaptation and organization. Adaptation involves the process of developing schemes by directly
working upon the environment through assimilation or accommodation. However, if the balance
between these two is disturbed, it causes a cognitive conflict or disequilibrium within the minds of
children. It is important to resolve the conflict through either assimilation or accommodation to bring
the mind back to the equilibrium state. These resulted in developing more effective schemes that help
the child to advance his/her thinking.

· The sensori-motor stage.

The sensorimotor stage is characterized by the first two years of life during which infants think
through their five senses. At the beginning of this stage, the sensory reflexes of the child serve to make
up for his/her intelligence. The child engages in circular reactions (repeating chance behaviors) which
help him/her to adapt to his/her surroundings. Later, the child deliberately employs intentional or goal
directed behaviors by coordinating different schemes to solve simple problems. Object permanence
(the ability to understand that objects exist even when they are not seen) emerges towards the end of
this period which helps to set the stage for mental representations and engage s the child in make-
believe play.

· The preoperational stage.

As children grow, they enter in the preoperational stage (2 to 7 years) which characterizes their
immense representational or symbolic capacities. Children make advancements in their mental
representations as they develop more effective schemes. For example, as they get past the first two
years of their life, their make-believe play gets more sophisticated. This cognitive change is seen when
a child older than 2 years of age pretends to use an object (cup) in different ways, for example, using it
to drink water as well as using it as a hat. Similarly, children's drawings get more mature, realistic and
detailed during the preschool years. However, their expanding cognitive capacities are limited by their
inability to take into account someone else's perspective, referred to as egocentrism.
· The concrete operational stage.
The concrete operational stage extends from 7 to 11 years. As the children enter the middle childhood,
they accomplish a number of cognitive advancements. For example, children at this stage perform
mental operations that follow logical rules. They are capable of thinking in more than one direction
and are capable to see a problem from different angles (decentration). Consequently, they understand
that certain characteristics remain the same even if they change the outward appearance
(conservation). Their understanding of space is more precise when compared with the preschool
children. They are capable of developing logical hierarchies and classification systems and can
perform reversible actions which demonstrates that the children have now developed logical, flexible
and organized schemes than before.

· The formal operational stage.

Children develop the capacity for an abstract and systematic thinking around 11 years of age. Piaget
referred to this stage as formal operational stage. While the children can perform operations with the
real objects at the concrete operational stage, they are now ready to perform mental, abstract
operations without any concrete things or events. The main features of this stage include hypothetical -
deductive reasoning and propositional thought. These abilities refer to the children's capacity to form
and evaluate logical propositions without referring to the real world circumstances and systematically
reaching a conclusion. Accompanying this stage, comes the individual's desire to get noticed, often
referred to as adolescent egocentrism. This is a heightened self-consciousness phase in which the
growing adolescents tend to believe that others are interested in them in the same way as they are
themselves. This state causes irresponsible and uncontrolled behaviors often leading to suicide
attempts, negative thoughts, and drug use etc.

Although Piaget's theory presents a comprehensive explanation of how does cognitive development
occur in children as well as highlights the characteristics of learners at different stages of cognitive
development, it has not gone without criticism. One of the major arguments raised against Piaget's
theory is that he has underestimated the role of culture, language, and environmental influences while
explaining children's cognitive development. The next section presents Vygotsky's socio-cultural
approach which takes into account these important influences.

REFERENCES
Berk, L. E. (2013). Child development (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, U.S.A: Pearson Education Inc.

O'Donnell, A. M., Reeve, J., & Smith, J. K. (2012). Educational psychology: Reflection for action (3rd
ed.). U.S.A: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
QUESTION NO 4: Suggest activities for elementary schools to enhance intellectual development of
the students?

Introduction

There are various factors that contribute to healthy cognitive development. A child's environment plays an
immense role in their cognitive development and stabiltiy is paramount. Nutrition is curicul for
developing brains and nutrients such as iodine,iron,zinc,vitmin B12 Support emergent cognitive
functions.

Preschoolers have demonstrated academic achievement in English, Maths and science because of
educational television viewing.Adults should also limit the time children speed infornt of screens.The
amercian academy of Pediatrics (2019) recommends less than two hours per day of recreational screen
time.

Recess is necessary for brain consolidation, and any kind of brain break can be considered an extension of
cognitive work.

Activites for elementary schools students

· Hide and seek

· Singing Rhymes

· Story Telling

· Number games

· Puzzles

· Sudoku

· Chess

· Solving Rubik's Cubes

· Real life Question

· Conduct communication and social skill class

· Relaxing

· Throwing down a challenge

 · Creating a competitive atmosphere

· Group activity

Hide and seek:

Hide and seek is one of the favourite games that every child loves to play.For this haide any objects
inside or outside. Tell your kids to find it out. They will love this act to play This activity aids in
visual memory skills in preschoolers.

Singing Rhymes:

Repetitive singing of rhymes and songs also aid kids in building long-term memories.When kids learn
to follow simple patterns it will be easier to remember them. More over as the kid grows they will
comprehend more.

Story Telling:

As we know story telling is a great activity to foster intellectual and cognitive skills in kids.Do expert
research on the best storybooks for your little one. Spending time with your kids and tell them stories
with morals. This act will help them to develop curiosity,imaginativeness and memory power.

Number Games:

Number Games are simple activities to develop intellectual skills.Numbers are the stepping stones of
mathematical resaoning. It is an excellent activity to teech your kids letters and numbers.

Puzzles:

Kids love puzzles. We can build intellectual development in kids through a variety of puzzles. Give them
puzzles to solve.Kids will learn problem solving skills through this activity.

Sudoku:

Solving Sudoku is a fun and learning activity for kids. It improves memory skills and data memorizing
ability in kids.Also it teaches the kids to be patient and focused.

The preschool and kindergarten children have more flexible action patterns. Play, at this stage supports
the cognitive development of children. Preschool and children up to the first or second grade at school
can be engaged in different types of play to support their cognitive development. These include, for
example, object play (e.g., building objects with blocks), pretend play (role plays e.g., teacher), social
play (e.g., using different objects for different purposes), and locomotor play (e.g., playing tag in
which children run after each other). Besides, hands-on activities (e.g., cutting out alphabets,
conducting simple science experiments, counting with the paddle-pop sticks) are critical in developing
advanced thinking and cognition. It is important to frequently use concrete props or visual aids with
the preschool and kindergarten children to help them learn. Overall, children's learning experiences
should include a variety of opportunities including both in-class and out of class activities to facilitate
the process of cognitive change.
Children's cognitive development undergoes rapid changes during the early years of school. A number
of activities and strategies may help the elementary school child to make cognitive progress at this
stage. These include, for example, allowing children to experiment, encouraging discovery learning,
reading with the children, encouraging them to share ideas and opinions, asking them to make
comparisons, classify and categorize objects, things or events, engaging them in the drama and role
playing, and asking them to justify their answers and actions. Moreover, since children have different
intellectual demands, it is important to engage them in individual or small group activities according to
their interests, for example, a portfolio or a group project.

REFERENCES
Berk, L. E. (2013). Child development (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, U.S.A: Pearson Education Inc.

O'Donnell, A. M., Reeve, J., & Smith, J. K. (2012). Educational psychology: Reflection for action (3rd
ed.). U.S.A: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

QUESTION NO 5: Why is developing social skills among children are necessary? Discuss the tools
for promoting social learning?

Introduction:

This is important to note that social development is closely associated with emotional development and
these two aspects of development are frequently termed as socioemotional development. It means that
both of the developments occur simultaneously.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Social development is an important aspect of child development. It is the ability to form positive and
pleasing relationships with others (Cohen and others 2005).Social development includes learning the
values, knowledge and skills that enable children to relate to others effectively and to contribute in
positive ways to family, school and the community. This kind of learning is delivered on to children by
three means: directly by parents and teachers; indirectly through social relationships within the family
or with friends, and through children’s participation in the culture around them. Through their
relationships with others and their developing awareness of social norms, values and expectations,
children construct a sense of identity (who they are). As children develop socially, they not only learn
how to react appropriately in variety of situations but also play role in shaping their relationships.
The development of the social and emotional health of a child is important for the development of his
appropriate (right) behavior, understanding of life and shift to adulthood. Social emotional
development helps shape a child into what he will become later in life by teaching proper reactions to
emotional matters. Social skills are all about a child's ability to cooperate and play with others, paying
attention to adults and teachers, and making reasonable transitions from activity to activity. Emotional
development is the process of learning how to understand and control emotions.

Before we move further, stop for a while and think:

What is my definition of social development?

Social Development: Why is it important?

Human beings are naturally social. Developing skills in this domain increases child’s capacity to be
successful at school and in social life. Development in social skills enhances mental health, success at
work, and the ability to be useful citizen.

Social skills include various abilities such as communication, problem-solving, decision making, self-
management, and peer relations. These skills enable an individual to build and maintain positive social
relationships with others. Extreme social behaviors interfere with learning, teaching, and the
classroom's organization. Social competence is related to peer acceptance, teacher acceptance, present
success, and future (post school) success. If a child does not display appropriate social skills, other
children don't like him and will not make friends with him. Sometimes children work hard to display
the new and better behaviors they've been told to show, but are still excluded by others, perhaps due to
past reputation or maybe because others don't like the newly learned behaviors which don't seem
"natural." At other times, students may still fail because they have difficulty monitoring and
controlling their behavior when unexpected reactions occur. Teacher can help students how to cope
with such social problems and develop adjustment ability in the circle.

The social contexts in which children live have important influences on their development. According
to Bronfenbrenner, three of the contexts in which children spend much of their time are families, peers,
and schools.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS AND CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES TO PROMOTE

SOCIAL SKILL
This section will deal with description of salient features of learners at various stages and the
classroom activities a teacher can use to develop social skills at particular level.
Learners possess certain characteristics at a particular stage of social development. It is important for a
teacher to have knowledge of learners’ characteristics in order to deal effectively with them. Teacher
can facilitate the students to adjust in their social circle by teaching them social skills essential to build
positive relationships.

First of all we will discuss what social skills are.

 What Are Social Skills?
Social skills are ways of dealing with others that create healthy and positive interactions. Children who
have social skills can communicate clearly, calmly, and respectfully. They show consideration for the
feelings and interests of their peers. They take responsibility for their actions, are able to control
themselves, and are able to assert themselves when needed. Children learn social skills through
experiences with peers, examples and instructions from their parents, and time with adults.

It is important for children to use social skills because they are the route to creating and developing
relationships. They are needed for enriching social experiences, and they lessen the chance for
negative interactions. Being the building blocks for friendships, social skills give children the chance
to learn from their peers and learn how to be considerate with those they meet in the future. By having
a positive impact on life experiences, social skills also give children a sense of confidence and mastery
over their environment.

The following section presents features of social development possessed by the learners at different
levels.

Social Characteristics of children at various stages of development

A young child’s social life evolves in relatively predictable ways. The social network grows from an
intimate relationship with parents or other guardians to include other family members, nonrelated
adults and peers, social interaction extends from home to neighborhood and from nursery school to
formal school.

Becoming familiar with the way children grow and develop and the basic characteristics of children of
different ages permit a teacher to better understand and plan for their growth. In the following section
social characteristics and hallmarks of children from preschool to elementary are summarized.

Social characteristics of Preschool children

At this age, kids do not have the ability to understand other people’s emotions or perceptions. They are
in their own world and the world is seen only through their eyes alone. They are egocentric; however,
the adults in their lives still have a major influence on them. They are beginning to show their
independence and capabilities. At this age, they are also eager to meet and play with new kids but may
not know how to approach them due to shyness or fear of rejection. There are preschoolers who prefer
to play on their own, which is why parents and teachers need to encourage them to make an effort to
play in a group with other kids of their age.

Social characteristics of preschoolers can be summarized as:

· Becoming more social
· Moving from parallel play to associative play. Does joint activities
· Helpful mainly because of interest in matching words to actions
· Beginning of independence
· By four growing sense of initiative and self-reliance
· Becoming aware of basic gender identity
· Imaginary play mates not uncommon

Factors effecting social development at preschool level

Research findings indicate that there are various factors, which contribute towards socioemotional
development during the preschool years. These factors are discussed in the following section:

i. Peer relationships
During the preschool years, peers (other children who are a child’s equal) begin to play an important
role in children’s social and cognitive development. Children’s relationship with other peers differs in
several ways from their interactions with adults. Peer play allows children to interact with other
individuals whose level of development is similar to their own. When peers have dispute among
themselves, they must make a concessions and must cooperate in resolving them if the play is to
continue; in a peer dispute no one can claim to have ultimate authority. Peer conflicts also let children
see that others have thoughts, feelings and viewpoints that are different from their own. Conflicts also
heighten children’s sensitivity to the effects of their behavior on others. In this way peer relationships
help young children to overcome the geocentricism that Piaget described as being characteristic of
preoperational thinking.

ii. Pro-social behavior

Pro-social behaviors are voluntary actions towards others such as caring, sharing, comforting and
cooperation. Research on the roots of pro-social behavior has contributed to our knowledge of
children’s moral as well as social development. Several factors seem to be associated with the
development of pro-social behaviors (Eisenberg & Mussen,
1989). These include the following:
· Parental disciplinary techniques that stress the consequences of the child’s behavior for others
and that are applied within a warm, responsive parent-child relationship. (Hoffman, 1993)
· Contact with adults who indicate they expect concern for others, who let children know that
aggressive solutions to problems are unacceptable, and who provide acceptable alternatives.
(Konig, 1995)
· Contact with adults who attribute positive characteristic to children when they do well (Grusec
& Goodnow, 1994)

iii. Play
Most of a preschooler’s interaction with peers occurs during play. However, the degree to which play
involves other children increases over the preschool years. In a classic study of preschoolers, Mildred
Parten (1932) identified four categories of play that reflect increasing levels of social interaction and
sophistication. Solitary play is play that occurs alone, often with toys, and is independent of what
other children are doing. Parallel Play involves children engaged in the same activity side by side but
with very little interaction or mutual influence. Associative Play is much like parallel play but with
increased levels of interaction in than form of sharing, turn taking, and general interest in what others
are doing. Cooperative play occurs when children join together to achieve a common goal, such as
building a large castle with each child building a part of the structure. Children engage in more
complex form of plays as they grow older, advancing from simple forms of play to complex pretend
play in which children cooperate in planning and carrying out activities.
Play is most important for children because it exercises their linguistic, cognitive, and social skills and
contributes to their general personality development .Children use their minds when playing, because
they are thinking and acting as if they were another person. When they make such a transformation
they are taking a step toward abstract thinking in that they are freeing their thoughts from a focus on
concrete objects. Play is also associated with creativity; especially the ability to be less literal and
more flexible in one’s thinking. Play has an important role in Vygotsky’s theories of development
because it allows children to freely explore ways of thinking and acting that are above their current
level of functioning. Vygotsky wrote, ‘in play a child is always above his average age, above his daily
behavior; in play it is as though he were a head taller than his self”. Preschoolers’ play appears to be
influenced by a variety of factors. For instance, preschoolers’ interactions with peers are related to how
they interact with their parents. Three year old who have a warmed nurturing relationships with
parents are more likely to engage in social pretend play and resolve conflicts with peers than are
children with less secure relationships with their parents. Children also play better with familiar peers
and same sex peers. Providing age appropriate toys and play activities can also support the
development of play and peer interaction skills.

Tools for Promoting Social Learning

The High Scope approach gives adults the tools they need to help children develop strong and positive
relationships with adults and peers. Teachers learn how to create a positive climate in the classroom as
a foundation for social learning. The social skills children develop in High Scope programs contribute
to their readiness for school and their ability to meet a variety of challenges throughout their lives.

i. Nurturing Social Environment

Creating a warm and nurturing environment in preschool not only helps children form trusting
relationships with others but also promotes learning in all areas. Surrounded by a positive and
supportive classroom climate, children are likely to become engaged and motivated learners. Within
this environment, activities and interactions are planned around the key developmental indicators
(KDIs) in social Learning to Resolve Conflicts. Helping children manage frustrations and resolve
social conflicts is an area of social learning that is often particularly important to teachers. Teachers
find that High Scope’s six-step conflict resolution process is especially useful.

ii. Conflict Resolution Steps

· Approach calmly, stopping any hurtful actions. Place yourself between the children, on their
level; use a calm voice and gentle touch; remain neutral rather than take sides.
· Acknowledge children's feelings. Say something simple such as “You look really upset;” let
children know you need to hold any object in question.
· Gather information. Ask “What's the problem?” Do not ask “why” questions as young children
focus on that what the problem is rather than understanding the reasons behind it.
· Restate the problem: “So the problem is...” Use and extend the children’s vocabulary,
substituting neutral words for hurtful or judgmental ones (such as “stupid”) if needed.
· Ask for solutions and choose one together. Ask “What can we do to solve this problem?”
Encourage children to think of a solution but offer options if the children are unable to at first.
· Be prepared to give follow-up support. Acknowledge children’s accomplishments, e.g., “You
solved the problem!” Stay nearby in case anyone is not happy with the solution and the process
needs repeating.
· Adults respect children’s ideas for solving problems, even if the options they offer don’t seem
fair to adults. What’s important is that children agree on the solution and see themselves as
competent problem-solvers.
(http://www.highscope.org)

Social characteristics of learners at kindergarten/ early primary (five and six year olds)

These included:
i. Very social; visit friends on one’s own. ii. Very self
sufficient
iii. Persists longer at task. Can plan and carry out activities and return to project next day iv. Plays with
two or three friends often just a short time only and then switches play group
· Beginning to conform. Is very helpful
· By six becoming very assertive. Often bossy, dominating a situation and ready with advice.
· Needs to be first; has difficulty losing viii. Possessive and boastful
· Craves affection. Often has a love/hate relationship with parents
· Gender roles becoming more refined. Has tendency to gender type.
· Becomes clothes-conscious

i. Activities to promote social development at kindergarten/ early primary Social play–particularly

pretend social play--functions as a safe testing ground in which children can learn appropriate social
behaviors (Pellegrini et al 2007).

Pretend social play also involves “mind reading” skills--the capacity to decode each other’s intentions
and anticipate each other’s actions (Spinka et al 2001; Pellegrini and Bjorkland 2004).

But kids need more than free time and pretense to master social skills. They also need guidance about
which social behaviors to emulate. The following activities can be helpful for developing social skills
at kindergarten:

The name game

Researchers Sandra Sandy and Kathleen Cochran note that young children need to learn the
importance of getting someone’s attention before you speak. They’ve invented this little game for
teaching social skills: Have kids sit in a circle and give one kid a ball. Then ask him to name another
child in the circle and roll the ball to that child. The recipient then takes his turn—naming a child and
rolling the ball--and so on.

Follow the leader

Ask the children to line up behind a leader and follow him over a hurdle path. Children must stay in
line, and take turns as they pass through each section of the course.

Activity for students:

Search for some more classroom activities to enhance social skills among children.
Social characteristics of learners at late kindergarten/ primary level (seven and eight year olds)
Learners at late kindergarten/ primary level possess the following characteristics: i.
Beginning to prefer own gender; has less boy/girl interaction ii. Peer groups begin to form
iii. Security in gender identification iv. Self-absorption
v. Begins to play and work independently vi. Can
be argumentative
vii. Seven still not a good loser and often a tattletale viii. By eight play
games better and intent to winning ix. Conscientious; can take
responsibility for routine chores x. Less selfish
xi. Able to share. Wants to please xii. Still enjoys and
engages in fantasy plays

i. Activities at primary level to develop social skills

As a teacher you can use the following activities in classroom to develop social skills among students:

Asking Questions
Learning Objective: To understand the importance of asking questions during a conversation Skill:
Social communication.

Tell the group: Asking questions is the best way to get as much information about a subject as possible.
When you ask questions you show that you are interested in other people and you keep the talk going.
You will also learn things from people’s answers that will make you a better friend. For practice, have
the children turn to the person on their right. One of the two people secretly focuses on something in
the room (e.g., the clock) and gives a clue, such as, “I’m thinking of something on the wall.” The other
person asks questions (e.g., “What color is it?” or “Which wall is it on?”) until she guesses the object.

ii. Sharing
Learning Objective: To teach children to understand the value of sharing with others Skill: Empathy,
social interaction.

Ask the group to think and give their ideas about sharing. Write down all of their ideas on the board.

Tell the children:

Learning to share is difficult for many children, because it means to lose something. But it also means
being generous and thinking about the needs of others. When you share, you feel good because you are
being nice to someone else. When someone shares with you, you feel good because they are being
kind to you.

Present the following examples to the group, one at a time. After each, ask the children whether it
would be easy or difficult for them to share in the situation. Encourage them to talk about what they
would do, and why.
· The whole group is reading a book, and there are no enough copies for everyone.
· There is only one brownie left on the plate.
· Three people are sitting on a sofa, and the fourth person has nowhere to sit.

Ask the group to think of other examples when sharing is necessary

Dear students
In this section you learnt about the characteristics of learners at primary level. You also learnt some
classroom activities to develop social skills like sharing, asking questions and caring for other’s needs.

Activity for students:

What are other social skills a child at primary level may need to learn?

Social characteristics of learners at elementary level · At this level students

may exhibit the following characteristics:
· The elementary children want to expand social relationships beyond the home environment.
· Peers become extremely important to elementary aged children; they are constantly building
relationships.
· They naturally form groups; they want to be with their friends. Their constant talking is really
evidence of this focus on building relationships.
· These children want to be like their friends, and to be accepted by the group is extremely
important.
· There is a cooperative, joint focus as opposed to a competitive one. This too is a sign that
children are learning to build community.
· Elementary children are looking for people to admire. They may be inspired by older children, a
family member or their teachers.

i. Social skills at elementary level

Teachers play an important role at every level of schooling, including elementary schools (Mashburn
& others, 2008; Pianta & others, 2008). In a series of studies from infancy through third grade,
positive teacher-child relationships were linked to a number of positive child outcomes (Howes &
Ritchie, 2002). Children who have warm, positive relationships with their teachers have a more
positive attitude toward school, are more enthusiastic about learning, and achieve more in school
(Thompson & Goodman, 2009).

Group skills are particularly important in a classroom setting. Studies suggest that children’s behavior
in the classroom is as important to their school success as their intellectual ability is. Studies tell us
that children typically do better in groups that consist of peers who share common characteristics.
Helping children identify their interests (such as computers, the environment, community service,
animals, etc.) is the first step in guiding them toward joining a group of children who are more like
them.

ii. Classroom activities to develop Social skills

Following section will present classroom activities which can be used by a teacher to develop social
skills among children at elementary level.

Active listening
The most important social skill needed at all levels is listening.

Active listeners show speakers that they are paying attention. They do this through body language
(offering appropriate eye contact, turning the body in the direction of the speaker, remaining quiet) and
verbal feedback (restating, in their own words, what the speaker is trying to communicate).

One popular method of teaching active listening assigns people to one of three roles: A speaker, a
listener, and an observer. The speaker is instructed to talk for a few minutes about something important
to him. The listener attends quietly, providing cues to the speaker that she is paying attention. When
the speaker is finished talking, the listener also repeats back, in her own words, the speaker’s points.

The observer’s job is to evaluate the speaker and listener. Did the speaker stay on topic? How did the
listener indicate that she was paying attention?

After the observer shares his observations with the others, the players change roles and try again.

The blindfolded walk

To play this game, create path with hurdles. Then assign players to one of two roles. Blinded players
will wear blindfolds. Leaders will take blinded players by the hand and attempt to lead them through
the course. Talking is encouraged, and, when they are finished, players should reverse their roles.

Joining a group
Learning Objective: To help children find ways to reach others who have similar interests; to increase
group inclusion.

Skill: Making Friends: Ask the children to think of ways to find groups they might like to join. Suggest
that they focus on their individual interests. Brainstorm ideas and write them on the blackboard or a
large sheet of paper.

Tell them: Throughout their lives, people participate in many different kinds of social groups: scout
troops, sports teams and many more. A class is also a kind of group. Your classmates are part of your
group experience every day at school. A child’s life is filled with different kinds of groups.

Distribute Activity Sheet: Children can write the answers or raise their hands and answer the questions
aloud. Use their responses as the basis for a discussion about the different aspects of joining a group.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Huitt, W. & Dawson, C. (2011, April). Social development: Why it is important and how to impact it.
Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State
University. Retrieved from <http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/papers/socdev.pdf >
<http://www.ldonline.org/article/14545/ >

Kutnick, P. J. (1988). Relationships in the primary school classroom. London: Paul Chapman

Legoff DB and Sherman M. (2006). Long-term outcome of social skills intervention based on interactive
LEGO play. Autism. 10(4):317-29

THE END