Let's Get Writing!

LET’S GET WRITING!

Virginia Western Community College, Roanoke, Virginia

Authors:

Kathy Boylan, English Department

Elizabeth Browning, English Department

Katelyn Burton, Brown Library

Kirsten DeVries, English Department

Jenifer Kurtz, English Department

Editor:

Ann Moser, English Department

Project Manager:

Dale Dulaney, Brown Library

Graphic Designer:

Kalyca Schultz, Brown Library

Peer Reviewers:

Sarah Chitwood, English Department

Nancy Francisco, Academic Link, Writing Center

Janet Little, English Department

Annie Woodford, English Department

Christine Woods, English Department

Publisher:

Virginia Western Educational Foundation, Inc.

Special Thanks:

This book’s title is the suggestion of Eileen Franco, a student in Elizabeth Browning’s ENG 111 class.
The cover is the work of Noah Sutphin, a student in ART 247, Painting Technique, created under the super-
vision of Professor Sue Steele Thomas.
Let's Get Writing! by Virginia Western Community College is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.
 Contents

Foreword: Why We Created an Open Textbook ix

Dale Dulaney
Introduction: About Writing and This Book 1
Ann Moser

1. Chapter 1 - Critical Reading 3

Elizabeth Browning

2. Chapter 2 - Rhetorical Analysis 21

Elizabeth Browning

3. Chapter 3 - Argument 34
Kirsten DeVries

4. Chapter 4 - The Writing Process 104

Kathy Boylan

5. Chapter 5 - Rhetorical Modes 128

Jenifer Kurtz

6. Chapter 6 - Finding and Using Outside Sources 181

Katelyn Burton

7. Chapter 7 - How and Why to Cite 197

Katelyn Burton

8. Chapter 8 - Writing Basics: What Makes a Good Sentence? 211

Jenifer Kurtz

9. Chapter 9 - Punctuation 269

Jenifer Kurtz

10. Chapter 10 - Working With Words: Which Word is Right? 290

Jenifer Kurtz

Index 329
Foreword: Why We Created an Open Textbook

DALE DULANEY

This book was created for reasons quite different than most of the textbooks you have used so far in your
academic career. What is the difference? Most of the books you have used so far are commercial books and
textbooks, created by an author or company that sells the book to make a profit. The author or company
protects its creation through an old legal principle called copyright. This system has worked well for many
years! If it sells well, the author and publisher makes a profit. Profit or not, the author’s work will be pro-
tected from being used or sold without permission.

Unlike other books, and for various reasons, the cost of textbooks continues to rise at an incredible pace.
These high costs present barriers to many students who need assigned class materials and are already
struggling to pay tuition. In response to this reality, authors, through the help of a community of educators
and not-for-profit publishers, are beginning to freely share their work in order to lower or eliminate the cost
of class materials.

This book is one of those instances of sharing. It is free to you and anyone else who would like to use it.
The key to this ability to freely use and re-use this material is something called Creative Commons. It is a
license that the author places on his or her work that waives some of the protections of copyright and allows
for the work to be shared and used in certain ways. To learn more about Creative Commons see this help-
fulvideo (https://youtu.be/4ZvJGV6YF6Y, transcript here). Thanks to Creative Commons, our faculty authors
were able to draw from 12 other open textbooks to supplement their own writing and create a new, open
textbook for ENG 111.

This book is made possible by the Virtual Library of Virginia (VIVA), the committed faculty of the English
department, the staff of Brown Library, and the financial support of the Virginia Western Educational Foun-
dation. Virginia’s community college system was created to provide greater access to education across the
Commonwealth. This book was created in that same spirit.

Foreword: Why We Created an Open Textbook by Dale Dulaney is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License, except where otherwise noted.

ix
Introduction: About Writing and This Book

ANN MOSER

Why are you taking yet another writing class? The quick answer is that you have developed skills and
thinking patterns over the years that allow you to elevate your writing style to a professional level. The
long answer can be found in the research of William Perry, who studied developmental growth in college
students from 18-22 years old [an overview published in 2013 here (https://tinyurl.com/ybnjh9kg)]. What
we understand about the developmental processes, along with recent brain studies [described
here (https://tinyurl.com/yc6893kp)]combine to illustrate the adaptive nature of learning over time. There-
fore, as we learn more about the brain, we continue to construct learning around that knowledge. To accom-
modate the knowledge of a changing brain over time, the scaffolding approach to building writing skills has
emerged; everything you have learned in your writing education and practice has led you to this point. Now
we are going to employ that and elevate your skills further.

We also understand that communication proceeds in the following way throughout life and any learning
experience: we absorb concepts orally first, then we can talk about the concept; we read and absorb,
and then we can write about it – having built a more thorough and comfortable store of knowledge on
the subject or skill. This is how we learned language and behavioral norms, and this is how we learn
higher-level concepts. It takes time, practice, and feedback. People have to reach a level of mental maturity
before they can even perceive higher-level concepts, and when we truly understand this learning theory
[Vygotsky (https://tinyurl.com/ybjxosuv)] we can proceed with more confidence.

This introduction is designed to exemplify how writers think about and produce text. The guiding features
are the following:

• Every good piece of writing is an argument.

• Everything worth writing and reading begins with a specific question.
• Improving skills takes practice, feedback, and re-thinking, redoing, revising.

The layout of our book implies there is a beginning, middle, and end to a writing course, but because writing
is both an art and a skill, people will find their own processes for learning, improving, and using these skills.
Writing processes differ because we are each looking for a workable schemata that fits our way of thinking.
Try out a variety of writing processes and strategies, and find what works for you. If you are not uncomfort-
able on this journey, you simply are not stretching yet. Learning is prickly, awkward, and risky, so if it does
not feel a bit unnerving, push harder and farther. We are not here to prove the skills we already have; this
course is about stepping up. It’s like anything else you want to improve: if you can run a 10K in 2 hours, what
do you need to do to make it in 1:45?

A quick glance through the book will show you that it deftly covers the basics, which are always important to

1
2 LET'S GET WRITING!

review as you get ready to build onto your scaffolding. Reminders of terminology that form the foundation
of a discipline—as well as explanations, descriptions, and examples of their use in a basic education—are
in chapters such as “Critical Reading,” “Writing Basics: What Makes a Good Sentence,” “The Writing Process,”
“Punctuation,” and “Working with Words.” These are, of course, fundamentals that you have worked with
throughout your education, learning in each course skills and habits that elevate your reading, writing, and
thinking abilities. This college writing course will ensure that you take another step up to college and profes-
sional writing.

This text is different in its emphasis on research skills and research writing. In English 111, you will work on
all of the disparate research skills, bringing them together to learn how to handle a unified project that adds
to a conversation in any field. The form you will learn, the building blocks of that form, the formality, and
the sacrosanct crediting of sources is explained here from English professors and our instructional librarian
at the college. Leaning on questions that lead to searches for answers that lead to arguments that present
your understanding, the chapters “Critical Reading,” “Rhetorical Modes,” and “Argument” will fill out your
growing appreciation of and comfort with the research form in everyday life. From the discussion of source
types to guidance through the research process to the models of essay deconstruction, you will find that the
expectations and language of this text begin with the college-level student in mind.
st
Working through this text will elevate you into the next stage of writing for a 21 century student and pro-
fessional.

So Let’s Get Writing: What is your first question?

Introduction: About Writing and This Book by Ann Moser is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,
except where otherwise noted.
CHAPTER 1

Chapter 1 - Critical Reading

ELIZABETH BROWNING

When you are eager to start on the coursework in a major that will prepare you for your chosen career, get-
ting excited about an introductory college writing course can be difficult. However, regardless of your field
of study, honing your writing, reading, and critical-thinking skills will give you a more solid foundation for
success, both academically and professionally. In this chapter, you will learn about the concept of critical
reading and why it is an important skill to have—not just in college but in everyday life. The same skills used
for reading a textbook chapter or academic journal article are the same ones used for successfully read-
ing an expense report, project proposal, or other professional document you may encounter in the career
world.

This chapter will also cover reading, note-taking, and writing strategies, which are necessary skills for college
students who often use reading assignments or research sources as the springboard for writing a paper,
completing discussion questions, or preparing for class discussion.

1. What expectations should you have?

2. What is critical reading?

3. Why do you read critically?

4. How do you read critically?

4.1 Preparing for a reading assignment.

4.2 Establishing your purpose.

4.3 Right before you read.

4.4 While you read.

4.5 After you read.

5. Now what?

3
4 LET'S GET WRITING!

1. WHAT EXPECTATIONS SHOULD YOU HAVE?

In college, academic expectations change from what you may have experienced in high school. The quantity
of work expected of you increases, and the quality of the work also changes. You must do more than just
understand course material and summarize it on an exam. You will be expected to engage seriously with
new ideas by reflecting on them, analyzing them, critiquing them, making connections, drawing conclusions,
or finding new ways of thinking about them. Educationally, you are moving into deeper waters. Learning the
basics of critical reading and writing will help you swim.

Figure 1.1 “High School versus College Assignments” summarizes other major differences between high
school and college assignments.
CRITICAL READING 5

2. WHAT IS CRITICAL READING?

Reading critically does not simply mean being moved, affected, informed, influenced, and persuaded by a
piece of writing. It refers to analyzing and understanding the overall composition of the writing as well as
how the writing has achieved its effect on the audience. This level of understanding begins with thinking
critically about the texts you are reading. In this case, “critically” does not mean that you are looking for what
is wrong with a work (although during your critical process, you may well do that). Instead, thinking critically
means approaching a work as if you were a critic or commentator whose job it is to analyze a text beyond
its surface.
6 LET'S GET WRITING!

Tip:

A text is simply a piece of writing, or as Merriam-Webster defines it, “the main body of printed or written matter on a
page.” In English classes, the term “text” is often used interchangeably with the words “reading” or “work.”

This step is essential in analyzing a text, and it requires you to consider many different aspects of a writer’s
work. Do not just consider what the text says; think about what effect the author intends to produce in a
reader or what effect the text has had on you as the reader. For example, does the author want to per-
suade, inspire, provoke humor, or simply inform his audience? Look at the process through which the writer
achieves (or does not achieve) the desired effect and which rhetorical strategies he uses. These rhetorical
strategies are covered in the next chapter. If you disagree with a text, what is the point of contention? If
you agree with it, how do you think you can expand or build upon the argument put forth?

Consider this example: Which of the following tweets below are critical and which are uncritical? Fig-
ure 1.2 “Lean In Tweets”
CRITICAL READING 7

3. WHY DO YOU READ CRITICALLY?

Critical reading has many uses. If applied to a work of literature, for example, it can become the foundation
8 LET'S GET WRITING!

for a detailed textual analysis. With scholarly articles, critical reading can help you evaluate their potential
reliability as future sources. Finding an error in someone else’s argument can be the point of destabilization
you need to make a worthy argument of your own, illustrated in the final tweet from the previous image,
for example. Critical reading can even help you hone your own argumentation skills because it requires you
to think carefully about which strategies are effective for making arguments, and in this age of social media
and instant publication, thinking carefully about what we say is a necessity.

4. HOW DO YOU READ CRITICALLY?

How many times have you read a page in a book, or even just a paragraph, and by the end of it thought
to yourself, “I have no idea what I just read; I can’t remember any of it”? Almost everyone has done it, and
it’s particularly easy to do when you don’t care about the material, are not interested in the material, or if
the material is full of difficult or new concepts. If you don’t feel engaged with a text, then you will passively
read it, failing to pay attention to substance and structure. Passive reading results in zero gains; you will get
nothing from what you have just read.

On the other hand, critical reading is based on active reading because you actively engage with the text,
which means thinking about the text before you begin to read it, asking yourself questions as you read it as
well as after you have read it, taking notes or annotating the text, summarizing what you have read, and,
finally, evaluating the text. Completing these steps will help you to engage with a text, even if you don’t
find it particularly interesting, which may be the case when it comes to assigned readings for some of your
classes. In fact, active reading may even help you to develop an interest in the text even when you thought
that you initially had none.

By taking an actively critical approach to reading, you will be able to do the following:

• Stay focused while you read the text

• Understand the main idea of the text
• Understand the overall structure or organization of the text
• Retain what you have read
• Pose informed and thoughtful questions about the text
• Evaluate the effectiveness of ideas in the text

Specific questions generated by the text can guide your critical reading process. Use them when reading a
text, and if asked to, use them in writing a formal analysis. When reading critically, you should begin with
broad questions and then work towards more specific questions; after all, the ultimate purpose of engaging
in critical reading is to turn you into an analyzer who asks questions that work to develop the purpose of the
text.

Figure 1.3 “Example Questions to Ask a Text”

CRITICAL READING 9

4.1 PREPARING FOR A READING ASSIGNMENT

You need to make a plan before you read. Planning ahead is a necessary and smart step in various situa-
tions, inside or outside of the classroom. You wouldn’t want to jump into dark water head first before know-
ing how deep the water is, how cold it is, or what might be living below the surface. Instead, you would want
to create a strategy, formulate a plan before you made that jump. The same goes for reading.

• Planning Your Reading

Have you ever stayed up all night cramming just before an exam or found yourself skimming a detailed
memo from your boss five minutes before a crucial meeting? The first step in successful college reading is
planning. This involves both managing your time and setting a purpose for your reading.
10 LET'S GET WRITING!

• Managing Your Reading Time

This step involves setting aside enough time for reading and breaking assignments into manageable chunks.
If you are assigned a seventy-page chapter to read for next week’s class, try not to wait until the night before
it’s due to get started. Give yourself at least a few days and tackle one section at a time.

The method for breaking up the assignment depends on the type of reading. If the text is dense and packed
with unfamiliar terms and concepts, limit yourself to no more than five or ten pages in one sitting so that
you can truly understand and process the information. With more user-friendly texts, you can handle longer
sections—twenty to forty pages, for instance. Additionally, if you have a highly engaging reading assignment,
such as a novel you cannot put down, you may be able to read lengthy passages in one sitting.

As the semester progresses, you will develop a better sense of how much time you need to allow for reading
assignments in different subjects. Also consider previewing each assignment well in advance to assess its
difficulty level and to determine how much reading time to set aside.

4.2 ESTABLISHING YOUR PURPOSE

Establishing why you read something helps you decide how to read it, which saves time and improves com-
prehension. This section lists some purposes for reading as well as different strategies to try at each stage
of the reading process.

Purposes for Reading

In college and in your profession, you will read a variety of texts to gain and use information (e.g., scholarly
articles, textbooks, reviews). Some purposes for reading might include the following:

• to scan for specific information

• to skim to get an overview of the text
• to relate new content to existing knowledge
• to write something (often depends on a prompt)
• to discuss in class
• to critique an argument
• to learn something
• for general comprehension

Tip:

To skim a text means to look over a text briefly in order to get the gist or overall idea of it. When skimming, pay attention
to these key parts:

●Title
CRITICAL READING 11

●Introductory paragraph, which often contains the writer’s thesis or main idea

●Topic sentences of body paragraphs

●Conclusion paragraph

●Bold or italicized terms

Strategies differ from reader to reader. The same reader may use different strategies for different contexts
because her purpose for reading changes. Ask yourself “why am I reading?” and “what am I reading?” when
deciding which strategies work best.

Key Takeaways

• College-level reading and writing assignments differ from high school assignments not only in quantity
but also in quality.

• Managing college reading assignments successfully requires you to plan and manage your time, set a
purpose for reading, practice effective comprehension strategies, and use active reading strategies to
deepen your understanding of the text.

• College writing assignments place greater emphasis on learning to think critically about a particular dis-
cipline and less emphasis on personal and creative writing.

4.3 RIGHT BEFORE YOU READ

Once you have established your purpose for reading, the next step is to preview the text. Previewing a
text involves skimming over it and noticing what stands out so that you not only get an overall sense of the
text, but you also learn the author’s main ideas before reading for details. Thus, because previewing a text
helps you better understand it, you will have better success analyzing it.

Questions to ask when previewing may include the following:

• What is the title of the text? Does it give a clear indication of the text’s subject?
• Who is the author? Is the author familiar to you? Is any biographical information about the
author included?
• If previewing a book, is there a summary on the back or inside the front of the book?
• What main idea emerges from the introductory paragraph? From the concluding paragraph?
12 LET'S GET WRITING!

• Are there any organizational elements that stand out, such as section headings, numbering, bullet
points, or other types of lists?
• Are there any editorial elements that stand out, such as words in italics, bold print, or in a large
font size?
• Are there any visual elements that give a sense of the subject, such as photos or illustrations?

Once you have formed a general idea about the text by previewing it, the next preparatory step for critical
reading is to speculate about the author’s purpose for writing.

• What do you think the author’s aim might be in writing this text?
• What sort of questions do you think the author might raise?

Sample pre-reading guides (Word Document downloads) – K-W-L guide (https://tinyurl.com/y9pvlw9k)· Critical
reading questionnaire (https://tinyurl.com/y7ak9ygk)

4.4 WHILE YOU READ

Improving Your Comprehension

Thus far, you have blocked out time for your reading assignments, established a purpose for reading, and
previewed the text. Now comes the challenge: making sure you actually understand all the information you
are expected to process. Some of your reading assignments will be fairly straightforward. Others, however,
will be longer and more complex, so you will need a plan for how to handle them.

For any expository writing—that is, nonfiction, informational writing—your first comprehension goal is to
identify the main points and relate any details to those main points. Because college-level texts can be chal-
lenging, you should monitor your reading comprehension. That is, you should stop periodically to assess
how well you understand what you have read. Finally, you can improve comprehension by taking time to
determine which strategies work best for you and putting those strategies into practice.

Identifying the Main Points

In college, you will read a wide variety of materials, including the following:

• Textbooks. These usually include summaries, glossaries, comprehension questions, and other
study aids.
• Nonfiction trade books, such as a biographical book. These are less likely to include the study fea-
tures found in textbooks.
• Popular magazine, newspaper, or web articles. These are usually written for the general public.
• Scholarly books and journal articles. These are written for an audience of specialists in a given
field.

Regardless of what type of expository text you are assigned to read, the primary comprehension goal is to
identify the main point: the most important idea that the writer wants to communicate, often stated early
on in the introduction and often re-emphasized in the conclusion. Finding the main point gives you a frame-
work to organize the details presented in the reading and to relate the reading to concepts you learned in
class or through other reading assignments. After identifying the main point, find the supporting points: the
details, facts, and explanations that develop and clarify the main point.
CRITICAL READING 13

Tip:

Your instructor may use the term “main point” interchangeably with other terms, such as thesis, main argument, main
focus, or core concept.

Some texts make the task of identifying the main point relatively easy. Textbooks, for instance, include the
aforementioned features as well as headings and subheadings intended to make it easier for students to
identify core concepts as well as the hierarchy of concepts (working from broad ideas to more focused
ideas). Graphic features, such as sidebars, diagrams, and charts, help students understand complex infor-
mation and distinguish between essential and inessential points. When assigned a textbook reading, be sure
to use available comprehension aids to help you identify the main points.

Trade books and popular articles may not be written specifically for an educational purpose; nevertheless,
they also include features that can help you identify the main ideas. These features include the following:

• Trade books. Many trade books include an introduction that presents the writer’s main ideas and
purpose for writing. Reading chapter titles (and any subtitles within the chapter) provides a broad
sense of what is covered. Reading the beginning and ending paragraphs of a chapter closely can
also help comprehension because these paragraphs often sum up the main ideas presented.

• Popular articles. Reading headings and introductory paragraphs carefully is crucial. In magazine
articles, these features–along with the closing paragraphs–present the main concepts. Hard news
articles in newspapers present the gist of the news story in the lead paragraph, while subsequent
paragraphs present increasingly general bits of information.

At the far end of the reading difficulty scale are scholarly books and journal articles. Because these texts are
written for a specialized, highly educated audience, the authors presume their readers are already familiar
with the topic. The language and writing style are sophisticated and sometimes dense.

When you read scholarly books and journal articles, you should apply the same strategies discussed earlier.
The introduction usually presents the writer’s thesis, the idea or hypothesis the writer is trying to prove.
Headings and subheadings can reveal how the writer has organized support for his or her thesis. If the text
contains neither headings nor subheadings, however, then topic sentences of paragraphs can reveal the
writer’s sense of organization. Additionally, academic journal articles often include a summary at the begin-
ning, called an abstract, and electronic databases include summaries of articles, too.

Annotating a text means that you actively engage with it by taking notes as you read, usually by marking
the text in some way (underlining, highlighting, using symbols such as asterisks) as well as by writing down
brief summaries, thoughts, or questions in the margins of the page. If you are working with a textbook and
prefer not to write in it, annotations can be made on sticky notes or on a separate sheet of paper. Regard-
less of what method you choose, annotating not only directs your focus, but it also helps you retain that
14 LET'S GET WRITING!

information. Furthermore, annotating helps you to recall where important points are in the text if you must
return to it for a writing assignment or class discussion.

Tip:

Annotations should not consist of JUST symbols, highlighting, or underlining. Successful and thorough annotations
should combine those visual elements with notes in the margin and written summaries; otherwise, you may not remem-
ber why you highlighted that word or sentence in the first place.

How to Annotate:

• Underline, highlight, or mark sections of the text that seem important, interesting, or confusing.
• Be selective about which sections to mark; if you end up highlighting most of a page or even most
of a paragraph, nothing will stand out, and you will have defeated the purpose of annotating.
• Use symbols to represent your thoughts.
• Asterisks or stars might go next to an important sentence or idea.
• Question marks might indicate a point or section that you find confusing or questionable in some
way.
• Exclamation marks might go next to a point that you find surprising.
• Abbreviations can represent your thoughts in the same way symbols can
• For example, you may write “Def.” or “Bkgnd” in the margins to label a section that provides defini-
tion or background info for an idea or concept.
• Think of typical terms that you would use to summarize or describe sections or ideas in a text, and
come up with abbreviations that make sense to you.
• Write down questions that you have as you read.
• Identify transitional phrases or words that connect ideas or sections of the text.
• Mark words that are unfamiliar to you or keep a running list of those words in your notebook.
• Mark key terms or main ideas in topic sentences.
• Identify key concepts pertaining to the course discipline (i.e.–look for literary devices, such as
irony, climax, or metaphor, when reading a short story in an English class).
• Identify the thesis statement in the text (if it is explicitly stated).

Links to sample annotated texts – Journal article (https://tinyurl.com/ybfz7uke) · Book chapter

excerpt (https://tinyurl.com/yd7pj379)

Figure 1.4 Sample Annotated Emily Dickinson Poem

CRITICAL READING 15

Sample Annotated Emily Dickinson Poem

Figure 1.5 Sample Annotated Walt Whitman Poem “The Dalliance of the Eagles”

Sample Annotated Walt Whitman Poem “The Dalliance of the Eagles”

16 LET'S GET WRITING!
CRITICAL READING 17

For three different but equally helpful videos on how to read actively and annotate a text, click on one of the
links below:

“How to Annotate” (https://youtu.be/muZcJXlfCWs, transcript here)

“5 Active Reading Strategies” (https://youtu.be/JL0pqJeE4_w, transcript here)

“10 Active Reading Strategies” (https://youtu.be/5j8H3F8EMNI, transcript here)

4.5 AFTER YOU READ

Once you’ve finished reading, take time to review your initial reactions from your first preview of the text.
Were any of your earlier questions answered within the text? Was the author’s purpose similar to what you
had speculated it would be?

The following steps will help you process what you have read so that you can move onto the next step of
analyzing the text.

• Summarize the text in your own words (note your impressions, reactions, and what you learned)
in an outline or in a short paragraph
• Talk to someone, like a classmate, about the author’s ideas to check your comprehension
• Identify and reread difficult parts of the text
• Review your annotations
• Try to answer some of your own questions from your annotations that were raised while you were
reading
• Define words on your vocabulary list and practice using them (to define words, try a learner’s dic-
tionary, such as Merriam-Webster’s)

Critical Reading Practice Exercises

Choose any text that you have been assigned to read for one of your college courses. In your notes, complete the following
tasks:

1. Follow the steps in the bulleted lists beginning under Section 3, “How do you read critically?” (For an in-class exer-
cise, you may want to start with “Establishing Your Purpose.”)

• Before you read: Establish your purpose; preview the text.

• While you read: Identify the main point of the text; annotate the text.

• After you read: Summarize the main points of the text in two to three sentences; review your annotations.

2. Write down two to three questions about the text that you can bring up during class discussion. (Reviewing your
annotations and identifying what stood out to you in the text should help you figure out what questions you want
to ask.)
18 LET'S GET WRITING!

Tip

Students are often reluctant to seek help. They believe that doing so marks them as slow, weak, or demanding. The
truth is, every learner occasionally struggles. If you are sincerely trying to keep up with the course reading but feel like
you are in over your head, seek out help. Speak up in class, schedule a meeting with your instructor, or visit your uni-
versity learning center for assistance. Deal with the problem as early in the semester as you can. Instructors respect
students who are proactive about their own learning. Most instructors will work hard to help students who make the
effort to help themselves.

Tip

To access a list of Virginia Western Community College’s learning resources, visit The Academic Link’s webpage
(https://tinyurl.com/yccryaky)

5. NOW WHAT?

After you have taken the time to read a text critically, the next step, which is covered in the next chapter, is
to analyze the text rhetorically to establish a clear idea of what the author wrote and how the author wrote
it, as well as how effectively the author communicated the overall message of the text.

Key Takeaways

• Finding the main idea and paying attention to textual features as you read helps you figure out what you
should know. Just as important, however, is being able to figure out what you do not know and develop-
ing a strategy to deal with it.

1. Textbooks often include comprehension questions in the margins or at the end of a section or
chapter. As you read, stop occasionally to answer these questions on paper or in your head.
Use them to identify sections you may need to reread, read more carefully, or ask your instruc-
tor about later.
CRITICAL READING 19

2. Even when a text does not have built-in comprehension features, you can actively monitor
your own comprehension. Try these strategies, adapting them as needed to suit different
kinds of texts:

3. Summarize. At the end of each section, pause to summarize the main points in a few sen-
tences. If you have trouble doing so, revisit that section.

• Ask and answer questions. When you begin reading a section, try to identify two to three questions you
should be able to answer after you finish it. Write down your questions and use them to test yourself on
the reading. If you cannot answer a question, try to determine why. Is the answer buried in that section
of reading but just not coming across to you, or do you expect to find the answer in another part of the
reading?

• Do not read in a vacuum. Simply put, don’t rely solely on your own interpretation. Look for opportunities
to discuss the reading with your classmates. Many instructors set up online discussion forums or blogs
specifically for that purpose. Participating in these discussions can help you determine whether your
understanding of the main points is the same as your peers’.

• Class discussions of the reading can serve as a reality check. If everyone in the class struggled with the
reading, it may be exceptionally challenging. If it was easy for everyone but you, you may need to see
your instructor for help.

CC Licensed Content, Shared Previously

English Composition I, Lumen Learning, CC-BY 4.0.

Rhetoric and Composition, John Barrett, et al., CC-BY-SA 3.0.

Writing for Success, CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0.

Image Credits

Figure 1.1 “High School versus College Assignments,” Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College,
CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0, derivative image from “High School Versus College Assignments,” Writing for Success, CC-
BY-NC-SA 3.0.

Figure 1.2 “Lean In Tweets,” Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0.

Figure 1.3 “Example Questions to Ask a Text,” Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0 .
20 LET'S GET WRITING!

Figure 1.4 “Sample Annotated Emily Dickinson Poem,” Kirsten DeVries and Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western
Community College, CC-0.

Figure 1.5 “Sample Annotated Walt Whitman Poem ‘The Dalliance of the Eagles,’” Kirsten DeVries and Kalyca
Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0.

Let's Get Writing! by Elizabeth Browning is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 Interna-
tional License, except where otherwise noted.
CHAPTER 2

Chapter 2 - Rhetorical Analysis

ELIZABETH BROWNING

For many people, particularly those in the media, the term “rhetoric” has a largely negative connotation.
A political commentator, for example, may say that a politician is using “empty rhetoric” or that what that
politician says is “just a bunch of rhetoric.” What the commentator means is that the politician’s words are
lacking substance, that the purpose of those words is more about manipulation rather than meaningful-
ness. However, this flawed definition, though quite common these days, does not offer the entire picture
or full understanding of a concept that is more about clearly expressing substance and meaning rather than
avoiding them.

This chapter will clarify what rhetorical analysis means and will help you identify the basic elements of
rhetorical analysis through explanation and example.

1. What is rhetorical analysis?

2. What is rhetorical situation?

3. What are the basic elements of rhetorical analysis?

3.1 The appeal to ethos.

3.2 The appeal the pathos.

3.3 The appeal to logos.

3.4 The appeal to kairos.

4. Striking a balance?

1. WHAT IS RHETORICAL ANALYSIS?

Simply defined, rhetoric is the art or method of communicating effectively to an audience, usually with the
intention to persuade; thus, rhetorical analysis means analyzing how effectively a writer or speaker com-
municates her message or argument to the audience.

The ancient Greeks, namely Aristotle, developed rhetoric into an art form, which explains why much of the
terminology that we use for rhetoric comes from Greek. The three major parts of effective communication,

21
22 LET'S GET WRITING!

also called the Rhetorical Triangle, are ethos, pathos, and logos, and they provide the foundation for a
solid argument. As a reader and a listener, you must be able to recognize how writers and speakers depend
upon these three rhetorical elements in their efforts to communicate. As a communicator yourself, you will
benefit from the ability to see how others rely upon ethos, pathos, and logos so that you can apply what you
learn from your observations to your own speaking and writing.

Rhetorical analysis can evaluate and analyze any type of communicator, whether that be a speaker, an artist,
an advertiser, or a writer, but to simplify the language in this chapter, the term “writer” will represent the
role of the communicator.

2. WHAT IS A RHETORICAL SITUATION?

Essentially, understanding a rhetorical situation means understanding the context of that situation. A
rhetorical situation comprises a handful of key elements, which should be identified before attempting to
analyze and evaluate the use of rhetorical appeals. These elements consist of the communicator in the
situation (such as the writer), the issue at hand (the topic or problem being addressed), the purpose for
addressing the issue, the medium of delivery (e.g.–speech, written text, a commercial), and the audience
being addressed.

Answering the following questions will help you identify a rhetorical situation:

• Who is the communicator or writer?

• What is the issue that the writer is addressing?
◦ What is the main argument that the writer is making?
• What is the writer’s purpose for addressing this issue?
◦ To provoke, to attack, or to defend?
◦ To push toward or dissuade from certain action?
◦ To praise or to blame?
◦ To teach, to delight, or to persuade?
• What is the form in which the writer conveys it?
◦ What is the structure of the communication; how is it arranged?
◦ What oral or literary genre is it?
◦ What figures of speech (schemes and tropes) are used?
◦ What kind of style and tone is used and for what purpose?
◦ Does the form complement the content?
◦ What effect could the form have, and does this aid or hinder the author’s intention?
• Who is the audience?
◦ Who is the intended audience?
◦ What values does the audience hold that the author or speaker appeals to?
◦ Who have been or might be secondary audiences?
◦ If this is a work of fiction, what is the nature of the audience within the fiction?
RHETORICAL ANALYSIS 23

Figure 2.1 A Balanced Argument

3. WHAT ARE THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF RHETORICAL ANALYSIS?

3.1 THE APPEAL TO ETHOS

Literally translated, ethos means “character.” In this case, it refers to the character of the writer or speaker,
or more specifically, his credibility. The writer needs to establish credibility so that the audience will trust
him and, thus, be more willing to engage with the argument. If a writer fails to establish a sufficient ethical
appeal, then the audience will not take the writer’s argument seriously.

For example, if someone writes an article that is published in an academic journal, in a reputable newspaper
or magazine, or on a credible website, those places of publication already imply a certain level of credibility.
If the article is about a scientific issue and the writer is a scientist or has certain academic or professional
credentials that relate to the article’s subject, that also will lend credibility to the writer. Finally, if that writer
24 LET'S GET WRITING!

shows that he is knowledgeable about the subject by providing clear explanations of points and by present-
ing information in an honest and straightforward way that also helps to establish a writer’s credibility.

When evaluating a writer’s ethical appeal, ask the following questions:

Does the writer come across as reliable?

• Viewpoint is logically consistent throughout the text

• Does not use hyperbolic (exaggerated) language
• Has an even, objective tone (not malicious but also not sycophantic)
• Does not come across as subversive or manipulative

Does the writer come across as authoritative and knowledgeable?

• Explains concepts and ideas thoroughly

• Addresses any counter-arguments and successfully rebuts them
• Uses a sufficient number of relevant sources
• Shows an understanding of sources used

What kind of credentials or experience does the writer have?

• Look at byline or biographical info

• Identify any personal or professional experience mentioned in the text
• Where has this writer’s text been published?

Recognizing a Manipulative Appeal to Ethos:

In a perfect world, everyone would tell the truth, and we could depend upon the credibility of speakers and authors.
Unfortunately, that is not always the case. You would expect that news reporters would be objective and tell news sto-
ries based upon the facts; however, Janet Cooke, Stephen Glass, Jayson Blair, and Brian Williams all lost their jobs for
plagiarizing or fabricating part of their news stories. Janet Cooke’s Pulitzer Prize was revoked after it was discovered
that she made up “Jimmy,” an eight-year old heroin addict (Prince, 2010). Brian Williams was fired as anchor of the NBC
Nightly News for exaggerating his role in the Iraq War.
RHETORICAL ANALYSIS 25

Others have become infamous for claiming academic degrees that they didn’t earn
as in the case of Marilee Jones. At the time of discovery, she was Dean of Admis-
sions at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). After 28 years of employ-
ment, it was determined that she never graduated from college (Lewin, 2007).
However, on her website (http://www.marileejones.com/blog/) she is still promot-
ing herself as “a sought after speaker, consultant and author” and “one of the
nation’s most experienced College Admissions Deans.”

Beyond lying about their own credentials, authors may employ a number of tricks
or fallacies to lure you to their point of view. Some of the more common techniques
are described in the next chapter. When you recognize these fallacies, you should
question the credibility of the speaker and the legitimacy of the argument. If you
use these when making your own arguments, be aware that they may undermine
or even destroy your credibility.

Figure 2.2, Brian Williams at the 2011

Time 100 Gala

Exercise 1: Analyzing Ethos

Choose an article from the links provided below. Preview your chosen text, and then read through it, paying special
attention to how the writer tries to establish an ethical appeal. Once you have finished reading, use the bullet
points above to guide you in analyzing how effective the writer’s appeal to ethos is.

“Why cancer is not a war, fight, or battle” by Xeni Jordan (https://tinyurl.com/y7m7bnnm)

“Relax and Let Your Kids Indulge in TV” by Lisa Pryor (https://tinyurl.com/y88epytu)

“Why are we OK with disability drag in Hollywood?” by Danny Woodburn and Jay Ruderman (https://tinyurl.com/
y964525k)

3.2 THE APPEAL TO PATHOS

Literally translated, pathos means “suffering.” In this case, it refers to emotion, or more specifically, the
writer’s appeal to the audience’s emotions. When a writer establishes an effective pathetic appeal, she
makes the audience care about what she is saying. If the audience does not care about the message, then
they will not engage with the argument being made.

For example, consider this: A writer is crafting a speech for a politician who is running for office, and in it, the
writer raises a point about Social Security benefits. In order to make this point more appealing to the audi-
ence so that they will feel more emotionally connected to what the politician says, the writer inserts a story
about Mary, an 80-year-old widow who relies on her Social Security benefits to supplement her income.
While visiting Mary the other day, sitting at her kitchen table and eating a piece of her delicious homemade
26 LET'S GET WRITING!

apple pie, the writer recounts how the politician held Mary’s delicate hand and promised that her benefits
would be safe if he were elected. Ideally, the writer wants the audience to feel sympathy or compassion
for Mary because then they will feel more open to considering the politician’s views on Social Security (and
maybe even other issues).

When evaluating a writer’s pathetic appeal, ask the following questions:

Does the writer try to engage or connect with the audience by making the subject matter relatable
in some way?

• Does the writer have an interesting writing style?

• Does the writer use humor at any point?
• Does the writer use narration, such as storytelling or anecdotes, to add interest or to help
humanize a certain issue within the text?
• Does the writer use descriptive or attention-grabbing details?
• Are there hypothetical examples that help the audience to imagine themselves in certain scenar-
ios?
• Does the writer use any other examples in the text that might emotionally appeal to the audi-
ence?
• Are there any visual appeals to pathos, such as photographs or illustrations?

Recognizing a Manipulative Appeal to Pathos:

Up to a certain point, an appeal to pathos can be a legitimate part of an argument. For example, a writer
or speaker may begin with an anecdote showing the effect of a law on an individual. This anecdote is a way
to gain an audience’s attention for an argument in which evidence and reason are used to present a case
as to why the law should or should not be repealed or amended. In such a context, engaging the emotions,
values, or beliefs of the audience is a legitimate and effective tool that makes the argument stronger.

An appropriate appeal to pathos is different from trying to unfairly play upon the audience’s feelings and
emotions through fallacious, misleading, or excessively emotional appeals. Such a manipulative use of
pathos may alienate the audience or cause them to “tune out.” An example would be the American Society
for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) commercials (https://youtu.be/6eXfvRcllV8, transcript
here) featuring the song “In the Arms of an Angel” and footage of abused animals. Even Sarah McLachlan,
the singer and spokesperson featured in the commercials, admits that she changes the channel because
they are too depressing (Brekke).

Even if an appeal to pathos is not manipulative, such an appeal should complement rather than replace
reason and evidence-based argument. In addition to making use of pathos, the author must establish her
credibility (ethos) and must supply reasons and evidence (logos) in support of her position. An author who
essentially replaces logos and ethos with pathos alone does not present a strong argument.

Exercise 2: Analyzing Pathos

In the movie Braveheart, the Scottish military leader, William Wallace, played by Mel Gibson, gives a speech to his
troops just before they get ready to go into battle against the English army of King Edward I.
RHETORICAL ANALYSIS 27

See clip here (https://youtu.be/h2vW-rr9ibE, transcripthere). See clip with closed captioning here.

Step 1: When you watch the movie clip, try to gauge the general emotional atmosphere. Do the men seem calm or
nervous? Confident or skeptical? Are they eager to go into battle, or are they ready to retreat? Assessing the situa-
tion from the start will make it easier to answer more specific, probing rhetorical questions after watching it.

Step 2: Consider these questions:

• What issues does Wallace address?

• Who is his audience?

• How does the audience view the issues at hand?

Step 3: Next, analyze Wallace’s use of pathos in his speech.

• How does he try to connect with his audience emotionally? Because this is a speech, and he’s appealing
to the audience in person, consider his overall look as well as what he says.

• How would you describe his manner or attitude?

• Does he use any humor, and if so, to what effect?

• How would you describe his tone?

• Identify some examples of language that show an appeal to pathos: words, phrases, imagery, collective
pronouns (we, us, our).

• How do all of these factors help him establish a pathetic appeal?

Step 4: Once you’ve identified the various ways that Wallace tries to establish his appeal to pathos, the final step is
to evaluate the effectiveness of that appeal.

• Do you think he has successfully established a pathetic appeal? Why or why not?

• What does he do well in establishing pathos?

• What could he improve, or what could he do differently to make his pathetic appeal even stronger?

3.3 THE APPEAL TO LOGOS

Literally translated, logos means “word.” In this case, it refers to information, or more specifically, the
writer’s appeal to logic and reason. A successful logical appeal provides clearly organized information as
well as evidence to support the overall argument. If one fails to establish a logical appeal, then the argu-
ment will lack both sense and substance.

For example, refer to the previous example of the politician’s speech writer to understand the importance of
having a solid logical appeal. What if the writer had only included the story about 80-year-old Mary without
providing any statistics, data, or concrete plans for how the politician proposed to protect Social Security
benefits? Without any factual evidence for the proposed plan, the audience would not have been as likely to
accept his proposal, and rightly so.
28 LET'S GET WRITING!

When evaluating a writer’s logical appeal, ask the following questions:

Does the writer organize his information clearly?

• Ideas are connected by transition words and phrases

◦ Choose the link for examples of common transitions (https://tinyurl.com/oftaj5g).
• Ideas have a clear and purposeful order

Does the writer provide evidence to back his claims?

• Specific examples
• Relevant source material

Does the writer use sources and data to back his claims rather than base the argument purely on
emotion or opinion?

• Does the writer use concrete facts and figures, statistics, dates/times, specific names/titles,
graphs/charts/tables?
• Are the sources that the writer uses credible?
• Where do the sources come from? (Who wrote/published them?)
• When were the sources published?
• Are the sources well-known, respected, and/or peer-reviewed (if applicable) publications?

Recognizing a Manipulative Appeal to Logos:

Pay particular attention to numbers, statistics, findings, and quotes used to support an argument. Be critical
of the source and do your own investigation of the facts. Remember: What initially looks like a fact may not
actually be one. Maybe you’ve heard or read that half of all marriages in America will end in divorce. It is so
often discussed that we assume it must be true. Careful research will show that the original marriage study
was flawed, and divorce rates in America have steadily declined since 1985 (Peck, 1993). If there is no scien-
tific evidence, why do we continue to believe it? Part of the reason might be that it supports the common
worry of the dissolution of the American family.

Fallacies that misuse appeals to logos or attempt to manipulate the logic of an argument are discussed in
the next chapter.

Exercise 3: Analyzing Logos

The debate about whether college athletes, namely male football and basketball players, should be paid salaries
instead of awarded scholarships is one that regularly comes up when these players are in the throes of their respec-
tive athletic seasons, whether that’s football bowl games or March Madness. While proponents on each side of this
issue have solid reasons, you are going to look at an article that is against the idea of college athletes being paid.

Take note: Your aim in this rhetorical exercise is not to figure out where you stand on this issue; rather, your aim
is to evaluate how effectively the writer establishes a logical appeal to support his position, whether you agree with
him or not.

See the article here (https://tinyurl.com/j37khct).

RHETORICAL ANALYSIS 29

Step 1: Before reading the article, take a minute to preview the text, a critical reading skill explained in Chapter 1.

Step 2: Once you have a general idea of the article, read through it and pay attention to how the author organizes
information and uses evidence, annotating or marking these instances when you see them.

Step 3: After reviewing your annotations, evaluate the organization of the article as well as the amount and types
of evidence that you have identified by answering the following questions:

• Does the information progress logically throughout the article?

◦ Does the writer use transitions to link ideas?

◦ Do ideas in the article have a clear sense of order, or do they appear scattered and unfocused?

• Was the amount of evidence in the article proportionate to the size of the article?

◦ Was there too little of it, was there just enough, or was there an overload of evidence?

• Were the examples of evidence relevant to the writer’s argument?

• Were the examples clearly explained?

• Were sources cited or clearly referenced?

• Were the sources credible? How could you tell?

3.4 THE APPEAL TO KAIROS

Literally translated, Kairos means the “supreme moment.” In this case, it refers to appropriate timing,
meaning when the writer presents certain parts of her argument as well as the overall timing of the subject
matter itself. While not technically part of the Rhetorical Triangle, it is still an important principle for con-
structing an effective argument. If the writer fails to establish a strong Kairotic appeal, then the audience
may become polarized, hostile, or may simply just lose interest.

If appropriate timing is not taken into consideration and a writer introduces a sensitive or important point
too early or too late in a text, the impact of that point could be lost on the audience. For example, if the
writer’s audience is strongly opposed to her view, and she begins the argument with a forceful thesis of why
she is right and the opposition is wrong, how do you think that audience might respond?

In this instance, the writer may have just lost the ability to make any further appeals to her audience in two
ways: first, by polarizing them, and second, by possibly elevating what was at first merely strong opposition
to what would now be hostile opposition. A polarized or hostile audience will not be inclined to listen to the
writer’s argument with an open mind or even to listen at all. On the other hand, the writer could have estab-
lished a stronger appeal to Kairos by building up to that forceful thesis, maybe by providing some neutral
points such as background information or by addressing some of the opposition’s views, rather than leading
with why she is right and the audience is wrong.

Additionally, if a writer covers a topic or puts forth an argument about a subject that is currently a non-issue
or has no relevance for the audience, then the audience will fail to engage because whatever the writer’s
message happens to be, it won’t matter to anyone. For example, if a writer were to put forth the argu-
30 LET'S GET WRITING!

ment that women in the United States should have the right to vote, no one would care; that is a non-issue
because women in the United States already have that right.

When evaluating a writer’s Kairotic appeal, ask the following questions:

• Where does the writer establish her thesis of the argument in the text? Is it near the beginning,
the middle, or the end? Is this placement of the thesis effective? Why or why not?
• Where in the text does the writer provide her strongest points of evidence? Does that location pro-
vide the most impact for those points?
• Is the issue that the writer raises relevant at this time, or is it something no one really cares about
anymore or needs to know about anymore?

Exercise 4: Analyzing Kairos

th
In this exercise, you will analyze a visual representation of the appeal to Kairos. On the 26 of February 2015, a
photo of a dress was posted to Twitter along with a question as to whether people thought it was one combination
of colors versus another. Internet chaos ensued on social media because while some people saw the dress as black
and blue, others saw it as white and gold. As the color debate surrounding the dress raged on, an ad agency in
South Africa saw an opportunity to raise awareness about a far more serious subject: domestic abuse.

Step 1: Read this article (https://tinyurl.com/yctl8o5g) from CNN about how and why the photo of the dress went
viral so that you will be better informed for the next step in this exercise:

Step 2: Watch the video (https://youtu.be/SLv0ZRPssTI, transcript here)from CNN that explains how, in partnership
with The Salvation Army, the South African marketing agency created an ad that went viral.

Step 3: After watching the video, answer the following questions:

• Once the photo of the dress went viral, approximately how long after did the Salvation Army’s ad appear?
Look at the dates on both the article and the video to get an idea of a time frame.

• How does the ad take advantage of the publicity surrounding the dress?

• Would the ad’s overall effectiveness change if it had come out later than it did?

• How late would have been too late to make an impact? Why?

4. STRIKING A BALANCE:

Figure 2.3 An Unbalanced Argument

RHETORICAL ANALYSIS 31

The foundations of rhetoric are interconnected in such a way that a writer needs to establish all of the
rhetorical appeals to put forth an effective argument. If a writer lacks a pathetic appeal and only tries to
establish a logical appeal, the audience will be unable to connect emotionally with the writer and, therefore,
will care less about the overall argument. Likewise, if a writer lacks a logical appeal and tries to rely solely
on subjective or emotionally driven examples, then the audience will not take the writer seriously because
an argument based purely on opinion and emotion cannot hold up without facts and evidence to support
it. If a writer lacks either the pathetic or logical appeal, not to mention the kairotic appeal, then the writer’s
ethical appeal will suffer. All of the appeals must be sufficiently established for a writer to communicate
effectively with his audience.

For a visual example, watch (https://tinyurl.com/yct5zryn, transcript here) violinist Joshua Bell show how
the rhetorical situation determines the effectiveness of all types of communication, even music.

Exercise 5: Rhetorical Analysis

Step 1: Choose one of the articles linked below.

32 LET'S GET WRITING!

Step 2: Preview your chosen text, and then read and annotate it.

Step 3: Next, using the information and steps outlined in this chapter, identify the rhetorical situation in the text
based off of the following components: the communicator, the issue at hand, the purpose, the medium of delivery,
and the intended audience.

Step 4: Then, identify and analyze how the writer tries to establish the rhetorical appeals of ethos, pathos, logos,
and Kairos throughout that text.

Step 5: Finally, evaluate how effectively you think the writer establishes the rhetorical appeals, and defend your
evaluation by noting specific examples that you’ve annotated.

BBC News, “Taylor Swift Sexual Assault Case: Why is it significant?” (https://tinyurl.com/ybopmmdu)

NPR, “Does Cash Aid Help the Poor–Or Encourage Laziness?” (https://tinyurl.com/y8ho2fhw)

The Washington Post, Op-Ed, “Michael Vick doesn’t belong in the Virginia Tech Sports Hall of Fame”
(https://tinyurl.com/yavxcmjl)

Key Takeaways

Understanding the Rhetorical Situation:

• Identify who the communicator is.

• Identify the issue at hand.

• Identify the communicator’s purpose.

• Identify the medium or method of communication.

• Identify who the audience is.

Identifying the Rhetorical Appeals:

• Ethos = the writer’s credibility

• Pathos = the writer’s emotional appeal to the audience

• Logos = the writer’s logical appeal to the audience

• Kairos = appropriate and relevant timing of subject matter

• In sum, effective communication is based on an understanding of the rhetorical situation and on a bal-
ance of the rhetorical appeals.

CC Licensed Content, Shared Previously

English Composition I, Lumen Learning, CC-BY 4.0.

RHETORICAL ANALYSIS 33

English Composition II, Lumen Learning, CC-BY 4.0.

Image Credits

Figure 2.1 “A Balanced Argument,” Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0.

Figure 2.2, “Brian Williams at the 2011 Time 100 Gala,” David Shankbone, Wikimedia, CC-BY 3.0.

Figure 2.3 “An Unbalanced Argument,” Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0.

References

Brekke, Kira. “Sarah McLachlan: ‘I Change The Channel’ When My ASPCA Commercials Come On.” Huffington
Post. 5 May 2014.

Lewin, Tamar. “Dean at M.I.T. Resigns, Ending a 28-Year Lie.” New York Times. 27 April 2007, p. A1,

Peck, Dennis, L. “The Fifty Percent Divorce Rate: Deconstructing a Myth.” The Journal of Sociology & Social Wel-
fare. Vol. 20, no.3, 1993, pp. 135-144.

Prince, Richard. “Janet Cooke’s Hoax Still Resonates After 30 Years.” The Root. October 2010.

Chapter 2 - Rhetorical Analysis by Elizabeth Browning is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,
except where otherwise noted.
CHAPTER 3

Chapter 3 - Argument

KIRSTEN DEVRIES

At school, at work, and in everyday life, argument is one of main ways we exchange ideas with one another.
Academics, business people, scientists, and other professionals all make arguments to determine what to
do or think, or to solve a problem by enlisting others to do or believe something they otherwise would not.
Not surprisingly, then, argument dominates writing, and training in argument writing is essential for all col-
lege students.

This chapter will explore how to define argument, how to talk about argument, how logic works in argument,
the main argument types, and a list of logical fallacies.

1. What Is Argument?

2. What Are the Components and Vocabulary of Argument?

3. What Is Logic?

4. What Are the Different Types of Argument in Writing?

5. A Repository of Logical Fallacies

1. WHAT IS ARGUMENT?

All people, including you, make arguments on a regular basis. When you make a claim and then support the
claim with reasons, you are making an argument. Consider the following:

• If, as a teenager, you ever made a case for borrowing your parents’ car using reasonable sup-
port—a track record of responsibility in other areas of your life, a good rating from your driving
instructor, and promises to follow rules of driving conduct laid out by your parents—you have
made an argument.

• If, as an employee, you ever persuaded your boss to give you a raise using concrete evi-

34
ARGUMENT 35

dence—records of sales increases in your sector, a work calendar with no missed days, and per-
sonal testimonials from satisfied customers—you have made an argument.

• If, as a gardener, you ever shared your crops at a farmer’s market, declaring that your produce is
better than others using relevant support—because you used the most appropriate soil, water
level, and growing time for each crop—you’ve made an argument.

• If, as a literature student, you ever wrote an essay on your interpretation of a poem—defending
your ideas with examples from the text and logical explanations for how those examples demon-
strate your interpretation—you have made an argument.

The two main models of argument desired in college courses as part of the training for academic or profes-
sional life are rhetorical argument and academic argument. If rhetoric is the study of the craft of writ-
ing and speaking, particularly writing or speaking designed to convince and persuade, the student studying
rhetorical argument focuses on how to create an argument that convinces and persuades effectively. To
that end, the student must understand how to think broadly about argument, the particular vocabulary of
argument, and the logic of argument. The close sibling of rhetorical argument is academic argument, argu-
ment used to discuss and evaluate ideas, usually within a professional field of study, and to convince others
of those ideas. In academic argument, interpretation and research play the central roles.

However, it would be incorrect to say that academic argument and rhetorical argument do not overlap.
Indeed, they do, and often. A psychologist not only wishes to prove an important idea with research, but
she will also wish to do so in the most effective way possible. A politician will want to make the most persua-
sive case for his side, but he should also be mindful of data that may support his points. Thus, throughout
this chapter, when you see the term argument
argument, it refers to a broad category including both rhetorical and acade-
mic argument
argument.

Before moving to the specific parts and vocabulary of argument, it will be helpful to consider some further
ideas about what argument is and what it is not.

Argument vs. Controversy or Fight

Consumers of written texts are often tempted to divide writing into two categories: argumentative and non-
argumentative. According to this view, to be argumentative, writing must have the following qualities: It has
to defend a position in a debate between two or more opposing sides, it must be on a controversial topic,
and the goal of such writing must be to prove the correctness of one point of view over another.

A related definition of argument implies a confrontation, a clash of opinions and personalities, or just a plain
verbal fight. It implies a winner and a loser, a right side and a wrong one. Because of this understanding
of the word “argument,” many students think the only type of argument writing is the debate-like position
paper, in which the author defends his or her point of view against other, usually opposing, points of view.
36 LET'S GET WRITING!

For a fun illustration of the reductive nature of a mere fight, see “The Argument Clinic” (https://youtu.be/XNkjDuSVXiE,
transcript here) skit from Monty Python.

These two characteristics of argument—as controversial and as a fight—limit the definition because argu-
ments come in different disguises, from hidden to subtle to commanding. It is useful to look at the term
“argument” in a new way. What if we think of argument as an opportunity for conversation, for sharing with
others our point of view on an issue, for showing others our perspective of the world? What if we think of
argument as an opportunity to connect with the points of view of others rather than defeating those points
of view?

One community that values argument as a type of communication and exchange is the community of schol-
ars. They advance their arguments to share research and new ways of thinking about topics. Biologists,
for example, do not gather data and write up analyses of the results because they wish to fight with other
biologists, even if they disagree with the ideas of other biologists. They wish to share their discoveries and
get feedback on their ideas. When historians put forth an argument, they do so often while building on the
arguments of other historians who came before them. Literature scholars publish their interpretations of
different works of literature to enhance understanding and share new views, not necessarily to have one
interpretation replace all others. There may be debates within any field of study, but those debates can be
healthy and constructive if they mean even more scholars come together to explore the ideas involved in
those debates. Thus, be prepared for your college professors to have a much broader view of argument
than a mere fight over a controversial topic or two.

Argument vs. Opinion

Argument is often confused with opinion. Indeed, arguments and opinions sound alike. Someone with an
opinion asserts a claim that he thinks is true. Someone with an argument asserts a claim that she thinks is
true. Although arguments and opinions do sound the same, there are two important differences:

1. Arguments have rules; opinions do not. In other words, to form an argument, you must con-
sider whether the argument is reasonable. Is it worth making? Is it valid? Is it sound? Do all of its
parts fit together logically? Opinions, on the other hand, have no rules, and anyone asserting an
opinion need not think it through for it to count as one; however, it will not count as an argument.
2. Arguments have support; opinions do not. If you make a claim and then stop, as if the claim
itself were enough to demonstrate its truthfulness, you have asserted an opinion only. An argu-
ment must be supported, and the support of an argument has its own rules. The support must
also be reasonable, relevant, and sufficient.

Figure 3.1 “Opinion vs Argument”

ARGUMENT 37

Argument vs. Thesis

Another point of confusion is the difference between an argument and an essay’s thesis. For college essays,
38 LET'S GET WRITING!

there is no essential difference between an argument and a thesis; most professors use these terms inter-
changeably. An argument is a claim that you must then support. The main claim of an essay is the point of
the essay and provides the purpose for the essay. Thus, the main claim of an essay is also the thesis. For
more on the thesis, see Chapter 4, “The Writing Process.”

Consider this as well: Most formal essays center upon one main claim (the thesis) but then support that
main claim with supporting evidence and arguments. The topic sentence of a body paragraph can be
another type of argument, though a supporting one, and, hence, a narrower one. Try not to be confused
when professors call both the thesis and topic sentences arguments. They are not wrong because argu-
ments come in different forms; some claims are broad enough to be broken down into a number of sup-
porting arguments. Many longer essays are structured by the smaller arguments that are a part of and
support the main argument. Sometimes professors, when they say supporting points or supporting argu-
ments, mean the reasons (premises) for the main claim (conclusion) you make in an essay. If a claim has a
number of reasons, those reasons will form the support structure for the essay, and each reason will be the
basis for the topic sentence of its body paragraph.

Argument vs. Fact

Arguments are also commonly mistaken for statements of fact. This comes about because often people
privilege facts over opinions, even as they defend the right to have opinions. In other words, facts are
“good,” and opinions are “bad,” or if not exactly bad, then fuzzy and thus easy to reject. However, remember
the important distinction between an argument and an opinion stated above: While argument may sound
like an opinion, the two are not the same. An opinion is an assertion, but it is left to stand alone with little
to no reasoning or support. An argument is much stronger because it includes and demonstrates reasons
and support for its claim.

As for mistaking a fact for an argument, keep this important distinction in mind: An argument must be
arguable. In everyday life, arguable is often a synonym for doubtful. For an argument, though, arguable
means that it is worth arguing, that it has a range of possible answers, angles, or perspectives: It is an
answer, angle, or perspective with which a reasonable person might disagree. Facts, by virtue of being facts,
are not arguable. Facts are statements that can be definitely proven using objective data. The statement
that is a fact is absolutely valid. In other words, the statement can be pronounced as definitively true or
definitively false. For example, 2 + 2 = 4. This expression identifies a verifiably true statement, or a fact,
because it can be proved with objective data. When a fact is established, there is no other side, and there
should be no disagreement.

The misunderstanding about facts (being inherently good) and argument (being inherently problematic
because it is not a fact) leads to the mistaken belief that facts have no place in an argument. This could not
be farther from the truth. First of all, most arguments are formed by analyzing facts. Second, facts provide
one type of support for an argument. Thus, do not think of facts and arguments as enemies; rather, they
work closely together.

Explicit vs. Implicit Arguments

Arguments can be both explicit and implicit. Explicit arguments contain prominent and definable thesis
statements and multiple specific proofs to support them. This is common in academic writing from scholars
of all fields. Implicit arguments, on the other hand, work by weaving together facts and narratives, logic
and emotion, personal experiences and statistics. Unlike explicit arguments, implicit ones do not have a
one-sentence thesis statement. Implicit arguments involve evidence of many different kinds to build and
ARGUMENT 39

convey their point of view to their audience. Both types use rhetoric, logic, and support to create effective
arguments.

Exercise 1

Go on a hunt for an implicit argument in the essay, “37 Who Saw Murder Didn’t Call the Police”
(https://tinyurl.com/yc35o25x) by Martin Gansberg.

1. Read the article, and take notes on it–either using a notebook or by annotating a printed copy of the text itself
(for help with note-taking on reading material, seeChapter 1, “Critical Reading.” Mark or write down all the impor-
tant details you find.

2. After you are finished reading, look over your notes or annotations. What do all the details add up to? Use the
details you have read about to figure out what Gansberg’s implicit argument is in his essay. Write it in your own
words.

3. Discuss your results with a partner or a group. Did you come up with the same argument? Have everyone
explain the reasoning for his or her results.

Argument and Rhetoric

An argument in written form involves making choices, and knowing the principles of rhetoric allows a writer
to make informed choices about various aspects of the writing process. Every act of writing takes place in a
specific rhetorical situation. The most basic and important components of a rhetorical situation are

• Author of the text.

• Purpose of the text.
• Intended audience (i.e., those the author imagines will be reading the text).
• Form or type of text.

These components give readers a way to analyze a text on first encounter. These factors also help writers
select their topics, arrange their material, and make other important decisions about the argument they will
make and the support they will need. For more on rhetoric, see Chapter 2, “Rhetorical Analysis.”

Key Takeaways: What is an Argument?

With this brief introduction, you can see what rhetorical or academic argument is not:

• An argument need not be controversial or about a controversy.

• An argument is not a mere fight.

• An argument does not have a single winner or loser.

• An argument is not a mere opinion.

• An argument is not a statement of fact.

40 LET'S GET WRITING!

Furthermore, you can see what rhetorical argument is:

• An argument is a claim asserted as true.

• An argument is arguable.

• An argument must be reasonable.

• An argument must be supported.

• An argument in a formal essay is called a thesis. Supporting arguments can be called topic sentences.

• An argument can be explicit or implicit.

• An argument must be adapted to its rhetorical situation.

2. WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS AND VOCABULARY OF ARGUMENT?

Questions are at the core of arguments. What matters is not just that you believe that what you have to
say is true, but that you give others viable reasons to believe it as well—and also show them that you have
considered the issue from multiple angles. To do that, build your argument out of the answers to the five
questions a rational reader will expect answers to. In academic and professional writing, we tend to build
arguments from the answers to these main questions:

1. What do you want me to do or think?

2. Why should I do or think that?
3. How do I know that what you say is true?
4. Why should I accept the reasons that support your claim?
5. What about this other idea, fact, or consideration?
6. How should you present your argument?

When you ask people to do or think something they otherwise would not, they quite naturally want to know
why they should do so. In fact, people tend to ask the same questions. As you make a reasonable argument,
you anticipate and respond to readers’ questions with a particular part of argument:

1. The answer to What do you want me to do or think? is your conclusion: “I conclude that you should do
or think X.”

2. The answer to Why should I do or think that? states your premise: “You should do or think X because
. . .”

3. The answer to How do I know that what you say is true? presents your support: “You can believe my
reasons because they are supported by these facts . . .”

4. The answer to Why should I accept that your reasons support your claim? states your general principle
of reasoning, called a warrant: “My specific reason supports my specific claim because whenever this
general condition is true, we can generally draw a conclusion like mine.”
ARGUMENT 41

5. The answer to What about this other idea, fact, or conclusion?acknowledges that your readers might
see things differently and then responds to their counterarguments.

6. The answer to How should you present your argument? leads to the point of view, organization, and
tone that you should use when making your arguments.

As you have noticed, the answers to these questions involve knowing the particular vocabulary about argu-
ment because these terms refer to specific parts of an argument. The remainder of this section will cover
the terms referred to in the questions listed above as well as others that will help you better understand the
building blocks of argument.

What Is a Conclusion, and What Is a Premise?

The root notion of an argument is that it convinces us that something is true. What we are being convinced
of is the conclusion. An example would be this claim:

Littering is harmful.

A reason for this conclusion is called the premise. Typically, a conclusion will be supported by two or more
premises. Both premises and conclusions are statements. Some premises for our littering conclusion
might be these:

Littering is dangerous to animals.

Littering is dangerous to humans.

Thus, to be clear, understand that an argument asserts that the writer’s claim is true in two main parts: the
premises of the argument exist to show that the conclusion is true.

Tip

Be aware of the other words to indicate a conclusion–claim, assertion, point–and other ways to talk about the
premise–reason, factor, the why. Also, do not confuse this use of the word conclusion with a conclusion paragraph for
an essay.

What Is a Statement?

A statement is a type of sentence that can be true or false and corresponds to the grammatical category of
a declarative sentence. For example, the sentence,

The Nile is a river in northeastern Africa,

is a statement because it makes sense to inquire whether it is true or false. (In this case, it happens to be
true.) However, a sentence is still a statement, even if it is false. For example, the sentence,
42 LET'S GET WRITING!

The Yangtze is a river in Japan,

is still a statement; it is just a false statement (the Yangtze River is in China). In contrast, none of the following
sentences are statements:

Please help yourself to more casserole.

Don’t tell your mother about the surprise.

Do you like Vietnamese pho?

None of these sentences are statements because it does not make sense to ask whether those sentences
are true or false; rather, they are a request, a command, and a question, respectively. Make sure to remem-
ber the difference between sentences that are declarative statements and sentences that are not because
arguments depend on declarative statements.

Tip

A question cannot be an argument, yet students will often pose a question at the end of an introduction to an essay,
thinking they have declared their thesis. They have not. If, however, they answer that question (conclusion) and give
some reasons for that answer (premises), they then have the components necessary for both an argument and a
declarative statement of that argument (thesis).

To reiterate: All arguments are composed of premises and conclusions, both of which are types of state-
ments. The premises of the argument provide reasons for thinking that the conclusion is true. Arguments
typically involve more than one premise.

What Is Standard Argument Form?

A standard way of capturing the structure of an argument, or diagramming it, is by numbering the premises
and conclusion. For example, the following represents another way to arrange the littering argument:

1. Littering is harmful
2. Litter is dangerous to animals
3. Litter is dangerous to humans

This numbered list represents an argument that has been put into standard argument form. A more pre-
cise definition of an argument now emerges, employing the vocabulary that is specific to academic and
rhetorical arguments. An argument is a set of statements, some of which (the premises: statements 2 and
3 above) attempt to provide a reason for thinking that some other statement (the conclusion: statement 1)
is true.
ARGUMENT 43

Tip

Diagramming an argument can be helpful when trying to figure out your essay’s thesis. Because a thesis is an argument,
putting the parts of an argument into standard form can help sort ideas. You can transform the numbered ideas into a
cohesive sentence or two for your thesis once you are more certain what your argument parts are.

Figure 3.2 “Argument Diagram”

44 LET'S GET WRITING!

Recognizing arguments is essential to analysis and critical thinking; if you cannot distinguish between the
details (the support) of a piece of writing and what those details are there to support (the argument), you
will likely misunderstand what you are reading. Additionally, studying how others make arguments can help
you learn how to effectively create your own.

What Are Argument Indicators?

While mapping an argument in standard argument form can be a good way to figure out and formulate a
thesis, identifying arguments by other writers is also important. The best way to identify an argument is to
ask whether a claim exists (in statement form) that a writer justifies by reasons (also in statement form).
Other identifying markers of arguments are key words or phrases that are premise indicators or conclusion
ARGUMENT 45

indicators. For example, recall the littering argument, reworded here into a single sentence (much like a the-
sis statement):

Littering is harmful because it is dangerous to both animals and humans.

The word “because” here is a premise indicator. That is, “because” indicates that what follows is a reason
for thinking that littering is bad. Here is another example:

The student plagiarized since I found the exact same sentences on a website, and the website was
published more than a year before the student wrote the paper.

In this example, the word “since” is a premise indicator because what follows is a statement that is clearly
intended to be a reason for thinking that the student plagiarized (i.e., a premise). Notice that in these two
cases, the premise indicators “because” and “since” are interchangeable: “because” could be used in place
of “since” or “since” in the place of “because,” and the meaning of the sentences would have been the same.

Figure 3.3 “Common Premise Indicators”

46 LET'S GET WRITING!

In addition to premise indicators, there are also conclusion indicators. Conclusion indicators mark that
what follows is the conclusion of an argument. For example,

Bob-the-arsonist has been dead for a year, so Bob-the-arsonist didn’t set the fire at the East Lans-
ing Starbucks last week.

In this example, the word “so” is a conclusion indicator because what follows it is a statement that someone
is trying to establish as true (i.e., a conclusion). Here is another example of a conclusion indicator:

A poll administered by Gallup (a respected polling company) showed candidate X to be substan-

tially behind candidate Y with only a week left before the vote; therefore, candidate Y will probably
not win the election.

In this example, the word “therefore” is a conclusion indicator because what follows it is a statement that
someone is trying to establish as true (i.e., a conclusion). As before, in both of these cases, the conclusion
indicators “so” and “therefore” are interchangeable: “So” could be used in place of “therefore” or “therefore”
in the place of “so,” and the meaning of the sentences would have been the same.

Figure 3.4 “Common Conclusion Indicators”

ARGUMENT 47

Exercise 2

Which of the following are arguments? If it is an argument, identify the conclusion (claim) of the argument. If it is
not an argument, explain why not. Remember to look for the qualifying features of an argument: (1) It is a state-
ment or series of statements, (2) it states a claim (a conclusion), and (3) it has at least one premise (reason for the
claim).

1. The woman with the hat is not a witch since witches have long noses, and she doesn’t have a long nose.

2. I have been wrangling cattle since before you were old enough to tie your own shoes.

3. Albert is angry with me, so he probably won’t be willing to help me wash the dishes.

4. First, I washed the dishes, and then I dried them.

5. If the road weren’t icy, the car wouldn’t have slid off the turn.
48 LET'S GET WRITING!

6. Marvin isn’t a fireman and isn’t a fisherman, either.

7. Are you seeing the rhinoceros over there? It’s huge!

8. Obesity has become a problem in the US because obesity rates have risen over the past four decades.

9. Bob showed me a graph with rising obesity rates, and I was very surprised to see how much they had
risen.

10. Marvin isn’t a fireman because Marvin is a Greyhound, which is a type of dog, and dogs can’t be firemen.

11. What Susie told you is not the actual reason she missed her flight to Denver.

12. Carol likely forgot to lock her door this morning because she was distracted by a clown riding a unicycle
while singing Lynyrd Skynyrd’s “Simple Man.”

13. No one who has ever gotten frostbite while climbing K2 has survived to tell about it; therefore, no one
ever will.

What Constitutes Support?

To ensure that your argument is sound—that the premises for your conclusion are true—you must establish
support. The burden of proof, to borrow language from law, is on the one making an argument, not on the
recipient of an argument. If you wish to assert a claim, you must then also support it, and this support must
be relevant, logical, and sufficient.

It is important to use the right kind of evidence, to use it effectively, and to have an appropriate amount of
it.

• If, for example, your philosophy professor did not like that you used a survey of public opinion as
your primary evidence in an ethics paper, you most likely used material that was not relevant to
your topic. Rather, you should find out what philosophers count as good evidence. Different fields
of study involve types of evidence based on relevance to those fields.

• If your professor has put question marks by your thesis or has written, “It does not follow,” you
likely have problems with logic. Make sure it is clear how the parts of your argument logically fit
together.

• If your instructor has told you that you need more analysis, suggested that you are “just listing”
points or giving a “laundry list,” you likely have not included enough explanation for how a point
connects to and supports your argument, which is another problem with logic, this time related to
the warrants of your argument. You need to fully incorporate evidence into your argument. (See
more on warrants immediately below.)

• If you see comments like “for example?,” “proof?,” “go deeper,” or “expand,” you may need more
ARGUMENT 49

evidence. In other words, the evidence you have is not yet sufficient. One or two pieces of evi-
dence will not be enough to prove your argument. Similarly, multiple pieces of evidence that
aren’t developed thoroughly would also be flawed, also insufficient. Would a lawyer go to trial with
only one piece of evidence? No, the lawyer would want to have as much evidence as possible
from a variety of sources to make a viable case. Similarly, a lawyer would fully develop evidence
for a claim using explanation, facts, statistics, stories, experiences, research, details, and the like.

You will find more information about the different types of evidence, how to find them, and what makes
them credible in Chapter 6, “Research.” Logic will be covered later on in this chapter.

What Is the Warrant?

Above all, connect the evidence to the argument. This connection is the warrant. Evidence is not self-evi-
dent. In other words, after introducing evidence into your writing, you must demonstrate why and how this
evidence supports your argument. You must explain the significance of the evidence and its function in your
paper. What turns a fact or piece of information into evidence is the connection it has with a larger claim or
argument: Evidence is always evidence for or against something, and you have to make that link clear.

Tip

Student writers sometimes assume that readers already know the information being written about; students may be
wary of elaborating too much because they think their points are obvious. But remember, readers are not mind readers:
Although they may be familiar with many of the ideas discussed, they don’t know what writers want to do with those
ideas unless they indicate that through explanations, organization, and transitions. Thus, when you write, be sure to
explain the connections you made in your mind when you chose your evidence, decided where to place it in your paper,
and drew conclusions based on it.

What Is a Counterargument?

Remember that arguments are multi-sided. As you brainstorm and prepare to present your idea and your
support for it, consider other sides of the issue. These other sides are counterarguments. Make a list of
counterarguments as you work through the writing process, and use them to build your case – to widen
your idea to include a valid counterargument, to explain how a counterargument might be defeated, to illus-
trate how a counterargument may not withstand the scrutiny your research has uncovered, and/or to show
that you are aware of and have taken into account other possibilities.

For example, you might choose the issue of declawing cats and set up your search with the question should
I have my indoor cat declawed? Your research, interviews, surveys, personal experiences might yield several
angles on this question: Yes, it will save your furniture and your arms and ankles. No, it causes psychological
issues for the cat. No, if the cat should get outside, he will be without defense. As a writer, be prepared to
address alternate arguments and to include them to the extent that it will illustrate your reasoning.

Almost anything claimed in a paper can be refuted or challenged. Opposing points of view and arguments
50 LET'S GET WRITING!

exist in every debate. It is smart to anticipate possible objections to your arguments – and to do so will make
your arguments stronger. Another term for a counterargument is antithesis (i.e., the opposition to a the-
sis). To find possible counterarguments (and keep in mind there can be many counterpoints to one claim),
ask the following questions:

• Could someone draw a different conclusion from the facts or examples you present?
• Could a reader question any of your assumptions or claims?
• Could a reader offer a different explanation of an issue?
• Is there any evidence out there that could weaken your position?

If the answer to any of these questions is yes, the next set of questions can help you respond to these poten-
tial objections:

Is it possible to concede the point of the opposition, but then challenge that point’s importance/usefulness?

• Can you offer an explanation of why a reader should question a piece of evidence or consider a
different point of view?
• Can you explain how your position responds to any contradicting evidence?
• Can you put forward a different interpretation of evidence?

It may not seem likely at first, but clearly recognizing and addressing different sides of the argument, the
ones that are not your own, can make your argument and paper stronger. By addressing the antithesis of
your argument essay, you are showing your readers that you have carefully considered the issue and accept
that there are often other ways to view the same thing.

You can use signal phrases in your paper to alert readers that you are about to present an objection. Con-
sider using one of these phrases–or ones like them–at the beginning of a paragraph:

• Researchers have challenged these claims with…

• Critics argue that this view…
• Some readers may point to…

What Are More Complex Argument Structures?

So far you have seen that an argument consists of a conclusion and a premise (typically more than one).
However, often arguments and explanations have a more complex structure than just a few premises that
directly support the conclusion. For example, consider the following argument:

No one living in Pompeii could have survived the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius. The reason is simple:
The lava was flowing too fast, and there was nowhere to go to escape it in time. Therefore, this
account of the eruption, which claims to have been written by an eyewitness living in Pompeii, was
not actually written by an eyewitness.

The main conclusion of this argument—the statement that depends on other statements as evidence but
doesn’t itself provide any evidence for other statements—is

A. This account of the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius was not actually written by an eyewitness.

However, the argument’s structure is more complex than simply having a couple of premises that provide
ARGUMENT 51

evidence directly for the conclusion. Rather, some statements provide evidence directly for the main conclu-
sion, but some premise statements support other premise statements which then support the conclusion.

To determine the structure of an argument, you must determine which statements support which, using
premise and conclusion indicators to help. For example, the passage above contains the phrase, “the reason
is…” which is a premise indicator, and it also contains the conclusion indicator, “therefore.” That conclu-
sion indicator helps identify the main conclusion, but the more important element to see is that statement
A does not itself provide evidence or support for any of the other statements in the argument, which is
the clearest reason statement A is the main conclusion of the argument. The next questions to answer are
these: Which statement most directly supports A? What most directly supports A is

B. No one living in Pompeii could have survived the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius.

However, there is also a reason offered in support of B. That reason is the following:

C. The lava from Mt. Vesuvius was flowing too fast, and there was nowhere for someone living in
Pompeii to go to escape it in time.

So the main conclusion (A) is directly supported by B, and B is supported by C. Since B acts as a premise for
the main conclusion but is also itself the conclusion of further premises, B is classified as an intermediate
conclusion. What you should recognize here is that one and the same statement can act as both a premise and
a conclusion. Statement B is a premise that supports the main conclusion (A), but it is also itself a conclusion
that follows from C. Here is how to put this complex argument into standard form (using numbers this time,
as is typical for diagramming arguments):

1. The lava from Mt. Vesuvius was flowing too fast, and there was nowhere for someone living in
Pompeii to go to escape it in time.
2. Therefore, no one living in Pompeii could have survived the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius. (from 1)
3. Therefore, this account of the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius was not actually written by an eyewitness.
(from 2)

Notice that at the end of statement 2 is a written indicator in parentheses (from 1), and, likewise, at the end
of statement 3 is another indicator (from 2). From 1 is a shorthand way of saying, “this statement follows
logically from statement 1.” Use this convention as a way to keep track of an argument’s structure. It may
also help to think about the structure of an argument spatially, as the figure below shows:
52 LET'S GET WRITING!

The main argument here (from 2 to 3) contains a subargu-

ment, in this case, the argument from 1 (a premise) to 2 (the
intermediate conclusion). A subargument, as the term sug-
gests, is a part of an argument that provides indirect support
for the main argument. The main argument is simply the
argument whose conclusion is the main conclusion.

Another type of structure that arguments can have is when

two or more premises provide direct but independent sup-
port for the conclusion. Here is an example of an argument
with that structure:

Wanda rode her bike to work today because when she arrived
at work she had her right pant leg rolled up, which cyclists do
to keep their pants legs from getting caught in the chain.
Moreover, our co-worker, Bob, who works in accounting, saw
her riding towards work at 7:45 a.m.

Figure 3.5 from Introduction to Logic and Critical The conclusion of this argument is “Wanda rode her bike to
Thinking by Matthew Van Cleave work today”; two premises provide independent support for
it: the fact that Wanda had her pant leg cuffed and the fact
that Bob saw her riding her bike. Here is the argument in
standard form:

1. Wanda arrived at work with her right pant leg rolled up.
2. Cyclists often roll up their right pant leg.
3. Bob saw Wanda riding her bike towards work at 7:45.
4. Therefore, Wanda rode her bike to work today. (from 1-2, 3 independently)

Again, notice that next to statement 4 of the argument is an indicator of how each part of the argument
relates to the main conclusion. In this case, to avoid any ambiguity, you can see that the support for the
conclusion comes independently from statements 1 and 2, on the one hand, and from statement 3, on the
other hand. It is important to point out that an argument or subargument can be supported by one or more
premises, the case in this argument because the main conclusion (4) is supported jointly by 1 and 2, and
singly by 3. As before, we can represent the structure of this argument spatially, as the figure below shows:
ARGUMENT 53

There are endless argument structures that can be gen-

erated from a few simple patterns. At this point, it is
important to understand that arguments can have differ-
ent structures and that some arguments will be more
complex than others. Determining the structure of com-
plex arguments is a skill that takes some time to master,
rather like simplifying equations in math. Even so, it may
help to remember that any argument structure ulti-
mately traces back to some combination of premises,
intermediate arguments, and a main conclusion.
Figure 3.6 from Introduction to Logic and Critical
Thinking by Matthew Van Cleave

Exercise 3

Write the following arguments in standard form. If any arguments are complex, show how each complex argument
is structured using a diagram like those shown just above.

1. There is nothing wrong with prostitution because there is nothing wrong with consensual sexual and economic
interactions between adults. Moreover, there is no difference between a man who goes on a blind date with a
woman, buys her dinner and then has sex with her and a man who simply pays a woman for sex, which is another
reason there is nothing wrong with prostitution.

2. Prostitution is wrong because it involves women who have typically been sexually abused as children. Proof that
these women have been abused comes from multiple surveys done with female prostitutes that show a high per-
centage of self-reported sexual abuse as children.

3. Someone was in this cabin recently because warm water was in the tea kettle and wood was still smoldering in
the fireplace. However, the person couldn’t have been Tim because Tim has been with me the whole time. There-
fore, someone else must be in these woods.

4. Someone can be blind and yet run in the Olympic Games since Marla Runyan did it at the 2000 Sydney Olympics.

5. The train was late because it had to take a longer, alternate route seeing as the bridge was out.

6. Israel is not safe if Iran gets nuclear missiles because Iran has threatened multiple times to destroy Israel, and
54 LET'S GET WRITING!

if Iran had nuclear missiles, it would be able to carry out this threat. Furthermore, since Iran has been developing
enriched uranium, it has the key component needed for nuclear weapons; every other part of the process of build-
ing a nuclear weapon is simple compared to that. Therefore, Israel is not safe.

7. Since all professional hockey players are missing front teeth, and Martin is a professional hockey player, it follows
that Martin is missing front teeth. Because almost all professional athletes who are missing their front teeth have
false teeth, it follows that Martin probably has false teeth.

8. Anyone who eats the crab rangoon at China Food restaurant will probably have stomach troubles afterward. It
has happened to me every time; thus, it will probably happen to other people as well. Since Bob ate the crab ran-
goon at China Food restaurant, he will probably have stomach troubles afterward.

9. Lucky and Caroline like to go for runs in the afternoon in Hyde Park. Because Lucky never runs alone, any time
Albert is running, Caroline must also be running. Albert looks like he has just run (since he is panting hard), so it
follows that Caroline must have run, too.

10. Just because Linda’s prints were on the gun that killed Terry and the gun was registered to Linda, it doesn’t mean
that Linda killed Terry since Linda’s prints would certainly be on her own gun, and someone else could have stolen
her gun and used it to kill Terry.

Key Takeaways: Components of Vocabulary and Argument

• Conclusion—a claim that is asserted as true. One part of an argument.

• Premise—a reason behind a conclusion. The other part of an argument. Most conclusions have more
than one premise.

• Statement—a declarative sentence that can be evaluated as true or false. The parts of an argument,
premises and the conclusion, should be statements.

• Standard Argument Form—a numbered breakdown of the parts of an argument (conclusion and all
premises).

• Premise Indicators—terms that signal that a premise, or reason, is coming.

• Conclusion Indicator—terms that signal that a conclusion, or claim, is coming.

• Support—anything used as proof or reasoning for an argument. This includes evidence, experience, and
logic.

• Warrant—the connection made between the support and the reasons of an argument.

• Counterargument—an opposing argument to the one you make. An argument can have multiple coun-
ARGUMENT 55

terarguments.

• Complex Arguments–these are formed by more than individual premises that point to a conclusion.
Complex arguments may have layers to them, including an intermediate argument that may act as both
a conclusion (with its own premises) and a premise (for the main conclusion).

3. WHAT IS LOGIC?

Logic, in its most basic sense, is the study of how ideas reasonably fit together. In other words, when you
apply logic, you must be concerned with analyzing ideas and arguments by using reason and rational think-
ing, not emotions or mysticism or belief. As a dedicated field of study, logic belongs primarily to math,
philosophy, and computer science; in these fields, one can get professional training in logic. However, all
academic disciplines employ logic: to evaluate evidence, to analyze arguments, to explain ideas, and to con-
nect evidence to arguments. One of the most important uses of logic is in composing and evaluating argu-
ments.

The study of logic divides into two main categories: formal and informal. Formal logic is the formal study
of logic. In other words, in math or philosophy or computer science, if you were to take a class on logic,
you would likely be learning formal logic. The purpose of formal logic is to eliminate any imprecision or
lack of objectivity in evaluating arguments. Logicians, scholars who study and apply logic, have devised a
number of formal techniques that accomplish this goal for certain classes of arguments. These techniques
can include truth tables, Venn diagrams, proofs, syllogisms, and formulae. The different branches of formal
logic include, but are not limited to, propositional logic, categorical logic, and first order logic.

Informal logic is logic applied outside of formal study and is most often used in college, business, and life.
According to The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,

For centuries, the study of logic has inspired the idea that its methods might be harnessed in
efforts to understand and improve thinking, reasoning, and argument as they occur in real life
contexts: in public discussion and debate; in education and intellectual exchange; in interpersonal
relations; and in law, medicine, and other professions. Informal logic is the attempt to build a logic
suited to this purpose. It combines the study of argument, evidence, proof and justification with
an instrumental outlook which emphasizes its usefulness in the analysis of real life arguing.

When people apply the principles of logic to employ and evaluate arguments in real life situations and stud-
ies, they are using informal logic.

Why Is Logic Important?

Logic is one of the most respected elements of scholarly and professional thinking and writing. Consider
that logic teaches us how to recognize good and bad arguments—not just arguments about logic, any argu-
ment. Nearly every undertaking in life will ultimately require that you evaluate an argument, perhaps sev-
eral. You are confronted with a question: “Should I buy this car or that car?” “Should I go to this college or
that college?” “Did that scientific experiment show what the scientist claims it did?” “Should I vote for the
candidate who promises to lower taxes, or for the one who says she might raise them?” Your life is a long
parade of choices.
56 LET'S GET WRITING!

When answering such questions, to make the best choices, you often have only one tool: an argument. You
listen to the reasons for and against various options and must choose among them. Thus, the ability to eval-
uate arguments is an ability useful in everything that you will do—in your work, your personal life, and your
deepest reflections. This is the job of logic.

If you are a student, note that nearly every discipline–be it a science, one of the humanities, or a study
like business–relies upon arguments. Evaluating arguments is the most fundamental skill common to math,
physics, psychology, history, literary studies, and any other intellectual endeavor. Logic alone tells you how
to evaluate the arguments of any discipline.

The alternative to developing logic skills is to be always at the mercy of bad reasoning and, as a result, bad
choices. Worse, you can be manipulated by deceivers. Speaking in Canandaigua, New York, on August 3,
1857, the escaped slave and abolitionist leader Frederick Douglass observed,

Power concedes nothing without a demand. It never did and it never will. Find out just what any
people will quietly submit to and you have found out the exact measure of injustice and wrong
which will be imposed upon them, and these will continue till they are resisted with either words
or blows, or with both. The limits of tyrants are prescribed by the endurance of those whom they
oppress.

Add this to Frederick Douglass’s words: If you find out just how much a person can be deceived, that is just
how far she will be deceived. The limits of tyrants are also prescribed by the reasoning abilities of those they
aim to oppress. What logic teaches you is how to demand and recognize good reasoning, and, hence, avoid
deceit. You are only as free as your powers of reasoning enable.

The remaining part of this logic section will concern two types of logical arguments—inductive and deduc-
tive—and the tests of those arguments, including validity, soundness, reliability, and strength, so that
you can check your own arguments and evaluate the arguments of others, no matter if those arguments
come from the various academic disciplines, politics, the business world, or just discussions with friends and
family.

What Is Deductive Argument?

A deductive argument is an argument whose conclusion is supposed to follow from its premises with
absolute certainty, thus leaving no possibility that the conclusion doesn’t follow from the premises. If a
deductive argument fails to guarantee the truth of the conclusion, then the deductive argument can no
longer be called a deductive argument.

The Tests of Deductive Arguments: Validity and Soundness

So far in this chapter, you have learned what arguments are and how to determine their structure, including
how to reconstruct arguments in standard form. But what makes an argument good or bad? There are
four main ways to test arguments, two of which are for deductive arguments. The first test for deductive
arguments is validity, a concept that is central to logical thinking. Validity relates to how well the premises
support the conclusion and is the golden standard that every deductive argument should aim for. A valid
argument is an argument whose conclusion cannot possibly be false, assuming that the premises are true.
Another way to put this is as a conditional statement: A valid argument is an argument in which if the
premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Here is an example of a valid argument:

1. Violet is a dog.
ARGUMENT 57

2. Therefore, Violet is a mammal. (from 1)

You might wonder whether it is true that Violet is a dog (maybe she’s a lizard or a buffalo—you have no way
of knowing from the information given). But, for the purposes of validity, it doesn’t matter whether premise
1 is actually true or false. All that matters for validity is whether the conclusion follows from the premise. You
can see that the conclusion—that Violet is a mammal—does seem to follow from the premise—that Violet
is a dog. That is, given the truth of the premise, the conclusion has to be true. This argument is clearly valid
because if you assume that “Violet is a dog” is true, then, since all dogs are mammals, it follows that “Violet
is a mammal” must also be true. Thus, whether an argument is valid has nothing to do with whether the
premises of the argument are actually true. Here is an example where the premises are clearly false, yet the
argument is valid:

1. Everyone born in France can speak French.

2. Barack Obama was born in France.
3. Therefore, Barack Obama can speak French. (from 1-2)

This is a valid argument. Why? Because when you assume the truth of the premises (everyone born in France
can speak French, and Barack Obama was born in France) the conclusion (Barack Obama can speak French)
must be true. Notice that this is so even though none of these statements is actually true. Not everyone
born in France can speak French (think about people who were born there but then moved somewhere
else where they didn’t speak French and never learned it), and Barack Obama was not born in France, but
it is also false that Obama can speak French. However, the argument is still valid even though neither the
premises nor the conclusion is actually true. That may sound strange, but if you understand the concept of
validity, it is not strange at all. Remember: validity describes the relationship between the premises and conclu-
sion, and it means that the premises imply the conclusion, whether or not that conclusion is true.

To better understand the concept of validity, examine this example of an invalid argument:

1. George was President of the United States.

2. Therefore, George was elected President of the United States. (from 1)

This argument is invalid because it is possible for the premise to be true and yet the conclusion false. Here
is a counterexample to the argument. Gerald Ford was President of the United States, but he was never
elected president because Ford replaced Richard Nixon when Nixon resigned in the wake of the Watergate
scandal. Therefore, it does not follow that just because someone is President of the United States that he
was elected President of the United States. In other words, it is possible for the premise of the argument to
be true and yet the conclusion false. This means that the argument is invalid. If an argument is invalid, it will
always be possible to construct a counterexample to show that it is invalid (as demonstrated in the Gerald
Ford scenario). A counterexample is simply a description of a scenario in which the premises of the argu-
ment are all true while the conclusion of the argument is false.

Exercise 4

Determine whether the following arguments are valid by using an informal test of validity. In other words, ask
whether you can imagine a scenario in which the premises are both true and yet the conclusion is false. For each
argument do the following: (1) If the argument is valid, explain your reasoning, and (2) if the argument is invalid,
58 LET'S GET WRITING!

provide a counterexample. Remember, this is a test of validity, so you may assume all premises are true (even if
you know or suspect they are not in real life) for the purposes of this assignment.

1. Katie is a human being. Therefore, Katie is smarter than a chimpanzee.

2. Bob is a fireman. Therefore, Bob has put out fires.

3. Gerald is a mathematics professor. Therefore, Gerald knows how to teach mathematics.

4. Monica is a French teacher. Therefore, Monica knows how to teach French.

5. Bob is taller than Susan. Susan is taller than Frankie. Therefore, Bob is taller than Frankie.

6. Craig loves Linda. Linda loves Monique. Therefore, Craig loves Monique.

7. Orel Hershizer is a Christian. Therefore, Orel Hershizer communicates with God.

8. All Muslims pray to Allah. Muhammad is a Muslim. Therefore, Muhammad prays to Allah.

9. Some protozoa are predators. No protozoa are animals. Therefore, some predators are not animals.

10. Charlie only barks when he hears a burglar outside. Charlie is barking. Therefore, there must be a burglar out-
side.

A good deductive argument is not only valid but also sound. A sound argument is a valid argument that has
all true premises. That means that the conclusion, or claim, of a sound argument will always be true because
if an argument is valid, the premises transmit truth to the conclusion on the assumption of the truth of the
premises. If the premises are actually true, as they are in a sound argument, and since all sound arguments
are valid, we know that the conclusion of a sound argument is true. The relationship between soundness
and validity is easy to specify: all sound arguments are valid arguments, but not all valid arguments are sound
arguments.

Professors will expect sound arguments in college writing. Philosophy professors, for the sake of pursuing
arguments based on logic alone, may allow students to pursue unsound arguments, but nearly all other
professors will want sound arguments. How do you make sure that all the premises of your argument are
true? How can we know that Violet is a dog or that littering is harmful to animals and people? Answers to
these questions come from evidence, often in the form of research.

Tip
ARGUMENT 59

One way to counter another’s argument is to question his premises and test them for soundness. If you find that one or
more premise is unsound, you can add that information–and your explanations–to the support of your own argument.

One way to test the accuracy of a premise is to apply the following questions:

• Is there a sufficient amount of data?

• What is the quality of the data?
• Has additional data been missed?
• Is the data relevant?
• Are there additional possible explanations?

Determine whether the starting claim is based upon a sample that is both representative and sufficiently
large, and ask yourself whether all relevant factors have been taken into account in the analysis of data that
leads to a generalization.

Another way to evaluate a premise is to determine whether its source is credible. Ask yourself,

• Are the authors identified?

• What are their backgrounds?
• Was the claim something you found on an undocumented website?
• Did you find it in a popular publication or a scholarly one?
• How complete, how recent, and how relevant are the studies or statistics discussed in the source?

What Is Inductive Argument?

In contrast to a deductive argument, an inductive argument is an argument whose conclusion is supposed

to follow from its premises with a high level of probability, which means that although it is possible that
the conclusion doesn’t follow from its premises, it is unlikely that this is the case. Here is an example of an
inductive argument:

Tweets is a healthy, normally functioning bird and since most healthy, normally functioning birds
fly, Tweets most likely flies.

Notice that the conclusion, “Tweets probably flies,” contains the words “most likely.” This is a clear indicator
that the argument is supposed to be inductive, not deductive. Here is the argument in standard form:

1. Tweets is a healthy, normally functioning bird. (premise)

2. Most healthy, normally functioning birds fly. (premise)
3. Therefore, Tweets probably flies. (conclusion)
60 LET'S GET WRITING!

Given the information provided by the premises, the conclusion does seem to be well supported. That is,
the premises provide strong reasons for accepting the conclusion. The inductive argument’s conclusion is a
strong one, even though we can imagine a scenario in which the premises are true and yet the conclusion is
false.

Remember, inductive arguments cannot guarantee the truth of the conclusion, which means they will
look like invalid deductive arguments. Indeed, they are. There will be counterexamples for inductive argu-
ments because an inductive argument never promises absolute truth. We measure inductive arguments by
degrees of probability and plausibility, not absolute categories like validity and soundness. Validity and
soundness do not allow for a sliding scale of degrees. They are absolute conditions: There is no such thing
as being partially valid or somewhat sound.

Do not let this difference between deductive and inductive arguments cause you to privilege deductive and
revile inductive because inductive arguments cannot guarantee truth. That is an unfair measure, and it is
not practical. The truth is that most arguments we create and evaluate in life are inductive arguments. It
might be helpful to think of deductive arguments as those created in perfect lab conditions, where all the
ideal parameters can be met. Life is much messier than that, and we rarely get ideal conditions. One main
reason is that we rarely ever have all the information we need to form an absolutely true conclusion. When
new information is discovered, a scientist or historian or psychologist or business executive or a college stu-
dent should investigate how it affects previous ideas and arguments, knowing that those previous ideas may
need to be adjusted based on new information. For example, suppose that we added the following premise
to our earlier argument:

Tweets is 6 feet tall and can run 30 mph. (premise)

When we add this premise, the conclusion that Tweets can fly would no longer be likely because any bird
that is 6 feet tall and can run 30 mph, is not a kind of bird that can fly. That information leads us to believe
that Tweets is an ostrich or emu, which are not kinds of birds that can fly.

The Tests of Inductive Arguments: Reliability and Strength

Inductive arguments can never lead to absolute certainty, which is one reason scholars keep studying and
trying to add to knowledge. This does not mean, however, that any inductive argument will be a good one.
Inductive arguments must still be evaluated and tested, and the two main tests are reliability and strength.

Test of reliability, much like that of validity for deductive arguments, tests an inductive argument’s reason,
its internal logic. In other words, just because an inductive argument cannot guarantee a true conclusion
doesn’t mean that it should not be logically constructed. One cannot make just any sort of claim, particularly
one that does not have a reliable basis. Reliability, unlike validity, can be measured by degree. More reliable
arguments are ones that have a more solid basis in reason. Consider this example:
TM
Ninety-seven percent of Banana computers work without any glitches. (premise)
TM
Max has a Banana computer. (premise)

Therefore, Max’s computer works without any glitches. (conclusion)

This argument has a high degree of reliability. While it may well be true that Max has one of the three per-
cent of computers that have glitches, it is much more likely, given the initial premise that he does not. If the
initial premise changes, however, so does the reliability of the argument:
ARGUMENT 61

TM
Thirty-three percent of Banana computers work without any glitches.
TM
Max has a Banana computer.

Therefore, Max’s computer works without any glitches.

Note how the degree of reliability has gone done dramatically. The argument can now be considered unre-
liable since the conclusion that Max’s computer will work without glitches is improbable given the premises
provided. The conclusion still could be true, but it has tipped toward unlikely.

The second test of inductive arguments is strength. Strength, like reliability, can be measured by degree.
Strong arguments must have the following conditions: (1) They must be reliable arguments; (2) they draw
upon multiple lines of reasoning as support and/or a collection of data. Indeed, the more the data and the
more the reasons for a conclusion, the stronger the argument. Consider the following argument:

Susie has walked by Mack the dog every day for ten days. (premise)

Mack the dog has never bitten Susie. (premise)

Thus, when Susie walks by Mack the dog today, he will not bite her. (conclusion)

This argument is reasonable; we can see that the premises may logically lead to the conclusion. However,
the argument is not very strong as Susie has only walked by the dog for ten days. Is that enough data to
make the conclusion a likely one? What if we had more data, like so—

Susie has walked by Mack the dog every day for five years.

Mack the dog has never bitten Susie.

Thus, when Susie walks by Mack the dog today, he will not bite her.

This argument, with more data to consider (five years of information instead of just ten days), is much
stronger. An argument also gets stronger when reasons are added:

Susie has walked by Mack the dog every day for five years.

Mack the dog has never bitten Susie.

Mack’s owners trained him to be friendly to people. (additional premise)

Mack the dog’s breed is not known for aggression. (additional premise)

Thus, when Susie walks by Mack the dog today, he will not bite her.

This argument is even stronger. Not only does it have more data, but it also has additional reasons for
Mack’s gentle nature.

Remember these tests when writing your own essays. You are most likely going to be using inductive argu-
ments, and you should make them as reliable and strong as you can because you can bet your professors
will be evaluating your arguments by those criteria as well.

What Are Logical Fallacies, and Why Should You Avoid Them?

Fallacies are errors or tricks of reasoning. A fallacy is an error of reasoning if it occurs accidentally; it is a
62 LET'S GET WRITING!

trick of reasoning if a speaker or writer uses it to deceive or manipulate his audience. Fallacies can be either
formal or informal.

Whether a fallacy is an error or a trick, whether it is formal or informal, its use undercuts the validity
and soundness of any argument. At the same time, fallacious reasoning can damage the credibility of the
speaker or writer and improperly manipulate the emotions of the audience or reader. This is a considera-
tion you must keep in mind as a writer who is trying to maintain credibility (ethos) with the reader. More-
over, being able to recognize logical fallacies in the speech and writing of others can greatly benefit you as
both a college student and a participant in civic life. Not only does this awareness increase your ability to
think and read critically—and thus not be manipulated or fooled—but it also provides you with a strong
basis for counter arguments.

Even more important, using faulty reasoning is unethical and irresponsible. Using logical fallacies can be
incredibly tempting. The unfortunate fact is they work. Every day—particularly in politics and advertis-
ing—we can see how using faults and tricks of logic effectively persuade people to support certain individu-
als, groups, and ideas and, conversely, turn them away from others. Furthermore, logical fallacies are easy
to use. Instead of doing the often difficult work of carefully supporting an argument with facts, logic, and
researched evidence, the lazy debater turns routinely to the easy path of tricky reasoning. Human beings
too often favor what is easy and effective, even if morally questionable, over what is ethical, particularly if
difficult. However, your college professors’ task is not to teach you how to join the Dark Side. Their job is to
teach you how to write, speak, and argue effectively and ethically. To do so, you must recognize and avoid
the logical fallacies.

What Are Formal Fallacies?

Most formal fallacies are errors of logic: The conclusion does not really “follow from” (is not supported by)
the premises. Either the premises are untrue, or the argument is invalid. Below is an example of an invalid
deductive argument:

Premise: All black bears are omnivores.

Premise: All raccoons are omnivores.

Conclusion: All raccoons are black bears.

Bears are a subset of omnivores. Raccoons also are a subset of omnivores. But these two subsets do
not overlap, and that fact makes the conclusion illogical. The argument is invalid—that is, the relationship
between the two premises does not support the conclusion.

“Raccoons are black bears” is instantaneously recognizable as fallacious and may seem too silly to be worth
bothering about. However, that and other forms of poor logic play out on a daily basis, and they have real
world consequences. Below is an example of a common fallacious argument:

Premise: All Arabs are Muslims.

Premise: All Iranians are Muslims.

Conclusion: All Iranians are Arabs.

This argument fails on two levels. First, the premises are untrue because, although many Arabs and Iranians
are Muslim, not all are. Second, the two ethnic groups (Iranians and Arabs) are sets that do not overlap;
nevertheless, the two groups are confounded because they (largely) share one quality in common (being
ARGUMENT 63

Muslim). One only has to look at comments on the web to realize that the confusion is widespread and that
it influences attitudes and opinions about US foreign policy. The logical problems make this both an invalid
and an unsound argument.

What Are Informal Fallacies?

Informal fallacies take many forms and are widespread in everyday discourse. Very often they involve
bringing irrelevant information into an argument, or they are based on assumptions that, when examined,
prove to be incorrect. Formal fallacies are created when the relationship between premises and conclusion
does not hold up or when premises are unsound; informal fallacies are more dependent on misuse of lan-
guage and of evidence.

It is easy to find lists of informal fallacies, but that does not mean that it is always easy to spot them.

How Can You Check for Logical Fallacies?

One way to go about evaluating an argument for fallacies is to return to the concept of the three fundamen-
tal appeals: ethos, logos, and pathos. As a quick reminder,

• Ethos is an appeal to ethics, authority, and/or credibility.

• Logos is an appeal to logic.
• Pathos is an appeal to emotion.

Once you have refreshed your memory of the basics, you may begin to understand how ethos, logos, and
pathos can be used appropriately to strengthen your argument or inappropriately to manipulate an audi-
ence through the use of fallacies. Classifying fallacies as fallacies of ethos, logos, or pathos will help you to
understand their nature and to recognize them. Please keep in mind, however, that some fallacies may fit
into multiple categories. For more details and examples on errors in the rhetorical appeals, see Chapter 2,
“Rhetorical Analysis.”

Fallacies of ethos relate to credibility. These fallacies may unfairly build up the credibility of the author (or
his allies) or unfairly attack the credibility of the author’s opponent (or her allies). Some fallacies give an
unfair advantage to the claims of the speaker or writer or an unfair disadvantage to his opponent’s claims.
These are fallacies of logos. Fallacies of pathos rely excessively upon emotional appeals, attaching posi-
tive associations to the author’s argument and negative ones to his opponent’s position.

Key Takeaways: Logic

• Logic—shows how ideas fit together by using reason.

• Formal Logic—a formal and rigorous study of logic, such as in math and philosophy.

• Informal Logic—the application of logic to arguments of all types: in scholarship, in business, and in life.
Informal logic is what this part of the chapter covers.

• Deductive Argument—guarantees a true conclusion based on the premises. The tests for deductive
arguments are validity and soundness.

• Validity—a way to evaluate a deductive argument; a valid argument is one which, if the premises are
true, the conclusion must be true.
64 LET'S GET WRITING!

• Soundness—the second way to evaluate a deductive argument; a sound argument is one where the
argument is valid AND the premises have been shown to be true (via support).

• Inductive Argument—cannot guarantee a true conclusion but can only assert what is most likely to
be true based on the premises and the support. The tests for inductive arguments are reliability and
strength.

• Reliability—a test of reason for inductive arguments. Inductive arguments must still be reasonable, must
still have a reliable basis in logic.

• Strength—another test for inductive arguments. Inductive arguments are stronger when they have more
reasons and more data to support them.

• Logical Fallacy—a flaw or trick of logic to be avoided at all costs. Fallacies can be formal or informal.
See the Repository of Logical Fallacies below for individual examples.

4. WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ARGUMENTS IN WRITING?

Throughout this chapter, you have studied the definition of argument, parts of argument, and how to use
logic in argument. This section brings all of the previous material together and tackles arguments in writ-
ing. Foremost on most students’ minds when taking college composition courses is this question: “How
do I write an argument paper?” The answer is not a simple one because, as mentioned previously, argu-
ments come in a variety of packages. This means that written arguments–whether in essay or some other
form–also come in many different types.

Arguments of the Rhetorical Modes

Most arguments involve one or more of the rhetorical modes. Once again, rhetoric is the study and appli-
cation of effective writing techniques. There are a number of standard rhetorical modes of writing—struc-
tural and analytical models that can be used effectively to suit different writing situations. The rhetorical
modes include, but are not limited to, narrative, description, process analysis, illustration and exemplifica-
tion, cause and effect, comparison, definition, persuasion, and classification. These modes will be covered
in detail in Chapter 5, “Rhetorical Modes.” They are mentioned here, however, to make clear that any and
all rhetorical modes can be used to pursue an argument. In fact, most professors will insist upon it.

Tip

Remember that when writing arguments, always be mindful of the point of view you should use. Most academic argu-
ments should be pursued using third person. For more on this issue, see Chapter 4, “The Writing Process.”
ARGUMENT 65

Arguments of Persuasion

One of the most common forms of argument is that of persuasion, and often standardized tests, like the
SOL, will provide writing prompts for persuasive arguments. On some level, all arguments have a persua-
sive element because the goal of the argument is to persuade the reader to take the writer’s claim seriously.
Many arguments, however, exist primarily to introduce new research and interpretation whereas persua-
sive arguments expressly operate to change someone’s mind about an issue or a person.

A common type of persuasive essay is an Op-Ed article. Included in the opinion section of a newspaper,
these articles are more appropriately called argument essays because most authors strive not only to make
explicit claims but also to support their claims, sometimes even with researched evidence. These articles
are often well-designed persuasive essays, written to convince readers of the writer’s way of thinking.

In addition to essays, other forms of persuasive writing exist. One common and important example is the
job letter, where you must persuade others to believe in your merits as a worker and performer so that
you might be hired.

In a persuasive essay, you should be sure to do the following:

• Clearly articulate your claim and the main reasons for it. Avoid forming a thesis based on a
negative claim. For example, “The hourly minimum wage is not high enough for the average
worker to live on.” This is probably a true statement, but persuasive arguments should make
a positive case because a negative is hard to prove. That is, the thesis statement should focus
on how the hourly minimum wage is too low or insufficient.

• Anticipate and address counterarguments. Think about your audience and the counterargu-
ments they would mostly likely have. Acknowledging points of view different from your own
also has the effect of fostering more credibility between you and the audience. They know
from the outset that you are aware of opposing ideas and that you are not afraid to give
them space.

• Make sure your support comes in many different forms. Use logical reasoning and the
rhetorical appeals, but also strive for concrete examples from your own experience and from
society.

• Keep your tone courteous, but avoid being obsequious. In other words, shamelessly appeal-
ing to your readers’ vanity will likely ring false. Aim for respectful honesty.

• Avoid the urge to win the argument. On some level, we all want to be right, and we want oth-
ers to see the error of their ways. More times than not, however, arguments in which both
sides try to win end up producing losers all around. The more productive approach is to per-
suade your audience to consider your claim as a sound one, not simply the right one.
66 LET'S GET WRITING!

Tip

Because argument writing is designed to convince readers of an idea they may not have known before or a side of an
issue they may not agree with, you must think carefully about the attitude you wish to convey as you advance your
argument. The overall attitude of a piece of writing is its tone, and it comes from the words you choose (for more on
the importance of word choice, see Chapter 10, “Working with Words”) In argument writing, strive for the following:

• Confidence—The reader needs to know that you believe in what you say, so be confident. Avoid hedgy and
apologetic language. However, be careful not to cross the line from confidence to overconfidence. Arrogance
can rebuff your readers, even if they agree with you.

• Neutrality—While you may advocate for one side or way of thinking, you still must demonstrate that you are
being as objective as you can in your analysis and assessment. Avoid loaded terms, buzzwords, and overly
emotional language.

• Courtesy and fairness—Particularly when dealing with any counterarguments, you want your tone to reveal
that you have given other points of view due consideration. Avoid being smug, snide, or harshly dismissive of
other ideas.

Sample Writing Assignment 1

Find an Op-Ed article from one of the major US newspapers: The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, The Wash-
ington Post, The Boston Globe, or the LA Times. Then, do the following:

1. Prewriting Work: Read the article carefully, taking notes or annotating it. Be sure to find the main argument and
map the support used by the author, i.e., how the author is trying to persuade you. Note any use of rhetorical
appeals, expert testimony, and research. (For tips about note-taking and annotating reading material, see Chapter
1, “Critical Reading”; for a review of the rhetorical appeals, see Chapter 2, “Rhetorical Analysis.”)

2. Write a paragraph summary of the article. Include the main argument and its support. Explain the different
types of support used by the author (rhetorical appeals, expert testimony, and research).

3. In a paragraph, devise and explain your own counterargument(s) to the author’s thesis.

4. In a paragraph, explain what kind of support you would use for your counterargument. What rhetorical appeals
would you use? What experts might you call on? Do you think you would need to do research and if so, on what?
ARGUMENT 67

Sample Writing Assignment 2

Write a job letter. As you design it, be sure to do the following:

1. Use formal letter format. Be sure to include these elements: your address, the address of the job you’re applying
to (or the department you are applying to), the date you send the letter, a greeting, the letter content in coher-
ent paragraphs (single-spaced paragraphs with a double space in between paragraphs), a sign off, any additional
information (your phone and/or email address). For some visual examples of what this would look like, do a Google
image search for “job letter format.”

2. Prewriting Work 1: Imagine a job you would like to apply for. Ask yourself the following questions and brainstorm
answers to them: “What skills would I need to have for this job, and which of those skills do I have?” “What educa-
tional background would be required, and can I show that I fulfill the requirements?” “What experience might the
hiring committee want to me to have, and do I have any experience that would be relevant?”

3. Prewriting Work 2: Take the notes you have come up with and add as many specific details as you can. If you
believe you do have relevant skills, what are they, specifically? Where did you get those skills, specifically? How
long have you had those skills, specifically? Do you have examples where you have shown excellence with those
skills, specifically?

4. Drafting: Shape your details into three paragraphs organized by issue: skills, education, and experience. Be spe-
cific, include a couple examples per paragraph, and be succinct in your delivery.

5. Proofread carefully. First of all, excellent sentence composition, punctuation, and spelling communicate your
seriousness to those who might hire you. Mistakes make you look sloppy and make it easy for them to toss your
letter on the rejection pile. Second, watch word choice. Choose specific over general words as much as possible
(you say you are a hard worker, but what does that mean, practically speaking?). Make sure you avoid clichés and
overly gushy sentiment (“I’m passionate about people!”). Finally, proofread for tone. Strive for courteousness and
objectivity. Make it seem like you are being objective about your own abilities.

Arguments of Evaluation

If you have ever answered a question about your personal take on a book or movie or television show or
piece of music, you have given a review. Most times, these reviews are somewhat hasty and based on initial
or shallow impressions. However, if you give thought to your review, if you explain more carefully what you
liked or didn’t like and why, if you bring in specific examples to back up your points, then you have moved
on to an argument of evaluation. Reviews of film, books, music, food, and other aspects of taste and culture
represent the most familiar type of argument of evaluation. The main objective of an argument of evalu-
ation is to render a critical judgment on the merits of something.

Another common argument of evaluation is the performance review. If you have ever held a job, you know
what it feels like to be on the receiving end of such a review; your timeliness and productivity and attitude
are scrutinized to determine if you have been a good worker or need to worry about looking for another job.
If you are in any sort of supervisory position, you will be the one writing and delivering those reviews, and
your own supervisor will want to know that you have logical justification and evidence for your judgements.

For all types of reviews or evaluation arguments, make sure to plan for the following:
68 LET'S GET WRITING!

• Declare your overall judgment of the subject under review—good, bad, or somewhere in
between. This is your conclusion or thesis.

• Lay out the criteria for your judgment. In other words, your review must be based on logical
criteria—i.e., the standards by which you evaluate something. For example, if you are review-
ing a film, reasonable criteria would include acting, writing, storytelling, directing, cinematog-
raphy, music, and special effects. If you are evaluating an employee, that criteria will change
and more likely involve punctuality, aspects of job performance, and overall attitude on the
job.

• Make sure to evaluate each criteria and provide evidence. Draw your evidence from what
you are reviewing, and use as many specific examples as you can. In a movie review in which
you think the acting quality was top notch, give examples of a particular style that worked
well or lines delivered effectively or emotions realistically conveyed.

• Use concrete language. A review is only an argument if we can reasonably see—from exam-
ples and your explanations—how you arrived at your judgment. Vague or circular language
(“I liked it because it was just really good!”) will keep your evaluation at the opinion level only,
preventing it from being taken seriously as an argument.

• Keep the tone respectful—even if you ultimately did not like the subject of your review. Be as
objective as you can when giving your reasons. Insulting language detracts from the serious-
ness of your analysis and makes your points look like personal attacks.
ARGUMENT 69

Roger Ebert (1942-2013), a movie reviewer for the Chicago Sun-Times, was once
one of the most famous movie critics in America. His reviews provide excellent
examples of the argument of evaluation.

Consider his review (https://tinyurl.com/y82ylaav)of the 2009 film Avatar and

note how clearly he declares his judgements, how he makes his reader aware of
just what standards he uses for judgement (his criteria), and how he uses a
wealth of examples and reasons to back his critiques (although he is careful to
avoid spoilers, the review went to print as the movie was coming out).

Figure 3.7 “Roger Ebert”

Sample Writing Assignment 3

Write a brief review of your first job. How would you rate that experience, and what would your rating be based on?

1. Declare your overall judgment of your job experience. This is your main claim.

2. Come up with at least four criteria for evaluation. Give your judgment for each criteria. Include at least
two specific examples to support each evaluation, and explain the logic of your support.

3. Proofread for tone, making sure to look for any words that would cause a reader to think your critique
was unfair or hostile. For example, even if you loathed your first job, treat it dispassionately, like you
are a social scientist putting that work experience under a microscope. (This might allow you to say, for
example, that although the job was dull and repetitive, it gave you some useful experience.)

Sample Writing Assignment 4

Evaluate a source that you plan to use for a research project. Explain what type of source you have (website? jour-
nal article? book? newspaper article?), and declare your source to be credible or not, using the following criteria:

1. Author’s credentials. First of all, are the authors named? Can you find out anything about them, like
degrees and professional information? If you cannot find anything, how does that affect credibility? If
you can find information, how does that information show credibility or lack of it?

2. Publication information and process. Was the article or book peer reviewed? Was it online or in print?
Did you find it through a database or a Google search? Who funded publication? Explain what the
results of these questions tell you about the source’s credibility.

3. The use of support. Does the source have footnotes or endnotes? A bibliography? Links to different arti-
70 LET'S GET WRITING!

cles? In other words, how carefully is the author trying to back up his or her claims?

Arguments of Fact and Explanation

In the beginning of this chapter, arguments were shown to be distinct from facts. Facts are not arguable,
they do not have “two sides,” and they are not up for debate. However, as we well know, people disagree
with facts all the time. We wouldn’t have a nonsense term like “alternative facts” otherwise. We do, how-
ever, have arguments that deal with this scenario: arguments of fact and explanation. Arguments of fact
seek to establish, often in the face of doubters, that a fact is indeed true. Arguments of explanation estab-
lish why that fact is true. Not surprisingly, these arguments often go hand in hand, and they lie primarily in
the domain of the research paper. For more detail on the research process, refer to Chapter 6, “Research”;
this section will clarify these two types of argument.

Arguments of Fact: Many times, the goal of giving an argument is simply to establish that the conclusion
is true. For example, to convince someone that obesity rates are rising in the US, the writer should cite evi-
dence such as studies from the Center for Disease Control (CDC) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH).
The studies cited would function as premises for the conclusion that obesity rates are rising:

Obesity is on the rise in the US because multiple studies carried out by the CDC and NIH have con-
sistently shown a rise in obesity over the last four decades.

Putting this simple argument into standard form would look like this:

1. Multiple studies by the CDC and NIH have consistently shown a rise in obesity over the
last four decades. (premises)
2. Therefore, obesity is on the rise in the US. (conclusion)

The standard form argument clearly distinguishes the premise from the conclusion and shows how the con-
clusion is supposed to be supported by the evidence offered in the premise. Again, the goal of this simple
argument would be to convince someone that the conclusion is true. However, sometimes we already know
that a statement or claim is true, and we are trying to establish why it is true rather than that it is true.

Arguments of Explanation: An argument that attempts to show why its conclusion is true is an explanation.
Contrast the previous example with the following:

The reason that the rate of obesity is on the rise in the US is that the foods we most often consume
over the past four decades have increasingly contained high levels of sugar and low levels of
dietary fiber. Because eating foods high in sugar and low in fiber triggers the insulin system to
start storing those calories as fat, it follows that people who consume foods high in sugar and low
in fiber will tend to store more of the calories consumed as fat.

This passage gives an explanation for why obesity is on the rise in the US. Unlike the earlier example, here
it is taken for granted that obesity is on the rise in the US. That is the claim whose truth the author must
explain. The obesity explanation can also be put into standard form just like any other argument:

1. Over the past four decades, Americans have increasingly consumed foods high in sugar and low in
ARGUMENT 71

fiber. (premise)
2. Consuming foods high in sugar and low in fat triggers the insulin system to start storing those
calories as fat. (premise)
3. When people store more calories as fat, they tend to become obese. (premise)
4. Therefore, the rate of obesity is on the rise in the US. (conclusion)

Notice that in this explanation, the premises (1-3) attempt to explain why the conclusion is true, rather than
a reason for thinking that the conclusion is true. That is, in an argument of explanation, we assume that
what we are trying to explain (i.e., the conclusion) is true. In this case, the premises are supposed to show
why we should expect or predict that the conclusion is true. Explanations often give us an understanding of
why the conclusion is true.

Arguments of Interpretation

Arguments of interpretation come mainly in the form of critical analysis writing. Scholars and students use
critical analysis to understand a text more deeply; therefore, it is common in disciplines in which texts are
the main objects of study—literature, philosophy, and history. However, we can also think of critical analy-
sis as any analysis where someone takes raw data—from texts, from objects and images, from laboratory
experiments, from surveys of people—and analyzes that data to come up with what they mean. The “what
it all means” is an interpretation. The argument in critical analysis writing is the interpretation of the data.
This must be a logical interpretation with the data also used to support the interpretation through reason-
ing and examples.

The guidelines for analyzing data are determined by the experts in those areas. Scholars of the life, earth,
and physical sciences; the social sciences; and the humanities gather all sorts of different data. When writing
up an interpretation of that data, writers and researchers should follow the models and standards provided
by experts in those fields of study. In college, professors are important sources of these models and stan-
dards.

In the humanities, particularly in literature, there are generally four ways (or perspectives) for analyzing a
text: writing from the perspective of a reader, writing as if the text were an object of study, writing about
or from the perspective of an author, and writing about where a text fits into a particular context.

• Writing from the perspective of a reader: You seek to understand a text through your own
experience, yet you also try to understand how others who may be different from you under-
stand the same writing through their experience. This is characterized by noting down first
impressions and lines or words that strike you in profound ways. This sort of analysis is com-
mon in journal or response paper assignments and can be a simple way to begin a discussion
of a text.

• Writing about the text as an object of study: This is a perspective that highlights what makes
up that text and what meaning we can find in it. Finding meaning relies on identifying the pat-
terns, segments, and strategies (devices) in the writing you choose to analyze. This is one of
the most common types of essay assignments in a literature class.

• Writing about the text’s author: Sometimes this provides another perspective with which to
72 LET'S GET WRITING!

deepen an understanding of a piece of writing. Examining his or her life, thought processes,
behaviors, and beliefs can help you to further understand an author’s work. This type of
analysis can be the basis of a research paper on a work of history or literature.

• Writing about the text’s context: This approach usually has to do with how a text compares to
other texts as well as how the text interacts with history and society. When historians analyze
texts, studying context is crucial, but contextual analysis can also be the focus of a literature
essay.

The process of critical analysis is dependent on close reading of the data or text and is an analytical process
in which the writer moves from analyzing the details of the text to a broader conclusion that is logically
based on those details. What can confuse a lot of students is that formal essay structure is must be framed
by the conclusion, not the details: They must establish the main claim immediately, and then use the rea-
sons for the claim to organize the details in each body paragraph. For more on close reading, see Chapter
1, “Critical Reading.”

Figure 3.8 “From Analysis to Argument”

ARGUMENT 73
74 LET'S GET WRITING!

Rogerian Argument

The Rogerian argument, inspired by the influential psychologist Carl Rogers, aims to find compromise or
common ground about an issue. If, as stated in the beginning of the chapter, academic or rhetorical argu-
ment is not merely a two-sided debate that seeks a winner and a loser, the Rogerian argument model pro-
vides a structured way to move beyond the win-lose mindset. Indeed, the Rogerian model can be employed
to deal effectively with controversial arguments that have been reduced to two opposing points of view by
forcing the writer to confront opposing ideas and then work towards a common understanding with those
who might disagree.

Figure 3.9 “Carl Ransom Rogers”

ARGUMENT 75

The following are the basic parts of a Rogerian Argument:

1. Introduction: Introduce the issue under scrutiny in a non-con-

frontational way. Be sure to outline the main sides in the debate.
Though there are always more than two sides to a debate, Rogerian
arguments put two in stark opposition to one another. Crucially, be
sure to indicate the overall purpose of the essay: to come to a com-
promise about the issue at hand. If this intent is not stated up front,
the reader may be confused or even suspect manipulation on the
part of the writer, i.e., that the writer is massaging the audience just
to win a fight. Be advised that the Rogerian essay uses an inductive
reasoning structure, so do not include your thesis in your introduc-
tion. You will build toward the thesis and then include it in your con-
clusion. Once again, state the intent to compromise, but do not yet
state what the compromise is.

2. Side A: Carefully map out the main claim and reasoning for the
opposing side of the argument first. The writer’s view should never really come first because that would
defeat the purpose of what Rogers called empathetic listening, which guides the overall approach to this
type of argument. By allowing the opposing argument to come first, you communicate to the reader that
you are willing to respectfully consider another’s view on the issue. Furthermore, you invite the reader to
then give you the same respect and consideration when presenting your own view. Finally, presenting the
opposition first can help those readers who would side against you to ease into the essay, keeping them
invested in the project. If you present your own ideas first, you risk polarizing those readers from the start,
which would then make them less amenable to considering a compromise by the end of the essay. You can
listen to Carl Rogers himself discuss the importance of empathy on YouTube (https://youtu.be/2dLsg-
pHw5x0, transcript here).

3. Side B: Carefully go over your side of the argument. When mapping out this side’s claim and support, be
sure that it parallels that of Side A. In other words, make sure not to raise entirely new categories of sup-
port, or there can be no way to come to a compromise. Make sure to maintain a non-confrontational tone;
for example, avoid appearing arrogant, sarcastic, or smug.

4. The Bridge: A solid Rogerian argument acknowledges the desires of each side and tries to accommodate
both. In this part, point out the ways in which you agree or can find common ground between the two
sides. There should be at least one point of agreement. This can be an acknowledgement of the one part of
the opposition’s agreement that you also support or an admittance to a shared set of values even if the two
sides come to different ideas when employing those values. This phase of the essay is crucial for two rea-
sons: finding common ground (1) shows the audience the two views are not necessarily at complete odds,
that they share more than they seem, and (2) sets up the compromise to come, making it easier to digest
for all parties. Thus, this section builds a bridge from the two initial isolated and opposite views to a com-
promise that both sides can reasonably support.

5. The Compromise: Now is the time to finally announce your compromise, which is your thesis. The com-
promise is what the essay has been building towards all along, so explain it carefully and demonstrate the
logic of it. For example, if debating about whether to use racial profiling, a compromise might be based on
both sides’ desire for a safer society. That shared value can then lead to a new claim, one that disarms the
76 LET'S GET WRITING!

original dispute or set of disputes. For the racial profiling example, perhaps a better solution would focus
on more objective measures than race that would then promote safety in a less problematic way.

Figure 3.10 “Rogerian Argument”

Sample Writing Assignment 5

Find a controversial topic, and begin building a Rogerian argument. Write up your responses to the following:
ARGUMENT 77

1. The topic or dilemma I will write about is…

2. My opposing audience is…

3. My audience’s view on the topic is…

4. My view on the topic is…

5. Our common ground–shared values or something that we both already agree on about the topic–is…

6. My compromise (the main claim or potential thesis) is…

The Toulmin Argument Model

Stephen Edelston Toulmin (born March 25, 1922) was a British philosopher, author, and educator. Toulmin
devoted his works to analyzing moral reasoning. He sought to develop practical ways to evaluate ethical
arguments effectively. The Toulmin Model of Argumentation, a diagram containing six interrelated compo-
nents, was considered Toulmin’s most influential work, particularly in the fields of rhetoric, communication,
and computer science. His components continue to provide useful means for analyzing arguments, and the
terms involved can be added to those defined in earlier sections of this chapter.

Figure 3.11 “Toulmin Argument”

78 LET'S GET WRITING!

The following are the parts of a Toulmin argument:

1. Claim: The claim is a statement that you are asking the other person to accept as true (i.e., a conclusion)
and forms the nexus of the Toulmin argument because all the other parts relate back to the claim. The claim
can include information and ideas you are asking readers to accept as true or actions you want them to
accept and enact. One example of a claim:

My grandfather should wear a hearing aid.

This claim both asks the reader to believe an idea and suggests an action to enact. However, like all claims,
it can be challenged. Thus, a Toulmin argument does not end with a claim but also includes grounds and
warrant to give support and reasoning to the claim.

2. Grounds: The grounds form the basis of real persuasion and includes the reasoning behind the claim,
data, and proof of expertise. Think of grounds as a combination of premises and support. The truth of the
claim rests upon the grounds, so those grounds should be tested for strength, credibility, relevance, and
reliability. The following are examples of grounds:

Over 70% of all people over 65 years have a hearing difficulty.

Hearing aids raise hearing quality.

Information is usually a powerful element of persuasion, although it does affect people differently. Those
who are dogmatic, logical, or rational will more likely be persuaded by factual data. Those who argue emo-
tionally and who are highly invested in their own position will challenge it or otherwise try to ignore it. Thus,
grounds can also include appeals to emotion, provided they aren’t misused. The best arguments, however,
use a variety of support and rhetorical appeals.

3. Warrant: A warrant links data and other grounds to a claim, legitimizing the claim by showing the grounds
to be relevant. The warrant may be carefully explained and explicit or unspoken and implicit. The warrant
answers the question, “Why does that data mean your claim is true?” For example,

A hearing aid helps most people hear better.

The warrant may be simple, and it may also be a longer argument with additional sub-elements including
those described below. Warrants may be based on logos
logos, ethos or pathos
pathos, or values that are assumed to be
shared with the listener. In many arguments, warrants are often implicit and, hence, unstated. This gives
space for the other person to question and expose the warrant, perhaps to show it is weak or unfounded.

4. Backing: The backing for an argument gives additional support to the warrant. Backing can be confused
with grounds, but the main difference is this: Grounds should directly support the premises of the main
argument itself, while backing exists to help the warrants make more sense. For example,

Hearing aids are available locally.

This statement works as backing because it gives credence to the warrant stated above, that a hearing aid
will help most people hear better. The fact that hearing aids are readily available makes the warrant even
more reasonable.

5. Qualifier: The qualifier indicates how the data justifies the warrant and may limit how universally the
claim applies. The necessity of qualifying words comes from the plain fact that most absolute claims are
ultimately false (all women want to be mothers, e.g.) because one counterexample sinks them immediately.
ARGUMENT 79

Thus, most arguments need some sort of qualifier, words that temper an absolute claim and make it more
reasonable. Common qualifiers include “most,” “usually,” “always,” or “sometimes.” For example,

Hearing aids help most people.

The qualifier “most” here allows for the reasonable understanding that rarely does one thing (a hearing aid)
universally benefit all people. Another variant is the reservation, which may give the possibility of the claim
being incorrect:

Unless there is evidence to the contrary, hearing aids do no harm to ears.

Qualifiers and reservations can be used to bolster weak arguments, so it is important to recognize them.
They are often used by advertisers who are constrained not to lie. Thus, they slip “usually,” “virtually,”
“unless,” and so on into their claims to protect against liability. While this may seem like sneaky practice,
and it can be for some advertisers, it is important to note that the use of qualifiers and reservations can be
a useful and legitimate part of an argument.

6. Rebuttal: Despite the careful construction of the argument, there may still be counterarguments that
can be used. These may be rebutted either through a continued dialogue, or by pre-empting the counter-
argument by giving the rebuttal during the initial presentation of the argument. For example, if you antici-
pated a counterargument that hearing aids, as a technology, may be fraught with technical difficulties, you
would include a rebuttal to deal with that counterargument:

There is a support desk that deals with technical problems.

Any rebuttal is an argument in itself, and thus may include a claim, warrant, backing, and the other parts of
the Toulmin structure.

Even if you do not wish to write an essay using strict Toulmin structure, using the Toulmin checklist can
make an argument stronger. When first proposed, Toulmin based his layout on legal arguments, intend-
ing it to be used analyzing arguments typically found in the courtroom; in fact, Toulmin did not realize that
this layout would be applicable to other fields until later. The first three elements–“claim,” “grounds,” and
“warrant”–are considered the essential components of practical arguments, while the last three—“qualifier,”
“backing,” and “rebuttal”—may not be necessary for all arguments.

Exercise 5

Find an argument in essay form and diagram it using the Toulmin model. The argument can come from an Op-Ed
article in a newspaper or a magazine think piece or a scholarly journal. See if you can find all six elements of the
Toulmin argument. Use the structure above to diagram your article’s argument.

Key Takeaways: Types of Argument

• Arguments in the Rhetorical Modes—models of writing that can be used for an argument, including
80 LET'S GET WRITING!

the rhetorical modes: narration, comparison, causal analysis, process, description, definition, classifica-
tion, and exemplification.

• Arguments of Persuasion—used to change someone’s thinking on a topic or person.

• Arguments of Evaluation—critical reviews based on logical evaluation of criteria and evidence for that
evaluation.

• Arguments of Fact and Explanation—establishes that a fact is true (the former) or why it is true (the
latter).

• Arguments of Interpretation—critical analysis writing in which one makes an argument about what
data mean. Data can come from texts, objects, surveys, and scientific experiments.

• The Rogerian Argument Model—an argument model designed to bring about consensus and mutual
understanding rather than conflict.

• Toulmin’s Argument Model—six interrelated components used to diagram an argument, drawn from
both rhetorical and academic argument.

5. A REPOSITORY OF LOGICAL FALLACIES

Below is a list of informal fallacies, divided into four main categories: fallacies of irrelevance, presumption,
ambiguity, and inconsistency. While this list is by no means exhaustive, it will include some of the most
common fallacies used by writers and speakers, both in the world and in the classroom.

Fallacies of Irrelevance

One of the most common ways to go off track in an argument is to bring up irrelevant information or ideas.
They are grouped here into two main categories: the red herring fallacies and the irrelevant appeals.

• Red Herring Fallacies—These aim to distract the reader by introducing irrelevant ideas or infor-
mation. They divert attention away from the validity, soundness, and support of an argument.
Think of red herrings as squirrels to a dog—almost impossible to resist chasing once spotted.

Figure 3.12 “Reagan’s Red Herring”

ARGUMENT 81

• Weak/False Analogy—An analogy is a brief comparison, usually to make writing more interesting
and to connect with the reader. While writers often use analogies effectively to illustrate ideas, a
bad analogy can be misleading and even inflammatory.

Example: “Taxes are like theft.” This statement makes a false analogy because taxes are legal and
thus cannot logically be defined as, or even compared to, something illegal.

• Tu Quoque—Also known as an appeal to hypocrisy, this fallacy translates from the Latin as “you,
too.” Known on grade school playgrounds around the world, this false argument distracts by turn-
ing around any critique on the one making the critique with the implication that the accuser
should not have made the accusation in the first place because it reveals him as a hypocrite—even
if the accusation or critique has validity.

Example 1: “Mom, Joey pushed me!” “Yeah, but Sally pushed me first!” Any sister who has ratted
out a brother before knows she will have to deal with an immediate counter attack, claiming that
she has perpetrated the same crime she has accused the brother of doing (and more than likely,
she has done so). The brother hopes that the sister’s blatant hypocrisy will absolve him of his
crime. Any veteran parent of siblings will know not to fall for this trick.

Example 2: Joe the Politician has been legitimately caught in a lie. Joe and his supporters try to
deflect the damage by pointing out the times his opponents have been caught lying, too; this
counter accusation implies that Joe’s lie should be excused because of the hypocrisy of those who
82 LET'S GET WRITING!

found it and who dare to even talk about it. However, this counter accusation does not actually
do anything logically to disprove or challenge the fact of Joe’s lie.

• Ad Hominem Attacks—The argumentum ad hominem is one of the most recognizable and irre-
sistible of the red herring fallacies. Ad hominem attacks distract from an argument by focusing on
the one making the argument, trying to damage his or her credibility. There are two main types of
ad hominem attack: abuse and circumstance:

Ad hominem attacks of abuse are personal (often ruthlessly so), meant to insult and demean. Attacks
of abuse distract the audience as well as the speaker or writer because he will believe it necessary to
defend himself from the abuse rather than strengthen his argument.

Examples: These can include attacks on the body, intelligence, voice, dress, family, and personal
choices and tastes.

Figure 3.13 “Student vs. Freud Ad Hominem”

In ad hominem attacks of circumstance, the debater implies that his opponent only makes an argument
because of a personal connection to it instead of the quality and support of the argument itself, which
should be considered independent of any personal connection.

Example: “You only support the Latino for this job because you’re a Latino.”

This statement fails the logic test because it only takes a personal characteristic into
account–race–when making this claim. This claim does not consider two important issues: (1) People
ARGUMENT 83

do not base every decision they make on their race, and (2) there may have been other perfectly logical
reasons to support the Latino job applicant that had nothing to do with race.

• Poisoning the Well—This is a type of ad hominem attack that attempts to damage the character
of an opponent before that person even introduces an argument. Thus, by the time the argument
is made, it often sounds weak and defensive, and the person making the argument may already
be suspect in the minds of the audience.

Example: If a speaker calls out a woman for being overly emotional or hysterical, any heightened
feeling—even a raised voice—may be attributed to her inability to control emotion. Furthermore,
if that woman makes an argument, she can be ignored and her argument weakened because of
the perception that it is rooted in emotion, not reason.

Figure 3.14 “Poisoning the Well”

• Guilt by Association—This red herring fallacy works by associating the author of an argument
with a group or belief so abhorrent and inflammatory in the minds of the audience that everyone,
author and audience alike, is chasing squirrels up trees—that is, they are occupied by the tainted
association to the reviled group—instead of dealing with the merits of the original argument.

Example: the argumentum ad Nazium, or playing the Hitler card. To counter an argument, either
the arguer or a part of the argument itself is associated with Hitler or the Nazis. (“Vegetarianism
is a healthy option for dieters.” “Never! You know, Hitler was a vegetarian!”) Because almost no
84 LET'S GET WRITING!

one wants to be associated with fascists (or other similarly hated groups, like cannibals or terror-
ists), the author now faces the task of defending himself against the negative association instead
of pursuing the argument. If, however, there are actual Nazis–or the equivalent of Nazis, such as
white supremacists or other neofascists–making an argument based on fascist ideology, it is per-
fectly reasonable to criticize, oppose, and object to their extreme and hateful views.

Figure 3.15 “Guilt by Association”

Irrelevant Appeals—Unlike the rhetorical appeals, the irrelevant appeals are attempts to persuade the
reader with ideas and information that are irrelevant to the issues or arguments at hand, or the appeals rest
on faulty assumptions in the first place. The irrelevant appeals can look and feel like logical support, but
they are either a mirage or a manipulation.

• Appeal to Emotion—manipulates the audience by playing too much on emotion instead of ratio-
ARGUMENT 85

nal support. Using scare tactics is one type of appeal to emotion. Using pity to pressure someone
into agreement is another example.

Example: Imagine a prosecuting attorney in a murder case performing closing arguments, trying
to convict the defendant by playing on the emotions of the jury: “Look at that bloody knife! Look
at that poor, battered victim and the cruelty of all those terrible stab wounds!” The jury may well
be swayed by such a blatant appeal to emotion–pity, horror, disgust—but this appeal doesn’t actu-
ally provide any concrete proof for the defendant’s guilt. If the lawyer has built a logical case that
rests on an abundance of factual data, then this appeal to emotion may be justified as a way to
personalize that data for the jury. If, however, the lawyer only uses this appeal to emotion, the
argument for guilt is flawed because the lawyer has tried to make up for a weak case by turning
the jury members’ emotions into the main evidence for guilt.

• Appeal to Popularity—Also known as the bandwagon fallacy, the appeal to popularity implies
that because many people believe or support something, it constitutes evidence for its validity.
However, once we stop to think this idea through, we can easily remember popular ideas that
were not at all good or justifiable: The majority does not always make the best choice.

Example: A good example here would be fashion trends. What is popular from one day to the
next does not necessarily have anything to do with whether something logically is a good idea or
has practical use.

Figure 3.16 “Appeal to Popularity”

86 LET'S GET WRITING!

• Appeal to Incredulity—suggests that a lack of understanding is a valid excuse for rejecting an

idea. Just because someone does not personally understand how something works does not
mean that thing is false. A person does not need to understand how a car’s engine works to know
that it does work, for instance. Often, in addition to rejecting the difficult idea, the arguer goes on
to suggest that anyone who believes in the idea is foolish to do so.

Example: “It’s just common sense that the earth is flat because when I look at it, I can’t see any
curve, not even when I’m in an airplane. I don’t need any scientist to tell me what I can clearly fig-
ure out with my own eyes.” This person has casually dismissed any scientific evidence against a
flat earth as if it did not matter. Often those making an illogical appeal to incredulity will substi-
tute what they think of as “common sense” for actual scientific evidence with the implication that
they do not need any other basis for understanding. The problem is that many of the truths of
our universe cannot be understood by common sense alone. Science provides the answers, often
through complex mathematical and theoretical frameworks, but ignorance of the science is not a
justifiable reason for dismissing it.

• Appeal to Nature—the assumption that what is natural is (1) inherently good and therefore (2)
constitutes sufficient reason for its use or support. This is flawed because (1) how we determine
what is natural can and does change, and (2) not everything that is natural is beneficial.

Example: “Vaccines are unnatural; thus, being vaccinated is more harmful than not being vacci-
nated.” A person making this statement has made an illogical appeal to nature. The fact that vac-
cines are a product of human engineering does not automatically mean they are harmful. If this
person applied that logic to other cases, she would then have to reject, for instance, all medicines
created in the lab rather than plucked from the earth.

• Appeal to Tradition/Antiquity—assumes that what is old or what “has always been done” is
automatically good and beneficial. The objection, “But, we’ve always done it this way!” is fairly com-
mon, used when someone tries to justify or legitimize whatever “it” is by calling on tradition. The
problems are these: (1) Most rudimentary history investigations usually prove that, in fact, “it” has
not always been done that way; (2) tradition is not by itself a justification for the goodness or bene-
fit of anything. Foot binding was a tradition at one point, but a logical argument for its benefit
would strain credulity.

Example: “We should bar women from our club because that is how it has always been done.”
The person making this argument needs to provide logical reasons women should not be
included, not just rely on tradition.

• Appeal to Novelty—the mirror of the appeal to antiquity, suggesting that what is new is necessar-
ily better.

Example: “Buy our new and improved product, and your life will forever be changed for the bet-
ter!” Advertisers love employing the appeal to novelty to sell the public on the idea that because
their product is new, it is better. Newness is no guarantee that something is good or of high qual-
ity.

• Appeal to Authority—Appealing to the ideas of someone who is a credentialed expert—or

ARGUMENT 87

authority—on a subject can be a completely reasonable type of evidence. When one writes a
research paper about chemistry, it is reasonable to use the works of credentialed chemists. How-
ever, the appeal to authority becomes a fallacy when misapplied. That same credentialed chemist
would not be a logical authority to consult for information about medieval knights because
authority in one area does not necessarily transfer to other areas. Another mistaken appeal to
authority is to assume that because someone is powerful in some way that that power accords
that person special knowledge or wisdom.

Example: Many societies throughout history have had hierarchical social and political structures,
and those who happened to be in the top tier, like aristocrats and rulers, had authority over those
below them. In fact, the term “nobility” in the west had embedded within it the notion that the aris-
tocracy really were better—more ethical, more intelligent, more deserving of reward—than those
lower on the social ladder. Careful study of the nobility shows, however, that some members were
just as capable of immorality and stupidity as lower social groups.

• Appeal to Consequences/Force—the attempt to manipulate someone into agreement by either

implicit or explicit threats of consequences or force (violence!).

Example: “Agree with me or you’ll be fired!” Holding something over another person’s head is not
a reasonable way to support an argument. The arguer avoids giving any sort of logic or evidence
in favor of a threat.

• Appeal to Wealth—the assumption that wealthy people have special knowledge or wisdom that
derives from their economic position and that can then be applied to any area of knowledge.

Example: “Hi, I’m a famous actress, and while I’m not a qualified psychologist, read my new self-
help book for how you, too, can avoid depression!” Fame and fortune alone do not turn someone
into a qualified expert. Appealing to a person’s expertise solely based on wealth and position is
thus logically flawed.

Figure 3.17 “Appeal to Wealth”

88 LET'S GET WRITING!

• Appeal to Poverty—the mirror of the above irrelevant appeal, that poor people have special
knowledge or wisdom because of their adverse economic circumstances. This can work in
another way: that poor people are particularly deficient in knowledge or wisdom because they are
poor. However, neither assumption constitutes sound reasoning. The conditions of poverty are
far too complex.

Example: “That man lives on unemployment benefits, so why would I care about his opinion on
anything?” The arguer in this scenario unreasonably uses another’s poverty against him, by imply-
ing that a poor person would have worthless ideas. This implication has embedded within it the
idea that someone is only poor because of some sort of personal lack–intelligence, morality, good
sense, and so on. However, it is quite reasonable for a poor person to be intelligent, ethical, and
wise. To assume otherwise is to risk making logical mistakes.

Fallacies of Presumption

To call someone presumptuous is to accuse that person of overreaching—making bold assertions without
adequate reason or failing to follow the rules of behavior (but presuming it is okay to do so). The logical
ARGUMENT 89

fallacy version of this involves making a case with inadequate or tainted evidence, or even no evidence what-
soever, or by having unjustified reasons for making the case in the first place.

Working with Flawed Evidence—These fallacies occur when an author uses evidence that has been com-
promised.

• Hasty Generalization—A hasty generalization derives its conclusion from too little information,
evidence, or reason.

One type of hasty generalization is jumping to a conclusion from a small amount of evidence.

Example: Having one bad meal at a restaurant and then immediately concluding that all meals
from that restaurant will be just as bad.

Figure 3.18 “Hasty Generalization”

Another type of hasty generalization involves relying on anecdotal evidence for support. As human beings,
we overestimate the power of personal experience and connections, so they can drown out scientific
data that contradict an individual—or anecdotal—experience. Additionally, anecdotal evidence is persuasive
because of the human desire for perfection. Perfection is a lofty—and mostly unreachable—goal, and when
a product or a person or a program fails to live up to perfection, it becomes easier to dismiss—particularly
90 LET'S GET WRITING!

when a personal story or two of imperfection is involved. Accurate information, however, comes from a
much larger amount of data—analysis of hundreds or thousands or even millions of examples. Unfortu-
nately, data can feel impersonal and, therefore, less convincing.
tm
Example: “I love my new Banana laptop. The product ratings for it are very high.” “Oh, no one
should ever buy one of their computers! My brother had one, and it was full of glitches.” Basing
a judgement or an argument on a personal story or two, as in this case, is not logical but can be
tm
incredibly persuasive. However, if 98% of Banana computers run perfectly well, and only 2%
have glitches, it is illogical to use that 2% to write this product off as universally terrible.

In scholarship, hasty generalizations can happen when conclusions derive from an unrepresentative sam-
ple. Data coming from a group that fail to represent the group’s full complexity is unrepresentative, and
any results drawn from that data will be flawed.

Example: If advances in cancer research were only, or mostly, tested on men, that would be
unrepresentative of humanity because half of the human population—women—would not be rep-
resented. What if the cancer treatments affect women differently?

Another type of hasty generalization derived from poor research is the biased sample. This comes from a
group that has a predisposed bias to the concepts being studied.

Example: If a psychologist were to study how high school students handled challenges to their
religious views, it would be flawed to only study students at schools with a religious affiliation since
most of those students may be predisposed toward a single type of religious view.

• Sweeping Generalization—the inverse of the hasty generalization. Instead of making a conclu-

sion from little evidence, the sweeping generalization applies a general rule to a specific situation
without providing proper evidence, without demonstrating that the rule even applies, or without
providing for exceptions. Stereotyping is one prominent type of sweeping generalization; a
stereotype derives from general ideas about a group of people without accounting for exceptions
or accuracy or that there is any sound reasoning behind the stereotype.
• Confirmation Bias—a pernicious fallacy that can trip even careful scholars. It occurs when the
writer or researcher is so convinced by her point of view that she only seeks to confirm it and,
thus, ignores any evidence that would challenge it. Choosing only data that support a preformed
conclusion is called cherry picking and is a one-way ticket to skewed results. Related to this fallacy
is another—disconfirmation bias—when the writer or researcher puts so much stock in her side of
the argument that she does not apply equal critical evaluation to the arguments and evidence that
support the other side. In other words, while too easily and uncritically accepting what supports
her side, she is unreasonably critical of opposing arguments and evidence.

Example: In the later nineteenth century, when archaeology was a new and thrilling field of study,
Heinrich Schliemann excavated the ancient city of Troy, made famous in Homer’s epic poem,
The Iliad. In fact, Schliemann used The Iliad as a guide, so when he excavated, he looked to find
structures (like walls) and situations (proof of battles) in the archaeological remains. While Schlie-
mann’s work is still considered groundbreaking in many ways, his method was flawed. It allowed
him to cherry pick his results and fit them to his expectations–i.e., that his results would fit the
myth. When Schliemann sought to confirm story elements from The Iliad in the archaeological
record, he risked misinterpreting his data. What if the data was telling a different story than that in
The Iliad? How could he know for sure until he put the book down and analyzed the archaeological
evidence on its own merits? For more on Schliemann and his famous early excavations, see his
ARGUMENT 91

Encyclopedia Britannica entry (https://tinyurl.com/y9tk4vou), or look up “Heinrich Schliemann” in

the Gale Virtual Reference Library database.

• No True Scotsman—a false claim to purity for something that is too complex for purity, like a
group, an identity, or an organization. Those making claims to purity usually attempt to declare
that anyone who does not fit their “pure” definition does not belong. For example, national iden-
tity is complicated and can mean something different to each person who claims that identity;
therefore, it is too complex for a one-size-fits-all definition and for any one litmus test to prove
that identity.

Examples: “No real Scot would put ice in his scotch!” “No real man would drink lite beer!” “No
real feminist would vote Republican!” Each of these statements assumes that everyone has the
same definition for the identities or groups discussed: Scots, men, and feminists. However, the
members of each group are themselves diverse, so it is illogical to make such blanket declarations
about them. It is actually quite reasonable for a Scottish person to like ice in her scotch and still
claim a Scottish identity or for a man to drink lite beer without relinquishing his manhood or for a
feminist to vote Republican while still working toward women’s rights.

Figure 3.19 “No True Southerner, No True Scotsman”

92 LET'S GET WRITING!

Working with No Evidence—These fallacies occur when the evidence asserted turns out to be no evidence
whatsoever.

• Burden of Proof—This logical fallacy, quite similar to the appeal to ignorance, occurs when the
author forgets that she is the one responsible for supporting her arguments and, instead, shifts
the burden of proof to the audience.

Example: “Larry stole my painting,” Edith cried. “Prove to me he didn’t!” No: The one making the
claim must give reasons and evidence for that claim before anyone else is obligated to refute it. If
Edith cannot give sound proof of Larry’s guilt, the argument should be rejected.

• Arguing from Silence or Ignorance—Like the burden of proof fallacy, this one occurs when the
author, either implicitly or explicitly, uses a lack of evidence as a type of proof. This is the basis for
most conspiracy theory nonsense, as if the lack of evidence is so hard to believe, the only reason
to explain why it is missing is a cover up. Remember, it is the writer’s job to present positive proof
(evidence that actually exists and can be literally seen) to support any argument made. If a writer
cannot find evidence, he must admit that he may be wrong and then, find a new argument!
ARGUMENT 93

Example: “There is no proof that Joe the Politician conspired with the Canadians to rig the elec-
tions.” “A-ha! That there is nothing to find is proof that he did! He must have paid off everyone
involved to bury the evidence.” Lack of proof cannot be–in and of itself–a type of proof because
it has no substance; it is a nothing. Is it possible that proof may arise in the future? Yes, but until
it does, the argument that Joe and the Canadians rigged an election is illegitimate. Is it possible
that Joe both rigged the election and paid people off to hide it? Again, yes, but there are two prob-
lems with this reasoning: (1) Possibility, like absence of evidence, is not in itself a type of evidence,
and (2) possibility does not equal probability. Just because something is possible does not mean
it is probable, let alone likely or a sure thing. Those supporting conspiracy theories try to convince
others that lack of proof is a type of proof and that a remote possibility is actually a surety. Both
fail the logic test.

Figure 3.20 “Arguing from Ignorance”

• Circular Reasoning—also known as begging the question, occurs when, instead of providing rea-
sons for a claim, the arguer just restates the claim but in a different way. An author cannot side-
step reasons and proof for an argument by just repeating the claim over and over again.

Example: “The death penalty is sinful because it is wrong and immoral.” The conclusion (the death
penalty is sinful) looks like it is supported by two premises (that it is wrong, that it is immoral). The
94 LET'S GET WRITING!

problem is that the words “wrong” and “immoral” are too close in meaning to “sinful,” so they are
not actual reasons; rather, they are just other ways to state the claim.

• Special Pleading—Anyone who makes a case based on special circumstances without actually
providing any reasonable evidence for those circumstances is guilty of special pleading.

Example: “Is there any extra credit I can do to make up for my missing work?” Many students
have asked this of their college professors. Embedded within the question is a logical fallacy, the
insistence that the student asking it should get special treatment and be rewarded with extra
credit even though he missed prior assignments. If the student has logical (and preferably doc-
umented) reasons for missing course work, then the fallacy of special pleading does not apply.
Those expecting to be given special treatment without reasonable justification have committed
the special pleading fallacy.

• Moving the Goalposts—happens when one keeps changing the rules of the game in mid-play
without any reasonable justification.

Example: This fallacy occurs in Congress quite a lot, where the rules for a compromise are estab-
lished in good faith, but one side or the other decides to change those rules at the last minute
without good reason or evidence for doing so.

• Wishful Thinking—involves replacing actual evidence and reason with desire, i.e., desire for
something to be true. Wanting an idea to be real or true, no matter how intensely, does not consti-
tute rational support. This fallacy often occurs when closely-held ideas and beliefs are challenged,
particularly if they are connected to family and identity or if they serve self interest.

Example: People do not like to see their personal heroes tarnished in any way. If a popular sports
hero, e.g., is accused of a crime, many fans will refuse to believe it because they just don’t want to.
This plays right into the wishful thinking fallacy.

Figure 3.21 “Wishful Thinking”

ARGUMENT 95

Working with False Ideas about Evidence or Reasoning—These fallacies either (1) presume something is
a reason for or evidence of something else when that connection has not been adequately or fairly estab-
lished or (2) unfairly limit one’s choices of possible reasons.

• False Dilemma/Dichotomy—occurs when one presents only two options in an argument when
there are, in fact, many more options. Arguments have multiple sides, not just two, so when only
two are presented, readers are forced to choose between them when they should be able to draw
from a more complex range of options. Another way to talk about the false dichotomy is to call it
reductionist because the arguer has reduced the options from many to only two.

Example: “So, are you a dog person or a cat person? Are you a Beatles person or a Rolling Stones
person? You can be only one!” Both of these examples provide a false choice between two options
when there are clearly others to choose from. One might also reasonably choose both or neither.
When an arguer only provides two options, she tries to rig the response and to get the responder
to only work within the severely limited framework provided. Life is more complicated than that,
so it is unreasonable to limit choices to only two.
96 LET'S GET WRITING!

Figure 3.22 “False Dilemma”

• Loaded Question—embeds a hidden premise in the question, so anyone who responds is forced
to accept that premise. This puts the responder at an unfair disadvantage because he has to
either answer the question and, by doing so, accept the premise, or challenge the question, which
can look like he is ducking the issue.

Example: “So, when did you start practicing witchcraft?” The hidden premise here is that the
responder is a witch, and any reply is an admittance to that as a fact. An open question, one that
does not trick the responder into admitting the presumption of witchcraft, would be this: “Are you
a witch?”

False Cause—asserts causes that are more assumptions than actual causes. There are three types of false
cause fallacies:

• Post hoc ergo propter hoc—In Latin, this phrase means “after this, therefore, because of this,”
which asserts that when one thing happens before another thing, the first must have caused the
second. This is a false assumption because, even if the two things are related to each other, they
do not necessarily have a causal relationship.
ARGUMENT 97

Example: Superstitions draw power from this logical fallacy. If a black cat crosses Joe the Politi-
cian’s path, and the next day Joe loses the election, is he justified, logically, in blaming the cat? No.
Just because the cat’s stroll happened before the election results does not mean the one caused
the other.

Figure 3.23 “Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc”

• Slippery Slope—the cause/effect version of jumping to a conclusion. A slippery slope argument

claims that the first link in a causal chain will inevitably end in the most disastrous result possible,
thus working to scare the audience away from the initial idea altogether. Keep in mind, legitimate
and logical causal chains can be argued: where one cause leads to a logical effect, which then
leads to the next logical effect, which then leads to the next logical effect, and so on. Those using
the slippery slope fallacy, however, do not bother to carefully establish a logical chain but rather
skip right ahead to the worst possible conclusion.

Example: “Oh no, if I fail this test, my whole life is ruined!” This is a common fear among panicked
students but is a prime example of the slippery slope. The student likely imagines this sort of log-
98 LET'S GET WRITING!

ical chain: a failed test → failed class → getting behind in college → flunking out of college → all
future job prospects falling through → total unemployment → abject poverty → becoming a pariah
to family and friends → a thoroughly ruined life. The worry is that failing a test, should it even hap-
pen at all, will automatically result in the worst possible case: a totally failed life. However, when
thought through more calmly and logically, hopefully, the student will realize that many mitigating
factors lie between one failed test and total ruination and that the total ruination result is actually
quite unlikely.

• Cum hoc ergo propter hoc—In Latin, this phrase translates to “with this, therefore, because of
this,” which suggests that because two or more things happen at the same time they must be
related. This, however, doesn’t account for other logical possibilities, including coincidence.

Example: “Gah! Why does the phone always ring as we sit down to dinner?” This question implies
that those two events have something to do with each other when there are likely far more logical
reasons that they do not.

Fallacies of Ambiguity

To be ambiguous is to be unclear; thus, fallacies of ambiguity are those that, intentionally or not, confuse
the reader through lack of clarity. They create a fog that makes it difficult to see what the conclusion or the
reasonable parts of an argument are, or the fog prevents a reasonable conclusion in the first place.

• Quoting out of Context—occurs when quoting someone without providing all the necessary
information to understand the author’s meaning. Lack of context means that the original quote’s
meaning can be obscured or manipulated to mean something the original author never intended.
Usually that context comes from the original text the quote came from that the borrower has
failed to include or deliberately excluded.

Example: Original statement: “You may hand write your assignments but only when instructed to
in the assignment schedule.”

Quote used: “You may hand write your assignments.”

Clearly, the quoted part leaves out some crucial information, qualifying information that puts limits on the
initial instruction. The scenario may be this: The original statement came from a professor’s syllabus, and
the student quoted just the first part to an advisor, for instance, while trying to register a complaint over a
bad grade for an assignment he hand wrote but wasn’t supposed to. When the student exclaims, “But my
professor told me I could hand write my assignments!” he is guilty of muddying the truth by quoting out of
context. He left out the part that told him to verify the assignment instructions to see if handwriting were
allowable or not.

• Straw Man—Creating a straw man argument involves taking a potentially reasonable argument
and misrepresenting it, usually through scare tactics or oversimplification, i.e., by creating an argu-
ment that sounds similar to the original but in reality is not. The straw man argument is designed
to be outrageous and upsetting, and thus easier to defeat or get others to reject. Why try to dis-
mantle and rebut a reasonable argument when one can just knock the head off the straw man
substitute instead?

Example: “I think we need to get rid of standardized testing in junior high and high school, at least
ARGUMENT 99

in its current form.” “That’s terrible! I can’t believe you don’t want any standards for students.
You just want education to get even worse!” In this scenario, the second person has committed
the straw man fallacy. She has distorted the first person’s argument–that standardized testing in
its current form should be eliminated–and replaced it with a much more objectionable one–that
all educational standards should be eliminated. Because there are more ways than just testing to
monitor educational standards, the second person’s argument is a blatant misrepresentation and
an over simplification.

Figure 3.24 “Straw Man”

• Equivocation—happens when an author uses terms that are abstract or complex—and, there-
fore, have multiple meanings or many layers to them—in an overly simple or misleading fashion
or without bothering to define the particular use of that term.

Example: “I believe in freedom.” The problem with this statement is it assumes that everyone
understands just exactly what the speaker means by freedom. Freedom from what? Freedom to
do what? Freedom in a legal sense? In an intellectual sense? In a spiritual sense? Using a vague
sense of a complex concept like freedom leads to the equivocation fallacy.

Fallacies of Inconsistency
100 LET'S GET WRITING!

This category of fallacies involves a lack of logical consistency within the parts of the argument itself or on
the part of the speaker.

• Inconsistency Fallacy—is one of the more blatant fallacies because the speaker is usually quite
up-front about his inconsistency. This fallacy involves making contradictory claims but attempting
to offset the contradiction by framing one part as a disclaimer and, thus, implying that the dis-
claimer inoculates the one making it from any challenge.

Example 1: “I’m not a racist but….” If what follows is a racist statement, the one saying this is guilty
of the inconsistency fallacy and of making a racist statement. Making a bold claim against racism
is not a shield.

Example 2: “I can’t be sexist because I’m a woman.” The speaker, when making this kind of state-
ment and others like it, assumes that she cannot logically be called out for making a sexist state-
ment because she happens to be a member of a group (women) who are frequent victims of
sexism. If the statements she makes can objectively be called sexist, then she is guilty of both sex-
ism and the inconsistency fallacy.

Figure 3.25 “Inconsistency Fallacy”

ARGUMENT 101

• False Equivalence—asserts that two ideas or groups or items or experiences are of equal type,
standing, and quality when they are not.

Example: The belief in intelligent design and the theory of evolution are often falsely equated.
The logical problem lies not with desire to support one or the other idea but with the idea that
these two concepts are the same type of concept. They are not. Intelligent design comes out of
belief, mainly religious belief, while evolution is a scientific theory underpinned by factual data.
Thus, these two concepts should not be blithely equated. Furthermore, because these two con-
cepts are not the same type, they do not need to be in opposition. In fact, there are those who
may well believe in intelligent design while also subscribing to the theory of evolution. In other
words, their religious beliefs do not restrict an adherence to evolutionary theory. A religious belief
is faith based and, thus, is not evaluated using the same principles as a scientific theory would be.

• False Balance—applies mainly to journalists who, because they wish to present an appearance of
fairness, falsely claim that two opposing arguments are roughly equal to each other when one
actually has much more weight to it—of both reasoning and evidence.

Example: The majority of scientists accept climate change as established by empirical evidence,
while a scant few do not; putting one representative of each on a news program, however, implies
that they represent an equal number of people, which is clearly false.

Key Takeaways: Logical Fallacies

• Both formal and informal fallacies are errors of reasoning, and if writers rely on such fallacies, even
unintentionally, they undercut their arguments, particularly their crucial appeals to logos. For example, if
someone defines a key term in an argument in an ambiguous way or if someone fails to provide credible
evidence, or if someone tries to distract with irrelevant or inflammatory ideas, her arguments will appear
logically weak to a critical audience.

• More than just logos is at stake, however. When listeners or readers spot questionable reasoning or
unfair attempts at audience manipulation, they may conclude that an author’s ethics have become com-
promised. The credibility of the author (ethos) and perhaps the readers’ ability to connect with that writer
on the level of shared values (pathos) may well be damaged.

CC Licensed Content, Shared Previously

About Writing: A Guide, Robin Jeffrey, CC-BY.

A Concise Introduction to Logic, Craig DeLancey, CC-BY-NC-SA.

English 112: College Composition II, Lumen Learning, CC-BY-SA.

English Composition 1, Lumen Learning, CC-BY-SA.

Frameworks for Academic Writing, Stephen Poulter, CC-BY-NC-SA.

Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking, Matthew J. Van Cleave, CC-BY.

102 LET'S GET WRITING!

Methods of Discovery, Pavel Zemilanski, CC-BY-NC-SA.

Writing for Success, CC-BY-NC-SA.

Writing in College: From Competence to Excellence, Amy Guptill, CC-BY-NC-SA.

Image Credits

Figure 3.1 “Opinion vs Argument,” by Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, derivative image
from original by ijmaki, pixabay, CC-0.

Figure 3.2 “Argument Diagram,” Virginia Western Community College, derivative image using “Thin Brace
Down,” by pathoschild, Wikimedia, CC-BY-SA 3.0.

Figure 3.3 “Common Premise Indicators,” by Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0.

Figure 3.4 “Common Conclusion Indicators,” by Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0.

Figure 3.5 Untitled, by Matthew Van Cleave, from Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking, CC-BY.

Figure 3.6 Untitled, by Matthew Van Cleave, from Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking , CC-BY.

Figure 3.7 “Roger Ebert,” by Roger Ebert, Wikimedia, CC-BY-SA 3.0.

Figure 3.8 “From Analysis to Argument,” by Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0.

Figure 3.9 “Carl Ransom Rogers,” by Didius, Wikimedia, CC-BY 2.5.

Figure 3.10 “Rogerian Argument,” by Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0.

Figure 3.11 “Toulmin Argument,” Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0.

Figure 3.12 “Reagan’s Red Herring,” by Dale Dulaney and Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community Col-
lege, CC-0, derivative image using “C25253-10.jpg,” by White House/Reagan Presidential Library, Wikimedia,
CC-0.

Figure 3.13 “Student vs. Freud Ad Hominem,” by Dale Dulaney and Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Com-
munity College, CC-BY-2.0, derivative image using “Students in Class”, by Tulane University Public Relation,
CC-BY-2.0.

Figure 3.14 “Poisoning the Well,” by Dale Dulaney and Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College,
CC-0, derivative image from the original by jamesoladujoye , pixabay, CC-0.

Figure 3.15 “Guilt by Association,” by Dale Dulaney and Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College,
CC-0, derivative image using “LettuceLadies-Guangzhou-092508,” by Ryan Huling, Wikimedia, CC-0.

Figure 3.16 “Appeal to Popularity,” by Dale Dulaney and Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College,
CC-0, derivative image using the original by Max Pixel, CC-0.

Figure 3.17 “Appeal to Wealth,” by Dale Dulaney and Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College,
CC-0, derivative image using the original by joharin.mymode, flickr, CC-0.
ARGUMENT 103

Figure 3.18 “Hasty Generalization,” by Dale Dulaney and Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community Col-
lege, CC-BY-2.0, derivative image using “Young People Texting on Smartphones Using Thumbs,” by Tomw-
sulcer, Wikimedia, CC-0, and “Old Guy,” by Randen Pederson, flickr, CC-BY 2.0.

Figure 3.19 “No True Southerner, No True Scotsman,” by Dale Dulaney and Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western
Community College, CC-BY-SA-2.0, derivative image using “Pimento Cheese” by Chip Harlan, Wikimedia, CC-
BY-SA-2.0.

Figure 3.20 “Arguing from Ignorance,” by Dale Dulaney and Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community Col-
lege, CC-BY-2.0, derivative image using “Kyrie Irving“, by Erik Drost, Wikimedia, CC-BY 2.0.

Figure 3.21 “Wishful Thinking,” by Dale Dulaney and Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College,
CC-0, derivative image using “Lance Armstrong – Tour de France 2003,” by Gawain78, Wikimedia, CC-0.

Figure 3.22 “False Dilemma”, by Dale Dulaney and Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0,
derivative image using “Bush State of the Union 2006,” by White House, CC-0, and “President Bush Deliv-
ers State of the Union Address,” by Sheelah Craighead, White House, CC-0.

Figure 3.23 “Rally Cat”, by Dale Dulaney and Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College., CC-
BY-2.0, derivative image using “David Ortiz Batters Box,” by SecondPrintProductions, Wikimedia, CC-BY-2.0,
and “Bengal Cat,” by Roberto Shabs, Wikimedia, CC-By-2.0.

Figure 3.24 “Gaming”, by Dale Dulaney and Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-BY-2.0,
derivative image using “Dataspel,” by Magnus Froderberg, Wikimedia, CC-BY-2.0.

Figure 3.25 “Inconsistency Fallacy”, by Dale Dulaney and Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community Col-
lege, CC-0, derivative image using “Tea Party Where is the Cake Grandma,” by Assy , pixabay, CC-0.

Let's Get Writing! by Kirsten DeVries is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International
License, except where otherwise noted.
CHAPTER 4

Chapter 4 - The Writing Process

KATHY BOYLAN

Communication skills, including writing, are some of the most important soft skills (employable skills that
have more to do with emotional IQ such as common sense, communication, problem-solving, and collabo-
ration) that students learn when they are in college because most professions require high competency in
written communication, which can be a chance for one to shine or to falter. With emails, memos, letters,
texts, and even Tweets, most people spend a fair amount of time at work communicating via the written
word. Whether you are messaging a colleague, writing to your manager, creating the company newsletter,
or writing a press release to the media, your writing skills can boost or hinder your career easily, even if
you do not have a “writing” profession. Basically, writing skills make a difference in how you are perceived
in college and in the workplace. That is the reason it is important to be sure you are following expected
guidelines, always using the steps of the writing process, and making sure that all of your writing is coher-
ent, concise, credible, and correct.

1. What is the writing process?

2. What is prewriting?

3. What is a thesis statement?

4. How to organize and arrange.

5. How to write a rough draft.

6. What is revising?

7. What is done during editing & proofreading & formatting?

8. What are other types of academic writing?

1. WHAT IS THE WRITING PROCESS?

No matter what type of writing you are doing, academic writing, professional writing, or personal writing, it
can be made easier by using the writing process. The writing process consists of the different stages that

104
THE WRITING PROCESS 105

a writer follows to produce a good piece of writing. Although different sources may label and group the
stages in various ways, the stages of the writing process are essentially as follows:

Prewriting – Deciding what to write about (the topic) and gathering information to support or explain what
you want to say about your subject, and planning how to organize your ideas in a way that effectively devel-
ops the topic.

Drafting -Writing the first copy of the piece (essay, article, etc.). This is often called the rough draft. Ulti-
mately, you should have multiple copies or drafts of your work.

Revising -Reconsidering the ideas and content of the essay as well as refining the style and structure of the
paper.

Editing/Proofreading – Correcting grammar, punctuation, spelling, and mechanics.

Publishing – Sharing the final draft with others.

Figure 4.1 The Writing Process

106 LET'S GET WRITING!

However, the writing process is not a series of neatly developed steps and may differ somewhat for every-
one. Sometimes ideas do not flow easily, and the essay that you originally start out to write is not the essay
that you end up writing. Often the stages proceed erratically and overlap; the important thing is to keep
writing and improving until a final product is achieved. The more that you write, the better you will become
as a writer.

2. WHAT IS PREWRITING?

Prewriting describes all of the thinking and planning that precedes the actual writing of a paper.
THE WRITING PROCESS 107

Much careful thought needs to be given to the assignment in general at the beginning of prewriting before
focusing on your topic.

Thinking

• First, understand the writing assignment and its limits. Consider the assignment’s length. Always
know the expected length of a writing assignment. A two-page paper has a much narrower topic
than a ten-page paper would have. If there is no page limit, consider the nature of the assignment
to suggest its length. A summary of a chapter will be much shorter than the original chapter. An
analysis of a poem may likely be longer than the poem itself.
• Second, establish the assignment’s purpose. It is important to know the reasons you are writing
or the purposes you are trying to accomplish with the writing.

1. Expressive writing conveys personal feelings or impressions to the audience.

2. Informative writing enlightens the audience about something.
3. Persuasive writing attempts to convince the audience to think or act in a certain way.

Other more specific purposes can include entertaining, analyzing, hypothesizing, assessing, summariz-
ing, questioning, reporting, recommending, suggesting, evaluating, describing, recounting, requesting,
and instructing.

• Next, determine the assignment’s audience. You must determine to whom you are writing. An
audience can be an individual or a group. An audience can be general or specialized. Once you
define your audience, you must determine how much the audience already knows about the sub-
ject to know how much or little background information should be included. You should also
determine how best to approach your audience in terms of language, rhetorical strategies, pur-
poses for reading, and background knowledge.
• Then devise the assignment’s occasion. The occasion for which you are writing will determine the
formality and scope of a writing project. An in-class writing assignment will differ from an out-of-
class formal assignment. A memo for fellow office workers will differ from a report written for the
company’s president. A letter to an aunt will differ from a letter written to a bank to request a per-
sonal loan.
• Finally, assess your own previous knowledge of the subject. Before writing, you need to deter-
mine what you already know about a subject, what you need to find out about the subject, and
what you think about the subject. Personal essays draw upon your own experiences and observa-
tions; research essays require you to gain new knowledge through research.

Topic Choice

The next step in prewriting, and often the hardest, is choosing a topic for an essay if one has not been
assigned. Choosing a viable general topic for an assignment is an essential step. Sometimes your instructor
will give you an idea to begin an assignment, and other times your instructor will ask you to come up with
a topic on your own. A captivating topic covers what an assignment will be about and fits the assignment’s
purpose and its audience. There are various methods you may use to discover an appropriate topic for your
writing.

Using Experience and Observations

When selecting a topic, you may also want to consider something that interests you or something based
108 LET'S GET WRITING!

on your own life and personal experiences. Even everyday observations can lead to interesting topics. After
writers think about their experiences and observations, they often take notes on paper to better develop
their thoughts. These notes help writers discover what they have to say about their topic.

Tip

Have you seen an attention-grabbing story on your local news channel? Many current issues appear on television, in
magazines, and on the Internet. These can all provide inspiration for your writing. Our library’s database (http://infogu-
ides.virginiawestern.edu/az.php) Issues and Controversies is a first-rate source.

Reading

Reading plays a vital role in all the stages of the writing process, but it first figures in the development of
ideas and topics. Different kinds of documents can help you choose a topic and develop that topic. For
example, a magazine advertising the latest research on the threat of global warming may catch your eye in
the supermarket. This cover may interest you, and you may consider global warming as a topic, or maybe a
novel’s courtroom drama sparks your curiosity of a particular lawsuit or legal controversy. After you choose
a topic, critical reading is essential to the development of a topic. While reading almost any document, you
evaluate the author’s point of view by thinking about his main idea and his support. When you judge the
author’s argument, you discover more about the author’s opinion as well as your own. If these steps already
seem daunting, remember that even the best writers need to use prewriting strategies to generate ideas.

Tip

The steps in the writing process may seem time consuming at first, but following these steps will save you time in the
future. The more you plan in the beginning by reading and using prewriting strategies, the less time you may spend writ-
ing and editing later because your ideas will develop more swiftly. Prewriting strategies depend on your critical reading
skills. Reading prewriting exercises (and outlines and drafts later in the writing process) will further develop your topic
and ideas. As you continue to follow the writing process, you will see how to use critical reading skills to assess your
own prewriting exercises.

Freewriting

Freewriting (also called brainstorming) is an exercise in which you write freely (jot, list, write paragraphs,
dialog, take off on tangents: whatever “free” means to you) about a topic for a set amount of time (usually
THE WRITING PROCESS 109

three to five minutes or until you run out of ideas or energy). Jot down any thoughts that come to your mind.
Try not to worry about what you are saying, how it sounds, whether it is good or true, grammar, spelling, or
punctuation. Instead, write as quickly as you can without stopping. If you are stuck, just copy the same word
or phrase repeatedly until you come up with a new thought or write about why you cannot continue. Just
keep writing; that is the power of this technique!

Writing often comes easier when you have a personal connection with the topic. Remember, to generate
ideas in your freewriting, think about readings that you have enjoyed or that have challenged your thinking.
Then write about it. Doing this may lead your thoughts in interesting directions. Quickly recording your
thoughts on paper will help you discover what you have to say about a topic. When writing quickly, try not
to doubt or question your ideas, but if you do, write those, too. Allow yourself to write freely and unself-
consciously. Once you start writing with few limitations, you may find you have more to say than you first
realized. Your flow of thoughts can lead you to discover more ideas about the topic as well as different per-
spectives on it. Freewriting may even lead you to discover another topic that excites you even more than
your original idea. Freewriting can also be used to narrow a topic and/or to develop supporting ideas once
a broad topic has been chosen.

Journaling is another useful strategy for generating topic and content ideas. Journaling can be useful in
exploring different topic ideas and serve as possible topic ideas for future papers.

Tip

Some prewriting strategies can be used together. For example, you could use experience and observations to come up
with a topic related to your course studies. Then you could use freewriting to describe your topic in more detail and
figure out what you have to say about it.

Focusing Topic

Once a general topic has been assigned to or chosen by you, then you must decide on the scope of the
topic. Broad topics always need to be narrowed down to topics that are more specific. Then you need to
determine what you are going to say about a subject. Two ways to help narrow a general subject down to a
narrower topic are probing and focused freewriting.

• Probing is asking a series of questions about the topic. Who? What? Where? When? Why? How?
As you choose your topic, answering these questions can help you revisit the ideas you already
have and generate new ways to think about your topic. You may also discover aspects of the topic
that are unfamiliar to you and that you would like to learn more about. All these idea-gathering
techniques will help you plan for future work on your assignment.

For example, if you were writing about tattoos, then you might ask yourself the following questions: Who do
you know that has tattoos or who are some celebrities with memorable tattoos? What kinds of tattoos do
people usually get–what symbols and what words? Where do people place tattoos on their bodies or where
110 LET'S GET WRITING!

do people go to get tattoos–tattoo parlors? When do people get tattoos–is it after some memorable event
or life stage? Why do people get tattoos? Finally, how do people get tattoos–what is the actual process?

• Focused Freewriting is freewriting again and again with each freewriting cycle becoming more
focused (also called looping), and it can yield a great deal of useful material. Try this by taking the
most compelling idea from one freewriting and starting the next with it.

Developing a Topic

The following checklist can help you decide if your narrowed topic is a possible topic for your assignment:

• Why am I interested in this topic?

• Would my audience be interested and why?

• Do I have prior knowledge or experience with this topic? If so, would I be comfortable exploring this topic and
sharing my experiences?

• Why do I want to learn more about this topic?

• Is this topic specific? What specifics or details about this topic stand out to me?

• Does it fit the purpose of the assignment, and will it meet the required length of the assignment?

3. WHAT IS A THESIS STATEMENT?

Once the topic has been narrowed to a workable subject, then determine what you are going to say about it;
you need to come up with your controlling or main idea. A thesis is the main idea of an essay. It communi-
cates the essay’s purpose with clear and concise wording and indicates the direction and scope of the essay.
It should not just be a statement of fact nor should it be an announcement of your intentions. It should be
an idea, an opinion of yours that needs to be explored, expanded, and developed into an argument.

A thesis statement:

• tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter under discussion.
• is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect from the rest of the
paper.
• is an interpretation of a question or subject, not the subject itself. The subject, or topic, of an essay
might be World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way to understand the war or the
novel.
• makes a claim that others might dispute.
• is usually a single sentence somewhere in the introductory paragraph that presents the writer’s
THE WRITING PROCESS 111

argument to the reader. However, as essays get longer, a sentence alone is usually not enough to
contain a complex thesis. The rest of the paper, the body of the essay, gathers and organizes evi-
dence that will persuade the readers of the logic of their interpretation.

If an assignment asks you to take a position or develop a claim about a subject, you may need to convey
that position or claim in a thesis statement near the beginning of your draft. The assignment may not explic-
itly state that the writer needs a thesis statement because the instructor may assume the writer will include
one. When an assignment asks you to analyze, to interpret, to compare and contrast, to demonstrate cause
and effect, or to take a stand on an issue, it is likely that you are being asked to develop a thesis and to sup-
port it persuasively.

How do I get a thesis?

A thesis is the result of a lengthy thinking process. Formulating a thesis is not the first thing you do after
reading an essay assignment. Before you develop an argument on any topic, you have to collect and orga-
nize evidence, look for possible relationships between known facts (such as surprising contrasts or similari-
ties), and think about the significance of these relationships. (See chapter on argument for more detailed
information on building an argument.) Once you have done this thinking, you will probably have a “work-
ing thesis,” a basic or main idea, an argument that you can support with evidence. It is deemed a “working
thesis” because it is a work in progress, and it is subject to change as you move through the writing process.
Writers use all kinds of techniques to stimulate their thinking and to help them clarify relationships or com-
prehend the broader significance of a topic to arrive at a thesis statement.

For example, there is the question strategy. One way to start identifying and narrowing a thesis idea is to
form a question that you want to answer. For example, if the starting question was “Do cats have a positive
effect on people with depression? If so, what are three effects?

The question sends you off to explore for answers. You then begin developing support. The first answer you
might find is that petting cats lowers blood pressure, and, further question how that works. From your find-
ings (research, interviews, background reading, etc.), you might detail how that happens physically or you
might describe historical evidence. You could explain medical research that illustrates the concept. Then you
have your first supporting point — as well as the first prong of your thesis: Cats have a positive effect on
people with depression because they can lower blood pressure . . . .

When you start with a specific question and find the answers, the argument falls into place. The answer to
the question becomes the thesis, and how the answer was conceived becomes the supporting points (and,
usually, the topic sentences for each point).

How do I know if my thesis is strong?

If there is time, run it by the instructor or make an appointment at the Writing Center (https://tinyurl.com/
ybqafrbf) to get some feedback. Even if you do not have time to get advice elsewhere, you can do some the-
sis evaluation of your own.

When reviewing the first draft and its working thesis, ask the following:

• Is my thesis statement an opinion, and is it a complete thought? Beware of posing a question as your
thesis statement. Your thesis should answer a question that the audience may have about your
topic. Also, be sure that your thesis statement is a complete sentence rather than just a phrase
stating your topic.
112 LET'S GET WRITING!

• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? If your thesis simply states facts that
no one would, or even could, disagree with, it is possible that you are simply providing a summary,
rather than making an argument.

• Is my thesis statement provable? Can I establish the validity of it through the evidence and explana-
tion that I offer in my essay?

• Is my thesis statement specific? Thesis statements that are too vague often do not have a strong
argument. If your thesis contains words like “good” or “successful,” see if you could be more spe-
cific: Why is something “good”; what specifically makes something “successful”?

• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? If a reader’s first response is, “So what?” then you need to
clarify, to forge a relationship, or to connect to a larger issue.

• Does my essay support my thesis specifically and without wandering? If your thesis and the body of
your essay do not seem to go together, one of them has to change. It is okay to change your work-
ing thesis to reflect things you have figured out in the course of writing your paper. Remember,
always reassess and revise your writing as necessary.

• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? If a reader’s first response is “how?” or “why?” your the-
sis may be too open-ended and lack guidance for the reader. See what you can add to give the
reader a better take on your position right from the beginning.

To create a thesis statement simply follow this formula:

TOPIC + CLAIM = THESIS STATEMENT

Examples:

1. Animals + Dogs make better pets than cats. =When it comes to animals, dogs make better pets
than cats because they are more trainable, more social, and more empathetic.
2. Movies & Emotions + Titanic evoked many emotions. = The movie Titanic evoked many emotions
from an audience.
3. Arthur Miller & Death of a Salesman + Miller’s family inspired the Loman family. = Arthur Miller’s
family and their experiences during the Great Depression inspired the creation of the Loman fam-
ily in his play Death of a Salesman.
THE WRITING PROCESS 113

For more information on bad, good and better thesis statements from the writing center at the University
of Evansville, go here (https://tinyurl.com/y8sfjale).

Exercise: Creating Effective Thesis Statements

Using the formula, create effective thesis statements for the following topics:

1. Fake News

2. Drone Technology

3. Fast Food

4. Homework

5. Helicopter Parents

Then have a partner check your thesis statements to see if they pass the tests to be strong thesis statements.

Once a working thesis statement has been created, then it is time to begin building the body of the essay.
Get all of the key supporting ideas written down, and then you can begin to flesh out the body paragraphs
by reading, asking, observing, researching, connecting personal experiences, etc. Use the information from
below to maintain the internal integrity of the paragraphs and smooth the flow of your ideas.

4. HOW TO ORGANIZE AND ARRANGE?

Once you have generated supporting ideas for the main idea of your paper, you need to arrange those ideas
in some type of order. Clustering and outlining can help organize the ideas.

Clustering (also called idea mapping) is a way of visually arranging ideas. Begin clustering by writing the
topic in the center of a sheet of paper. Circle the topic, and then surround it with words and phrases that
identify the major points to be discussed in the paper. Continue the process until all supporting details and
secondary details have been listed. Many writers like this method because the shapes show how the ideas
relate or connect, and writers can find a focused topic from the connections mapped. Using clustering, you
might discover connections between topics that you had not thought of before.

Figure 4.2 Clustering

114 LET'S GET WRITING!

Outlining lists the major supporting details in a tentative order and includes secondary supporting details.

Figure 4.3 Traditional Formal Outline

THE WRITING PROCESS 115
116 LET'S GET WRITING!

Before you write, you need to decide how to organize your ideas. You need to determine the rhetorical
mode(s) that will be used and the order of the supporting ideas. Simplistically speaking, there are nine
basic rhetorical modes. They are as follows: narration, description, exemplification, process, cause
and effect, comparison and contrast, classification and division, definition, and argument. However,
most complex writing begins with an argument of some sort and then uses a combination of modes to relay
one’s message.

Structure of a Paragraph and Essay

All formal paragraphs and essays have a title, a beginning or an introduction, a middle-a body of sup-
porting paragraphs, and an end or conclusion.

A title is at the top of your paragraph or essay, but it is often the last thing that you create because until the
paper is complete, you do not really know what your final product will be. A good title makes people want
to read your paper; it does not merely repeat the topic sentence or thesis statement; it hints at your main
idea. It is not a complete sentence, but it is a phrase or phrases that indicate your topic.

An effective introduction captures your readers’ attention and arouses their curiosity. In a paragraph, it is
often your topic sentence, and in an essay, it usually includes your thesis statement, which narrows your
subject, claims something specific and significant, and conveys your purpose and often your form of orga-
nization. You can include a question, tell a story, use a quotation, give interesting facts or statistics, give
background information, or outline a problem and/or a solution. Do not tell the reader what your topic
is–show them. Do not be vague and mysterious. Do not refer back to your title. Do not apologize for
what you are about to say, and be original. The important thing is that you hook your readers’ attention
and motivate them to continue reading.

Your body of supporting evidence should be organized, unified and coherent. The support can be orga-
nized using chronological order, spatial order, or emphatic order. Each supporting detail should have its
own topic sentence and be developed with valuable supporting details. In an essay, the supporting ideas
should support your thesis statement. You should use transitional words or phrases to establish connec-
tions between paragraphs and different ideas. You should use parallel structure throughout your paper
and use repetition sparingly and only when it is effective and necessary. Be consistent in tense, number,
and person throughout your paper as well. The entire body of supporting evidence should be focused on
supporting your main idea without straying off topic or including unrelated ideas.

Your conclusion should let the readers know that you are finished and not leave them with any unanswered
questions. It may recommend a call to action, or it may just summarize a long and complex paper. The
conclusion may repeat some of the ideas from the introduction, but it should not be a replica of that para-
graph. It may restate your main idea. The conclusion can be either hopeful or hopeless depending on the
mood of your paper. You may leave your reader with some final important facts, or a compelling example,
or a final visual image. It is important that you do not go off in a new direction in your conclusion.
Do not make sweeping generalizations, and again do not apologize for any of your ideas. Once these
arrangements and ideas have been decided, then an outline should be constructed.

Figure 4.4 The Essay Structure

THE WRITING PROCESS 117

Using a Clear Organizational Pattern

118 LET'S GET WRITING!

Depending on your topic, you might find it beneficial to use one of these common organizational patterns,
either within individual paragraphs or within the entire essay:

Pattern Explanation Example

A process analysis
The first key to growing good tomatoes is to give the seedlings plenty of room. Make sure to transplant them to
paragraph is used
small pots once they get their first leaves. Even when they are just starting out in pots, they need plenty of light,
to describe how
Process air, and heat. Make sure to warm the ground in advance by covering it in plastic sheeting for a couple of weeks.
something is made
analysis When you are ready to plant them in soil, plant them deeply enough, so they can put down some strong roots.
or to explain the
Mulch next, and once the stems of the tomato plants have reached a few inches in height, cut off the lower
steps for how
leaves to avoid fungi. Carefully prune the suckers that develop in the joints of the developing stems.
something is done.

As soon as I arrived at the farmers’ market, I bought a large bag of lettuce. I walked around the corner and saw
the biggest, most gorgeous sunflower I had ever seen. I bought it and added it to my lettuce bag. The flower was
so big that I had to hold the bag right in front of me to keep it from being bumped. At the Wilson Pork Farm
booth, I tasted a little pulled pork. You guessed it—I had to buy a quart of it. I went on with a plastic quart con-
Chronological
tainer in my left hand and my lettuce and flower in my right hand. I was handling it all just fine until I saw a huge
arrangement pre-
Chronological hanging spider plant I had to have. Ever so gently, I placed my pulled pork container inside the spider fern plant
sents information
pot. Now I was holding everything right in front of me as I tried to safely make my way through the crowd. That
in time order.
is when I met up with little Willie. Willie was about seven years old, and he was playing tag with his brother. I am
not sure where their mother was, but Willie came running around the corner and smacked right into me. You
are probably thinking that poor Willie had pulled pork all over his clothes and an upside-down plant on his head,
but no, not at all. I was the one. Willie didn’t even notice. He was too busy chasing his brother.

A common para-
The displays at the farmers’ market do not lack for variety. You will see every almost every kind of fresh, locally
graph format is to
General-to- grown food you can imagine. The featured fruits on a given day might be as varied as pomegranates, persim-
present a general
specific mons, guava, jackfruit, and citron. Vegetables might include shiitake mushrooms, artichokes, avocados, and gar-
idea and then give
lic. Some vendors also sell crafts, preserves, seeds, and other supplies suitable for starting your own garden.
examples.

The reverse of the

above format is to Your sense of smell is awakened by eighteen varieties of fresh roma tomatoes. Your mouth waters at the
Specific-to- give some exam- prospect of sampling the fresh breads. Your eye catches a glimpse of the colors of handmade, embroidered
general ples and then sum- bags. You linger to touch a perfectly ripe peach. Your ears catch the strain of an impromptu jug band. A walk up
marize them with a and down the aisles of your local farmers’ market will engage all of your senses.
general idea.

A paragraph using
spatial organiza-
tion presents
details as you
would naturally
From top to bottom, the spice booth at our farmers’ market is amazing. Up high vendors display artwork
encounter them,
painstakingly made with spices. At eye level, you see at least ten different fresh spices in small baggies. On the
such as from top
Spatial tabletop is located an assortment of tasting bowls with choices ranging from desserts to drinks to salads. Below
to bottom or from
the table, but out of the way of customers, are large bags of the different spices. Besides being a great use of
the inside to the
space, the spice booth looks both professional and charming.
outside. In other
words, details are
presented based
on their physical
location.

5. HOW TO WRITE A ROUGH DRAFT.

Make the Writing Process Work for You! What makes the writing process beneficial to writers is that it
encourages alternatives to standard practices and motivates you to develop your best ideas. For instance,
the following approaches, done alone or in combination with others, may improve your writing and help
you move forward in the writing process:

• Begin writing with the part you know the most about. The purpose of a first draft is to get ideas
down on paper that can then be revised. Consider beginning with the body paragraphs and draft-
ing the introduction and conclusion later. You can start with the third point in your outline if ideas
come easily to mind, or you can start with the first or second point Although paragraphs may
vary in length, keep in mind that short paragraphs may contain insufficient support. Readers may
also think the writing is abrupt. Long paragraphs may be wordy and may lose your reader’s inter-
est. As a guideline, try to write paragraphs longer than one sentence but shorter than the length of
an entire double-spaced page.
THE WRITING PROCESS 119

• Write one supporting point at a time and then stop. As long as you complete the assignment on
time, you may choose how many paragraphs you complete in one sitting. Pace yourself. On the
other hand, try not to procrastinate. Writers should always meet their deadlines.

• Take short breaks to refresh your mind. This tip might be most useful if you are writing a multi-
page report or essay. Still, if you are antsy or cannot concentrate, take a break to let your mind
rest, but do not let breaks extend too long. If you spend too much time away from your essay, you
may have trouble starting again. You may forget key points or lose momentum. Try setting an
alarm to limit your break, and when the time is up, return to your desk to write.

• Be reasonable with your goals. If you decide to take ten-minute breaks, try to stick to that goal. If
you told yourself that you need more facts, then commit to finding them. Holding yourself to your
own goals will create successful writing assignments.

• Keep your audience and purpose in mind as you write. These aspects of writing are just as impor-
tant when you are writing a single paragraph for your essay as when you are considering the
direction of the entire essay.

• Of all of these considerations, keeping your purpose and your audience at the front of your mind
is key to writing success. If your purpose is to persuade, for example, you will present your facts
and details in the most logical and convincing way you can for the particular audience you have in
mind. If your audience dwells on logic, for example, points that use reason, facts, documented
information, and the like, will provide the persuasion to which those readers best respond. Some
writers find it useful to keep the purpose and audience at the top of every page, highlighted in
some way, as a reminder of the targets of each point.

• Your purpose will guide your mind as you compose your sentences. Your audience will guide word
choice. Are you writing for experts, for a general audience, for other college students, or for peo-
ple who know very little about your topic? Keep asking yourself what your readers, with their back-
ground and experience, need to know to understand your ideas. How can you best express your
ideas, so they are meaningful and memorable and your communication is effective?

• Write knowing that the revision and editing processes lie ahead, so leave plenty of time for those
stages.
120 LET'S GET WRITING!

Tip

You may want to identify your purpose and audience on an index card that you clip to your paper (or keep next to your
computer). On that card, you may want to write notes to yourself—perhaps about what that audience might not know
or what it needs to know—so that you will be sure to address those issues when you write. It may be a good idea to
state exactly what you want to explain to that audience, or the subject about which you want to inform them or per-
suade them.

Writing at Work

Many of the documents you produce at work target a particular audience for a particular purpose. You may find
that it is highly advantageous to know as much as you can about your target audience and to prepare your mes-
sage to reach that audience, even if the audience is a coworker or your boss. Menu language is a common example.
Descriptions like “organic romaine” and “free-range chicken” are intended to appeal to a certain type of customer
though perhaps not to the same customer who craves a thick steak. Similarly, mail-order companies research the
demographics of the people who buy their merchandise. Successful vendors customize product descriptions in cat-
alogs to appeal to their buyers’ tastes. For example, the product descriptions in a skateboarder catalog will differ
from the descriptions in a clothing catalog for mature adults.

Tips to Avoid Writer’s Block

Set up scheduled times to write and set deadlines to accomplish different parts of your essay, and avoid perfection-
ism–that comes later in the writing process.

Maintaining Internal Integrity of Paragraphs

A paragraph needs to provide links between the ideas, and here are techniques that you can put into prac-
tice.
THE WRITING PROCESS 121

Pattern Explanation Example

Paragraphs with unity flow well

so that readers can follow Not all the booths at a farmers’ market feature food. One couple has a booth that sells only fresh
along easily. You need to pre- flowers. They display some flowers in antique containers and sell the flowers, the containers, or both.
sent an idea and then link the A clothesline above our heads displays a variety of dried flowers. A table holds about fifty vases of
Linkages rest of the ideas in the para- varying sizes, and they are all full of flowers. Some vases hold only one kind of long-stem flowers. Oth-
graph together. Do not leave ers hold mixtures of uncut flowers. Still, others display gorgeous arrangements. Both the man and the
any unifying for your readers woman wear a wreath of flowers on their heads. The whole display is so attractive and smells so fabu-
to do mentally. Do it all for lous that it really draws people.
them.

The history of this farmers’ market followed a typical pattern. It started out in the 1970s as a co-op of
Parallelism means that you
local farmers, featuring a small city block of modest tables and temporary displays every Saturday
maintain the same general
morning from April to October from 9 a.m. to 1 p.m. In the early 1990s, with the help of a grant from
wording and format for similar
the city, the market expanded its footprint to a larger, more centrally located city block with ample
situations throughout the
Parallelism parking. It benefited greatly from the installation of permanent booths, electrical outlets, and a ready
paragraph so that once read-
water supply. These amenities drew far more customers and merchants. Its popularity reached
ers figure out what is going on,
unprecedented levels by 2000, when the city offered to help with the staffing needed to keep it open
they can easily understand the
from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. on Saturdays and from noon to 5 p.m. on Sundays. Recently, discussions began
whole paragraph.
about how to open the market on weeknights in the summer from 5 p.m. to 8 p.m.

A paragraph with consistency

uses the same point of view
There comes a time each year when you must begin the all-important step of actually harvesting your
and the same verb tense
vegetable garden. You will want to pick some of your vegetables before they are fully ripe. Eggplants,
throughout. In other words, if
cucumbers, and squash fall into this category because they can further ripen once you have picked
you are using third person in
Consistency them. On the other hand, you will find that tomatoes, pumpkins, and most melons really need to
the beginning of the para-
ripen fully before you harvest them. You should also keep in mind that you would need plenty of stor-
graph, you use it throughout
age space for your bounty. If you have a good harvest, you might want to have a few friends in mind,
the paragraph. If you are using
especially as recipients for your squash and cucumbers.
present tense to start the para-
graph, you stick with it.

Using Transitions

Transitions within paragraphs are words that connect one sentence to another so that readers can follow
the intended meanings of sentences and relationships between sentences. Transitions may also smooth the
flow between body paragraphs. The following table shows some commonly used transition words:

Commonly Used Transition Words

To compare/con- after that, again, also, although, and then, but, despite, even though, finally, first/second/third/etc., however, in contrast, in the
trast same way, likewise, nevertheless, next, on the other hand, similarly, then

To signal cause
as a result, because, consequently, due to, hence, since, therefore, thus
and effect

To show after, as soon as, at that time, before, during, earlier, finally, immediately, in the meantime, later, meanwhile, now, presently,
sequence or time simultaneously, so far, soon, until, then, thereafter, when, while

To indicate place
above, adjacent to, below, beside, beyond, close, nearby, next to, north/south/east/west, opposite, to the left/right
or direction

To present exam-
for example, for instance, in fact, to illustrate, specifically
ples

To suggest rela-
and, also, besides, further, furthermore, in addition, moreover, too
tionships

What Point of View Should Be Used in Academic Writing?

122 LET'S GET WRITING!

The dominant perspective in argument writing should be third person (he, she, it, and they). What do you
gain by using third person?

• Third person puts the topic and argument at the center, where they should be.

• Third person implies a critical distance between the writer and the argument, which can reassure
readers who might disagree with your perspective that you are not being overly swayed by emo-
tional attachment, i.e., that you can be objective.

Figure 4.5 Point of View

THE WRITING PROCESS 123

What this means is that writers should minimize the first person (I, me, we, us). The use of I in writing is
often a topic of debate, and the acceptance of its usage varies from instructor to instructor. Some instruc-
tors demand all removal of first person from argument writing, but other instructors do not mind it. (This
is changing fast, though. Many academic journals now encourage first-person writing because it is more
active, immediate, and interesting to read. The deciding factor is to follow the instructions of your instruc-
tor.) While you may feel more comfortable using first person because you still think of an argument as the
same as an opinion, be aware that using first person in argument writing comes with damaging effects:

• Using I shifts the focus from the topic and argument to the one making the argument. You are not
the focus of the essay; your argument and its support are. The insertion of I into a sentence alters
not only the way a sentence might sound but also the composition of the sentence itself. I is often
the subject of a sentence. If the subject of the essay is supposed to be, for example, smoking, then
by inserting yourself into the sentence, you are effectively displacing the subject of the essay into a
secondary position. Note the difference in these two sentences:

Smoking is bad.

I think smoking is bad.

In the first sentence, the rightful subject, smoking, is in the subject position in the sentence. In the sec-
ond sentence, the insertion of I and think replaces smoking as the subject, which draws attention to I
and away from the topic that is supposed to be discussed. Remember to keep the message (the sub-
ject) and the messenger (the writer) separate.

• Too many I-statements make your argument sound weak. Excessive repetition of “I think” or “I
feel” or “I believe” will eventually make it look like you are overemphasizing your beliefs because
you don’t have enough confidence in them. Perception is important. You may actually be incredi-
bly confident in your argument, logic, and evidence, but your overuse of I-statements will under-
mine that.

• Too many I-statements make your argument sound biased. Too much use of I will make your
readers think you cannot be objective, and they may doubt your support because they think you
are too personally attached to the argument to reasonably and objectively weigh data and
logic—even if you are doing that throughout the essay.

• I-statements make your sentences wordier. Good academic writing is shark-like, and when declar-
ing arguments and supporting points, you especially want to cut through the noise and confusion
with strong, straightforward, economic writing. Refer again to the two sentences above. The first
is boldly declarative (Smoking is bad. Boom!). The second is wordier, which drains energy and
punch from the claim.

Writers may use the first person POV in personal, reflective or narrative writing. However, the second per-
son POV (using you) is usually avoided in any form of academic writing.
124 LET'S GET WRITING!

TIP

Consider adopting this rule of thumb: check with your professors for their preference, but even if they allow first person,
use it sparingly.

6. WHAT IS REVISING?

Once a rough draft is created, take some time to step away from the essay to get a newer and better per-
spective. Then begin revising. Revising means reexamining and rethinking the first draft, adding and delet-
ing ideas extensively; rearranging any of the ideas, sentences, or paragraphs in the first draft; rewriting
sentences and paragraphs for more variety, better flow, and more precise word choices. Often times, you
may have three or four drafts before you are finally satisfied with a final draft. For easier revision, follow
the following tips:

• Take time between the first draft and the later revisions to approach it more objectively.

• Revise on hard copy rather than on the computer screen. Do not delete any drafts! Do label each
successive one. Allow yourself and others to annotate (comment on and give suggestions to
improve) your draft.

• Read the draft aloud. Better yet, have someone else read it aloud.

• Take advantage of opportunities to get feedback; however, do not become overwhelmed by feed-
back.

• Do not allow ego to get in the way of a successful paper.

• Revise in stages–

1. Revise for overall meaning and structure. Does the essay develop a central point clearly
and logically and are the purpose, tone, and point-of-view suited for the audience of the
essay?
2. Revise for paragraph development. Check that your paragraphs are logically ordered, uni-
THE WRITING PROCESS 125

fied, and specific.

3. Revise sentence structure. Make your sentences consistent with your overall tone, varied
in type and length, emphatic, and economical.

• Finally, revise for word choices. Aim for an appropriate level of diction, word choices that do not
overstate or understate, specific rather than general terms, strong verbs, only necessary modi-
fiers, and original and nonsexist language.

• When you get your essays back, read the essay and heed your instructor’s comments. They can
help improve your future essays. If you do not understand your grade or the instructor’s com-
ments, schedule a conference to discuss them with her. As you revise your future essays, revisit
the mistakes made before and be sure you avoid repeating them.

7. WHAT IS DONE DURING EDITING & PROOFREADING & FORMATTING?

• To edit, search for grammatical errors, check punctuation, check spelling, and look over sentence
style and word choices one last time. See chapters 8, 9, and 10 for additional help.

• To proofread, look for surface errors, such as typos, incorrect spacing, or formatting problems.

• To format, be sure that you are following the formatting style your instructor requires whether it
is Modern Language Association (MLA), American Psychological Association (APA), etc. For more
information, see the Brown Library Citation Styles Guide (http://infoguides.virginiawestern.edu/
citations).

• Overall, look carefully for any error, large or small, that may weaken the essay’s message or under-
mine its credibility.

8. WHAT ARE OTHER TYPES OF ACADEMIC WRITING?

There are many different types of writing that you will be asked to create during your academic and pro-
fessional careers. Always be clear what your boss or professor expects in an assignment before you begin
writing. Below is just a sample of the various assignments you may be given:

Personal/reflective writing assignment–personal expression about an experience, event, situation, or

information.
126 LET'S GET WRITING!

Expository writing assignment–writing that explains, describes, or informs.

Case study–a written report about a situation, group, or person that one has studied.

Review–summarizing as well as analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of a piece of writing, a show, or an
event.

Technical report–clear, detailed report of the procedures undertaken and the results obtained during a sci-
entific or technical procedure.

Lab report–writing that details the steps taken and the results of a scientific experiment.

Book report–writing that summarizes the contents of a book as well as some commentary concerning the
writer’s opinion of the book.

Critical analysis/critique–writing an informed review and an analysis of the significance of a piece of writ-
ing or an event.

Bibliography–writing a full list of all resources consulted during a research project.

Annotated bibliography–writing not only a list of all resources consulted for a research project, but also
including a summary and analysis of each resource.

Literature review–writing that focuses on a specific research topic and the critical aspects of the literature
consulted during the research process.

Research paper–the final product following an extended period of research, critical thinking, and com-
position that encompasses the writer’s own ideas supported by a combination of primary and secondary
sources.

E-mail–writing in electronic mail

Web writing–writing web content, which needs to be direct, concise, and credible.

Oral presentation of written report–developing an effective summary of a project to be delivered in front

of an audience; may include visual aids.

Midterm/final exam essay–exams often include short essay questions that need to be written in a short
amount of time.

Resume & other ‘business’ writing–writing that must communicate pertinent information in a concise,
easy-to-read format.

Key Takeaways

• All writers rely on steps and strategies to begin the writing process.

• The steps in the writing process are prewriting, drafting, revising, editing/proofreading, and publishing.

• Prewriting is the transfer of ideas from abstract thoughts into words, phrases, and sentences on paper.

• A good topic interests the writer, appeals to the audience, and fits the purpose of the assignment. Writ-
ers often choose a general topic first and then narrow the focus to a more specific topic.
THE WRITING PROCESS 127

• A strong thesis statement is key to having a focused and unified essay.

• Rough drafts are opportunities to get ideas down onto paper to get a first look at how your ideas will
work together.

• Revising improves your writing as far as supporting ideas, organization, sentence flow, and word choices.

• Editing spots and corrects any errors in grammar, mechanics, spelling, and formatting.

• Regardless of the type of assignment you may be given in college or in work, it benefits you to follow a
writing process, to put in the work necessary to understand your subject and audience, and to communi-
cate your ideas confidently and coherently.

CC Licensed Content, Shared Previously

English Composition I, Lumen Learning, CC-BY 4.0.

Rhetoric and Composition, John Barrett, et al., CC-BY-SA 3.0.

Writing for Success, CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0.

Image Credits

Figure 4.1 “The Writing Proces,” Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0, .

Figure 4.2 “Clustering,” Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0.

Figure 4.3 “Traditional Formal Outline,” Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0.

Figure 4.4 “The Essay Structure,” Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0.

Figure 4.5 “Point of View,” Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0.

Let's Get Writing! by Kathy Boylan is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International
License, except where otherwise noted.
CHAPTER 5

Chapter 5 - Rhetorical Modes

JENIFER KURTZ

The term rhetorical modes refers to the different styles and techniques we use when we write. This chapter
will discuss different modes, explaining the specific aspects and techniques involved in these methods of
communication. As you read about these, remember that the rhetorical mode a writer chooses depends
on his/her purpose for writing. Some assignments ask students to use a specific rhetorical mode, such as
writing a descriptive passage or contrasting two concepts, but most essays incorporate several different
rhetorical modes to express an idea. Overall, the rhetorical modes are a set of tools that allow you different
methods to effectively communicate information to your audience.

Figure 5.1 Choosing Paragraph Patterns

128
RHETORICAL MODES 129

1. Narrative

2. Description

3. Process analysis

4. Illustration and exemplification

5. Cause and effect

6. Comparison and contrast

7. Definition

8. Classification

1. NARRATIVE

The purpose of narrative writing is to tell stories. This is a form we are familiar with, as any time we tell a
story about an event or incident in our day, we are engaging in a form of narration. In terms of writing, nar-
ration is the act of describing a sequence of events. Sometimes this is the primary mode of an essay—writ-
ing a narrative essay about a particular event or experience, and sometimes this is a component used within
an essay, much like other evidence is offered, to support a thesis. This chapter will discuss the basic compo-
nents of narration, which can be applied either as a stand-alone essay or as a component within an essay.

Ultimately, narrative writing tries to relay a series of events in an emotionally engaging way. You want your
audience to be moved by your story, which could mean through laughter, sympathy, fear, anger, and so on.
The more clearly you tell your story, the more emotionally engaged your audience is likely to be.

The Structure of a Narrative Essay

Chronological order, the order in which events unfold from first to last, is the most common organizational
structure for narratives. Stories typically have a beginning, a middle, and an end. Certain transitional words
and phrases aid in keeping the reader oriented in the sequencing of a story. Some of these phrases are
listed below.

Figure 5.2 Transition Words and Phrases for Expressing Time

130 LET'S GET WRITING!

The following are the other basic components of a narrative:

• Plot. The events as they unfold in sequence.

• Characters. The people who inhabit the story and move it forward. Typically, each narrative has there are
minor characters and main characters. The minor characters generally play supporting roles to the main
character, or the protagonist.

• Conflict. The primary problem or obstacle that unfolds in the plot, which the protagonist must solve or
overcome by the end of the narrative. The way in which the protagonist resolves the conflict of the plot
results in the theme of the narrative.

• Theme. The ultimate message the narrative is trying to express; it can be either explicit or implicit.

Writing at Work

When interviewing candidates for jobs, employers often ask about conflicts or problems a potential employee had
to overcome. They are asking for a compelling personal narrative. To prepare for this question in a job interview,
write out a scenario using the narrative moved structure. This will allow you to troubleshoot rough spots as well as
better understand your own personal history. Both processes will make your story better and your self-presenta-
tion better, too.
RHETORICAL MODES 131

Narrative Anecdotes

An anecdote is a short, personal narrative about something specific. It is often used as a component in an
essay, acting as evidence to support your thesis, as an example to demonstrate your point, and/or as a way
to establish your credibility. It always has a point in telling it.

Elements of an Anecdote

1. Who, Where, When

Have you ever wondered why children’s stories begin something like this?

Once upon a time, in a galaxy far, far away, the teachers were revolting …

It is the start of a simple narrative. It also contains all the elements of a beginning to any narrative: when,
where, and who. An anecdote, because it is short, will begin similarly:

One day, while I was sitting at a stop sign waiting for the light to change…

This little particle of an anecdote tells when, who, and where before the first sentence even ends.

Note: An anecdote sets up a particular incident; it does not tell about a long period of time.

2. What Happened (Sequence of Events)

Any narrative also includes a sequence of events. You should be able to read an anecdote and tell what hap-
pens first, what happens next, and so on. In the following anecdote, the bolded words suggest each event
in the sequence.

Example Anecdote:

My first day of college I parked in the “South Forty,” which is what everyone called the huge parking lot on the edge of
the campus. It was seven forty-five in the morning, hazy and cool. I walked across the parking lot, crossed a busy street,
walked over a creek, through a “faculty” parking lot, crossed another street, and came to the first row of campus build-
ings. I walked between buildings, past the library and the student mall. I passed many quiet, nervous-looking students
along the way. Many of them smiled at me. One trio of young girls was even chuckling softly among themselves when
they all smiled and said “Hi” to me at once. By the time I got to my classroom, far on the other side of campus from the
parking lot, I was smiling and boldly saying “Hi” to everyone, too, particularly the girls. Every single one of them smiled
or responded with a “Hi” or made a friendly comment or even chuckled happily. It was my first day of college.

When I found the building I was looking for, a friend from high school appeared. She was in my first class! I smiled at her
and said, “Hi!” She looked at me. She smiled. Then she laughed. She said, “Why are you wearing a sock on your shirt?” I
looked down. A sock had come out of the dryer clinging to my shirt.

3. Implied Point
132 LET'S GET WRITING!

Most of us want to make sure that we “get the point across” to whatever story we are telling, assuming it has
a point. To do this, we tend to explain what we are telling. It is sometimes very difficult to stop. However,
stopping in a timely way allows the reader to draw his or her own conclusions.

Show, don’t tell

In the anecdote above, I am very tempted to tell the reader what I felt at the moment I realized that everyone
was laughing AT me rather than just being friendly. For the ending, where the point is in this case, it is best to
let the reader infer (draw conclusions, fill in the blanks) what happens implicitly rather than to state explicitly
what the point is, or what the narrator felt, or anything else.

Tip

The more indirect you are about your object or place the better. In the anecdote above, it might be obvious that my
object is a sock or my place is a parking lot. The point is, it is not an anecdote “about” a sock; it is referred to indirectly.

How do we show rather than tell? First, describe what you see (I don’t really see anything with “I was SO
embarrassed…”) or what you smell, hear, or taste, but NOT what you feel. An easy way to check whether you
are showing or telling is to go through your anecdote and underline the verbs. If the verbs are “be”-verbs
(is, was, were, etc.) or verbs that describe actions we cannot see (“I thought…” “I believed…” “I imagined…” “it
made me upset…” and so on) then you are probably telling. In the sentence above I used “walked,” “lectur-
ing,” “ripped,” and “said.”

Most Common Question:

“What makes stories or anecdotes interesting and something I can relate to?”

Actually, it is a simple principle, even though it may not be obvious. We “relate” or “connect” most easily to
situations we recognize and so fill in the blanks. If you “tell” me, for example, “I was SO embarrassed …” then
you have not let me fill in MY embarrassment. On the other hand, if you “show” me a scene, it allows me to
fit my own experience into it:

“I walked past the corner of the aluminum whiteboard tray while lecturing to a class. It ripped my pants.
After a moment I said, ‘Class dismissed.’”

The writer of those statements, hopes the reader will fill in some similarly embarrassing moment without
the writer clearly stating that this is what is supposed to be done. The connection, the act of “filling in,” is
what people tend to refer to as “relating to.”

Interestingly, it does not even matter whether or not readers fill in what the writer intend for them to fill in; it
is the act of filling in our own experiences that makes us “relate” to an incident. From a writer’s perspective,
that means we should show rather than tell.
RHETORICAL MODES 133

Second, resist the temptation to “explain.” Let the reader fill in the blanks! It is so much more personal when
the reader participates by filling in.

Assignment 1

Write an anecdote that contains who, where, when, and what happens (a sequence of events). Think about an anec-
dote that involves, alludes to, or otherwise includes your object or place; it does not have to be “about” your
place. It also does not have to be “true” in the strict sense of the word; we will not be able to verify any believable
details if they add to the effect of the anecdote. Type it out. Keep it simple and to the point.

Clichés

What are ‘clichés’ and why can’t we use them?

Clichés are figurative phrases and expressions that you have probably heard a million times. For our pur-
poses, there are two kinds of clichés: the ones that jump out at you and the ones that we use without think-
ing.

If you are paying attention, you will notice that the two sentences above contain at least 3 clichés. You might
also notice that clichés are best suited to spoken language, because they are readily available and some-
times when we speak, we don’t have time to replace a common expression with a unique one. However, we
DO have time to replace clichés while we are writing.

The problem with clichés in writing is that they are too general when we should be much more specific. They
also tend to tell rather than show. In the first sentence above, we have most likely heard the phrase, “have
probably heard a million times.” In speech, that expression works. In writing, it should be literal rather than
figurative. The first sentence is better this way:

Clichés are figurative phrases and expressions that we have heard so many times that we all share
some understanding of what they mean.

Not exactly what you thought when you read it at the beginning of this answer, is it? That is why being literal
and specific in writing is better than figurative and vague as a rule.

Here is a re-write of the second sentence at the start of this answer:

For our purposes, there are two kinds of clichés: the ones that are obvious expressions (like “You can
lead a horse to water …”) and the ones that are not part of expressions but seem to “go” easily into a
group of words (like “we use without thinking”).

The second type is more difficult to identify and eradicate. Usually it is a group of words we have heard
before that doesn’t add anything to a statement. For example, instead of “We watched the donuts roll down
the street every night,” you might be tempted to add to it this way: “We watched the donuts roll down the
street each and every night.” Avoid clichés in your writing.

To see more see more commonly used clichés and for guidance on how to rewrite them, see this hand-
134 LET'S GET WRITING!

out (https://writingcenter.unc.edu/cliches/) from The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, Writing Cen-
ter.

Some Other Rhetorical Tips

• To create strong details, keep the human senses in mind. You want your reader to be immersed in the world
that you create, so focus on details related to sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch as you describe people,
places, and events in your narrative.

• Create tension by making the reader nervous about what is going to happen through sentence structure,
tone, and voice.

• Add dialogue to show the immediacy and drama of the personal interactions (re-creating conversations as
necessary to make your narrative work).

• Name specific objects to re-create the scene by selecting details that leave the readers with a dominant
impression of how things were.

• Show people in action by describing precise movements and dialogue to convey the action of the scene.

External Links:

“Sixty-nine Cents” (https://tinyurl.com/ybjasq9c) by Gary Shteyngart: In “Sixty-nine Cents,” author Gary

Shteyngart describes a coming-of-age experience as a first-generation Russian-Jewish immigrant in modern
America.

Sherman Alexie grew up on the Spokane Reservation in Washington State. He chronicles his challenges in
school, starting in first grade, in Indian Education (https://tinyurl.com/hlshngr).

Sandra Cisneros offers an example of a narrative essay in “Only Daughter” (https://tinyurl.com/yc4srod7)

that captures her sense of her Chicana-Mexican heritage as the only daughter in a family of seven children.
The essay is also available here (https://tinyurl.com/y7hzxhz6).

Annie Dilliard offers an example of a narrative essay in an excerpt, often entitled “The Chase”
RHETORICAL MODES 135

(https://tinyurl.com/ycsen7r4) from her autobiography An American Childhood, outlining a specific memo-

rable event from her childhood. This essay is also available here (https://tinyurl.com/y7udsl88).

Student Sample Essay

My College Education

The first class I went to in college was philosophy, and it changed my life forever. Our first assignment was to write
a short response paper to the Albert Camus essay “The Myth of Sisyphus.” I was extremely nervous about the assign-
ment as well as college. However, through all the confusion in philosophy class, many of my questions about life were
answered.

I entered college intending to earn a degree in engineering. I always liked the way mathematics had right and wrong
answers. I understood the logic and was very good at it. So when I received my first philosophy assignment that asked
me to write my interpretation of the Camus essay, I was instantly confused. What is the right way to do this assignment,
I wondered? I was nervous about writing an incorrect interpretation and did not want to get my first assignment wrong.
Even more troubling was that the professor refused to give us any guidelines on what he was looking for; he gave us
total freedom. He simply said, “I want to see what you come up with.”

Full of anxiety, I first set out to read Camus’s essay several times to make sure I really knew what was it was about. I did
my best to take careful notes. Yet even after I took all these notes and knew the essay inside and out, I still did not know
the right answer. What was my interpretation? I could think of a million different ways to interpret the essay, but which
one was my professor looking for? In math class, I was used to examples and explanations of solutions. This assignment
gave me nothing; I was completely on my own to come up with my individual interpretation.

Next, when I sat down to write, the words just did not come to me. My notes and ideas were all present, but the words
were lost. I decided to try every prewriting strategy I could find. I brainstormed, made idea maps, and even wrote an
outline. Eventually, after a lot of stress, my ideas became more organized and the words fell on the page. I had my inter-
pretation of “The Myth of Sisyphus,” and I had my main reasons for interpreting the essay. I remember being unsure of
myself, wondering if what I was saying made sense, or if I was even on the right track. Through all the uncertainty, I con-
tinued writing the best I could. I finished the conclusion paragraph, had my spouse proofread it for errors, and turned
it in the next day simply hoping for the best.

Then, a week or two later, came judgment day. The professor gave our papers back to us with grades and comments.
I remember feeling simultaneously afraid and eager to get the paper back in my hands. It turned out, however, that I
had nothing to worry about. The professor gave me an A on the paper, and his notes suggested that I wrote an effective
essay overall. He wrote that my reading of the essay was very original and that my thoughts were well organized. My
relief and newfound confidence upon reading his comments could not be overstated.

What I learned through this process extended well beyond how to write a college paper. I learned to be open to new
challenges. I never expected to enjoy a philosophy class and always expected to be a math and science person. This
class and assignment, however, gave me the self-confidence, critical-thinking skills, and courage to try a new career
path. I left engineering and went on to study law and eventually became a lawyer. More important, that class and paper
136 LET'S GET WRITING!

helped me understand education differently. Instead of seeing college as a direct stepping stone to a career, I learned
to see college as a place to first learn and then seek a career or enhance an existing career. By giving me the space to
express my own interpretation and to argue for my own values, my philosophy class taught me the importance of edu-
cation for education’s sake. That realization continues to pay dividends every day.

2. DESCRIPTION

Description is the tool writers use to make things come alive for their readers, to make sure that their audi-
ence is fully immersed in the words on the page. Every time you tell a story to someone, or tell someone
about something, you use description even if you don’t know it. Description can be as basic as, “I have a blue
car” or “That is such a cute baby” or as detailed as “The flowers soak up the golden sun’s rays and begin to show
their vibrant colors.” Descriptive words are used to provide more information and provide added insight. In
fact, description is the one tool that most allows writers (and speakers) to show instead of just tell, which
enables us to exemplify our points to our readers.

There are two basic types of description, objective and subjective. Objective description is demonstrated
in the first two examples above; it gives a factual account of the subject. Subjective description offers a
more personal view of the details by choosing specific words and phrases such as vibrant to describe colors
in the above example. Vibrant doesn’t just offer detail about the colors, it also offers an opinion or a value
judgment within the description. Most descriptions offer a mix of the two to convey the details while also
offering the audience an idea of the emotional context of the subject being described.

Sensory Details

All expressive description, however, uses sensory details as its

basis. These are details that appeal to the five senses
senses—sight, smell,
sound, taste, and touch. Of course, different subjects lead them-
selves to an emphasis on different sensory details and not all sub-
jects require a use of all five senses. We all recognize the
importance of sight as a descriptive tool, but we don’t always real-
ize how important other sensory details can also be. Consider,
though, how often you will smell a certain smell and instantly think
of something or someone specific. You might smell freshly baked
bread and think of your grandma’s kitchen, or popcorn and think
of a movie theater. Hearing a certain phrase might make you think
of an old friend or acquaintance. You might associate a certain
type of material with a blanket you had as a child. When you take a
Figure 5.3 The Five Senses
bite of pepperoni pizza you might be reminded of the slumber par-
ties of your youth. Sensory details really can play an important
part in making a description come alive.
RHETORICAL MODES 137

Assignment 2

Choose an everyday object. Write a description of that object that appeals to all five senses in a way that does not
state the object.

Exercise 1

On a separate sheet of paper, describe the following five items in a short paragraph. Use at least three of the five
senses for each description.

1. Night

2. Beach

3. City

4. Dinner

5. Stranger

Using Concrete Description

Try to use specific, concrete descriptions. For example, a writer may write beautiful to describe a tree. How-
ever, beautiful is too vague. Instead, a concrete adjective or modifier would be stronger and gives greater
impact. The reader needs details for a picture to form in their heads, abstract concepts like beautiful lack a
real-world analog.

Here’s a reworked description of the tree: “the sun’s rays glistened off the rain-slick leaves, even as the after-
noon sky dipped towards evening.” The beautiful qualities of the tree are “shown” through concrete details
instead of merely told through abstraction. This gives the reader the illusion of immediate experience, as
opposed to the dictionary variety.

Similes and Metaphors

Another way to add descriptive language is to use similes and metaphors, creating a picture in readers’
heads by comparing two objects to each other. Similes and metaphors help to make connections between
two ideas, concepts, or objects that clarify or give new meaning.

A simile is a comparison using the words like or as. It usually compares two dissimilar objects. For example,
the bread was as dry as a bone. The comparison links a piece of bread that has become hard and white to a
bone that is also hard and white. Bones often dry out, and so does bread. These similar characteristics are
what make the simile effective.

A metaphor states that one thing is something else. It is a comparison, but it does NOT use like or as to
138 LET'S GET WRITING!

make the comparison. For example, my grandmother is an open book. The comparison implies that the my
grandmother is full of information that she willingly shares with others.

To make a simile or metaphor, identify an object like a sunset, tree, or river, or a concept like love, peace,
or anger. Then think of another object that has some similar traits. Decide whether the words “like” or “as”
will help make the connection more understandable. A good simile or metaphor will make the reader look
at both objects in a new perspective.

By adding similes and metaphors to a description paper, the writer can appeal to the readers’ imagination
and make the writing more interesting to read. Similes and metaphors add spark to descriptions. However,
many cliches come in the form of similes and metaphors, so strive to create comparisons that are specific
to your particular subject.

The Structure of a Description Essay

Description essays typically describe a person, a place, or an object using sensory details. The structure
of a descriptive essay is more flexible than in some of the other rhetorical modes. The introduction of a
description essay should set the tone and the point of the essay. The thesis should convey the writer’s over-
all impression of the person, place, or object described in the body paragraphs.

The organization of the essay may best follow spatial order, an arrangement of ideas according to physical
characteristics or appearance. Depending on what the writer describes, the organization could move from
top to bottom, left to right, near to far, warm to cold, frightening to inviting, and so on.

For example, if the subject were a client’s kitchen in the midst of renovation, you might start at one side
of the room and move slowly across to the other end, describing appliances, cabinetry, and so on. Or, you
might choose to start with older remnants of the kitchen and progress to the new installations. Maybe start
with the floor and move up toward the ceiling.

Exercise 2

On a separate sheet of paper, choose an organizing strategy and then execute it in a short paragraph for three of
the following six items:

1. Bus stop

2. Your office

3. Your car

4. A coffee shop

5. Lobby of a movie theater

6. Mystery Option. Choose an object to describe but do not indicate it. Describe it so that you preserve the
mystery.

Writing a Description

In order to write descriptively, you must take a topic and decide how to make that topic vivid for your audi-
ence. If the topic of the piece is merely to describe a particular place, you must decide what elements of
RHETORICAL MODES 139

that place, when described in text, will become most vivid for your audience. The first step in any descriptive
writing is to choose a topic and begin to work out a thesis statement. You may choose to describe a partic-
ular place.

Thesis

Sample Thesis Statement

Although Minnesota may seem drab and cold to outsiders, natives of the state find it a wonderful place to live.

We can see in this thesis statement that the writer will attempt to show the aspects of Minnesota that make
it a great place to live. After detailing a thesis statement, you should come up with a list of sensory words
that provide vivid detail and support the thesis. You may start by thinking about the five senses. How does
your particular place look, smell, feel, taste, and sound like? How can you best describe these senses so the
reader feels what you feel? By organizing the elements of descriptive language into easier to handle sec-
tions, like the five senses, you are able to more specifically engage in what elements of the description are
most useful.

Order of Presentation

The writer in this case could choose to present the positive aspects of Minnesota in terms of the seasons
and weather changes. The details could be presented linearly, starting with spring and going through the
winter, highlighting the aspects of each season that most closely support the thesis, that Minnesota is a
great place to live.

Prior to starting the essay, give some thought to the audience of your piece. Who is going to read the essay,
and what effect would you like it to have upon the readers? An awareness of audience is important in choos-
ing the level of formality you take with your writing. Knowing your audience will also help you distinguish
which details to include throughout your essay. Assume that your audience knows very little or nothing
about your subject matter, and include details that may seem obvious to you.

Audience

Example Audience: In this particular essay, the writer wants to show an outsider to the state why Minnesota
natives are so happy to live there. The essay should help break down stereotypes for those outsiders about
Minnesota’s cold weather and apparent drabness. Because the essay is designed for those who do not live
in Minnesota, and maybe have never been there, it is important to include details about the state that may
seem obvious to a native.

With the preparatory work complete, it is time now to begin writing your essay. Use your thesis statement
to begin to construct an introductory paragraph. The introduction should set up the basis for your essay,
and the thesis statement should state its purpose.
140 LET'S GET WRITING!

Introduction

Example Introduction

Many who have not traveled to the state of Minnesota only hear of its cold weather and boring reputation. They are
sure missing out on the great opportunities that Minnesota affords. Each season offers different senses that native Min-
nesotans and tourists know and love. Although Minnesota may seem drab and cold to outsiders, natives of the state
find it a wonderful place to live.

With the introduction complete, it is time to start constructing the body paragraphs of your essay. Each
body paragraph should have a central theme in itself, and that theme should be represented in a topic sen-
tence. Consequently, each sentence of the paragraph should relate to and support the topic sentence. The
body paragraphs are where the majority of the details should be given. When writing the first draft of your
descriptive essay, include as many details as is reasonably possible. You can always eliminate the ones that
do not serve the essay as well when you are revising your draft. In the case of the Minnesota nature essay,
we have decided to set up the body paragraphs in terms of season, starting with spring.

Body

Example Body Paragraph

Spring in Minnesota brings new life to the state after the long winter season. The rain washes the landscape clean, leav-
ing its fresh aroma for all to enjoy. The flowers soak up the golden sun’s rays and begin to show their vibrant colors.
The first birds can be seen and heard throughout the woods and fields, telling their stories in beautiful songs. The lakes
begin to show their glossy finish as the ice melts away slowly under the heat of the season.

With the body paragraphs complete, it is time to bring the essay to a close with the conclusion. The con-
clusion should draw a conclusion based on what has been presented throughout the body of the essay. It
needs to return to the thesis, but not in an overt way. The conclusion should give the reader a final sense of
what the essay was meant to portray. Remember that there should not be any new material introduced in
the conclusion, and the way it is worded should give the reader a sense of finality.

Conclusion
RHETORICAL MODES 141

Example Conclusion

The variety of activities and distinct seasons found in Minnesota reveal diverse beauty of this state. As one considers
the benefits of each season, it becomes clearer why so many native Minnesotans are content with their home state.
Minnesota is truly a wonderful place to live.

With the essay complete, it is time to reread and revise your essay (also see revision sections of this text-
book). Read your first draft and pinpoint all of the descriptor words you used. If possible, go back and add
more after the ones you already used in the essay. If you can, read your essay aloud to a friend and have
him/her tell you what images are vivid and what images need more development. Rework any images that
are cloudy with more descriptions. Also, check to see if your descriptions have made use of all of the five
senses: sound, smell, texture, sight, and taste. Repeat these steps as many times as necessary until you are
happy with your product.

Key Takeaways

• Description essays should describe something vividly to the reader using strong sensory details.

• Sensory details appeal to the five human senses: sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch.

• A description essay should start with the writer’s main impression of a person, a place, or an object.

External Links

Checklist of Things to Consider (https://tinyurl.com/y7zegezs) when writing a description.

Susan Berne visits New York and describes her impressions in Where Nothing Says Every-
thing ( https://tinyurl.com/yboc9m9s), also called Ground Zero. Another link to the story is here
(https://tinyurl.com/y99fchlw).

Heather Rogers provides a detailed description (book excerpt) of a landfill that challenges the reader to con-
sider his or her own consumption and waste in The Hidden Life of Garbage (https://tinyurl.com/y7sb348m).
142 LET'S GET WRITING!

Sample Descriptive Essay

America’s Pastime

As the sun hits my face and I breathe in the fresh air, I temporarily forget that I am at a sporting event. But, when I open
my eyes and look around, I am reminded of all things American. From the national anthem to the international players
on the field, all the sights and sounds of a baseball game come together like a slice of Americana pie.

First, the entrance turnstiles click and clank, and then a hallway of noise bombards me. All the fans’ voices coalesce in a
chorus of sound, rising to a humming clamor. The occasional, “Programs, get your programs, here!” jumps out through
the hum to get my attention. I navigate my way through the crowded walkways of the stadium, moving to the right of
some people, and to the left of others, I eventually find the section number where my seat is located. As I approach my
seat I hear the announcer’s voice echo around the ball park, “Attention fans. In honor of our country, please remove
your caps for the singing of the national anthem.” His deep voice echoes around each angle of the park, and every word
is heard again and again. The crowd sings and hums “The Star-Spangled Banner,” and I feel a surprising amount of
national pride through the voices. I take my seat as the umpire shouts, “Play ball!” and the game begins.

In the fifth inning of the game, I decide to find a concessions stand. Few tastes are as American as hot dogs and soda
pop, and they cannot be missed at a ball game. The smell of hot dogs carries through the park, down every aisle, and
inside every concourse. They are always as unhealthy as possible, dripping in grease, while the buns are soft and always
too small for the dog. The best way to wash down the Ball Park Frank is with a large soda pop, so I order both. Doing my
best to balance the cold pop in one hand and the wrapped-up dog in the other, I find the nearest condiments stand to
load up my hot dog. A dollop of bright green relish and chopped onions, along with two squirts of the ketchup and mus-
tard complete the dog. As I continue the balancing act between the loaded hot dog and pop back to my seat, a cheering
fan bumps into my pop hand. The pop splashes out of the cup and all over my shirt, leaving me drenched. I make direct
eye contact with the man who bumped into me. He looks me in the eye, looks at my shirt, and tells me how sorry he is.
I just shake my head and keep walking. “It’s all just part of the experience,” I tell myself.

Before I am able to get back to my seat, I hear the crack of a bat, followed by an uproar from the crowd. Everyone is
standing, clapping, and cheering. I missed a home run. I find my aisle and ask everyone to excuse me as I slip past them
to my seat. “Excuse me. Excuse me. Thank you. Thank you. Sorry,” is all I can say as I inch past each fan. Halfway to my
seat I can hear discarded peanut shells crunch beneath my feet, and each step is marked with a pronounced crunch.

When I finally get to my seat I realize it is the start of the seventh inning stretch. I quickly eat my hot dog and wash it
down with what is left of my soda pop. The organ starts playing and everyone begins to sing “Take Me Out to the Ball
Game.” While singing the song, putting my arms around friends and family with me, I watch all the players taking the
field. It is wonderful to see the overwhelming number of players on one team from around the world: Japan, the Domini-
can Republic, the United States, Canada, and Venezuela. I cannot help but feel a bit of national pride at this realization.
Seeing the international representation on the field reminds me of the ways that Americans, though from many differ-
ent backgrounds and places, still come together under common ideals. For these reasons and for the whole experience
in general, going to a Major League Baseball game is the perfect way to glimpse a slice of Americana.
RHETORICAL MODES 143

3. PROCESS ANALYSIS

The purpose of a process analysis essay is to explain how to do something or how something works. In
either case, the formula for a process analysis essay remains the same. The process is articulated into clear,
definitive steps.

Almost everything we do involves following a step-by-step process. From riding a bike as children to learning
various jobs as adults, we initially needed instructions to effectively execute the task. Likewise, we have likely
had to instruct others, so we know how important good directions are—and how frustrating it is when they
are poorly put together.

What is the difference between process instruction and process explanation?

Process instruction is direct instruction (such as how to change a tire), so direct address (2nd person)
can be used. It is okay to communicate to the audience because you imagine their purpose in reading the
instruction is to learn and follow said instruction. Process explanations are more like what we get in text-
books (the Krebs Cycle explained in a biology textbook, e.g.). They are more formal and involve third person
with the process itself at the heart. No more direct address or command language allowed, and paragraph
structure is the norm.

Writing at Work

The next time you have to explain a process to someone at work, be mindful of how clearly you articulate each
step. Strong communication skills are critical for workplace satisfaction and advancement. Effective process analy-
sis plays a critical role in developing that skill set.

Exercise 3

On a separate sheet of paper, make a bulleted list of all the steps that you feel would be required to clearly illustrate
three of the following four processes. Also, identify whether each of these are process instruction or process expla-
nation:

1.Tying a shoelace

2.Parallel parking

3.Planning a successful first date

4.Being an effective communicator

The Structure of a Process Analysis Essay

The process analysis essay opens with a discussion of the process and a thesis statement that states the
goal of the process.
144 LET'S GET WRITING!

The organization of a process analysis essay typically follows chronological order. The steps of the process
are conveyed in the order in which they usually occur. Body paragraphs will be constructed based on these
steps. If a particular step is complicated and needs a lot of explaining, then it will likely take up a paragraph
on its own. But if a series of simple steps is easier to understand, then the steps can be grouped into a single
paragraph.

The time transition phrases covered in the Illustration and Exemplification section are also helpful in
organizing process analysis essays. Words such as first, second, third, next, and finally can be helpful cues
to orient the reader and organize the content of essay.

Tip

Always have someone else read your process analysis to make sure it makes sense. Once we get too close to a subject,
it is difficult to determine how clearly an idea is coming across. Having a friend or coworker read it over will serve as
a good way to troubleshoot any confusing spots and ensure no steps have been omitted. Can your reader follow the
steps to recreate the process?

Exercise 4

Choose two of the lists you created in Exercise 3 and start writing out the processes in paragraph form. Try to con-
struct paragraphs based on the complexity of each step. For complicated steps, dedicate an entire paragraph. If
fewer complicated steps fall in succession, group them into a single paragraph.

Writing a Process Analysis Essay

Choose a topic that is interesting, is relatively complex, and can be explained in a series of steps. As with
other rhetorical writing modes, choose a process that you know well so that you can more easily describe
the finer details about each step in the process. Your thesis statement should come at the end of your intro-
duction, and it should state the final outcome of the process you are describing. Remember to also include,
either in the introduction or the first body paragraph, a list of necessary equipment/tools and any relevant
recommendations for where the process should take place.

Body paragraphs are composed of the steps in the process. Each step should be expressed using strong
details and clear examples. Use time transition phrases to help organize steps in the process and to orient
readers. The conclusion should thoroughly describe the result of the process described in the body para-
graphs.
RHETORICAL MODES 145

Exercise 5

Choose one of the expanded lists from Exercise 4. Construct a full process analysis essay from the work you have
already done. That means adding an engaging introduction, a clear thesis, time transition phrases, body para-
graphs, and a solid conclusion.

Assignment 3

Choose something that you know how to do well or that your understand thoroughly. Make sure it is complex
enough to warrant instructions (i.e. skip instructions for basic tasks – brushing teeth, driving a car, etc.). If you are
writing process instructions, be sure to include a section at the beginning explaining what materials or tools are
required, what clothing is recommended and what environment is necessary. If you are writing process explana-
tion, be sure to introduce what you plan to explain, and any information about it the reader needs to understand
your explanations. Conclude with some idea of what the reader should expect after the steps are done.

Key Takeaways

• A process analysis essay explains how to do something, how something works, or both.

• The process analysis essay opens with a discussion of the process and a thesis statement that states the
outcome of the process.

• The organization of a process analysis essay typically follows a chronological sequence.

• Time transition phrases are particularly helpful in process analysis essays to organize steps and orient
reader.

External Links

Stanley Fish, a professor of humanities and law at Florida International University, tells us why Getting Coffee
Is Hard to Do (https://tinyurl.com/y89lmsfc). Another link to this story is here (https://tinyurl.com/yareanjc).

Arthur Miller takes a humorous look at a gruesome process in Get It Right: Privatize Executions
(https://tinyurl.com/ycdknq8d). Another link to the story is here (https://tinyurl.com/y6wdcwtn).
146 LET'S GET WRITING!

Sample Process Essay

How to Grow Tomatoes from a Seedling

Growing tomatoes is a simple and rewarding task, and more people should be growing them. This paper walks readers
through the main steps for growing and maintaining patio tomatoes from a seedling.

The first step in growing tomatoes is determining if you have the appropriate available space and sunlight to grow them.
All tomato varieties require full sunlight, which means at least six hours of direct sun every day. If you have south-facing
windows or a patio or backyard that receives direct sunlight, you should be able to grow tomatoes. Choose the location
that receives the most sun.

Next, you need to find the right seedling. Growing tomatoes and other vegetables from seeds can be more complicated
(though it is not difficult), so I am only discussing how to grow tomatoes from a seedling. A seedling, for those who
do not know, is typically understood as a young plant that has only recently started growing from the seed. It can be
anything from a newly germinated plant to a fully flowering plant. You can usually find tomato seedlings at your local
nursery for an affordable price. Less than five dollars per plant is a common price. When choosing the best seedling,
look for a plant that is short with healthy, full leaves and no flowers. This last point tends to be counterintuitive, but it is
extremely important. You do not want a vegetable plant that has already started flowering in the nursery because it will
have a more difficult time adapting to its new environment when you replant it. Additionally, choose a plant with one
strong main stem. This is important because the fewer stems that a tomato plant has, the more easily it can transport
nutrients to the fruit. Multiple stems tend to divide nutrients in less efficient ways, often resulting in either lower yields
or smaller fruit.

Once you have found the right seedlings to plant back home, you need to find the best way of planting them. I recom-
mend that you plant your tomatoes in containers. If you have the space and sunlight, then you can certainly plant them
in the ground, but a container has several advantages and is usually most manageable for the majority of gardeners.
The containers can be used in the house, on a patio, or anywhere in the backyard, and they are portable. Containers
also tend to better regulate moisture and drain excess water. Choose a container that is at least 10 inches in diameter
and at least 1 foot deep. This will provide sufficient room for root development.

In addition to the container, you also need the appropriate soil mixture and draining mechanisms. For the best drainage,
fill the bottom of your container with 2 or 3 inches of gravel. On top of the gravel, fill ¾ of the container with soil. Choose
a well-balanced organic soil. The three main ingredients you will find described on soil bags are N-P-K—that is, nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium. Without going into too much detail about the role of each element in plant growth, I will
tell you that an average vegetable will grow fine in a 10-5-5 mixture. This ratio, too, will be easy to find at your local
nursery.

Once you have the gravel in the bottom of the container and the soil on top, you are ready to transplant the tomato.
Pick up the tomato in the plastic container it comes in from the nursery. Turn it upside down, and holding the stem
between your fingers, pat the bottom lightly several times, and the plant should fall into your hand. Next, you should
gently break up with your hands the root ball that formed in the nursery container. Be gentle, but be sure to rip them
RHETORICAL MODES 147

up a bit; this helps generate new root growth in the new container. Be careful not to damage the roots too much, as this
could stunt the growth or even destroy the plant altogether.

Next, carve out a hole in the soil to make space for the plant. Make it deep enough to go about an inch higher than it
was previously buried and wide enough so all the roots can comfortably fit within and beneath it. Place the seedling in
the hole and push the removed soil back on top to cover the base of the plant. After that, the final step in planting your
tomato is mulch. Mulch is not necessary for growing plants, but it can be very helpful in maintaining moisture, keeping
out weeds, and regulating soil temperature. Place two-three inches of mulch above the soil and spread it out evenly.

Once the mulch is laid, you are mostly done. The rest is all watering, waiting, and maintenance. After you lay the mulch,
pour the plant a heavy amount of water. Water the plant at its base until you see water coming through the bottom
of the container. Wait ten minutes, and repeat. This initial watering is very important for establishing new roots. You
should continue to keep the soil moist, but never soaking wet. One healthy watering each morning should be sufficient
for days without rain. You can often forego watering on days with moderate rainfall. Watering in the morning is prefer-
able to the evening because it lessens mold and bacteria growth.

Choosing to grow the patio variety of tomatoes is easiest because patio tomatoes do not require staking or training
around cages. They grow in smaller spaces and have a determinate harvest time. As you continue to water and monitor
your plant, prune unhealthy looking leaves on the main stem, and cut your tomatoes down at the stem when they ripen
to your liking. As you can see, growing tomatoes can be very easy and manageable for even novice gardeners. The sat-
isfaction of picking and eating fresh food, and doing it yourself, outweighs all the effort you put in over the growing
season.

4. ILLUSTRATION AND EXEMPLIFICATION

To illustrate means to show or demonstrate something clearly through the use of evidence. To exemplify
means to demonstrate through the use of examples. This is a technique that can stand alone but is most
often used within an essay to demonstrate the various points that an essay is offering as it supports it the-
sis. Effective illustration clearly demonstrates and supports a point through the use of evidence.

A writer can use different types of evidence to support his or her thesis. Using scientific studies, experts in
a particular field, statistics, historical events, current events, analogies, and personal anecdotes are all ways
in which a writer can illustrate a thesis. A variety of evidence is needed to demonstrate the validity of any
thesis. Ultimately, you want the evidence to help the reader “see” your point, as one would see a good illus-
tration in a magazine or on a website. This I Believe (https://thisibelieve.org/) is a website that collects essays
that illustrate core values and beliefs. Visit the program’s website for some examples.

The stronger your evidence is, the more clearly the reader will consider your point. Using evidence effec-
tively can be challenging, though. The evidence you choose will usually depend on your subject, your essay’s
purpose, and your audience. When writing an illustration essay, keep in mind the following:
148 LET'S GET WRITING!

• Use evidence that is appropriate for your topic as well as appropriate for your audience.
• Assess how much evidence you need to adequately explain your point , which depends on the
complexity of the subject and the knowledge of your audience regarding that subject.

For example, if you were writing about a new communication software and your audience was a group
of English-major undergrads, you might want to use an analogy or a personal story to illustrate how the
software worked. You might also choose to add a few more pieces of evidence to make sure the audience
understands your point. However, if you were writing about the same subject and your audience members
were information technology (IT) specialists, you would likely use more technical evidence because they
would be familiar with the subject.

Keeping in mind your subject in relation to your audience will increase your chances of effectively illustrating
your point.

Tip

You never want to insult your readers’ intelligence by over-explaining concepts the audience members may already be
familiar with, but it may be necessary to clearly articulate your point. When in doubt, add an extra example to illustrate
your idea.

Exercise 6

On a separate piece of paper, form a thesis based on each of the following three topics. Then list the types of evi-
dence that would best explain your point for each audience.

1. Topic: Combat and mental health

2. Audience: family members of veterans, doctors

3. Topic: Video games and teen violence

4. Audience: parents, children

5. Topic: Architecture and earthquakes

6. Audience: engineers, local townspeople

The Structure of an Illustration Essay

The controlling idea, or thesis, often belongs at the beginning of the essay. Evidence is then presented in the
essay’s body paragraphs, to support the thesis. As you decide how to present your evidence, consider order
of importance, then decide whether you want to with your strongest evidence first, or start with evidence
RHETORICAL MODES 149

of lesser importance and have the essay build to increasingly stronger evidence. The table below shows the
connection between order and purpose.

Figure 5.4 Order Versus Purpose

The time transition words listed in the table above are also helpful in ordering the presentation of evidence.
Words like first, second, third, currently, next, and finally all help orient the reader and sequence evidence
clearly. Because an illustration essay uses so many examples, it is also helpful to have a list of words and
phrases to present each piece of evidence. The table below provides a list of phrases for illustration.
150 LET'S GET WRITING!

Figure 5.5 Phrases of Illustration

Tip

Vary the phrases of illustration you use. Do not rely on just one. Variety in choice of words and phrasing is critical when
trying to keep readers engaged in your writing and your ideas.
RHETORICAL MODES 151

Writing at Work

In the workplace, it is often helpful to keep the phrases of illustration in mind as a way to incorporate them when-
ever you can. Whether you are writing out directives that colleagues will have to follow or requesting a new product
or service from another company, making a conscious effort to incorporate a phrase of illustration will force you to
provide examples of what you mean.

Exercise 7

On a separate sheet of paper, form a thesis based on one of the following topics. Then support that thesis with
three pieces of evidence. Make sure to use a different phrase of illustration to introduce each piece of evidence you
choose.

1. Cooking

2. Baseball

3. Work hours

4. Exercise

5. Traffic

Collaboration: Please share with a classmate and compare your answers. Discuss which topic you like the best or
would like to learn more about. Indicate which thesis statement you perceive as the most effective.

Writing an Illustration Essay

First, decide on a topic that you feel interested in writing about. Then create an interesting introduction to
engage the reader. The main point, or thesis, should be stated at the end of the introduction.

Gather evidence that is appropriate to both your subject and your audience. You can order the evidence in
terms of importance, either from least important to most important or from most important to least impor-
tant. Be sure to fully explain all of your examples using strong, clear supporting details.

Exercise 8

Choose a motto or other inspirational statement that appeals to you. Using the aspects outlined above, write a
paragraph that illustrates this statement. Remember to include specific examples and description to illustrate your
interpretation of this statement.
152 LET'S GET WRITING!

Assignment 4

Choosing either a topic from Exercise 7 or Exercise 8 write a minimum five paragraph illustration essay.

Key Takeaways

• An illustration essay clearly explains a main point using evidence.

• When choosing evidence, always gauge whether the evidence is appropriate for the subject as well as the
audience.

• Organize the evidence in terms of importance, either from least important to most important or from
most important to least important.

• Use time transitions to order evidence.

• Use phrases of illustration to highlight examples.

Student Sample: Illustration/Example Essay

Letter to the City

To: Lakeview Department of Transportation

From: A Concerned Citizen

The intersection of Central Avenue and Lake Street is dangerous and demands immediate consideration for the installa-
tion of a controlling mechanism. I have lived in Lakeview my entire life, and during that time I have witnessed too many
accidents and close calls at that intersection. I would like the Department of Transportation to answer this question:
how many lives have to be lost on the corner of Central Avenue and Lake Street before a street light or stop sign is
placed there?

Over the past twenty years, the population of Lakeview has increased dramatically. This population growth has put
tremendous pressure on the city’s roadways, especially Central Avenue and its intersecting streets. At the intersection
of Central Avenue and Lake Street it is easy to see how serious this problem is. For example, when I try to cross Cen-
tral Avenue as a pedestrian, I frequently wait over ten minutes for the cars to clear, and even then I must rush to the
median. I will then have to continue to wait until I can finally run to the other side of the street. On one hand, even as a
physically fit adult, I can run only with significant effort and care. Expecting a senior citizen or a child to cross this street,
on the other hand, is extremely dangerous and irresponsible. Does the city have any plans to do anything about this?
RHETORICAL MODES 153

Recent data show that the intersection of Central Avenue and Lake Street has been especially dangerous. According to
the city’s own statistics, three fatalities occurred at that intersection in the past year alone. Over the past five years, the
intersection witnessed fourteen car accidents, five of which were fatal. These numbers officially qualify the intersection
as the most fatal and dangerous in the entire state. It should go without saying that fatalities and accidents are not the
clearest way of measuring the severity of this situation because for each accident that happens, countless other close
calls never contribute to city data. I hope you will agree that these numbers alone are sufficient evidence that the inter-
section at Central Avenue and Lake Street is hazardous and demands immediate attention.

Nearly all accidents mentioned are caused by vehicles trying to cross Central Avenue while driving on Lake Street. I think
the City of Lakeview should consider placing a traffic light there to control the traffic going both ways. While I do not
have access to any resources or data that can show precisely how much a traffic light can improve the intersection, I
think you will agree that a controlled busy intersection is much safer than an uncontrolled one. Therefore, at a mini-
mum, the city must consider making the intersection a four-way stop.

Each day that goes by without attention to this issue is a lost opportunity to save lives and make the community a safer,
more enjoyable place to live. Because the safety of citizens is the priority of every government, I can only expect that
the Department of Transportation and the City of Lakeview will act on this matter immediately. For the safety and well-
being of Lakeview citizens, please do not let bureaucracy or money impede this urgent project.

Sincerely,

A Concerned Citizen

External Links

“April & Paris” (https://tinyurl.com/y9rgud9b) by David Sedaris: In “April & Paris,” writer David Sedaris
explores the unique impact of animals on the human psyche.

“She’s Your Basic L.O.L. in N.A.D” (https://tinyurl.com/y7ocnnl5) by Perri Klass: In “She’s Your Basic L.O.L.
in N.A.D,” pediatrician and writer Perri Klass discusses the medical-speak she encountered in her training as
a doctor and its underlying meaning.

Jessica Bennett, a senior writer for Newsweek, offers an example of an illustration essay when she presents
The Flip Side of Internet Fame (https://tinyurl.com/y9yjmqt9). You can also see the essay
here (https://tinyurl.com/y7vd53db).

5. CAUSE AND EFFECT

It is often considered human nature to ask, “why?” and “how?” We want to know how our child got sick so
we can better prevent it from happening in the future, or why our colleague received a pay raise because
154 LET'S GET WRITING!

we want one as well. We want to know how much money we will save over the long term if we buy a hybrid
car. These examples identify only a few of the relationships we think about in our lives, but each shows the
importance of understanding cause and effect.

A cause is something that produces an event or condition; an effect is what results from an event or condi-
tion. The purpose of the cause-and-effect essay is to determine how various phenomena relate in terms
of origins and results. Sometimes the connection between cause and effect is clear, but often determining
the exact relationship between the two is very difficult. For example, the following effects of a cold may be
easily identifiable: a sore throat, a runny nose, and a cough. But, determining the cause of the sickness can
be far more difficult. A number of causes are possible, and to complicate matters, these possible causes
could have combined to cause the sickness. That is, more than one cause may be responsible for any given
effect. Therefore, cause-and-effect discussions are often complicated and frequently lead to debates and
arguments.

Tip

Use the complex nature of cause and effect to your advantage. Often it is not necessary, or even possible, to find the
exact cause of an event or to name the exact effect. So, when formulating a thesis, you can claim one of a number of
causes or effects to be the primary, or main, cause or effect. As soon as you claim that one cause or one effect is more
crucial than the others, you have developed a thesis.

Exercise 9

Consider the causes and effects in the following thesis statements. Identify whether each statement is identifying a
cause or an effect. Then, list a cause and effect for each one on your own sheet of paper.

1. The growing childhood obesity epidemic is a result of technology.

2. Much of the wildlife is dying because of the oil spill.

3. The town continued programs that it could no longer afford, so it went bankrupt.

4. More young people became politically active as use of the Internet spread throughout society.

5. While many experts believed the rise in violence was because of the poor economy, it was really because
of the summer-long heat wave.

Exercise 10

Write three cause-and-effect thesis statements of your own for each of the following five broad topics.
RHETORICAL MODES 155

1. Health and nutrition

2. Sports

3. Media

4. Politics

5. History

The Structure of a Cause-and-Effect Essay

The cause-and-effect essay opens with a general introduction to the topic, which then leads to a thesis that
states the main cause, main effect, or various causes and effects of a condition or event.

The cause-and-effect essay can be organized in one of the following two primary ways:

1. Start with the cause and then write about the effects.
2. Start with the effect and then write about the causes.

For example, if your essay were on childhood obesity, you could start by talking about the effect of child-
hood obesity and then discuss the cause or you could start the same essay by writing about the cause of
childhood obesity and then move to the effect.

Regardless of which structure you choose, be sure to explain each element of the essay fully and completely.
Explaining complex relationships requires the full use of evidence, such as scientific studies, expert testi-
mony, statistics, and anecdotes.

Because cause-and-effect essays determine how phenomena are linked, they make frequent use of certain
words and phrases that denote such linkage. See the table below for examples of such terms.

Figure 5.6 Phrases of Causation

156 LET'S GET WRITING!

The conclusion should wrap up the discussion and reinforce the thesis, leaving the reader with a clear
understanding of the relationship that was analyzed.

Tip

Be careful of resorting to empty speculation. In writing, speculation amounts to unsubstantiated guessing. Writers are
particularly prone to such trappings in cause-and-effect arguments because of the complex nature of finding links
between phenomena. Be sure to have clear evidence to support the claims that you make.

Exercise 11

Look at some of the cause-and-effect relationships from Exercise 9. Outline the links you listed. Outline one using a
cause-then-effect structure. Outline the other using the effect-then-cause structure.
RHETORICAL MODES 157

Writing a Cause-and-Effect Essay

Choose an event or condition that you think has an interesting cause-and-effect relationship. Introduce your
topic in an engaging way. End your introduction with a thesis that states the main cause, the main effect, or
both.

Organize your essay by starting with either the cause-then-effect structure or the effect-then-cause struc-
ture. Within each section, you should clearly explain and support the causes and effects using a full range
of evidence. If you are writing about multiple causes or multiple effects, you may choose to sequence either
in terms of order of importance. In other words, order the causes from least to most important (or vice
versa), or order the effects from least important to most important (or vice versa).

Use the phrases of causation when trying to forge connections between various events or conditions. This
will help organize your ideas and orient the reader. End your essay by drawing a conclusion based on the
information presented. You may find it helpful to think of the conclusion as an answer to the question: “so
what” or as a continuation of the statement “and so. . . “. In some cases, may be appropriate to issue a call
to action in your essay’s conclusion. XERCISE 4

Exercise 12

Choose a local issue or topic that concerns you. Examine both the causes and effects of this issue or topic, and write
a paragraph that outlines these using the components of a cause and effect essay.

Assignment 5

Choose one of the ideas you outlined in Exercise 11 and write a full cause-and-effect essay. Be sure to include an
engaging introduction, a clear thesis, strong evidence and examples, and a thoughtful conclusion.

Key Takeaways

The purpose of the cause-and-effect essay is to determine how various phenomena are related.

• The thesis states what the writer sees as the main cause, main effect, or various causes and effects of a
condition or event.

• The cause-and-effect essay can be organized in one of these two primary ways:

◦ Start with the cause and then write about the effect.

◦ Start with the effect and then write about the cause.

• Strong evidence is particularly important in the cause-and-effect essay because of the complexity of
determining connections between phenomena.

• Phrases of causation are helpful in signaling links between various elements in the essay.
158 LET'S GET WRITING!

Cause and Effect Essay Example

Effects of Video Game Addiction

By Scott McLean

Video game addition is a serious problem in many parts of the world today and deserves more attention. It is no secret
that children and adults in many countries throughout the world, including Japan, China, and the United States, play
video games every day. Most players are able to limit their usage in ways that do not interfere with their daily lives, but
many others have developed an addiction to playing video games and suffer detrimental effects.

An addiction can be described in several ways, but generally speaking, addictions involve unhealthy attractions to sub-
stances or activities that ultimately disrupt the ability of a person to keep up with regular daily responsibilities. Video
game addiction typically involves playing games uncontrollably for many hours at a time—some people will play only
four hours at a time while others cannot stop for over twenty-four hours. Regardless of the severity of the addiction,
many of the same effects will be experienced by all.

One common effect of video game addiction is isolation and withdrawal from social experiences. Video game players
often hide in their homes or in Internet cafés for days at a time—only reemerging for the most pressing tasks and neces-
sities. The effect of this isolation can lead to a breakdown of communication skills and often a loss in socialization. While
it is true that many games, especially massive multiplayer online games, involve a very real form of e-based communica-
tion and coordination with others, and these virtual interactions often result in real communities that can be healthy for
the players, these communities and forms of communication rarely translate to the types of valuable social interaction
that humans need to maintain typical social functioning. As a result, the social networking in these online games often
gives the users the impression that they are interacting socially, while their true social lives and personal relations may
suffer.

Another unfortunate product of the isolation that often accompanies video game addiction is the disruption of the
user’s career. While many players manage to enjoy video games and still hold their jobs without problems, others
experience challenges at their workplace. Some may only experience warnings or demerits as a result of poorer per-
formance, or others may end up losing their jobs altogether. Playing video games for extended periods of time often
involves sleep deprivation, and this tends to carry over to the workplace, reducing production and causing habitual tar-
diness.

Video game addiction may result in a decline in overall health and hygiene. Players who interact with video games for
such significant amounts of time can go an entire day without eating and even longer without basic hygiene tasks, such
as using the restroom or bathing. The effects of this behavior pose significant danger to their overall health.

The causes of video game addiction are complex and can vary greatly, but the effects have the potential to be severe.
Playing video games can and should be a fun activity for all to enjoy. But just like everything else, the amount of time
one spends playing video games needs to be balanced with personal and social responsibilities.
RHETORICAL MODES 159

External Links

“Women in Science” (https://tinyurl.com/y8pggr7g) by K.C. Cole. The link to the essay is correct. It seems to
be titled “Hers” but it is the correct essay.

“Cultural Baggage” (https://tinyurl.com/yc7qeuyp) by Barbara Ehrenreich.

Robin Tolmach Lakoff discusses the power of language to dehumanize in “From

From Ancient Greece to Iraq: The
Power of Words in Wartime” (https://tinyurl.com/y76bt3ah).

Alan Weisman examines the human impact on the planet and its effects in “Earth
Earth without People
People”
(https://tinyurl.com/mswazr).

6. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

Comparison in writing discusses elements that are similar, while contrast in writing discusses elements
that are different. A compare-and-contrast essay, then, analyzes two subjects by comparing them, con-
trasting them, or both.

The key to a good compare-and-contrast essay is to choose two or more subjects that connect in a mean-
ingful way. The purpose of conducting the comparison or contrast is not to state the obvious but rather to
illuminate subtle differences or unexpected similarities. For example, if you wanted to focus on contrasting
two subjects you would not pick apples and oranges; rather, you might choose to compare and contrast two
types of oranges or two types of apples to highlight subtle differences. For example, Red Delicious apples
are sweet, while Granny Smiths are tart and acidic. Drawing distinctions between elements in a similar cate-
gory will increase the audience’s understanding of that category, which is the purpose of the compare-and-
contrast essay.

Figure 5.7 Apples, Green and Red

Similarly, to focus on comparison, choose two subjects that seem at first to be unre-
lated. For a comparison essay, you likely would not choose two apples or two oranges
because they share so many of the same properties already. Rather, you might try to
compare how apples and oranges are quite similar. The more divergent the two sub-
jects initially seem, the more interesting a comparison essay will be.

Writing at Work

Comparing and contrasting is also an evaluative tool. In order to make accurate evaluations about a given topic,
you must first know the critical points of similarity and difference. Comparing and contrasting is a primary tool for
many workplace assessments. You have likely compared and contrasted yourself to other colleagues. Employee
advancements, pay raises, hiring, and firing are typically conducted using comparison and contrast. Comparison
and contrast could be used to evaluate companies, departments, or individuals.
160 LET'S GET WRITING!

Exercise 13

Brainstorm an essay that leans toward contrast. Choose one of the following three categories. Pick two examples
from each. Then come up with one similarity and three differences between the examples.

1. Romantic comedies

2. Internet search engines

3. Cell phones

Exercise 14

Brainstorm an essay that leans toward comparison. Choose one of the following three items. Then come up with
one difference and three similarities.

1. Department stores and discount retail stores

2. Fast food chains and fine dining restaurants

3. Dogs and cats

The Structure of a Comparison and Contrast Essay

The compare-and-contrast essay starts with a thesis that clearly states the two subjects that are to be com-
pared, contrasted, or both and the reason for doing so. Remember, the point of comparing and contrasting
is to provide useful knowledge to the reader. Take the following thesis as an example that focuses on con-
trast.

Thesis statement: Organic vegetables may cost more than those that are conventionally grown, but they
are definitely worth every extra penny.

Here the thesis sets up the two subjects to be compared and contrasted (organic versus conventional veg-
etables), and it makes a claim about the results that might prove useful to the reader.

You may organize compare-and-contrast essays in one of the following two ways:

1. According to the subjects themselves, discussing one then the other

2. According to individual points, discussing each subject in relation to each point

The organizational structure you choose depends on the nature of the topic, your purpose, and your audi-
ence.

See the chart below, which diagrams the ways to organize the organic versus conventional vegetables thesis.
RHETORICAL MODES 161

Figure 5.8 Organization Diagram

162 LET'S GET WRITING!
RHETORICAL MODES 163

Given that compare-and-contrast essays analyze the relationship between two subjects, it is helpful to have
some phrases on hand that will cue the reader to such analysis. See the chart below for examples.

Figure 5.9 Phrases of Comparison and Contrast

Exercise 15

Create an outline for each of the items you chose in Exercises 13 and 14. Use the point-by-point organizing strategy
for one of them, and use the subject organizing strategy for the other.

Writing a Comparison and Contrast Essay

First, choose whether you want to compare seemingly disparate subjects, contrast seemingly similar sub-
jects, or compare and contrast subjects. Once you have decided on a topic, introduce it with an engaging
164 LET'S GET WRITING!

opening paragraph. Your thesis should come at the end of the introduction, and it should establish the sub-
jects you will compare, contrast, or both as well as state what can be learned from doing so.

The body of the essay can be organized in one of two ways: by subject or by individual points. The organizing
strategy that you choose will depend on, as always, your audience and your purpose. You may also consider
your particular approach to the subjects as well as the nature of the subjects themselves; some subjects
might better lend themselves to one structure or the other. Make sure to use comparison and contrast
phrases to cue the reader to the ways in which you are analyzing the relationship between the subjects.

After you finish analyzing the subjects, write a conclusion that reinforces your thesis while drawing a conclu-
sion based on what you have presented. This conclusion is the “and so” statement for your essay, giving you
the place to offer a judgement based on the examination you have just offered.

Writing at Work

Many business presentations are conducted using comparison and contrast. The organizing strategies—by subject
or individual points—could also be used for organizing a presentation. Keep this in mind as a way of organizing
your content the next time you or a colleague have to present something at work.

Exercise 16

Choose two people who are significant in your life and have a similar relationship with you (two friends, two siblings,
etc). Make a list of similarities and differences between these people. Consult your list, then draw a conclusion
based on the presence of these similarities and differences. Outline the similarities and differences, then write a
statement that offers an overall conclusion.

Assignment 5

Choose one of the outlines you created in Exercise 15 or 16, and write a full compare-and-contrast essay. Be sure
to include an engaging introduction, a clear thesis, well-defined and detailed paragraphs, and a fitting conclusion
that ties everything together.

Key Takeaways

• A compare-and-contrast essay analyzes two subjects by either comparing them, contrasting them, or
both.

• The purpose of writing a comparison or contrast essay is not to state the obvious but rather to illuminate
subtle differences or unexpected similarities between two subjects.
RHETORICAL MODES 165

• The thesis should clearly state the subjects that are to be compared, contrasted, or both, and it should
state what is to be learned from doing so.

• There are two main organizing strategies for compare-and-contrast essays.

◦ Organize by the subjects themselves, one then the other.

◦ Organize by individual points, in which you discuss each subject in relation to each point.

• Use phrases of comparison or phrases of contrast to signal to readers how exactly the two subjects are
being analyzed.

External Links

“Disability” (https://tinyurl.com/y99te6e2) by Nancy Mairs: In “Disability,” writer Nancy Mairs discusses the
experience of being a disabled person in a world focused on the able-bodied. It seems to be titled “Hers” but
it is the correct essay.

“Friending, Ancient or Otherwise” (https://tinyurl.com/y85u8ae8) by Alex Wright: In “Friending, Ancient or

Otherwise,” writer Alex Wright explores the evolution and purpose of friendship in the age of social media.

“Sex,
Sex, Lies and Conversation: Why Is It So Hard for Men and Women to Talk to Each Other
Other??” (https://tinyurl.com/
y95dpehx) by Deborah Tannen. In this essay, Tannen compares and contrasts conversation styles. You can
view the essay here (https://tinyurl.com/y9vnjqv8) also.

Example Comparison and Contrast Essay

“A South African Storm”

By Allison Howard – Peace Corps Volunteer: South Africa (2003-2005)

It’s a Saturday afternoon in January in South Africa. When I begin the 45–minute walk to the shops for groceries, I can
hear thunder cracking in the distance up the mountain in Mageobaskloof. But at 4 p.m. the sky is still light and bright
and I am sure—famous last words—I will be fine without an umbrella.

Just the basics: eggs, bread, Diet Coke in a bag slung into the crook of my elbow. Halfway from town, two black South
African women—domestic workers in the homes of white Afrikaner families—stop me with wide smiles. They know me;
I’m the only white person in town who walks everywhere, as they do. They chatter quickly in northern Sotho: “Missus,
you must go fast. Pula e tla na! The rain, it comes!” They like me, and it feels very important to me that they do.“Yebo,
yebo, mma,” I say—Yes, it’s true—and I hurry along in flip-flops, quickening my pace, feeling good about our brief but
neighborly conversation. These are Venda women.
166 LET'S GET WRITING!

My black South African friends tell me it’s easy to tell a Venda from a Shangaan from a Xhosa from a Pedi. “These ones
from Venda , they have wide across the nose and high in the cheekbones,” they say. But I don’t see it; I’m years away
from being able to distinguish the nuances of ethnicity. Today, I know these women are Vendas simply because of their
clothing: bright stripes of green and yellow and black fabric tied at one shoulder and hanging quite like a sack around
their bodies. They’ve already extended a kindness to me by speaking in northern Sotho. It’s not their language but they
know I don’t speak a word of Afrikaans (though they don’t understand why; Afrikaans is the language of white people).
They know I struggle with Sotho and they’re trying to help me learn. So they speak Sotho to me and they’re delighted
and amused by my fumbling responses. And I am, quite simply, delighted by their delight.

The Venda ladies are right: the rain, it comes. Lightly at first, and by habit I begin trotting to hurry my way home. Just a
little rain at first and there are plenty of us out in it. I can see others up ahead on the street and others still just leaving
the shops to get back before the real rain begins.

The people who are walking along this swath of tar road are black. Black people don’t live in this neighborhood—or in
my town at all, for the most part. They work and board here as domestic workers, nannies, gardeners. Their families live
in black townships and rural villages—some just outside of my town; others far away, in places like Venda.

Today, we’re walking together in the rain, and I’m quickening my pace because—after all , it’s raining . That’s what you
do in the rain. And even though it’s coming down noticeably harder, it’s 80 degrees and I’m not cold, I’m just wet. My
hair is stuck to my forehead and my T-shirt is soaked … and I’m the only one running for cover. And I think: So what?
It’s just water and in the middle of the January summer, it’s warm, refreshing water. Why run? Why do we run from the
rain?

In my life back in the United States, I might run because I was carrying a leather handbag, or because I wore an outfit
that shouldn’t get wet. I would run because rain dishevels and messes things up. Mostly though, we run because we just
do; it’s a habit. I’ve done it a hundred times: running to my car or the subway station with a newspaper sheltering my
head. I have never not quickened my pace in the rain until today.

It took all of my 27 years and a move to Africa , where I don’t have a leather handbag to shelter or a pretty outfit to pro-
tect. I’m wearing an old cotton skirt and a T-shirt, and I’m drenched, and I love it. I learn things here in the most ordinary
circumstances. And I feel like a smarter, better woman today because I got groceries in the rain.

But on the long walk home, positively soaked and smiling like a fool, I notice a car pulling over and a man yelling in
Afrikaans to get in, get in. I look in the direction I’ve come from and several meters behind me is a woman with a baby
tied to her back and an elderly man carrying bags, leading a young boy by the hand. On the road ahead, a woman about
my age carries a parcel wrapped in plastic, balanced precariously on her head. There are maybe 20 people walking with
me in my reverie of rain and they are black. And the man in the car is white and he’s gesturing frantically for me to get
in. Why me? Why not the others? Because I’m white and it’s about race. Everything is about race here.

This man in the car is trying to do something kind and neighborly. He wants to help me and his gesture is right, but his
instincts are so wrong. How do you resent someone who is, for no benefit of his own, trying to help? But I do. I resent
him and I resent the world he lives in that taught him such selective kindness. This whole event unravels in a few sec-
onds’ time. He’s leaned over and opened the car door, urging me in … and I get in. And we speed past my fellow walkers
and he drops me at my doorstep before I have time to think of anything besides giving him directions.
RHETORICAL MODES 167

It feels like a mistake because I’m ashamed to think what the Venda women would have felt if he’d ignored them and
they had watched me climb into that car. In some ways, the whole episode seems absurd. I’m not going to atone for 400
years of South African history by walking with black people in the rain. If I’d refused his ride, he wouldn’t have thought
anything besides the fact that I was certifiably crazy. That’s the thing about being here: I’m not going to changeanything.
But I believe it matters in some infinitesimal way that people like the Venda women, and the dozens of people who may
walk alongside me on any given day, know that I’m there. In black South African culture it is polite to greet every person
you pass. That’s what they do, so I do it, too. On the occasional morning, someone might greet me as “sesi,” sister. I have
to believe that matters; I know it matters to me.

I was disappointed in myself for getting into the car because I acted according to the same habit that makes us think
rain an inconvenience. Just as we run from the rain, I hopped into that car because I’m supposed to. Conventionally, it
makes sense. But convention compels us to do so many things that don’t make any sense at all. Convention misinforms
our instincts. And in a larger sense, it is convention that propels Afrikaner culture anachronistically into the future. Ten
years after the supposed end of apartheid, I’m living in a world of institutionalized racism. Convention becomes institu-
tion—and it’s oppressive and it’s unjust. I know that if I’m going to make it here for two more years, I need to walk in the
rain. It’s a small, wasted gesture, but it’s an uncorrupted instinct that makes me feel human.

So much about living here feels like that fraction of a second when the Afrikaner man was appealing to my conventional
sensibilities and the people on the street were appealing to my human instincts. It may feel unnatural to reject those
sensibilities just as, at first, it feels unnatural to walk in the rain. But if I lose a hold on my instincts here, I’ll fail myself
and I’ll fail to achieve those tiny things that matter so much. It’s simple and it’s small; and it’s everything. Gandhi said,
“Be the change you wish to see in the world.” Indeed. Let it rain.

Example Comparison and Contrast Essay#2

Comparing and Contrasting London and Washington, DC

Both Washington, DC, and London are capital cities of English-speaking countries, and yet they offer vastly different
experiences to their residents and visitors. Comparing and contrasting the two cities based on their history, their cul-
ture, and their residents show how different and similar the two are.

Both cities are rich in world and national history, though they developed on very different time lines. London, for exam-
ple, has a history that dates back over two thousand years. It was part of the Roman Empire and known by the similar
name, Londinium. It was not only one of the northernmost points of the Roman Empire but also the epicenter of the
British Empire where it held significant global influence from the early sixteenth century on through the early twentieth
century. Washington, DC, on the other hand, has only formally existed since the late eighteenth century. Though Native
168 LET'S GET WRITING!

Americans inhabited the land several thousand years earlier, and settlers inhabited the land as early as the sixteenth
century, the city did not become the capital of the United States until the 1790s. From that point onward to today, how-
ever, Washington, DC, has increasingly maintained significant global influence. Even though both cities have different
histories, they have both held, and continue to hold, significant social influence in the economic and cultural global
spheres.

Both Washington, DC, and London offer a wide array of museums that harbor many of the world’s most prized trea-
sures. While Washington, DC, has the National Gallery of Art and several other Smithsonian galleries, London’s art scene
and galleries have a definite edge in this category. From the Tate Modern to the British National Gallery, London’s art
ranks among the world’s best. This difference and advantage has much to do with London and Britain’s historical depth
compared to that of the United States. London has a much richer past than Washington, DC, and consequently has a
lot more material to pull from when arranging its collections. Both cities have thriving theater districts, but again, Lon-
don wins this comparison, too, both in quantity and quality of theater choices. With regard to other cultural places like
restaurants, pubs, and bars, both cities are very comparable. Both have a wide selection of expensive, elegant restau-
rants as well as a similar amount of global and national chains. While London may be better known for its pubs and
taste in beer, DC offers a different bar-going experience. With clubs and pubs that tend to stay open later than their
British counterparts, the DC night life tend to be less reserved overall.

Both cities also share and differ in cultural diversity and cost of living. Both cities share a very expensive cost of liv-
ing—both in terms of housing and shopping. A downtown one-bedroom apartment in DC can easily cost $1,800 per
month, and a similar “flat” in London may double that amount. These high costs create socioeconomic disparity among
the residents. Although both cities’ residents are predominantly wealthy, both have a significantly large population of
poor and homeless. Perhaps the most significant difference between the resident demographics is the racial makeup.
Washington, DC, is a “minority majority” city, which means the majority of its citizens are races other than white. In 2009,
according to the US Census, 55 percent of DC residents were classified as “Black or African American” and 35 percent of
its residents were classified as “white.” London, by contrast, has very few minorities—in 2006, 70 percent of its popula-
tion was “white,” while only 10 percent was “black.” The racial demographic differences between the cities is drastic.

Even though Washington, DC, and London are major capital cities of English-speaking countries in the Western world,
they have many differences along with their similarities. They have vastly different histories, art cultures, and racial
demographics, but they remain similar in their cost of living and socioeconomic disparity.

7. DEFINITION

The purpose of a definition essay may seem self-explanatory, to simply define something. But defining
terms in writing is often more complicated than just consulting a dictionary. In fact, the way we define
terms can have far-reaching consequences for individuals as well as collective groups. Ultimately, a defini-
tion essay will share your special understanding about your chosen topic.

Take, for example, a word like alcoholism. The way in which one defines alcoholism depends on its legal,
moral, and medical contexts. Lawyers may define alcoholism in terms of its legality; parents may define
RHETORICAL MODES 169

alcoholism in terms of its morality; and doctors will define alcoholism in terms of symptoms and diagnostic
criteria. Think also of terms that people tend to debate in our broader culture. How we define words, such
as marriage and climate change, has enormous impact on policy decisions and even on daily decisions. Think
about conversations couples may have in which words like commitment, respect, or love need clarification.

Defining terms within a relationship, or any other context, can at first be difficult, but once a definition is
established between two people or a group of people, it is easier to have productive dialogues. Definitions,
then, establish the way in which people communicate ideas. They set parameters for a given discourse,
which is why they are so important. When defining is the major impetus of an essay, the writer cast him/
herself as the expert, aiming at an audience who knows less, maybe much less, about the topic.

Tip

When writing definition essays, avoid terms that are too simple, that lack complexity. Think in terms of concepts, such
as hero, happiness, or loyalty, rather than physical objects. Definitions of concepts and abstractions, rather than concrete
objects, are often fluid and contentious, making for a more effective definition essay.

Writing at Work

Definitions play a critical role in all workplace environments. Take the term sexual harassment, for example. Sexual
harassment is broadly defined on the federal level, but each company may have additional criteria that define it
further. Knowing how your workplace defines and treats all sexual harassment allegations is important. Think, too,
about how your company defines lateness, productivity, or contributions.

Exercise 17

On a separate sheet of paper, write about a time in your own life in which the definition of a word, or the lack of
a definition, caused an argument. Your term could be something as simple as the category of an all-star in sports
or how to define a good movie. Or it could be something with higher stakes and wider impact, such as a political
argument. Explain how the conversation began, how the argument hinged on the definition of the word, and how
the incident was finally resolved.
170 LET'S GET WRITING!

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your responses.

The Structure of a Definition Essay

The definition essay opens with a general discussion of the term to be defined. You then state as your thesis
your definition of the term.

The rest of the essay should explain the rationale for your definition. Remember that a dictionary’s definition
is limiting, and you should not rely strictly on the dictionary entry. Instead, consider the context in which you
are using the word. Context identifies the circumstances, conditions, or setting in which something exists
or occurs. Often words take on different meanings depending on the context in which they are used. For
example, the ideal leader in a battlefield setting could likely be very different from a leader in an elementary
school setting. If a context is missing from the essay, the essay may be too short or the main points could
be confusing or misunderstood.

The remainder of the essay should explain different aspects of the term’s definition. For example, if you
were defining a good leader in an elementary classroom setting, you might define such a leader according
to personality traits: patience, consistency, and flexibility. Each attribute would be explained in its own para-
graph.

You define according to principles of definition, but you are the author of the definition. As you consider
how to develop your essay, it might be helpful to consider the parts of a formal definition:

Parts of a definition:

• Formal re-definition
• History
• Context
• Sounds
• Similar things
• Function
• Meaning

Example: Here is an example of a formal definition for “candle:”

RHETORICAL MODES 171

The candle is a kind of reminder that not only lets me think of my friend when I see it, but also lights my room when
I think of her. Every time I clean my room, or get dressed, or pass by, or go to bed, or wake up in the morning, I see
the candle and think of my friend. At times, I just light it for a few minutes, and I am reminded of her presence. I am
bombarded with meeting reminders, “to do” lists, alarms, sticky notes, deadlines, requests, and on and on. My candle is
the only reminder I have that slows me down and lets me think of her. The silent burning of the candle reminds me of
her quiet demeanor, the long silences that followed our fights, and the suddenness with which her life was snuffed out.
Like an old photograph, or stories told by friends, or places we met, or the smell of barberry and cinnamon, my candle
reminds me of the time we were together. The candle only burns when I light it once a year – on the day I lost her. To
me, the candle signifies a life lived quietly, resolutely, but with a burning passion for living in the moment.

You may define any object or place this way. When you have a definition constructed, you may add it to the
other elements in your personal writing. When you finish ALL the elements, you may then arrange elements
for greatest effect.

Writing at Work

It is a good idea to occasionally assess your role in the workplace. You can do this through the process of definition.
Identify your role at work by defining not only the routine tasks but also those gray areas where your responsibili-
ties might overlap with those of others. Coming up with a clear definition of roles and responsibilities can add value
to your résumé and even increase productivity in the workplace.

Exercise 18

On a separate sheet of paper, define each of the following items in your own terms. If you can, establish a context
for your definition.

• Bravery

• Adulthood

• Consumer culture

• Violence

• Art

Writing a Definition Essay

172 LET'S GET WRITING!

Choose a topic that will be complex enough to be discussed at length. Be sure that the term is abstract, and
that it is or refers to something that can mean different things to different people. Also, be sure that you
choose a word that you have some familiarity with. Since you need to elaborate on the word you choose to
define, you will need to have your own base of knowledge or experience with the concept you choose. If
you try to define something that is beyond the scope of your paper or your own experience, the task will
become overwhelming and get mired down in details or abstractions.

After you have chosen your word or phrase, start your essay with an introduction that establishes the rel-
evancy of the term in the chosen specific context. Your thesis can come at the end of the introduction, can
be implied throughout the development of the essay, or can be clearly asserted in the conclusion. However,
you must have a clear idea of your thesis–your overall definition for the term or concept– that is reinforced
throughout the development of the essay.

The body paragraphs should each be dedicated to explaining a different facet of your definition. Make sure
to use clear examples and strong details to illustrate your points. A definition can be developed in a num-
ber of ways. A definition of a business management concept such as Total Quality Management (TQM), for
instance, could begin with a history (a kind of process paper) of its inception in Japanese management
systems, its migration across the Pacific, its implementation and transformation in American systems, and
its predicted demise. It could also (or instead) include examples of the kind of labor conflict that TQM is
supposed to eliminate or alleviate. Or it could describe TQM as a process, the steps involved in its imple-
mentation, or involve an analysis of its principles and its place in management theory. Contrasts to other
management theories might be appropriate, demonstrating what TQM is not as well as what it is. We could
even think of it as a cause and effect situation in which we describe how TQM responds to certain needs
in the workplace. Negation also works well, as you can define your topic by what it is not or does not have.
A definition essay is not limited to any one method of development and it may, in fact, employ more than
one method at once. Implicit in all of these techniques, and therefore essential in your essay, is an analysis
of this topic you have chosen. By developing and explaining your own opinion of what the topic you have
chosen means, you are in a way analyzing the topic.

Your concluding paragraph should pull together all the different elements of your definition to ultimately
reinforce your thesis. It draws a conclusion based on the overall breakdown of the information offered
throughout the body of the essay.

Tip

Don’t rely on that old cliché of the dictionary or encyclopedia definition. Even if your intent is to show how inadequate or
wrong-headed the dictionary might be, this device has been used far too often to be effective. The point of your essay
is to provide your reader with a new way of looking at things — your way, not Noah Webster’s.
RHETORICAL MODES 173

Exercise 19

Choose a label that you would give yourself (such as good friend, daughter, brother, student, etc). For this label,
consider both the denotation of the word and your connotation of it. Then, write paragraph that defines this word
using at least one other rhetorical techniques such as illustration, description, cause and effect, comparison and
contrast, and narration.

Assignment 6

Create a full definition essay from one of the items you already defined in Exercise 18 or 19. Be sure to include an
interesting introduction, a clear thesis, a well-explained context, distinct body paragraphs, and a conclusion that
pulls everything together.

Key Takeaways

Key Takeaways

• Definitions establish the way in which people communicate ideas. They set parameters for a given dis-
course.

• Context affects the meaning and usage of words.

• The thesis of a definition essay should clearly state the writer’s definition of the term in the specific con-
text.

• Body paragraphs should explain the various facets of the definition stated in the thesis.

• The conclusion should pull all the elements of the definition together at the end and reinforce the thesis.

Some Additional Tips About Definition

Avoid using the phrases “is where” and “is when” in your definition: “Total Quality Management is when management
and labor agree to. . . .” “A computer virus is where . . . .”

Avoid circular definitions (repeating the defined term within the predicate, the definition itself): “A computer virus is a
virus that destroys or disrupts software . . . .”
174 LET'S GET WRITING!

Avoid using a too narrow definition, one that would unduly limit the scope of your paper: “Reggae music is sung on the
Caribbean island of Jamaica. . . .”

Avoid defining the word by quoting the dictionary or encyclopedia because that detracts from your own thoughts and
opinions.

External Links

“I Learned to Understand Shame” (https://tinyurl.com/ybsp3ytz) by Joe Quinn. In this essay, Quinn defines
and analyzes shame by combining personal experience in post 9/11 America with research.

“Pride” (https://tinyurl.com/ydamxkqo) by Ian Frazier. In this essay, published by Outside Online, New Yorker
writer Ian Frazier uses a mix of rhetorical devices to define the concept of pride.

Student Sample Essay

Defining Good Students Means More Than Just Grades

Many people define good students as those who receive the best grades. While it is true that good students often earn
high grades, I contend that grades are just one aspect of how we define a good student. In fact, even poor students can
earn high grades sometimes, so grades are not the best indicator of a student’s quality. Rather, a good student pursues
scholarship, actively participates in class, and maintains a positive, professional relationship with instructors and peers.

Good students have a passion for learning that drives them to fully understand class material rather than just worry
about what grades they receive in the course. Good students are actively engaged in scholarship, which means they
enjoy reading and learning about their subject matter not just because readings and assignments are required. Of
course, good students will complete their homework and all assignments, and they may even continue to perform
research and learn more on the subject after the course ends. In some cases, good students will pursue a subject that
interests them but might not be one of their strongest academic areas, so they will not earn the highest grades. Pushing
oneself to learn and try new things can be difficult, but good students will challenge themselves rather than remain at
their educational comfort level for the sake of a high grade. The pursuit of scholarship and education rather than con-
cern over grades is the hallmark of a good student.

Class participation and behavior are another aspect of the definition of a good student. Simply attending class is not
enough; good students arrive punctually because they understand that tardiness disrupts the class and disrespects the
RHETORICAL MODES 175

professors. They might occasionally arrive a few minutes early to ask the professor questions about class materials or
mentally prepare for the day’s work. Good students consistently pay attention during class discussions and take notes
in lectures rather than engage in off-task behaviors, such as checking their cell phones or daydreaming. Excellent class
participation requires a balance between speaking and listening, so good students will share their views when appro-
priate but also respect their classmates’ views when they differ from their own. It is easy to mistake quantity of class
discussion comments with quality, but good students know the difference and do not try to dominate the conversation.
Sometimes class participation is counted toward a student’s grade, but even without such clear rewards, good students
understand how to perform and excel among their peers in the classroom.

Finally, good students maintain a positive and professional relationship with their professors. They respect their instruc-
tor’s authority in the classroom as well as the instructor’s privacy outside of the classroom. Prying into a professor’s
personal life is inappropriate, but attending office hours to discuss course material is an appropriate, effective way for
students to demonstrate their dedication and interest in learning. Good students go to their professor’s office during
posted office hours or make an appointment if necessary. While instructors can be very busy, they are usually happy to
offer guidance to students during office hours; after all, availability outside the classroom is a part of their job. Attending
office hours can also help good students become memorable and stand out from the rest, particularly in lectures with
hundreds enrolled. Maintaining positive, professional relationships with professors is especially important for those stu-
dents who hope to attend graduate school and will need letters of recommendation in the future.

Although good grades often accompany good students, grades are not the only way to indicate what it means to be a
good student. The definition of a good student means demonstrating such traits as engaging with course material, par-
ticipating in class, and creating a professional relationship with professors. While professors have different criteria for
earning an A in their courses, most will agree on these characteristics for defining good students.

8. CLASSIFICATION

The Purpose of Classification in Writing

The purpose of classification is to break down broad subjects into smaller, more manageable, more spe-
cific parts. We classify things in our daily lives all the time, often without even thinking about it. It is impor-
tant, however, to be sure to use a single basis for the division of categories; otherwise, you may end up with
items that fall into multiple categories. Cell phones, for example, have now become part of a broad cate-
gory. They can be classified as feature phones, media phones, and smartphones.

Smaller categories, and the way in which these categories are created, help us make sense of the world.
Keep both of these elements in mind when writing a classification essay.
176 LET'S GET WRITING!

Tip

Choose topics that you know well when writing classification essays. The more you know about a topic, the more you
can break it into smaller, more interesting parts. Adding interest and insight will enhance your classification essays.

Exercise 20

On a separate sheet of paper, break the following categories into smaller classifications.

1. The United States

2. Colleges and universities

3. Beverages

4. Fashion

The Structure of a Classification Essay

The classification essay opens with an introductory paragraph that introduces the broader topic. The thesis
should then explain how that topic is divided into subgroups and why. Take the following introductory para-
graph, for example:

When people think of New York, they often think of only New York City. But New York is actually a diverse
state with a full range of activities to do, sights to see, and cultures to explore. In order to better understand
the diversity of New York state, it is helpful to break it into five separate regions: Long Island, New York City,
Western New York, Central New York, and Northern New York.

The thesis explains not only the category and subcategory but also the rationale for breaking it into those
categories. Through this classification essay, the writer hopes to show his or her readers a different way of
considering the state.

Each body paragraph of a classification essay is dedicated to fully illustrating each of the subcategories. In
the previous example, then, each region of New York would have its own paragraph.

The conclusion should bring all the categories and subcategories back together again to show the reader
the big picture. In the previous example, the conclusion might explain how the various sights and activities
of each region of New York add to its diversity and complexity.
RHETORICAL MODES 177

Tip

To avoid settling for an overly simplistic classification, make sure you break down any given topic at least three different
ways. This will help you think outside the box and perhaps even learn something entirely new about a subject.

Exercise 21

Using your classifications from Exercise 20, write a brief paragraph explaining why you chose to organize each main
category in the way that you did.

Writing a Classification Essay

Start with an engaging opening that will adequately introduce the general topic that you will be dividing into
smaller subcategories. Your thesis should come at the end of your introduction. It should include the topic,
your subtopics, and the reason you are choosing to break down the topic in the way that you are. Use the
following classification thesis equation:

topic + subtopics + rationale for the subtopics = thesis.

The organizing strategy of a classification essay is dictated by the initial topic and the subsequent subtopics.
Each body paragraph is dedicated to fully illustrating each of the subtopics. In a way, coming up with a
strong topic pays double rewards in a classification essay. Not only do you have a good topic, but you also
have a solid organizational structure within which to write.

Be sure you use strong details and explanations for each subcategory paragraph that help explain and sup-
port your thesis. Also, be sure to give examples to illustrate your points. Finally, write a conclusion that links
all the subgroups together again. The conclusion should successfully wrap up your essay by connecting it
to your topic initially discussed in the introduction. Continue in this section to read a sample classification
essay.

Exercise 22

Consider things that are a part of your daily life. Create a list that classifies these items both as an overall categories
and then within sub-topics.
178 LET'S GET WRITING!

Assignment 7

Building on Exercises 21 and 22, write a five-paragraph classification essay about one of the four original topics. In
your thesis, make sure to include the topic, subtopics, and rationale for your breakdown. And make sure that your
essay is organized into paragraphs that each describes a subtopic.

Key Takeaways

• The purpose of classification is to break a subject into smaller, more manageable, more specific parts.

• Smaller subcategories help us make sense of the world, and the way in which these subcategories are
created also helps us make sense of the world.

• A classification essay is organized by its subcategories.

Example Essay

Types of Higher Education Programs

Today’s students have many choices when it comes to pursuing a degree: four-year programs, two-year programs, large
or small classroom settings, and even daytime or evening classes. With all the different options to consider, potential
students should learn about the different types of colleges, so they can find a school that best fits their personality,
budget, and educational goals.

One type of higher education program for students to consider is a liberal arts college. These schools tend to be small
in size and offer a range of undergraduate degrees in subjects like English, history, psychology, and education. Students
may choose a liberal arts college if they want a more intimate classroom setting rather than large lecture-style classes.
Students may also consider a liberal arts college if they want to gain knowledge from a variety of disciplines, rather than
focus on a single area of study. Many liberal arts schools are privately owned, and some have religious affiliations. Lib-
eral arts schools can come with a hefty price tag, and their high cost presents an obstacle for students on a tight budget;
moreover, while some students might appreciate a liberal arts school’s intimate atmosphere, others might encounter a
lack of diversity in the student body. Still, students seeking a well-rounded education in the humanities will find liberal
arts colleges to be one option.

Universities, another type of higher education program, offer both undergraduate and graduate degrees. Usually uni-
RHETORICAL MODES 179

versities are larger than colleges and can accommodate tens of thousands of students in many different majors and
areas of study. A large student body means that class sizes are often larger, and some classes may be taught by gradu-
ate students rather than professors. Students will feel at home at a university if they want a focused academic program
and state-of-the-art research facilities. While some universities are private, many are public, which means they receive
funding from the government, so tuition is more affordable, and some even offer discounted in-state tuition for state
residents. Also, universities attract many international students, so those looking for a variety of campus cultural groups
and clubs will appreciate a greater sense of diversity among the student body. Universities can be overwhelming for
some, but they are the right fit for students who seek research opportunities and academic studies, especially in the
fields of mathematics and science.

Community college is a type of higher education program popular with students on a limited budget who want to take
college courses but may not know what they want to major in. Most schools offer degrees after two years of study, usu-
ally an associate’s degree that prepares students to enter the workforce; many students choose to study at a commu-
nity college for two years and then transfer to a four-year college to complete their undergraduate degree. Like liberal
arts schools, classes are small and allow instructors to pay more attention to their students. Community college allows
students to live at home rather than in a dormitory, which also keeps costs down. While some young people might not
like the idea of living at home for school, many adults choose to attend community college so they can advance their
education while working and living with their families.

Online universities are another type of higher education program that are gaining popularity as technology improves.
These schools offer many of the same degree programs as traditional liberal arts colleges and universities. Unlike tradi-
tional programs, which require students to attend classes and lectures, online universities offer greater academic flexi-
bility and are a great option for students wishing to pursue a degree while still working full time. At online universities,
students access course materials, such as video lectures and assessments, remotely using a personal computer and are
able to speed up or slow down their progress to complete their degree at their own pace. Students may attend classes
in the comfort of their own homes or local libraries, but students hoping for the social community of higher education
might not enjoy this aspect of higher education.

With so many colleges and universities to choose from, it may be difficult for a student to narrow down his or her selec-
tion, but once a student knows what he or she is looking for, the process may become much easier. It is very important
for students to learn about the different types of higher education programs available before making their selections.

External Links

Amy Tan describes relationship with her heritage, her mother, and her languages in Mother Tongue
(https://tinyurl.com/hya7ob5). The essay is also available here (https://tinyurl.com/y7gbr9hs).

CC Licensed Content, Shared Previously

English Composition I, Lumen Learning, CC-BY 4.0.

180 LET'S GET WRITING!

Frameworks for Academic Writing, Stephen Poulter, CC-BY-NC-SA.

Writing for Success, CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0.

“Rhetoric and Composition/Description”, Wikibooks, Retrieved 6 September 2016, CC-BY-SA 3.0.

Image Credits

Figure 5.1 “Choosing Paragraph Patterns,” Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0.

Figure 5.2 “Transition Words and Phrases for Expressing Time,” Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community
College, CC-0.

Figure 5.3 “Five Senses,” Nicki Dugan Pogue, flickr, CC-BY-SA.

Figure 5.4 “Order Versus Purpose,” Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0.

Figure 5.5 “Phrases of Illustration,” Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0.

Figure 5.6 “Phrases of Causation,” Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0.

Figure 5.7 “Apples Green and Red,” Julenka, pixabay, CC-0.

Figure 5.8 “Organization Diagram,” Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0.

Figure 5.9 “Phrases of Comparison and Contrast,” Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0.

Let's Get Writing! by Jenifer Kurtz is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International
License, except where otherwise noted.
CHAPTER 6

Chapter 6 - Finding and Using Outside Sources

KATELYN BURTON

Many college courses require students to locate and use secondary sources in a research paper. Educators
assign research papers because they require you to find your own sources, confront conflicting evidence,
and blend diverse information and ideas—all skills required in any professional leadership role. Some
research papers also allow students to pursue their own topic of interest. In this section, we will answer the
following questions:

1. What are the different types of sources?

2. What makes a source scholarly or academic?

3. How can I create a research strategy?

4. Where can I find credible sources for my paper?

1. WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOURCES?

Why is it that even the most informative Wikipedia articles are still often considered illegitimate? What are
good sources to use instead? Above all, follow your professor’s guidelines for choosing sources. He or she
may have requirements for a certain number of articles, books, or websites you should include in your
paper. Be sure to familiarize yourself with your professor’s requirements.

The table below summarizes types of secondary sources in four tiers. All sources have their legitimate uses,
but the top-tier ones are considered the most credible for academic work.

Figure 6.1 Source Type Table

181
182 LET'S GET WRITING!

Tier Type Content Uses How to find them

Peer-reviewed acade- Rigorous research and Provide strong evidence for claims and ref- Academic article databases from the
1
mic publications analysis erences to other high-quality sources library’s website

Reports, articles, and

Well researched and even- Initial research on events or trends not yet Websites of relevant government/
books from credible
2 handed descriptions of an analyzed in the academic literature; may nonprofit agencies or academic article
non-academic
event or state of the world reference important Tier 1 sources databases from the library’s website
sources

Short pieces from Simple reporting of events, Often point to useful Tier 2 or Tier 1 Strategic Google searches or article
3 newspapers or credi- research findings, or policy sources, may provide a factoid or two not databases including newspapers and
ble websites changes found anywhere else magazines

Mostly opinion, varying in May represent a particular position within

Agenda-driven or
4 thoughtfulness and credi- a debate; more often provide keywords Non-specific Google searches
uncertain pieces
bility and clues about higher quality sources

Tier 1: Peer-reviewed academic publications

Sources from the mainstream academic literature include books and scholarly articles. Academic books gen-
erally fall into three categories: (1) textbooks written with students in mind, (2) academic books which give
an extended report on a large research project, and (3) edited volumes in which each chapter is authored
by different people.

Scholarly articles appear in academic journals, which are published multiple times a year to share the latest
research findings with scholars in the field. They’re usually sponsored by an academic society. To be pub-
lished, these articles and books had to earn favorable anonymous evaluations by qualified scholars. Who
are the experts writing, reviewing, and editing these scholarly publications? Your professors. We describe
this process below. Learning how to read and use these sources is a fundamental part of being a college
student.

Tier 2: Reports, articles, and books from credible non-academic sources

Some events and trends are too recent to appear in Tier 1 sources. Also, Tier 1 sources tend to be highly
FINDING AND USING OUTSIDE SOURCES 183

specific, and sometimes you need a more general perspective on a topic. Thus, Tier 2 sources can provide
quality information that is more accessible to non-academics. There are three main categories.

First, official reports from government agencies or major international institutions like the World Bank or
the United Nations; these institutions generally have research departments staffed with qualified experts
who seek to provide rigorous, even-handed information to decision-makers.

Second, feature articles from major newspapers and magazines like The New York Times, Wall Street Journal,
London Times, or The Economist are based on original reporting by experienced journalists (not press
releases) and are typically 1500+ words in length.

Third, there are some great books from non-academic presses that cite their sources; they’re often written
by journalists. All three of these sources are generally well researched descriptions of an event or state of
the world, undertaken by credentialed experts who generally seek to be even-handed. It is still up to you
to judge their credibility. Your instructors, librarians, or writing center consultants can advise you on which
sources in this category have the most credibility.

Tier 3. Short pieces from periodicals or credible websites

A step below the well-developed reports and feature articles that make up Tier 2 are the short tidbits that
one finds in newspapers and magazines or credible websites. How short is a short news article? Usually,
they’re just a couple paragraphs or less, and they’re often reporting on just one thing: an event, an interest-
ing research finding, or a policy change. They don’t take extensive research and analysis to write, and many
just summarize a press release written and distributed by an organization or business. They may describe
corporate mergers, newly discovered diet-health links, or important school-funding legislation.

You may want to cite Tier 3 sources in your paper if they provide an important factoid or two that isn’t pro-
vided by a higher-tier piece, but if the Tier 3 article describes a particular study or academic expert, your
best bet is to find the journal article or book it is reporting on and use that Tier 1 source instead. Sometimes
you can find the original journal article by putting the author’s name into a library database.

What counts as a credible website in this tier? You may need some guidance from instructors or librarians,
but you can learn a lot by examining the person or organization providing the information (look for an
“About” link on the website). For example, if the organization is clearly agenda-driven or not up-front about
its aims and/or funding sources, then it definitely isn’t a source you want to cite as a neutral authority. Also
look for signs of expertise. A tidbit about a medical research finding written by someone with a science back-
ground carries more weight than the same topic written by a policy analyst. These sources are sometimes
uncertain, which is all the more reason to follow the trail to a Tier 1 or Tier 2 source whenever possible. The
better the source, the more supported your paper will be.

Tip

It doesn’t matter how well supported or well written your paper is if you don’t cite your sources! A citing mistake or a
failure to cite could lead to a failing grade on the paper or in the class. For more information about citations, see Chap-
ter 7, “How and Why to Cite.”
184 LET'S GET WRITING!

Tier 4. Agenda-driven or pieces from unknown sources

This tier is essentially everything else. These types of sources—especially Wikipedia—can be helpful in iden-
tifying interesting topics, positions within a debate, keywords to search, and, sometimes, higher-tier sources
on the topic. They often play a critically important role in the early part of the research process, but they
generally aren’t (and shouldn’t be) cited in the final paper.

Exercise 1

Based on what you already know or what you can find from Tier 4 sources like Wikipedia, start a list of the people,
organizations, sources, and keywords that seem most relevant to your topic. You may need this background infor-
mation when you start searching for more scholarly sources later on.

Tip

Try to locate a mixture of different source types for your assignments. Some of your sources can be more popular, like
Tier 3 websites or encyclopedia articles, but you should also try to find at least a few Tier 1 or Tier 2 articles from jour-
nals or reputable magazines/newspapers.

Key Takeaways

• There are several different categories of academic and popular sources. Scholarly sources are usually
required in academic papers.

• It’s important to understand your professor’s requirements and look for sources that fill those require-
ments. Also, try to find a variety of different source types to help you fully understand your topic.

2. WHAT MAKES A SOURCE SCHOLARLY OR ACADEMIC?

Most of the Tier 1 sources available are academic articles, also called scholarly articles, scholarly papers,
journal articles, academic papers, or peer-reviewed articles. They all mean the same thing: a paper pub-
lished in an academic journal after being scrutinized anonymously and judged to be sound by other experts
in the subfield. Academic articles are essentially reports that scholars write to their peers—present and
future—about what they’ve done in their research, what they’ve found, and why they think it’s important.
FINDING AND USING OUTSIDE SOURCES 185

Scholarly journals and books from academic presses use a peer-review process to decide which articles
merit publication. The whole process, outlined below, can easily take a year or more!

Figure 6.2 Understanding the Academic Peer Review Process

186 LET'S GET WRITING!
FINDING AND USING OUTSIDE SOURCES 187

When you are trying to determine if a source is scholarly, look for the following characteristics:

• Structure: The full text article often begins with an abstract or summary containing the main
points of the article. It may also be broken down into sections like “Methods,” “Results,” and “Dis-
cussion.”
• Authors: Authors’ names are listed with credentials/degrees and places of employment, which are
often universities or research institutions.The authors are experts in the field.
• Audience: The article uses advanced vocabulary or specialized language intended for other schol-
ars in the field, not for the average reader.
• Length: Scholarly articles are often, but not always, longer than the popular articles found in gen-
eral interest magazines like Time, Newsweek, National Geographic, etc. Articles are longer because it
takes more content to explore topics in depth.
• Bibliography or Reference List: Scholarly articles include footnotes, endnotes or parenthetical in-
text notes referring to items in a bibliography or reference list. Bibliographies are important to
find the original source of an idea or quotation.

Figure 6.3 Example Scholarly Source

188 LET'S GET WRITING!
FINDING AND USING OUTSIDE SOURCES 189

Writing at Work

Finding high-quality, credible research doesn’t stop after college. Citing excellent sources in professional presenta-
tions and publications will impress your boss, strengthen your arguments, and improve your credibility.

Key Takeaways

• Academic sources follow a rigorous process called peer-review. Significant time and effort goes into
ensuring that scholarly journal articles are high-quality and credible.

• Skim a source and look for elements like a defined structure, author credentials, advanced language, and
a bibliography. If these elements are included, the source is likely academic or scholarly.

3. HOW CAN I CREATE A RESEARCH STRATEGY?

Now that you know what to look for, how should you go about finding academic sources? Having a plan in
place before you start searching will lead you to the best sources.

Research Questions

Many students want to start searching using a broad topic or even their specific thesis statement. If you
start with too broad of a topic, your search results list will overwhelm you. Imagine having to sort through
thousands of sources to try to find ones to use in your paper. That’s what happens when your topic is too
broad; your information will also be too broad. Starting with your thesis statement usually means you have
already formed an opinion about the topic. What happens if the research doesn’t agree with your thesis?
Instead of closing yourself off to one side of the story, it’s better to develop a research question that you
would like the research to help you answer about your topic.

Steps for Developing a Research Question

The steps for developing a research question, listed below, help you organize your thoughts.

Step 1: Pick a topic (or consider the one assigned to you).

Step 2: Write a narrower/smaller topic that is related to the first.

Step 3: List some potential questions that could logically be asked in relation to the narrow topic.
190 LET'S GET WRITING!

Step 4: Pick the question in which you are most interested.

Step 5: Modify that question as needed so that it is more focused.

Here’s an example:

Figure 6.4 Developing a Research Question

FINDING AND USING OUTSIDE SOURCES 191

Keywords & Search Terms

Starting with a research question helps you figure out precisely what you’re looking for. Next, you’ll need the
most effective set of search terms – starting from main concepts and then identifying related terms. These
keywords will become your search terms, and you’ll use them in library databases to find sources.

Identify the keywords in your research question by selecting nouns important to the meaning of your ques-
tion and leaving out words that don’t help the search, such as adjectives, adverbs, prepositions and, usually,
verbs. Nouns that you would use to tag your research question so you could find it later are likely to be its
main concepts.

Example: How are birds affected by wind turbines?

192 LET'S GET WRITING!

The keywords are birds and wind turbines. Avoid terms like affect and effect as search terms, even when
you’re looking for studies that report effects or effectiveness.These terms are common and contain many
synonyms, so including them as search terms can limit your results.

Example: What lesson plans are available for teaching fractions?

The keywords are lesson plans and fractions. Stick to what’s necessary. For instance, don’t include: chil-
dren—nothing in the research question suggests the lesson plans are for children; teaching—teaching isn’t
necessary because lesson plans imply teaching; available—available is not necessary.

Keywords can improve your searching in all different kinds of databases and search engines. Try using key-
words instead of entire sentences when you search Google and see how your search results improve.

For each keyword, list alternative terms, including synonyms, singular and plural forms of the words, and
words that have other associations with the main concept. Sometimes synonyms, plurals, and singulars
aren’t enough. Also consider associations with other words and concepts. For instance, it might help, when
looking for information on the common cold, to include the term virus—because a type of virus causes the
common cold.

Here’s an example of keywords & synonyms for our previous research question arranged in a graphic orga-
nizer called a Word Cloud:

Figure 6.5 What’s Your Research Question?

FINDING AND USING OUTSIDE SOURCES 193

Once you have keywords and alternate terms, you are prepared to start searching for sources in library
search engines called databases.

Exercise 2

Using the example shown above, create a Word Cloud for your research question. Think of at least five keywords
194 LET'S GET WRITING!

and alternate terms you might use for searching. If your class had a library session, you will find a copy of the Word
Cloud worksheet on your ENG 111 InfoGuide (http://infoguides.virginiawestern.edu/eng111) .

Key Takeaways

• It’s a good idea to begin the research process with a question you’d like to answer, instead of a broad
topic or a thesis statement.

• Creating a research strategy and finding keywords and alternate terms for your topic can help you locate
sources more effectively.

• Creating a Word Cloud to organize your thoughts makes searching for sources faster and easier.

4. WHERE CAN I FIND CREDIBLE SOURCES FOR MY PAPER?

The college library subscribes to databases (search engines) for credible, academic sources. Some are gen-
eral purpose databases that include the most prominent journals in many disciplines, and some are specific
to a particular discipline. Brown Library’s website (https://tinyurl.com/y9yu5pmn) includes a database list
containing over one hundred search engines, organized by subject area.

Sometimes the online database list is overwhelming for students. Please remember, you can always seek
advice from librarians on the best databases for your topic. Librarians have also createdInfoGuides
(http://infoguides.virginiawestern.edu/), which contain a list of databases and other credible resources for
different programs and courses offered at VWCC. Your English 111 InfoGuide (http://infoguides.virgini-
awestern.edu/eng111) is the best place to start your research for this class. View the “Finding Articles” tab to
see a list of databases that may work for your topic.

Exercise 3

From the list of databases in the English 111 InfoGuide (http://infoguides.virginiawestern.edu/eng111) , choose at
least two that you might want to search. Why did you choose those databases for your topic?

When you click on a link and open up a database, you will see a search box or several search boxes. Try typing some
of your keywords/search terms into the search box. If you don’t see the type or number of results you want, try
some of your other alternate terms. The main point is to keep trying! Sometimes you need to change your search
terms or try searching in a different database to find new or different results.
FINDING AND USING OUTSIDE SOURCES 195

Tip

If you can’t find the sources you need, visit the Reference Desk or set up an appointment for one-on-one help from a
librarian. You can find the library’s hours and contact information on the Brown Library Homepage (https://tinyurl.com/
y9yu5pmn).

Key Takeaways

• Academic libraries subscribe to special search engines for scholarly sources called databases.

• Librarians can help you find and use the best databases for your subject or topic.

Additional Links

English 111 InfoGuide, (http://infoguides.virginiawestern.edu/eng111) Brown Library

Scholarly Source Annotation, (http://libguides.radford.edu/scholarly) Radford University

CC-Licensed Content, Shared Previously

Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research. Cheryl Lowry, ed., CC-BY.

Writing in College: From Competence to Excellence. Amy Guptill, CC BY-NC-SA.

Image Credits

Figure 6.1 “Source Type Table,” Writing in College: From Competence to Excellence, by Amy Guptill, Open
SUNY, CC-BY-SA-NC.

Figure 6.2 “Understanding the Academic Peer Review Process,” Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community
College, CC-0.

Figure 6.3 “Example Scholarly Source”, Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-BY-SA, deriv-
ative image from “Transnational Debts: The Cultural Memory of Navajo Code Talkers in World War II” in
American Studies Journal, by Birgit Dawes, American Studies Journal, CC-BY-SA.

Figure 6.4 “Developing a Research Question,” Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0.
196 LET'S GET WRITING!

Figure 6.5 “What’s Your Research Question?,” Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0.

Let's Get Writing! by Katelyn Burton is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International
License, except where otherwise noted.
CHAPTER 7

Chapter 7 - How and Why to Cite

KATELYN BURTON

Figure 7.1 Citation Needed

One of the most important skills you can develop as a student is the ability to use outside sources correctly
and smoothly. Academic knowledge builds on the knowledge of others. When we cite others through our
quotations and paraphrases, we start with ideas established by others and build upon them to develop our
own ideas.

Specifically, this section will offer answers to these questions:

1. What is a quotation?

2. When should I quote?

3. How long should a quotation be?

4. What is a paraphrase?

5. When should I paraphrase?

6. What is effective paraphrasing?

7. When does paraphrasing become plagiarism?

197
198 LET'S GET WRITING!

8. How do I use signal phrases to introduce quotations and paraphrases?

9. How do I make a quotation work with the grammar of my own sentence?

10. How do I make a quotation work with the grammar of my own sentence if I am not quoting a
complete sentence?

11. What punctuation should I use with quotations?

12. What is plagiarism?

13. Why should I cite?

14. How can I avoid plagiarism?

15. What is common knowledge?

16. What is MLA?

17. How do I format references?

18. What do I do if my source differs from the basic pattern for a reference?

19. How do I format in-text citations?

1. WHAT IS A QUOTATION?

A quotation is one way you may make use of a source to support and illustrate points in your essay. A quo-
tation is made up of exact words from the source, and you must be careful to let your reader know that
these words were not originally yours. To indicate your reliance on exact words from a source, either place
the borrowed words between quotation marks or if the quotation is four lines or more, use indentation to
create a block quotation.

Once you have determined that you want to use a quotation, the following strategies will help you smoothly
fit quotations into your writing. We will discuss these strategies in more detail later in this chapter.

• Signal phrases help you integrate quoted material into your essay.
• Quotations must be made to work within the grammar of your sentences, whether you are quot-
ing phrases or complete sentences.
• Quotations must be properly punctuated.
• Quotations must contain a citation.

2. WHEN SHOULD I QUOTE?

Quote when the exact wording is necessary to make your point. For example, if you were analyzing the style
choices in Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech, you would quote because it would be important
to illustrate the unforgettable language or to use exact wording in a discussion of word choice and sentence
structure. You would also quote if the exact wording captures information, tone, or emotion that would be
lost if the source were reworded. Use quotations to assist with conciseness if it would take you longer to
HOW AND WHY TO CITE 199

relate the information if you were to put it into your own words. Finally, if you cannot reword the informa-
tion yourself and retain its meaning, you should quote it.

Source: It has begun. It is awful—continuous and earthquaking.

Quoting to preserve emotion: One nurse described an exchange between the two sides as “awful—con-
tinuous and earthquaking” (Burton 120).

3. HOW LONG SHOULD A QUOTATION BE?

Quote only as many words as necessary to capture the information, tone, or expression from the original
work for the new context that you are providing. Lengthy quotations actually can backfire on a writer
because key words from the source may be hidden among less important words. In addition, your own
words will be crowded out. Never quote a paragraph when a sentence will do; never quote a sentence when
a phrase will do; never quote a phrase when a word will do.

Source: It has begun. It is awful—continuous and earthquaking.

Quoting everything: One nurse described an artillery exchange between the two sides. She wrote, “It has
begun. It is awful—continuous and earthquaking” (Burton 120).

Quoting key words: One nurse described an artillery exchange between the two sides as “awful—continu-
ous and earthquaking” (Burton 120).

4. WHAT IS A PARAPHRASE?

A paraphrase preserves information from a source but does not preserve its exact wording. A paraphrase
uses vocabulary and sentence structure that is largely different from the language in the original. A para-
phrase may preserve specialized vocabulary shared by everyone in a field or discipline; otherwise, the writer
paraphrasing a source starts fresh, creating new sentences that repurpose the information in the source so
that the information plays a supportive role its new location.

5. WHEN SHOULD I PARAPHRASE?

Paraphrase when information from a source can help you explain or illustrate a point you are making in
your own essay, but when the exact wording of the source is not crucial.

Source: The war against piracy cannot be won without mapping and dividing the tasks at hand. I divide this
map into two parts: that which anyone can do now, and that which requires the help of lawmakers.

Paraphrase: Researchers argue that legislators will need to address the problem but that other people can
get involved as well (Lessig 563).

If you were analyzing Lessig’s style, you might want to quote his map metaphor; however, if you were focus-
ing on his opinions about the need to reform copyright law, a paraphrase would be appropriate.

6. WHAT IS EFFECTIVE PARAPHRASING?

Effective paraphrasing repurposes the information from a source so that the information plays a support-
ive role in its new location. This repurposing requires a writer to rely on her own sentence structure and
200 LET'S GET WRITING!

vocabulary. She creates her own sentences and chooses her own words so the source’s information will fit
into the context of her own ideas and contribute to the development of her thesis.

Source: Citizens of this generation witnessed the first concerted attempt to disseminate knowledge about
disease prevention and health promotion, downplaying or omitting altogether information about disease
treatment.

Effective Paraphrase: Murphy pointed out that in the first half of the nineteenth century, people worked
hard to spread information about how to prevent disease but did not emphasize how to treat diseases (415).

7. WHEN DOES PARAPHRASING BECOME PLAGIARISM?

A paraphrase should use vocabulary and sentence structure different from the source’s vocabulary and
sentence structure. Potential plagiarism occurs when a writer goes through a sentence from a source and
inserts synonyms without rewriting the sentence as a whole.

Source: Citizens of this generation witnessed the first concerted attempt to disseminate knowledge about
disease prevention and health promotion, downplaying or omitting altogether information about disease
treatment.

Potential plagiarism: People of this period observed the first organized effort to share information about
preventing disease and promoting health, deemphasizing or skipping completely information about treating
diseases (Murphy 141).

The sentence structure of the bad paraphrase is identical to the sentence structure of the source, matching
it almost word for word. The writer has provided an in-text citation pointing to Murphy as the source of the
information, but she is, in fact, plagiarizing because she hasn’t written her own sentence.

8. HOW DO I USE SIGNAL PHRASES TO INTRODUCE QUOTATIONS AND PARAPHRASES?

Use signal phrases that mention your source to help your reader distinguish between the source and your
own ideas. Do not drop quotes into your paper with no setup or explanation. This is your paper and your
arguments must be supported; this includes showing how the quote or paraphrase connects to and proves
your ideas. A signal verb introduces the quote that is coming and indicates your stance towards the mater-
ial.

Figure 7.2 Some Sample Signal Verbs

HOW AND WHY TO CITE 201

acknowledge emphasize

admit illustrate

agree note

argue observe

assert point out

claim report

comment state

compare suggest

complain summarize

describe write

Use different verbs of expression to avoid being monotonous but also because some verbs are better for
setting up the point you are making. For example, to stress weakness in a source’s argument, you might
choose to write that your source admits or concedes a point.

Paraphrase with signal phrase:

As the author points out, quotations are great, but sometimes paraphrases are better (DeVries 3).

Quotation with signal phrase:

In her diary, the nurse lamented that “one of the most stabbing things in this war is seeing the lines of
empty motor ambulances going up to bring down the wrecks who at this moment are sound and fit”
(Burton 413).

Some signal phrases do not make use of verbs but rely on signal phrases like according to or in the opinion
of or in the words of.

9. HOW DO I MAKE A QUOTATION WORK WITH THE GRAMMAR OF MY OWN SENTENCE?

Each quotation should be an element inside one of your own sentences and should not stand alone.

Example of an incorrect placement of quotation:

The author wrote about conditions for nurses during World War I. “One of the most stabbing things in
this war is seeing the lines of empty motor ambulances going up to bring down the wrecks who at this
moment are sound and fit” (Burton 441).

Notice that the quotation stands alone. It is not an element within one of your own sentences. Some begin-
ning writers might try to correct the problem by changing the period after “World War II” to a comma. How-
ever, that simply tacks one sentence to the end of another and creates a punctuation error. Instead, each
quotation must work within the grammar of one of your sentences.

One way to make a quotation work with sentence grammar is to place it after a verb of expression.
202 LET'S GET WRITING!

The author states, “One of the most stabbing things in this war is seeing the lines of empty motor ambu-
lances going up to bring down the wrecks who at this moment are sound and fit” (Burton 498).

10. HOW DO I MAKE A QUOTATION WORK WITH THE GRAMMAR OF MY OWN SENTENCE IF
I AM NOT QUOTING A COMPLETE SENTENCE?

A quoted phrase can play any number of roles in the grammar of a sentence: verb, subject or object, adjec-
tive or adverb. Look at the example below and pretend that there are no quotation marks. Would the
sentence still be grammatical? Yes. That shows that the quoted material works with the grammar of the sen-
tence.

The nurse makes the ambulances sound like tow trucks going to retrieve demolished vehicles when
she writes that it was horrible to watch “empty motor ambulances going up to bring down the wrecks”
of men (Burton 72).

To integrate a quotation into a sentence, omitting words from the source is acceptable if you follow two
rules: use ellipses (…) to signal the omission and avoid distorting the source’s meaning. It is also acceptable
to adjust capitalization and grammar provided that you follow two rules: use brackets [ ] to signal the change
and, again, avoid distorting the source’s meaning.

Lessig argues against the position that “[f]ile sharing threatens… the ability of creators to earn a fair
return from their creativity” (Lessig 203).

When he wrote his book, nearly everyone in the music industry felt that “[f]ile sharing threaten[ed]…the
ability of creators to earn a fair return from their creativity” (Lessig 203).

11. WHAT PUNCTUATION SHOULD I USE WITH QUOTATIONS?

Place quotation marks at the start and the end of direct quotations unless the quotation is long enough to
justify the use of the block quotation format (four lines or more).

The in-text, or parenthetical, citation shows your reader where your quotation or paraphrase ends. In-text
citations are inserted after the final quotation marks. An in-text citation is not found in the words that you
are quoting; it is something you create to identify the source for your readers.

If the quotation immediately follows a verb capturing the act of expression, place a comma after the verb:

As the author wrote, “A free culture has been our past, but it will only be our future if we change the
path we are on right now” (Lessig 287).

Under limited circumstances, a colon (:) can be used to introduce a quotation. The quotation must re-identify
or restate a phrase or idea that immediately precedes the colon.

Lessig reached a radical conclusion about copyrighted material: “It should become free if it is not worth
$1 to you” (251).

12. WHAT IS PLAGIARISM?

Plagiarism is using someone else’s work without giving him or her credit. “Work” includes text, ideas,
images, videos, and audio. In the academic world, you must follow these rules:
HOW AND WHY TO CITE 203

• When you use the exact words, you must use quotation marks and provide a citation.
• When you put the information into your own words, you must provide a citation.
• When you use an image, audio, or video created by someone else, you must provide a citation.

Plagiarism could happen with a sentence, a paragraph, or even just a word! For example, Stephen Colbert,
of the television show The Colbert Report, made up the word “truthiness,” meaning something that sounds
like it should be true. If you say in a paper something has a ring of “truthiness,” you should cite Colbert. If
someone else’s words catch your interest, you should cite them.

Figure 7.3 Colbert in May 2009

Key Takeaway

Plagiarism is a serious academic offense. Penalties can range from failing the assignment to failing the course
to being expelled. See the VWCC Student Policies (https://tinyurl.com/ycoznkku) webpage for more information
about academic misconduct and penalties.
204 LET'S GET WRITING!

Writing at Work

Image 7.4 Jonah Lehrer

Plagiarism isn’t just a problem in the academic world. There are many examples of people who plagiarized at work
and faced severe consequences. Jonah Lehrer (https://tinyurl.com/yb2ah7me), an author and staff writer for The
New Yorker, fabricated quotes and copied previous work for his book Imagine. Once his plagiarism was revealed, his
book was removed from bookstores and he was forced to resign from his job.

13. WHY SHOULD I CITE?

Whenever you use sources, it is important that you document them completely and accurately. You make
your work more useful to your reader through complete and careful documentation, so you should think of
documentation as essential rather than as an “add on” tacked on at the last minute.

When asked why you should cite your sources, many students reply, “So you don’t get accused of plagiariz-
ing.” It is true that you must provide citations crediting others’ work so as to avoid plagiarism, but scholars
use citations for many other (and more important!) reasons:

• To make your arguments more credible. You want to use the very best evidence to support your
claims. For example, if you are citing a statistic about a disease, you should be sure to use a credi-
ble, reputable source like the World Health Organization or Centers for Disease Control (CDC).
When you tell your reader the statistic comes from such a source, she will know to trust it– and
thereby trust your argument more.

• To show you’ve done your homework. You want to make it clear to your audience that you’ve
researched your subject, tried hard to inform yourself, and know what you are talking about. As
you dive deeper into your research, you will probably find certain authors are experts on the topic
and are mentioned in most of the articles and books. You should read these experts’ works and
incorporate them into your paper.
HOW AND WHY TO CITE 205

• To build a foundation for your paper. Great breakthroughs in scholarship are accomplished by
building on the earlier, groundbreaking work of others. For example, Isaac Newton’s law of univer-
sal gravitation would not have been possible without Johannes Kepler’s law of planetary motion.
What articles, books, and texts, inspired you to create your argument? You are not the first per-
son to ever consider this issue. You want to provide references to the works which led to your the-
sis.

• To allow your readers to find the sources for themselves. Someone interested in your topic may
be inspired to read some of the sources you used to write your paper. The citation within the
paper tells readers what part of your argument is addressed by a particular source, and the full
citation in the bibliography provides the information needed to track down that original research.

Key Takeaway

Citing sources doesn’t just save you from plagiarizing, it also adds credibility to your arguments, helps you build a
strong foundation for your work, and helps your readers locate more information about your topic.

14. HOW CAN I AVOID PLAGIARISM?

Don’t procrastinate. Students who rush make careless mistakes, such as forgetting to include a particular
citation or not having all the information needed for documentation. Students under pressure may also
make poor choices, such as not documenting sources and hoping the professor won’t notice. Your professor
will notice.

Take careful notes. You need to be very clear in your notes whether you are writing down word-for-word
what you found somewhere else, or if you are jotting down your own idea. You should take down all the
information you will need to create your citations.

Cite your sources. Whenever you quote, paraphrase, summarize, or share an unusual fact, tell your reader
where the information came from.

Document at the same time you draft. As you begin drafting, prepare a correctly formatted Works Cited
page that captures the information also needed for in-text citations. Insert citations into your paper as you
are writing it. If you cite-as-you-go, you won’t consume time looking up information all over again at the end,
and you make it less likely that you will misidentify or omit necessary documentation.

Get comfortable with the required citation style. The most commonly used citation styles are APA, MLA,
and Chicago/Turabian. While they share many similarities, they also have differing requirements about
what and when to cite. In English, we use MLA style. See section number 16 for more information about MLA
citations.

Figure 7.5 Citations

206 LET'S GET WRITING!

Ask your professor. If you’re not sure about citing something, check with your instructor. Learning when
to cite, how to lead-in to sources, and how to integrate them into your sentence structures and ideas takes
place over time and with feedback.

Key Takeaway

Don’t put off creating your citations until the last minute. Cite as you go and don’t be afraid to ask for help if you
need it along the way.

15. WHAT IS COMMON KNOWLEDGE?

Common knowledge is information that is accepted and known so widely you do not need to cite it:

• Common sayings or cliches. Examples: Curiosity killed the cat. Ignorance is bliss.
• Facts that can be easily verified. As you are conducting your research on a topic, you will see the
same facts repeated over and over. Example: You are writing a paper on presidential elections,
and you want to mention that Ronald Reagan was elected in 1980. Although you might not have
known this fact before your research, you have seen it multiple times and no one ever argues
about it.
• Facts that you can safely assume your readers know. Examples: Richmond is the capital of Vir-
ginia. The North won the U.S. Civil War. Fish breathe using gills.

Not all facts are common knowledge. You will still need to cite:

• Facts that surprise you or your reader. Example: Michelangelo was shorter than average
(Hughes and Elam 4).
• Facts that include statistics or other numbers. Example: As of June 2009, forty-two states had
laws that explicitly ban gay marriage, and six states have legalized it (U.S. Department of Labor).
HOW AND WHY TO CITE 207

• If you use the exact words of another writer, even if the content could be considered com-
mon knowledge. Example: Lincoln’s first campaign dates to “1832, when he ran as a Whig for the
Illinois state legislature from the town of New Salem and lost” (Lincoln 451).

Tip

Common knowledge can be course-specific. For example, the number of bones in the leg could be considered common
knowledge in an athletic training course. However, if you are using that fact in an English paper, you cannot assume
your professor would have that knowledge, and you would need to cite it.

Key Takeaway

Deciding if something is common knowledge is tricky and can vary depending on your course and your topic. When
in doubt, ask your professor for advice.

16. WHAT IS MLA?

Different fields prefer different methods of documenting the use of sources. In English, the citation style is
called MLA, from the initials of the Modern Language Association. When it comes to documentation, learn
to notice and apply the particular style that you are asked to use. Brown Library has online citation guides
(http://infoguides.virginiawestern.edu/citations) for several styles.

Writing at Work

Citations aren’t just for research papers and schoolwork. Any time you use outside sources, including in a speech or
PowerPoint presentation, you should cite your sources. When you give credit to others, your work is strengthened!

17. HOW DO I FORMAT REFERENCES?

References record bibliographic information about sources that have been cited in the text. The necessary
information is author, title, and details about publication (when the source was published and who pub-
lished it). The order of the information and the punctuation, abbreviation, and spacing conventions may dif-
208 LET'S GET WRITING!

fer depending on the documentation style, but the purpose of the references will be the same: to allow a
reader to easily track down your sources.

Basic MLA style reference for a book:

Author(s). Title of the Book. Publisher, Date.

Example:

Burton, Katelyn. The Best Librarian in the World

World. Oxford Press, 2016.

Basic MLA style reference for a journal article:

Author(s). “Title of the Article.” Title of the Journal, Volume number, Issue number. Date, including month or sea-
son if you have it, Page numbers. Database Title
Title, URL/Link to the article.

Example:

Burton, Katelyn. “Librarians Are Amazing.” Library Journal, vol. 22, no. 3. Spring 2016, pp. 7-28. JSTOR
JSTOR,
http://www.jstor.org/61245.

Basic MLA style reference for a webpage:

Author(s). “Title of the Webpage.”Title

Title of the Website
Website,, Date, including day and month if you have it, URL/Link to
the webpage.

Example:
HOW AND WHY TO CITE 209

Burton, Katelyn. “Tips for Citing Sources.”Brown

Brown Library Website
Website, 14 June 2016, http://http://www.virginiawest-
ern.edu/library/index.php.

18. WHAT SHOULD I DO IF MY SOURCE DIFFERS FROM THE BASIC PATTERN FOR A
REFERENCE?

The basic pattern is easy to recognize, but it is impossible to memorize all the variations for different
sources. Some sources are available online; some sources are audiovisual instead of print; some sources
have translators and editors. These and other details find their way into references. Learn to consult
resources that illustrate some of the variations, and then ask yourself which examples seem closest to the
source you are trying to document. Creating helpful references for your readers requires attention to both
the basic pattern and to details, as well as problem-solving skills and creativity.

Tip

Brown Library has some MLA examples on our MLA InfoGuide (https://tinyurl.com/y9fxlz7d). Virginia Commonwealth
University maintains aVCU Writes! website (https://rampages.us/vcuwrites/) with many more examples of correct MLA
citations for different materials. Librarians and Writing Center Consultants at Brown Library can also help you create
MLA citations for sources that don’t follow the basic pattern.

19. HOW DO I FORMAT IN-TEXT CITATIONS?

In-text citations point readers toward a source that a writer is using in her own article or essay. They are
placed inside your paragraphs, a position that explains why they are called “in-text.” In-text citations are also
called parenthetical citations because information identifying the source will be placed inside parentheses (
). A writer using MLA style will provide the following in-text information for her readers:

• Author’s last name or the name of the organization that created the source, unless it is previously
mentioned in the text.
• Page number if available
210 LET'S GET WRITING!

Example: In the first half of the nineteenth, century people worked hard to spread information about how
to prevent disease but did not emphasize how to treat diseases (Murphy 141).

Key Takeaways

• Different fields require different citation styles. In English, we use rules developed by the MLA.

• Don’t panic when it comes to learning MLA. Just find an example that closely matches your source and
use the pattern to help you decide what to do.

• Librarians and Writing Center (http://infoguides.virginiawestern.edu/writingcenter) Consultants can

help you figure out how to cite a source that doesn’t match the common examples.

Additional Links

Annotated MLA Sample Paper, (https://tinyurl.com/qzv2afu) Purdue Online Writing Lab

Citation InfoGuide, (http://infoguides.virginiawestern.edu/citations) Brown Library

MLA Examples, (https://tinyurl.com/ycanqqzx) VCU Writes!, Virginia Commonwealth University

Exploring Academic Integrity (https://tinyurl.com/ya3ckaxs), Indiana University Libraries

Public Domain Content

Radford University Core Handbook, Laurie Cubbison et al., CC-0.

Image Credits

Figure 7.1 “Citation Needed,” futuratlas.com, Wikimedia, CC-BY 2.0.

Figure 7.2 “Some Sample Signal Verbs,” Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0.

Figure 7.3 “Colbert in May 2009,” David Shankbone, Wikimedia, CC-BY 2.0.

Figure 7.4 “Jonah Lehrer,” Viva Vivanista, flickr, CC-BY-2.0.

Figure 7.5, “Citations,” Fixedandfrailing, flickr, CC-BY-SA 2.0.

Chapter 7 - How and Why to Cite by Katelyn Burton is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International
License, except where otherwise noted.
CHAPTER 8

Chapter 8 - Writing Basics: What Makes a Good

Sentence?

JENIFER KURTZ

1. Sentence writing

2. Subject-verb agreement

3. Verb tense

4. Capitalization

5. Pronouns

6. Adjectives and adverbs

7. Misplaced and dangling modifiers

1. SENTENCE WRITING

Imagine you are reading a book for school. You need to find important details that you can use for an assign-
ment. However, when you begin to read, you notice that the book has very little punctuation. Sentences fail
to form complete paragraphs and instead form one block of text without clear organization. Most likely, this
book would frustrate and confuse you. Without clear and concise sentences, it is difficult to find the infor-
mation you need.

For both students and professionals, clear communication is important. Whether you are typing an e-mail
or writing a report, it is your responsibility to present your thoughts and ideas clearly and precisely. Writing
in complete sentences is one way to ensure that you communicate well. This section covers how to recog-
nize and write basic sentence structures and how to avoid some common writing errors.

Components of a Sentence

Clearly written, complete sentences require key information: a subject, a verb, and a complete idea. A

211
212 LET'S GET WRITING!

sentence needs to make sense on its own. Sometimes, complete sentences are also called independent
clauses. A clause is a group of words that may make up a sentence. An independent clause is a group of
words that may stand alone as a complete, grammatically correct thought. The following sentences show
independent clauses.

Figure 8.1 “Sentence Components”

All complete sentences have at least one independent clause. You can identify an independent clause by
reading it on its own and looking for the subject and the verb.

Subjects

When you read a sentence, you may first look for the subject, or what the sentence is about. The subject
usually appears at the beginning of a sentence as a noun or a pronoun. A noun is a word that identifies a
person, place, thing, or idea. A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun. Common pronouns are I, he, she, it,
you, they, and we. In the following sentences, the subject is underlined once.

Malik is the project manager for this project. He will give us our assignments.

In these sentences, the subject is a person: Malik. The pronoun He replaces and refers back to Malik.

The computer lab is where we will work. It will be open twenty-four hours a day.

In the first sentence, the subject is a place: computer lab. In the second sentence, the pronoun It substitutes
for computer lab as the subject.

The project will run for three weeks. It will have a quick turnaround.

In the first sentence, the subject is a thing: project. In the second sentence, the pronoun It stands in for the
project.

Tip

In this chapter, please refer to the following grammar key:

WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 213

Subjects are underlined once.

Verbs are italicized.

LV means linking verb, HV means helping verb, and V means action verb.

Compound Subjects

A sentence may have more than one person, place, or thing as the subject. These subjects are called com-
pound subjects. Compound subjects are useful when you want to discuss several subjects at once.

Desmond and Maria have been working on that design for almost a year. Books, magazines, and online
articles are all good resources.

Prepositional Phrases

You will often read a sentence that has more than one noun or pronoun in it. You may encounter a group of
words that includes a preposition with a noun or a pronoun. Prepositions connect a noun, pronoun, or verb
to another word that describes or modifies that noun, pronoun, or verb. Common prepositions include in,
on, under, near, by, with, and about. A group of words that begin with a preposition is called a prepositional
phrase. A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and modifies or describes a word. It cannot act as
the subject of a sentence. The following circled phrases are examples of prepositional phrases.

Figure 8.2 “Prepositional Phrases”

Exercise 1

Read the following sentences. Underline the subjects, and circle the prepositional phrases.

1. The gym is open until nine o’clock tonight.

2. We went to the store to get some ice.

214 LET'S GET WRITING!

3. The student with the most extra credit will win a homework pass.

4. Maya and Tia found an abandoned cat by the side of the road.

5. The driver of that pickup truck skidded on the ice.

6. Anita won the race with time to spare.

7. The people who work for that company were surprised about the merger.

8. Working in haste means that you are more likely to make mistakes.

9. The soundtrack has over sixty songs in languages from around the world.

10. His latest invention does not work, but it has inspired the rest of us.

Verbs

Once you locate the subject of a sentence, you can move on to the next part of a complete sentence: the
verb. A verb is often an action word that shows what the subject is doing. A verb can also link the subject
to a describing word. There are three types of verbs that you can use in a sentence: action verbs, linking
verbs, or helping verbs.

Action Verbs

A verb that connects the subject to an action is called an action verb. An action verb answers the question
what is the subject doing? In the following sentences, the action verbs are in italics.

The dog barked at the jogger.

He gave a short speech before we ate.

Linking Verbs

A verb can often connect the subject of the sentence to a describing word. This type of verb is called a linking
verb because it links the subject to a describing word. In the following sentences, the linking verbs are in
italics.

The coat was old and dirty.

The clock seemed broken.

If you have trouble telling the difference between action verbs and linking verbs, remember that an action
verb shows that the subject is doing something, whereas a linking verb simply connects the subject to
another word that describes or modifies the subject.

A few verbs can be used as either action verbs or linking verbs.

WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 215

Action Verb: The boy looked for his glove.

Linking Verb: The boy looked tired.

Although both sentences use the same verb, the two sentences have completely different meanings. In the
first sentence, the verb describes the boy’s action. In the second sentence, the verb describes the boy’s
appearance.

Helping Verbs

A third type of verb you may use as you write is a helping verb. Helping verbs are verbs that are used with
the main verb to describe a mood or tense. Helping verbs are usually a form of be, do, or have. The word can
is also used as a helping verb.

The restaurantis known for its variety of dishes.

Shedoes speak up when prompted in class.

Wehave seen that movie three times.

Shecan tell when someone walks on her lawn.

(is, does, have, and can are helping verbs and known, speak up, seen, and tell are verbs)

Tip

Whenever you write or edit sentences, keep the subject and verb in mind. As you write, ask yourself these questions to
keep yourself on track:

Subject: Who or what is the sentence about?

Verb: Which word shows an action or links the subject to a description?

Exercise 2

Copy each sentence onto your own sheet of paper and underline the verb(s) twice. Name the type of verb(s) used
in the sentence in the space provided (LV, HV, or V).

1. The cat sounds ready to come back inside. ________

2. We have not eaten dinner yet. ________

216 LET'S GET WRITING!

3. It took four people to move the broken-down car. ________

4. The book was filled with notes from class. ________

5. We walked from room to room, inspecting for damages. ________

6. Harold was expecting a package in the mail. ________

7. The clothes still felt damp even though they had been through the dryer twice. ________

8. The teacher who runs the studio is often praised for his restoration work on old masterpieces. ________

Sentence Structure, Including Fragments and Run-ons

Now that you know what makes a complete sentence—a subject and a verb—you can use other parts of
speech to build on this basic structure. Good writers use a variety of sentence structures to make their work
more interesting. This section covers different sentence structures that you can use to make longer, more
complex sentences.

Sentence Patterns

Six basic subject-verb patterns can enhance your writing. A sample sentence is provided for each pattern.
As you read each sentence, take note of where each part of the sentence falls. Notice that some sentence
patterns use action verbs and others use linking verbs.

Subject–Verb

Computers (subject) hum (verb)

Subject–Linking Verb–Noun

Computers (subject) are (linking verb) tool (noun)

Subject–Linking Verb–Adjective

Computers (subject) are (linking verb) expensive (adjective)

Subject–Verb–Adverb

Computers (subject) calculate (verb) quickly (adverb)

Subject–Verb–Direct Object

When you write a sentence with a direct object (DO), make sure that the DO receives the action of the verb.

Sally (subject) rides (verb) a motorcycle (direct object)

WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 217

Subject–Verb–Indirect Object–Direct Object

In this sentence structure, an indirect object explains to whom or to what the action is being done. The indi-
rect object is a noun or pronoun, and it comes before the direct object in a sentence.

My coworker (subject) gave (verb) me (indirect object) the reports (direct object)

Exercise 3

Use what you have learned so far to bring variety in your writing. Use the following lines or your own sheet of paper
to write six sentences that practice each basic sentence pattern. When you have finished, label each part of the
sentence (S, V, LV, N, Adj, Adv, DO, IO).

1. ________________________________________________________________

2.________________________________________________________________

3.________________________________________________________________

4.________________________________________________________________

5.________________________________________________________________

6.________________________________________________________________

Collaboration

Find an article in a newspaper, a magazine, or online that interests you. Bring it to class or post it online. Then, looking
at a classmate’s article, identify one example of each part of a sentence (S, V, LV, N, Adj, Adv, DO, IO). Please share or
post your results.

Fragments

The sentences you have encountered so far have been independent clauses. As you look more closely at
your past writing assignments, you may notice that some of your sentences are not complete. A sentence
that is missing a subject or a verb is called a fragment. A fragment may include a description or may express
part of an idea, but it does not express a complete thought.

Fragment: Children helping in the kitchen.

218 LET'S GET WRITING!

Complete sentence: Children helping in the kitchen often make a mess.

You can easily fix a fragment by adding the missing subject or verb. In the example, the sentence was miss-
ing a verb. Adding often make a mess creates an S-V-N sentence structure.

Figure 8.3 “Editing Fragments That Are Missing a Subject or a Verb

WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 219

See whether you can identify what is missing in the following fragments.
220 LET'S GET WRITING!

Fragment: Told her about the broken vase.

Complete sentence: I told her about the broken vase.

Fragment: The store down on Main Street.

Complete sentence: The store down on Main Street sells music.

Common Sentence Errors

Fragments often occur because of some common error, such as starting a sentence with a preposition, a
dependent word, an infinitive, or a gerund. If you use the six basic sentence patterns when you write, you
should be able to avoid these errors and thus avoid writing fragments.

When you see a preposition, check to see that it is part of a sentence containing a subject and a verb. If it
is not connected to a complete sentence, it is a fragment, and you will need to fix this type of fragment by
combining it with another sentence. You can add the prepositional phrase to the end of the sentence. If you
add it to the beginning of the other sentence, insert a comma after the prepositional phrase.

Figure 8.4 “Editing Fragments That Begin with a Preposition”

WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 221

Example A
222 LET'S GET WRITING!

Incorrect: After walking over two miles. John remembered his wallet.

Correct: After walking over two miles, John remembered his wallet.

Correct: John remembered his wallet after walking over two miles.

Example B

Incorrect: The dog growled at the vacuum cleaner. When it was switched on.

Correct: When the vacuum cleaner was switched on, the dog growled.

Correct: The dog growled at the vacuum cleaner when it was switched on.

Clauses that start with a dependent word—such as since, because, without, or unless—are similar to prepo-
sitional phrases. Like prepositional phrases, these clauses can be fragments if they are not connected to an
independent clause containing a subject and a verb. To fix the problem, you can add such a fragment to the
beginning or end of a sentence. If the fragment is added at the beginning of a sentence, add a comma.

Incorrect: Because we lost power. The entire family overslept.

Correct: Because we lost power, the entire family overslept.

Correct: The entire family overslept because we lost power.

Incorrect: He has been seeing a physical therapist. Since his accident.

Correct: Since his accident, he has been seeing a physical therapist.

Correct: He has been seeing a physical therapist since the accident.

When you encounter a word ending in –ing in a sentence, identify whether or not this word is used as a verb
in the sentence. You may also look for a helping verb. If the word is not used as a verb or if no helping verb
is used with the –ing verb form, the verb is being used as a noun. An –ing verb form used as a noun is called
a gerund.

Verb: I was (helping verb) working (verb) on homework until midnight.

Noun: Working until midnight makes me tired the next morning.

Once you know whether the –ing word is acting as a noun or a verb, look at the rest of the sentence. Does
the entire sentence make sense on its own? If not, what you are looking at is a fragment. You will need to
either add the parts of speech that are missing or combine the fragment with a nearby sentence.

Figure 8.5 “Editing Fragments That Begin with a Gerund”

WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 223

Incorrect: Taking deep breaths. Saul prepared for his presentation.

224 LET'S GET WRITING!

Correct: Taking deep breaths, Saul prepared for his presentation.

Correct: Saul prepared for his presentation. He was taking deep breaths.

Incorrect: Congratulating the entire team. Sarah raised her glass to toast their success.

Correct: She was congratulating the entire team. Sarah raised her glass to toast their success.

Correct: Congratulating the entire team, Sarah raised her glass to toast their success.

Another error in sentence construction is a fragment that begins with an infinitive. An infinitive is a verb
paired with the word to; for example, to run, to write, or to reach. Although infinitives are verbs, they can be
used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. You can correct a fragment that begins with an infinitive by either
combining it with another sentence or adding the parts of speech that are missing.

Incorrect: We needed to make three hundred more paper cranes. To reach the one thousand mark.

Correct: We needed to make three hundred more paper cranes to reach the one thousand mark.

Correct: We needed to make three hundred more paper cranes. We wanted to reach the one thousand
mark.

Exercise 4

Copy the following sentences onto your own sheet of paper and circle the fragments. Then combine the fragment
with the independent clause to create a complete sentence.

1. Working without taking a break. We try to get as much work done as we can in an hour.

2. I needed to bring work home. In order to meet the deadline.

3. Unless the ground thaws before spring break. We won’t be planting any tulips this year.

4. Turning the lights off after he was done in the kitchen. Robert tries to conserve energy whenever possible.

5. You’ll find what you need if you look. On the shelf next to the potted plant.

6. To find the perfect apartment. Deidre scoured the classifieds each day.

External Links:

For more information about fragments, follow this link (https://tinyurl.com/yaggttd2).

Run-on Sentences

Just as short, incomplete sentences can be problematic, lengthy sentences can be problematic too. Sen-
WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 225

tences with two or more independent clauses that have been incorrectly combined are known as run-on
sentences. A run-on sentence may be either a fused sentence or a comma splice.

Fused sentence: A family of foxes lived under our shed young foxes played all over the yard.

Comma splice: We looked outside, the kids were hopping on the trampoline.

When two complete sentences are combined into one without any punctuation, the result is a fused sen-
tence. When two complete sentences are joined by a comma, the result is a comma splice. Both errors can
easily be fixed.

Punctuation

One way to correct run-on sentences is to correct the punctuation. For example, adding a period will correct
the run-on by creating two separate sentences.

Run-on: There were no seats left, we had to stand in the back.

Correct: There were no seats left. We had to stand in the back.

Using a semicolon between the two complete sentences will also correct the error. A semicolon allows you
to keep the two closely related ideas together in one sentence. When you punctuate with a semicolon, make
sure that both parts of the sentence are independent clauses.

External Links:

For more information on semicolons, see Capitalize Proper Nouns.

Run-on: The accident closed both lanes of traffic we waited an hour for the wreckage to be cleared.

Complete sentence: The accident closed both lanes of traffic; we waited an hour for the wreckage to be
cleared.

When you use a semicolon to separate two independent clauses, you may wish to add a transition word to
show the connection between the two thoughts. After the semicolon, add the transition word and follow it
with a comma.

Run-on: The project was put on hold we didn’t have time to slow down, so we kept working.

Complete sentence: The project was put on hold; however, we didn’t have time to slow down, so we kept
working.

Coordinating Conjunctions

You can also fix run-on sentences by adding a comma and a coordinating conjunction. A coordinating con-
junction acts as a link between two independent clauses.
226 LET'S GET WRITING!

Tip

These are the seven coordinating conjunctions that you can use: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. Use these words appro-
priately when you want to link the two independent clauses. The acronym FANBOYS will help you remember this group
of coordinating conjunctions.

Run-on: The new printer was installed, no one knew how to use it.

Complete sentence: The new printer was installed, but no one knew how to use it.

Dependent Words

Adding dependent words is another way to link independent clauses. Like the coordinating conjunctions,
dependent words show a relationship between two independent clauses.

Run-on: We took the elevator, the others still got there before us.

Complete sentence: Although we took the elevator, the others got there before us.

Run-on: Cobwebs covered the furniture, the room hadn’t been used in years.

Complete sentence: Cobwebs covered the furniture because the room hadn’t been used in years.

Writing at Work

Figure 8.6 “Sample e-mail”

WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 227

Isabelle’s e-mail opens with two fragments and two run-on sentences containing comma splices. The e-mail ends
with another fragment. What effect would this e-mail have on Mr. Blankenship or other readers? Mr. Blankenship
or other readers may not think highly of Isaebelle’s communication skills or—worse—may not understand the mes-
sage at all!

Communications written in precise, complete sentences are not only more professional but also easier to under-
stand. Before you hit the “send” button, read your e-mail carefully to make sure that the sentences are complete,
are not run together, and are correctly punctuated.

Exercise 5

A reader can get lost or lose interest in material that is too dense and rambling. Use what you have learned about
run-on sentences to correct the following passages:

1. The report is due on Wednesday but we’re flying back from Miami that morning. I told the project manager that
228 LET'S GET WRITING!

we would be able to get the report to her later that day she suggested that we come back a day early to get the
report done and I told her we had meetings until our flight took off. We e-mailed our contact who said that they
would check with his boss, she said that the project could afford a delay as long as they wouldn’t have to make any
edits or changes to the file our new deadline is next Friday.

2. Anna tried getting a reservation at the restaurant, but when she called they said that there was a waiting list so
she put our names down on the list when the day of our reservation arrived we only had to wait thirty minutes
because a table opened up unexpectedly which was good because we were able to catch a movie after dinner in
the time we’d expected to wait to be seated.

3. Without a doubt, my favorite artist is Leonardo da Vinci, not because of his paintings but because of his fasci-
nating designs, models, and sketches, including plans for scuba gear, a flying machine, and a life-size mechanical
lion that actually walked and moved its head. His paintings are beautiful too, especially when you see the computer
enhanced versions researchers use a variety of methods to discover and enhance the paintings’ original colors, the
result of which are stunningly vibrant and yet delicate displays of the man’s genius.

Key Takeaways

• A sentence is complete when it contains both a subject and verb. A complete sentence makes sense on
its own.

• Every sentence must have a subject, which usually appears at the beginning of the sentence. A subject
may be a noun (a person, place, or thing) or a pronoun.

• A prepositional phrase describes, or modifies, another word in the sentence but cannot be the subject of
a sentence.

• Variety in sentence structure and length improves writing by making it more interesting and more com-
plex.

• Fragments and run-on sentences are two common errors in sentence construction.

• Fragments can be corrected by adding a missing subject or verb. Fragments that begin with a preposition
or a dependent word can be corrected by combining the fragment with another sentence.

• Run-on sentences can be corrected by adding appropriate punctuation or adding a coordinating conjunc-
tion.

Writing Application

Using the six basic sentence structures, write one of the following:
WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 229

1. A work e-mail to a coworker about a presentation.

2. A business letter to a potential employer.

3. A status report about your current project.

4. A job description for your résumé.

External Links:

Choose this link for more information on how to correct run-on sentences.

2. SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

In the workplace, you want to present a professional image. Your outfit or suit says something about you
when meeting face-to-face, and your writing represents you in your absence. Grammatical mistakes in your
writing or even in speaking make a negative impression on coworkers, clients, and potential employers. Sub-
ject-verb agreement is one of the most common errors that people make. Having a solid understanding of
this concept is critical when making a good impression, and it will help ensure that your ideas are commu-
nicated clearly.

Agreement

Agreement in speech and in writing refers to the proper grammatical match between words and phrases.
Parts of sentences must agree, or correspond with other parts, in number, person, case, and gender.

• Number. All parts must match in singular or plural forms.

• Person. All parts must match in first person (I), second person (you), or third person (he, she, it,
they) forms.
• Case. All parts must match in subjective (I, you, he, she, it, they, we), objective (me, her, him, them,
us), or possessive (my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, their, theirs, our, ours) forms. For more infor-
mation on pronoun case agreement, see Pronoun Agreement.
• Gender. All parts must match in male or female forms.

Subject-verb agreement describes the proper match between subjects and verbs.

Because subjects and verbs are either singular or plural, the subject of a sentence and the verb of a sentence
must agree with each other in number. That is, a singular subject belongs with a singular verb form, and a
plural subject belongs with a plural verb form. For more information on subjects and verbs, see Sentence
Writing.

Singular: The cat jumps over the fence.

Plural: The cats jump over the fence.

230 LET'S GET WRITING!

Regular Verbs

Regular verbs follow a predictable pattern. For example, in the third person singular, regular verbs always
end in -s. Other forms of regular verbs do not end in -s. Study the following regular verb forms in the present
tense.

Figure 8.7 “Regular Verb Forms in the Present Tense”

Singular Form Plural Form

First Person I live We live

Second Person You live You live

Third Person He/She/It lives They live

Tip

Add an –es to the third person singular form of regular verbs that end in –sh, -x, –ch, and -s. (I wish/He wishes, I fix/She
fixes, I watch/It watches, I kiss/He kisses.)

Singular: I read every day.

Plural: We read every day.

In these sentences, the verb form stays the same for the first person singular and the first person plural.

Singular: You stretch before you go to bed.

Plural: You stretch before every game.

In these sentences, the verb form stays the same for the second person singular and the second person
plural. In the singular form, the pronoun you refers to one person. In the plural form, the pronoun you refers
to a group of people, such as a team.

Singular: My mother walks to work every morning.

In this sentence, the subject is mother. Because the sentence only refers to one mother, the subject is singu-
lar. The verb in this sentence must be in the third person singular form.

Plural: My friends like the same music as I do.

WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 231

In this sentence, the subject is friends. Because this subject refers to more than one person, the subject is
plural. The verb in this sentence must be in the third person plural form.

Tip

Many singular subjects can be made plural by adding an -s. Most regular verbs in the present tense end with an –s in
the third person singular. This does not make the verbs plural.

Singular subject, singular verb: The catraces across the yard.

Plural subject, plural verb: The catsrace across the yard.

Exercise 6

On your own sheet of paper, write the correct verb form for each of the following sentences.

1. I (brush/brushes) my teeth twice a day.

2. You (wear/wears) the same shoes every time we go out.

3. He (kick/kicks) the soccer ball into the goal.

4. She (watch/watches) foreign films.

5. Catherine (hide/hides) behind the door.

6. We (want/wants) to have dinner with you.

7. You (work/works) together to finish the project.

8. They (need/needs) to score another point to win the game.

9. It (eat/eats) four times a day.

10. David (fix/fixes) his own motorcycle.

Irregular Verbs

Not all verbs follow a predictable pattern. These verbs are called irregular verbs. Some of the most common
irregular verbs are be, have, and do. Learn the forms of these verbs in the present tense to avoid errors in
subject-verb agreement.
232 LET'S GET WRITING!

Be

Study the different forms of the verb to be in the present tense.

Figure 8.8 “Forms of To Be Present Tense”

Singular Form Plural Form

First Person I am We are

Second Person You are You are

Third Person He/She/It is They are

Have

Study the different forms of the verb to have in the present tense.

Figure 8.9 “Forms of To Have Present Tense”

Singular Form Plural Form

First Person I have We have

Second Person You have You have

Third Person He/She/It has They have

Do

Study the different forms of the verb to do in the present tense.

Figure 8.10 “Forms of To Do Present Tense”

Singular Form Plural Form

First Person I do We do

Second Person You do You do

Third person He/She/It does They do

WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 233

Exercise 7

Complete the following sentences by writing the correct present tense form of be, have, or do. Use your own sheet
of paper to complete this exercise.

1. I ________ sure that you will succeed.

2. They ________ front-row tickets to the show.

3. He ________ a great Elvis impersonation.

4. We ________ so excited to meet you in person!

5. She ________ a fever and a sore throat.

6. You ________ not know what you are talking about.

7. You ________ all going to pass this class.

8. She ________ not going to like that.

9. It ________ appear to be the right size.

10. They ________ ready to take this job seriously.

Errors in Subject-Verb Agreement

Errors in subject-verb agreement may occur when

• a sentence contains a compound subject;

• the subject of the sentence is separate from the verb;
• the subject of the sentence is an indefinite pronoun, such as anyone or everyone;
• the subject of the sentence is a collective noun, such as team or organization;
• the subject appears after the verb.

Recognizing the sources of common errors in subject-verb agreement will help you avoid these errors in
your writing. This section covers the subject-verb agreement errors in more detail.

Compound Subjects

A compound subject is formed by two or more nouns and the coordinating conjunctions and, or, or nor. A
compound subject can be made of singular subjects, plural subjects, or a combination of singular and plural
subjects.

Compound subjects combined with and take a plural verb form.

Two singular subjects: Alicia and Miguelride their bikes to the beach.
234 LET'S GET WRITING!

Two plural subjects: The girls and the boysride their bikes to the beach.

Singular and plural subjects: Alicia and the boysride their bikes to the beach.

Compound subjects combined with or and nor are treated separately. The verb must agree with the subject
that is nearest to the verb.

Two singular subjects: Neither Elizabeth nor Riannawants to eat at that restaurant.

Two plural subjects: Neither the kids nor the adultswant to eat at that restaurant.

Singular and plural subjects: Neither Elizabeth nor the kidswant to eat at that restaurant.

Plural and singular subjects: Neither the kids nor Elizabethwants to eat at that restaurant.

Two singular subjects: Either you or Jasontakes the furniture out of the garage.

Two plural subjects: Either you or the twinstake the furniture out of the garage.

Singular and plural subjects: Either Jason or the twinstake the furniture out of the garage.

Plural and singular subjects: Either the twins or Jasontakes the furniture out of the garage.

Tip

If you can substitute the word they for the compound subject, then the sentence takes the third person plural verb form.

Separation of Subjects and Verbs

As you read or write, you may come across a sentence that contains a phrase or clause that separates the
subject from the verb. Often, prepositional phrases or dependent clauses add more information to the sen-
tence and appear between the subject and the verb. However, the subject and the verb must still agree.

If you have trouble finding the subject and verb, cross out or ignore the phrases and clauses that begin
with prepositions or dependent words. The subject of a sentence will never be in a prepositional phrase or
dependent clause.

The following is an example of a subject and verb separated by a prepositional phrase:

The students with the best grades win the academic awards.

The puppy under the table is my favorite.

The following is an example of a subject and verb separated by a dependent clause:

WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 235

The car that I bought has power steering and a sunroof.

The representatives who are courteous sell the most tickets.

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns refer to an unspecified person, thing, or number. When an indefinite pronoun serves
as the subject of a sentence, you will often use a singular verb form.However, keep in mind that exceptions
arise. Some indefinite pronouns may require a plural verb form. To determine whether to use a singular or
plural verb with an indefinite pronoun, consider the noun that the pronoun would refer to. If the noun is
plural, then use a plural verb with the indefinite pronoun. View the chart to see a list of common indefinite
pronouns and the verb forms they agree with.

Figure 8.11 “Common Indefinite Pronouns”

Indefinite Pronouns That Always Take a Singular Verb Indefinite Pronouns That Can Take a Singular or Plural Verb

anybody, anyone, anything All

each Any

everybody, everyone, everything None

much Some

many

nobody, no one, nothing

somebody, someone, something

Singular: Everybody in the kitchen sings along when that song comes on the radio.

The indefinite pronoun everybody takes a singular verb form because everybody refers to a group performing
the same action as a single unit.

Plural: All the people in the kitchen sing along when that song comes on the radio.

The indefinite pronoun all takes a plural verb form because all refers to the plural noun people. Because
people is plural, all is plural.

Singular: Al l the cake is on the floor.

In this sentence, the indefinite pronoun all takes a singular verb form because all refers to the singular noun
cake. Because cake is singular, all is singular.
236 LET'S GET WRITING!

Collective Nouns

A collective noun is a noun that identifies more than one person, place, or thing and considers those people,
places, or things one singular unit. Because collective nouns are counted as one, they are singular and
require a singular verb. Some commonly used collective nouns are group, team, army, flock, family, and class.

Singular: The classis going on a field trip.

In this sentence, class is a collective noun. Although the class consists of many students, the class is treated
as a singular unit and requires a singular verb form.

The Subject Follows the Verb

You may encounter sentences in which the subject comes after the verb instead of before the verb. In other
words, the subject of the sentence may not appear where you expect it to appear. To ensure proper sub-
ject-verb agreement, you must correctly identify the subject and the verb.

Here or There

In sentences that begin with here or there, the subject follows the verb.

Here is my wallet!

There are thirty dolphins in the water.

If you have trouble identifying the subject and the verb in sentences that start with here or there; it may help
to reverse the order of the sentence so the subject comes first.

My walletis here!

Thirty dolphinsare in the water.

Questions

When you ask questions, a question word (who, what, where, when, why, or how) appears first. The verb and
then the subject follow.

Who are the people you are related to?

When am I going to go to the grocery store?

WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 237

Tip

If you have trouble finding the subject and the verb in questions, try answering the question being asked.

When am I going to the grocery store? I am going to the grocery store tonight!

Exercise 8

Correct the errors in subject-verb agreement in the following sentences. If there are no errors in subject-verb agree-
ment, write OK. Copy the corrected sentence or the word OK on your own sheet of notebook paper.

1. My dog and cats chases each other all the time.

2. The books that are in my library is the best I have ever read.

3. Everyone are going to the concert except me.

4. My family are moving to California.

5. Here is the lake I told you about.

6. There is the newspapers I was supposed to deliver.

7. Which room is bigger?

8. When are the movie going to start?

9. My sister and brother cleans up after themselves.

10. Some of the clothes is packed away in the attic.

Exercise 9

Correct the errors in subject-verb agreement in the following paragraph. Copy the paragraph on a piece of note-
book paper and make corrections.

Dear Hiring Manager,

I feels that I am the ideal candidate for the receptionist position at your company. I has three years of experience as
a receptionist in a company that is similar to yours. My phone skills and written communication is excellent. These
skills, and others that I have learned on the job, helps me understand that every person in a company helps make
238 LET'S GET WRITING!

the business a success. At my current job, the team always say that I am very helpful. Everyone appreciate when I
go the extra mile to get the job done right. My current employer and coworkers feels that I am an asset to the team.
I is efficient and organized. Is there any other details about me that you would like to know? If so, please contact
me. Here are my résumé. You can reach me by e-mail or phone. I looks forward to speaking with you in person.

Thanks,

Felicia Fellini

Writing at Work

Figure 8.12 “Advertisement”

Imagine that you are a prospective client and that you saw this ad online. Would you call Terra Services to handle
your next project? Probably not! Mistakes in subject-verb agreement can cost a company business. Paying careful
attention to grammatical details ensures professionalism that clients will recognize and respect.
WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 239

Key Takeaways

• Parts of sentences must agree in number, person, case, and gender.

• A verb must always agree with its subject in number. A singular subject requires a singular verb; a plural
subject requires a plural verb.

• Irregular verbs do not follow a predictable pattern in their singular and plural forms. Common irregular
verbs are be, have, and do.

• A compound subject is formed when two or more nouns are joined by the words and, or, or nor.

• In some sentences, the subject and verb may be separated by a phrase or clause, but the verb must still
agree with the subject.

• Indefinite pronouns, such as anyone, each, everyone, many, no one, and something, refer to unspecified
people or objects. Most indefinite pronouns are singular.

• A collective noun is a noun that identifies more than one person, place, or thing and treats those people,
places, or things one singular unit. Collective nouns require singular verbs.

• In sentences that begin with here and there, the subject follows the verb.

• In questions, the subject follows the verb.

Writing Application

Use your knowledge of subject-verb agreement to write one of the following:

1. An advertisement for a potential company

2. A memo to all employees of a particular company

3. A cover letter describing your qualifications to a potential employer

4. Be sure to include at least the following:

5. One collective noun

6. One irregular verb

7. One question
240 LET'S GET WRITING!

3. VERB TENSE

Suppose you must give an oral presentation about what you did last summer. How do you make it clear that
you are talking about the past and not about the present or the future? Using the correct verb tense can
help you do this.

It is important to use the proper verb tense. Otherwise, your listener might judge you harshly. Mistakes in
tense often leave a listener or reader with a negative impression.

Regular Verbs

Verbs indicate actions or states of being in the past, present, or future using tenses. Regular verbs follow
regular patterns when shifting from the present to past tense. For example, to form a past-tense or past-
participle verb form, add –ed or -d to the end of a verb. You can avoid mistakes by understanding this basic
pattern.

Verb tense identifies the time of action described in a sentence. Verbs take different forms to indicate dif-
ferent tenses. Verb tenses indicate

• an action or state of being in the present,

• an action or state of being in the past,
• an action or state of being in the future.

Helping verbs, such as be and have, also work to create verb tenses, such as the future tense.

Present Tense: Timewalks to the store. (Singular subject)

Present Tense: Sue and Kimmywalk to the store. (Plural subject)

Past Tense: Yesterday, theywalked to the store to buy some bread. (Singular subject)

Exercise 10

Complete the following sentences by selecting the correct form of the verb in simple present, simple past, or simple
future tenses. Write the corrected sentence on your own sheet of paper.

1. The Dust Bowl (is, was, will be) a name given to a period of very destructive dust storms that occurred in the
United States during the 1930s.

2. Historians today (consider, considered, will consider) The Dust Bowl to be one of the worst weather of events in
American history.

3. The Dust Bowl mostly (affects, affected, will affect) the states of Kansas, Colorado, Oklahoma, Texas, and New
Mexico.

4. Dust storms (continue, continued, will continue) to occur in these dry regions, but not to the devastating degree
of the 1930s.
WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 241

5. The dust storms during The Dust Bowl (cause, caused, will cause) irreparable damage to farms and the environ-
ment for a period of several years.

6. When early settlers (move, moved, will move) into this area, they (remove, removed, will remove) the natural
prairie grasses in order to plant crops and graze their cattle.

7. They did not (realize, realized, will realize) that the grasses kept the soil in place.

8. There (is, was, will be) also a severe drought that (affects, affected, will affect) the region.

9. The worst dust storm (happens, happened, will happen) on April 14, 1935, a day called Black Sunday.

10. The Dust Bowl era finally came to end in 1939 when the rains (arrive, arrived, will arrive).

11. Dust storms (continue, continued, will continue) to affect the region, but hopefully they will not be as destructive
as the storms of the 1930s.

Irregular Verbs

The past tense of irregular verbs is not formed using the patterns that regular verbs follow.

Here we consider using irregular verbs.

Present Tense: Lauren keeps all her letters.

Past Tense: Lauren kept all her letters.

Future Tense: Lauren will keep all her letters.

Exercise 11

Complete the following sentences by selecting the correct form of the irregular verb in simple present, simple past,
or simple future tense. Copy the corrected sentence onto your own sheet of paper.

1. Marina finally (forgived, forgave, will forgive) her sister for snooping around her room.

2. The house (shook, shaked, shakes) as the airplane rumbled overhead.

3. I (buyed, bought, buy) several items of clothing at the thrift store on Wednesday.

4. She (put, putted, puts) the lotion in her shopping basket and proceeded to the checkout

line.

5. The prized goose (layed, laid, lay) several golden eggs last night.

6. Mr. Batista (teached, taught, taughted) the class how to use correct punctuation.
242 LET'S GET WRITING!

7. I (drink, drank, will drink) several glasses of sparkling cider instead of champagne on

New Year’s Eve next year.

8. Although Hector (growed, grew, grows) three inches in one year, we still called him “Little Hector.”

9. Yesterday our tour guide (lead, led, will lead) us through the maze of people in Times Square.

10. The rock band (burst, bursted, bursts) onto the music scene with its catchy songs.

Exercise 12

On your own sheet of paper, write a sentence using the correct form of the verb tense shown below.

1. Throw (past)

2. Paint (simple present)

3. Smile (future)

4. Tell (past)

5. Share (simple present)

Maintaining Consistent Verb Tense

Consistent verb tense means the same verb tense is used throughout a sentence or a paragraph. As you
write and revise, it is important to use the same verb tense consistently and to avoid shifting from one tense
to another unless there is a good reason for the tense shift. In the following box, see whether you notice the
difference between a sentence with consistent tense and one with inconsistent tense.

Inconsistent tense:

The crowd starts cheering as Melina approached the finish line.

Consistent tense:

The crowd started cheering as Melina approached the finish line.

Consistent tense:

The crowd starts cheering as Melina approaches the finish line.

WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 243

Tip

In some cases, clear communication will call for different tenses. Look at the following example:

When I was a teenager, I wanted to be a firefighter, but not I am studying computer science.

If the time frame for each action or state is different, a tense shift is appropriate.

Exercise 13

Edit the following paragraph by correcting the inconsistent verb tense. Copy the corrected paragraph onto your own sheet
of paper.

In the Middle Ages, most people lived in villages and work as agricultural laborers, or peasants. Every village has a
“lord,” and the peasants worked on his land. Much of what they produce go to the lord and his family. What little
food was leftover goes to support the peasants’ families. In return for their labor, the lord offers them protection. A
peasant’s day usually began before sunrise and involves long hours of backbreaking work, which includes plowing
the land, planting seeds, and cutting crops for harvesting. The working life of a peasant in the Middle Ages is usually
demanding and exhausting.

Writing at Work

Read the following excerpt from a work e-mail:

Figure 8.12 “Work e-mail,”

244 LET'S GET WRITING!

The inconsistent tense in the e-mail will very likely distract the reader from its overall point. Most likely, your cowork-
ers will not correct your verb tenses or call attention to grammatical errors, but it is important to keep in mind that
errors such as these do have a subtle negative impact in the workplace.

Key Takeaways

Verb tense helps you express when an event takes place.

Regular verbs follow regular patterns when shifting from present to past tense.

Irregular verbs do not follow regular, predictable patterns when shifting from present to past tense.

Using consistent verb tense is a key element to effective writing.

Writing Application

Tell a family story. You likely have several family stories to choose from, but pick the one that you find most inter-
esting to write about. Use as many details as you can in the telling. As you write and proofread, make sure your all
your verbs are correct and the tenses are consistent.

External Links:

Follow this link (https://tinyurl.com/y7t629xu) for more information concerning verbs.

4. CAPITALIZATION

Text messages, casual e-mails, and instant messages often ignore the rules of capitalization. In fact, it can
seem unnecessary to capitalize in these contexts. In other, more formal forms of communication, however,
knowing the basic rules of capitalization and using capitalization correctly gives the reader the impression
that you choose your words carefully and care about the ideas you are conveying.

Capitalize the First Word of a Sentence

Incorrect: the museum has a new butterfly exhibit.

Correct: The museum has a new butterfly exhibit.

WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 245

Incorrect: cooking can be therapeutic.

Correct: Cooking can be therapeutic.

Capitalize Proper Nouns

Proper nouns—the names of specific people, places, objects, streets, buildings, events, or titles of individu-
als—are always capitalized.

Incorrect: He grew up in harlem, new york.

Correct: He grew up in Harlem, New York.

Incorrect: The sears tower in chicago has a new name.

Correct: The Sears Tower in Chicago has a new name.

Tip

Always capitalize nationalities, races, languages, and religions. For example, American, African American, Hispanic,
Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist, and so on.

Do not capitalize nouns for people, places, things, streets, buildings, events, and titles when the noun is used in general
or common way. See the following chart for the difference between proper nouns and common nouns.

Figure 8.13 “Common and Proper Nouns,”

246 LET'S GET WRITING!

Common Noun Proper Noun

museum The Art Institute of Chicago

theater Apollo Theater

country Malaysia

uncle Uncle Javier

doctor Dr. Jackson

book Pride and Prejudice

college Smith College

war the Spanish-American War

historical event The Renaissance

Exercise 14

On your own sheet of paper, write five proper nouns for each common noun that is listed. The first one has been
done for you.

Common noun: river

1. Nile River

2.

3.

Common noun: musician

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Common noun: magazine

1.

2.

3.

4.
WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 247

5.

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.

Capitalize Days of the Week, Months of the Year, and Holidays

Incorrect: On wednesday, I will be traveling to Austin for a music festival.

Correct: On Wednesday, I will be traveling to Austin for a music festival.

Incorrect: The fourth of july is my favorite holiday.

Correct: The Fourth of July is my favorite holiday.

Capitalize Titles

Incorrect: The play, fences, by August Wilson is one of my favorites.

Correct: The play, Fences, by August Wilson is one of my favorites.

Incorrect: The president of the united states will be speaking at my university.

Correct: The President of the United States will be speaking at my university.

Tip
248 LET'S GET WRITING!

Computer-related words such as “Internet” and “World Wide Web” are usually capitalized; however, “e-mail” and “online”
are never capitalized.

Exercise 15

Edit the following sentences by correcting the capitalization of the titles or names.

1. The prince of england enjoys playing polo.

2. “Ode to a nightingale” is a sad poem.

3. My sister loves to read magazines such as the new yorker.

4. The house on Mango street is an excellent novel written by Sandra Cisneros.

5. My physician, dr. alvarez, always makes me feel comfortable in her office.

Exercise 16

Edit the following paragraphs by correcting the capitalization.

david grann’s the lost City of Z mimics the snake-like winding of the amazon River. The three distinct Stories that are
introduced are like twists in the River. First, the Author describes his own journey to the amazon in the present day,
which is contrasted by an account of percy fawcett’s voyage in 1925 and a depiction of James Lynch’s expedition in
1996. Where does the river lead these explorers? the answer is one that both the Author and the reader are hungry
to discover.

The first lines of the preface pull the reader in immediately because we know the author, david grann, is lost in the
WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 249

amazon. It is a compelling beginning not only because its thrilling but also because this is a true account of grann’s
experience. grann has dropped the reader smack in the middle of his conflict by admitting the recklessness of his
decision to come to this place. the suspense is further perpetuated by his unnerving observation that he always
considered himself a Neutral Witness, never getting personally involved in his stories, a notion that is swiftly contra-
dicted in the opening pages, as the reader can clearly perceive that he is in a dire predicament—and frighteningly
involved.

Writing at Work

Did you know that, if you use all capital letters to convey a message, the capital letters come across like shouting?
In addition, all capital letters are actually more difficult to read and may annoy the reader. To avoid “shouting” at or
annoying your reader, follow the rules of capitalization and find other ways to emphasize your point.

Key Takeaways

Learning and applying the basic rules of capitalization is a fundamental aspect of good writing.

Identifying and correcting errors in capitalization is an important writing skill.

Writing Application

Write a one-page biography. Make sure to identify people, places, and dates and use capitalization correctly.

External Links:

Follow this link (https://tinyurl.com/y8bnxecf) for more information regarding capitalization.

5. PRONOUNS

If there were no pronouns, all types of writing would be quite tedious to read. We would soon be frustrated
by reading sentences like Bob said that Bob was tired or Christina told the class that Christina received an A.
Pronouns help a writer avoid constant repetition. Knowing just how pronouns work is an important aspect
of clear and concise writing.
250 LET'S GET WRITING!

Pronoun Agreement

A pronoun is a word that takes the place of (or refers back to) a noun or another pronoun. The word or
words a pronoun refers to is called the antecedent of the pronoun.

1. Lani complained that she was exhausted.

She refers to Lani.

Lani is the antecedent of she.

2. Jeremy left the party early, so I did not see him until Monday at work.

Him refers to Jeremy.

Jeremy is the antecedent of him.

3. Crina and Rosalie have been best friends ever since they were freshman in high school.

They refers to Crina and Rosalie.

Crina and Rosalie is the antecedent of they.

Pronoun agreement errors occur when the pronoun and the antecedent do not match or agree with each
other. There are several types of pronoun agreement.

Agreement in Number

If the pronoun takes the place of or refers to a singular noun, the pronoun must also be singular.

Incorrect: If a student (sing.) wants to return a book to the bookstore, they (plur.) must have a receipt.

Correct: If a student (sing.) wants to return a book to the bookstore, he or she (sing.) must have a receipt.

*If it seems too wordy to use he or she, change the antecedent to a plural noun.

Correct: If students (plur.) want to return a book to the bookstore, they (plur.) must have a receipt.

Agreement in Person

Figure 8.14 “Singular and Plural Pronouns”

Singular Pronouns Plural Pronouns

First Person I me my (mine) we us our (ours)

Second Person you you your (yours) you you your (your)

Third Person he, she, it him, her, it his, her, its they them their (theirs)
WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 251

If you use a consistent person, your reader is less likely to be confused.

Incorrect: When a person (3rd) goes to a restaurant, you (2nd) should leave a tip.

Correct: When a person (3rd) goes to a restaurant, he or she (3rd) should leave a tip.

Correct: When we (1st) go to a restaurant, I should (1st) should leave a tip.

Exercise 17

Edit the following paragraph by correcting pronoun agreement errors in number and person.

Over spring break I visited my older cousin, Diana, and they took me to a butterfly exhibit at a museum. Diana and
I have been close ever since she was young. Our mothers are twin sisters, and she is inseparable! Diana knows
how much I love butterflies, so it was their special present to me. I have a soft spot for caterpillars too. I love them
because something about the way it transforms is so interesting to me. One summer my grandmother gave me a
butterfly growing kit, and you got to see the entire life cycle of five Painted Lady butterflies. I even got to set it free.
So when my cousin said they wanted to take me to the butterfly exhibit, I was really excited!

Indefinite Pronouns and Agreement

Indefinite pronouns do not refer to a specific person or thing and are usually singular. Note that a pronoun
that refers to an indefinite singular pronoun should also be singular. The following are some common indef-
inite pronouns.

Figure 8.15 “Common Indefinite Pronouns”

Common Indefinite Pronouns

all each one few nothing several

any each other many one some

anybody either neither one another somebody

anything everybody nobody oneself someone

both everyone none other something

each everything no one others anyone

Indefinite pronoun agreement

252 LET'S GET WRITING!

Incorrect: Everyone (sing.) should do what they (plur.) can to help.

Correct: Everyone (sing.) should do what he or she (sing.) can to help.

Incorrect: Someone (sing.) left their (plur.) backpack in the library.

Correct: Someone (sing.) left his or her (sing.) backpack in the library.

Collective Nouns

Collective nouns suggest more than one person but are usually considered singular. Look over the following
examples of collective nouns.

Figure 8.16 “Common Collective Nouns”

Common Collective Nouns

audience faculty public

band family school

class government society

committee group team

company jury tribe

Collective noun agreement

Incorrect: Lara’s company (sing.) will have their (plur.) annual picnic next week.

Correct: Lara’s company (sing.) will have its (sing.) annual picnic next week.

Exercise 18

Complete the following sentences by selecting the correct pronoun. Copy the completed sentence onto your own
sheet of paper. Then circle the noun the pronoun replaces.

1. In the current economy, nobody wants to waste ________ money on frivolous things.

2. If anybody chooses to go to medical school, ________ must be prepared to work long hours.

3. The plumbing crew did ________ best to repair the broken pipes before the next ice storm.

4. If someone is rude to you, try giving ________ a smile in return.

5. My family has ________ faults, but I still love them no matter what.

6. The school of education plans to train ________ students to be literacy tutors.

WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 253

7. The commencement speaker said that each student has a responsibility toward ________.

8. My mother’s singing group has ________ rehearsals on Thursday evenings.

9. No one should suffer ________ pains alone.

10. I thought the flock of birds lost ________ way in the storm.

Subject and Object Pronouns

Subject pronouns function as subjects in a sentence. Object pronouns function as the object of a verb or of
a preposition.

Figure 8.17 “Singular and Plural Pronouns”

Singular Pronouns Plural Pronouns

Subject Object Subject Object

I me we us

you you you you

he, she, it him, her, it they them

The following sentences show pronouns as subjects:

She loves the Blue Ridge Mountains in the fall.

Every summer, they picked up litter from national parks.

The following sentences show pronouns as objects:

Marie leaned over and kissed him.

Jane moved it to the corner.

Tip

Note that a pronoun can also be the object of a preposition.

254 LET'S GET WRITING!

Near them, the children played.

My mother stood between us.

The pronouns us and them are objects of the prepositions near and between. They answer the questions near whom?
And between whom?

Compound subject pronouns are two or more pronouns joined by a conjunction or a preposition that func-
tion as the subject of the sentence.

The following sentences show pronouns with compound subjects:

Incorrect: Me and Harriet visited the Grand Canyon last summer.

Correct: Harriet and I visited the Grand Canyon last summer.

Correct: Jenna accompanied Harriet and me on our trip.

Tip

Note that object pronouns are never used in the subject position. One way to remember this rule is to remove the other
subject in a compound subject, leave only the pronoun, and see whether the sentence makes sense.

For example, Me visited the Grand Canyon last summer sounds immediately incorrect.

Compound object pronouns are two or more pronouns joined by a conjunction or a preposition that func-
tion as the object of the sentence.

Incorrect: I have a good feeling about Janice and I.

Correct: I have a good feeling about Janice and me.

WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 255

Tip

It is correct to write Janice and me, as opposed to me and Janice. Just remember it is more polite to refer to yourself last.

Writing at Work

In casual conversation, people sometimes mix up subject and object pronouns. For instance, you might say, “Me
and Donnie went to a movie last night.” However, when you are writing or speaking at work or in any other for-
mal situation, you need to remember the distinctions between subject and object pronouns and be able to correct
yourself. These subtle grammar corrections will enhance your professional image and reputation.

Exercise 19

Revise the following sentences in which the subject and object pronouns are used incorrectly. Copy the revised sen-
tence onto your own sheet of paper. Write a C for each sentence that is correct.

1. Meera and me enjoy doing yoga together on Sundays.

2. She and him have decided to sell their house.

3. Between you and I, I do not think Jeffrey will win the election.

4. Us and our friends have game night the first Thursday of every month.

5. They and I met while on vacation in Mexico.

6. Napping on the beach never gets boring for Alice and I.

7. New Year’s Eve is not a good time for she and I to have a serious talk.

8. You exercise much more often than me.

9. I am going to the comedy club with Yolanda and she.

10. The cooking instructor taught her and me a lot.

Who versus Whom

256 LET'S GET WRITING!

Who or whoever is always the subject of a verb. Use who or whoever when the pronoun performs the action
indicated by the verb.

Who won the marathon last Tuesday?

I wonder who came up with that terrible idea!

On the other hand, whom and whomever serve as objects. They are used when the pronoun does not per-
form an action. Use whom or whomever when the pronoun is the direct object of a verb or the object of a
preposition.

Whom did Frank marry the third time? (direct object of verb)

From whom did you buy that old record player? (object of preposition)

Tip

If you are having trouble deciding when to use who and whom, try this trick. Take the following sentence:

Who/Whom do I consider my best friend?

Reorder the sentence in your head, using either he or him in place of who or whom.

I consider him my best friend.

I consider he my best friend.

Which sentence sounds better? The first one, of course. So the trick is, if you can use him, you should use whom.

Exercise 20

Complete the following sentences by adding who or whom. Copy the completed sentence onto your own sheet of
paper.

1. ________ hit the home run?

2. I remember ________ won the Academy Award for Best Actor last year.

3. To ________ is the letter addressed?

4. I have no idea ________ left the iron on, but I am going to find out.
WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 257

5. ________ are you going to recommend for the internship?

6. With ________ are you going to Hawaii?

7. No one knew ________ the famous actor was.

8. ________ in the office knows how to fix the copy machine?

9. From ________ did you get the concert tickets?

10. No one knew_______ ate the cake mom was saving.

Key Takeaways

Pronouns and their antecedents need to agree in number and person.

Most indefinite pronouns are singular.

Collective nouns are usually singular.

Pronouns can function as subjects or objects.

Subject pronouns are never used as objects, and object pronouns are never used as subjects.

Who serves as a subject of a verb.

Whom serves as an object of a sentence or the object of a preposition.

Writing Application

Write about what makes an ideal marriage or long-term relationship. Provide specific details to back your asser-
tions. After you have written a few paragraphs, go back and proofread your paper for correct pronoun usage.

6. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

Adjectives and adverbs are descriptive words that bring your writing to life.

Adjectives and Adverbs

An adjective is a word that describes a noun or a pronoun. It often answers questions such as which one,
what kind, or how many?
258 LET'S GET WRITING!

1. The green sweater belongs to Iris.

2. She looks beautiful.

In sentence 1, the adjective green describes the noun sweater.

In sentence 2, the adjective beautiful describes the pronoun she.

An adverb is a word that describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs frequently end in –ly.
They answer questions such as how, to what extent, why, when, and where.

3. Bertrand sings horribly.

4. My sociology instructor is extremely wise.

5. He threw the ball very accurately.

In sentence 3, horribly describes the verb sings. How does Bertrand sing? He sings horribly.

In sentence 4, extremely describes the adjective wise. How wise is the instructor? Extremely wise.

In sentence 5, very describes the adverb accurately. How accurately did he throw the ball? Very accurately.

Exercise 21

Complete the following sentences by adding the correct adjective or adverb from the list in the previous section.
Identify the word as an adjective or an adverb (Adj, Adv).

1. Frederick ________ choked on the piece of chicken when he saw Margaret walk through the door.

2. His ________ eyes looked at everyone and everything as if they were specimens in a biology lab.

3. Despite her pessimistic views on life, Lauren believes that most people have ________ hearts.

4. Although Stefan took the criticism ________, he remained calm.

5. The child developed a ________ imagination because he read a lot of books.

6. Madeleine spoke ________ while she was visiting her grandmother in the hospital.

7. Hector’s most ________ possession was his father’s bass guitar from the 1970s.

8. My definition of a ________ afternoon is walking to the park on a beautiful day, spreading out my blanket, and
losing myself in a good book.

9. She ________ eyed her new coworker and wondered if he was single.

10. At the party, Denise ________ devoured two pieces of pepperoni pizza and a several slices of ripe watermelon.
WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 259

Comparative versus Superlative

Comparative adjectives and adverbs are used to compare two people or things.

1. Jorge is thin.

2. Steven is thinner than Jorge.

Sentence 1 describes Jorge with the adjective thin.

Sentence 2 compares Jorge to Steven, stating that Steven is thinner. So thinner is the comparative form of
thin.

Form comparatives in one of the following two ways:

If the adjective or adverb is a one syllable word, add –er to it to form the comparative. For example, big, fast,
and short would become bigger, faster, and shorter in the comparative form.

If the adjective or adverb is a word of two or more syllables, place the word more in front of it to form the
comparative. For example, happily, comfortable, and jealous would become more happily, more comfortable,
and more jealous in the comparative.

Superlative adjectives and adverbs are used to compare more than two people or two things.

1. Jackie is the loudest cheerleader on the squad.

2. Kenyatta was voted the most confident student by her graduating class.

Sentence 1 shows that Jackie is not just louder than one other person, but she is the loudest of all the cheer-
leaders on the squad.

Sentence 2 shows that Kenyatta was voted the most confident student of all the students in her class.

Form superlatives in one of the following two ways:

If the adjective or adverb is a one-syllable word, add –est to form the superlative. For example, big, fast, and
short would become biggest, fastest, and shortest in the superlative form.

If the adjective or adverb is a word of two or more syllables, place the word most in front of it. For example,
happily, comfortable, and jealous would become most happily, most comfortable, and most jealous in the
superlative form.

Tip

Remember the following exception: If the word has two syllables and ends in -y, change the -y to an -i and add -est. For
example, happy would change to happiest in the superlative form; healthy would change to healthiest.
260 LET'S GET WRITING!

Exercise 22

Edit the following paragraph by correcting the errors in comparative and superlative adjectives.

Our argument started on the most sunny afternoon that I have ever experienced. Max and I were sitting on my
front stoop when I started it. I told him that my dog, Jacko, was more smart than his dog, Merlin. I could not help
myself. Merlin never came when he was called, and he chased his tail and barked at rocks. I told Max that Merlin
was the most dumbest dog on the block. I guess I was angrier about a bad grade that I received, so I decided to pick
on poor little Merlin. Even though Max insulted Jacko too, I felt I had been more mean. The next day I apologized to
Max and brought Merlin some of Jacko’s treats. When Merlin placed his paw on my knee and licked my hand, I was
the most sorry person on the block.

Collaboration

Share and compare your answers with a classmate.

Irregular Words: Good

Good, Well
Well, Bad
Bad, and Badly

Good, well, bad, and badly are often used incorrectly. Study the following chart to learn the correct usage of
these words and their comparative and superlative forms.

Figure 8.18 “Irregular Words”

Comparative Superlative

Adjective good better best

Adverb well better best

Adjective bad worse worst

Adverb badly worse worst

Good versus Well

Good is always an adjective—that is, a word that describes a noun or a pronoun. The second sentence is
correct because well is an adverb that tells how something is done.

Incorrect: Cecilia felt that she had never done so good on a test.
WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 261

Correct: Cecilia felt that she had never done so well on a test.

Well is always an adverb that describes a verb, adverb, or adjective. The second sentence is correct because
good is an adjective that describes the noun score.

Incorrect: Cecilia’s team received a well score.

Correct: Cecilia’s team received a good score.

Bad versus Badly

Bad is always an adjective. The second sentence is correct because badly is an adverb that tells how the
speaker did on the test.

Incorrect: I did bad on my accounting test because I didn’t study.

Correct: I did badly on my accounting test because I didn’t study.

Badly is always an adverb. The second sentence is correct because bad is an adjective that describes the
noun thunderstorm.

Incorrect: The coming thunderstorm looked badly.

Correct: The coming thunderstorm looked bad.

Better and Worse

The following are examples of the use of better and worse:

Tyra likes sprinting better than long distance running.

The traffic is worse in Chicago than in Atlanta.

Best and Worst

The following are examples of the use of best and worst:

Tyra sprints best of all the other competitors.

Peter finished worst of all the runners in the race.

262 LET'S GET WRITING!

Tip

Remember better and worse compare two persons or things. Best and worst compare three or more persons or things.

Exercise 23

Write good, well, bad, or badly to complete each sentence. Copy the completed sentence onto your own sheet of
paper.

1. Donna always felt ________ if she did not see the sun in the morning.

2. The school board president gave a ________ speech for once.

3. Although my dog, Comet, is mischievous, he always behaves ________ at the dog park.

4. I thought my back injury was ________ at first, but it turned out to be minor.

5. Steve was shaking ________ from the extreme cold.

6. Apple crisp is a very ________ dessert that can be made using whole grains instead of white flour.

7. The meeting with my son’s math teacher went very ________.

8. Juan has a ________ appetite, especially when it comes to dessert.

9. Magritte thought the guests had a ________ time at the party because most people left early.

10. She ________ wanted to win the writing contest prize, which included a trip to New York.

Exercise 24

Write the correct comparative or superlative form of the word in parentheses. Copy the completed sentence onto
your own sheet of paper.

1. This research paper is ________ (good) than my last one.

2. Tanaya likes country music ________ (well) of all.

WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 263

3. My motorcycle rides ________ (bad) than it did last summer.

4. That is the ________ (bad) joke my father ever told.

5. The hockey team played ________ (badly) than it did last season.

6. Tracey plays guitar ________ (well) than she plays the piano.

7. It will go down as one of the ________ (bad) movies I have ever seen.

8. The deforestation in the Amazon is ________ (bad) than it was last year.

9. Movie ticket sales are ________ (good) this year than last.

10. My husband says mystery novels are the ________ (good) types of books.

Writing at Work

The irregular words good, well, bad, and badly are often misused along with their comparative and superlative forms
better, best, worse, and worst. You may not hear the difference between worse and worst, and therefore type it incor-
rectly. In a formal or business-like tone, use each of these words to write eight separate sentences. Assume these
sentences will be seen and judged by your current or future employer.

Key Takeaways

Adjectives describe a noun or a pronoun.

Adverbs describe a verb, adjective, or another adverb.

Most adverbs are formed by adding –ly to an adjective.

Comparative adjectives and adverbs compare two persons or things.

Superlative adjectives or adverbs compare more than two persons or things.

The adjectives good and bad and the adverbs well and badly are unique in their comparative and superlative forms
and require special attention.

Writing Application

Using the exercises as a guide, write your own ten-sentence quiz for your classmate(s) using the concepts covered
264 LET'S GET WRITING!

in this section. Try to include two questions from each subsection in your quiz. Exchange papers and see whether
you can get a perfect score.

7. MISPLACED AND DANGLING MODIFIERS

A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that clarifies or describes another word, phrase, or clause. Sometimes
writers use modifiers incorrectly, leading to strange and unintentionally humorous sentences. The two com-
mon types of modifier errors are called misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers. If either of these errors
occurs, readers can no longer read smoothly. Instead, they become stumped trying to figure out what the
writer meant to say. A writer’s goal must always be to communicate clearly and to avoid distracting the
reader with strange sentences or awkward sentence constructions. The good news is that these errors can
be easily overcome.

Misplaced Modifiers

A misplaced modifier is a modifier that is placed too far from the word or words it modifies. Misplaced mod-
ifiers make the sentence awkward and sometimes unintentionally humorous.

Incorrect: She wore a bicycle helmet on her head that was too large.

Correct: She wore a bicycle helmet that was too large on her head.

Notice in the incorrect sentence it sounds as if her head were too large! Of course, the writer is referring to
the helmet, not to the person’s head. The corrected version of the sentence clarifies the writer’s meaning.

Look at the following two examples:

Incorrect: They bought a kitten for my brother they call Shadow.

Correct: They bought a kitten they call Shadow for my brother.

In the incorrect sentence, it seems that the brother’s name is Shadow. That’s because the modifier is too far
from the word it modifies, which is kitten.

Incorrect: The patient was referred to the physician with stomach pains.

Correct: The patient with stomach pains was referred to the physician.

The incorrect sentence reads as if it were the physician who has stomach pains! What the writer means is
that the patient has stomach pains.
WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 265

Tip

Simple modifiers like only, almost, just, nearly, and barely often get used incorrectly because writers often stick them in
the wrong place.

Confusing: Tyler almost found fifty cents under the sofa cushions.

Revised: Tyler found almost fifty cents under the sofa cushions.

How do you almost find something? Either you find it or you do not. The revisedsentence is much clearer.

Exercise 25

On a separate sheet of paper, rewrite the following sentences to correct the misplaced modifiers.

1. The young lady was walking the dog on the telephone.

2. I heard that there was a robbery on the evening news.

3. Uncle Louie bought a running stroller for the baby that he called “Speed Racer.”

4. Rolling down the mountain, the explorer stopped the boulder with his powerful foot.

5. We are looking for a babysitter for our precious six-year-old who doesn’t drink or smoke and owns a car.

6. The teacher served cookies to the children wrapped in aluminum foil.

7. The mysterious woman walked toward the car holding an umbrella.

8. We returned the wine to the waiter that was sour.

9. Charlie spotted a stray puppy driving home from work.

10. I ate nothing but a cold bowl of noodles for dinner.

Dangling Modifiers

A dangling modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that describes something that has been left out of the sen-
tence. When there is nothing that the word, phrase, or clause can modify, the modifier is said to dangle.

Incorrect: Riding in the sports car, the world whizzed by rapidly.

266 LET'S GET WRITING!

Correct: As Jane was riding in the sports car, the world whizzed by rapidly.

In the incorrect sentence, riding in the sports car is dangling. The reader is left wondering who is riding in the
sports car. The writer must tell the reader!

Incorrect: Walking home at night, the trees looked like spooky aliens.

Correct: As Jonas was walking home at night, the trees looked like spooky aliens.

Correct: The trees looked like spooky aliens as Jonas was walking home at night.

In the incorrect sentence walking home at night is dangling. Who is walking home at night? Jonas. Note that
there are two different ways the dangling modifier can be corrected.

Incorrect: To win the spelling bee, Luis and Gerard should join our team.

Correct: If we want to win the spelling bee this year, Luis and Gerard should join our team.

In the incorrect sentence, to win the spelling bee is dangling. Who wants to win the spelling bee? We do!

Tip

The following three steps will help you quickly spot a dangling modifier:

Look for an –ing modifier at the beginning of your sentence or another modifying phrase:

Painting for three hours at night, the kitchen was finally finished by Maggie. (Painting is the –ing modifier.)

Underline the first noun that follows it:

Painting for three hours at night, the kitchen was finally finished by Maggie.

Make sure the modifier and noun go together logically. If they do not, it is very likely you have a dangling modifier.

After identifying the dangling modifier, rewrite the sentence.

Painting for three hours at night, Maggie finally finished the kitchen.

Exercise 26

Rewrite the following the sentences onto your own sheet of paper to correct the dangling modifiers.

1. Bent over backward, the posture was very challenging.

WRITING BASICS: WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENTENCE? 267

2. Making discoveries about new creatures, this is an interesting time to be a biologist.

3. Walking in the dark, the picture fell off the wall.

4. Playing a guitar in the bedroom, the cat was seen under the bed.

5. Packing for a trip, a cockroach scurried down the hallway.

6. While looking in the mirror, the towel swayed in the breeze.

7. While driving to the veterinarian’s office, the dog nervously whined.

8. The priceless painting drew large crowds when walking into the museum.

9. Piled up next to the bookshelf, I chose a romance novel.

10. Chewing furiously, the gum fell out of my mouth.

Exercise 27

Rewrite the following paragraph correcting all the misplaced and dangling modifiers.

I bought a fresh loaf of bread for my sandwich shopping in the grocery store. Wanting to make a delicious sandwich,
the mayonnaise was thickly spread. Placing the cold cuts on the bread, the lettuce was placed on top. I cut the sand-
wich in half with a knife turning on the radio. Biting into the sandwich, my favorite song blared loudly in my ears.
Humming and chewing, my sandwich went down smoothly. Smiling, my sandwich will be made again, but next time
I will add cheese.

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.

Key Takeaways

Misplaced and dangling modifiers make sentences difficult to understand.

Misplaced and dangling modifiers distract the reader.

268 LET'S GET WRITING!

There are several effective ways to identify and correct misplaced and dangling modifiers.

Writing Application

See how creative and humorous you can get by writing ten sentences with misplaced and dangling modifiers. This
is a deceptively simple task, but rise to the challenge. Your writing will be stronger for it. Exchange papers with a
classmate, and rewrite your classmate’s sentences to correct any misplaced modifiers.

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Let's Get Writing! by Jenifer Kurtz is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International
License, except where otherwise noted.
CHAPTER 9

Chapter 9 - Punctuation

JENIFER KURTZ

1. Commas

2. Semicolons

3. Colons

4. Quotes

5. Apostrophes

6. Parentheses

7. Dashes

8. Hyphens

1. COMMAS

One of the punctuation clues to reading you may encounter is the comma. The comma is a punctuation
mark that indicates a pause in a sentence or a separation of items in a list. Commas can be used in a variety
of ways. Look at some of the following sentences to see how you might use a comma when writing a sen-
tence.

• Introductory word: Personally, I think the practice is helpful.

• Lists: The barn, the tool shed, and the back porch were destroyed by the wind.
• Coordinating adjectives: He was a tired, hungry boy.
• Conjunctions in compound sentences: The bedroom door was closed, so the children knew
their mother was asleep.
• Interrupting words: I knew where it was hidden, of course, but I wanted them to find it them-
selves.
• Dates, addresses, greetings, and letters: The letter was postmarked December 8, 1945.
• Clarification: Let’s eat, Grandma.

269
270 LET'S GET WRITING!

Commas after an Introductory Word or Phrase

You may notice a comma that appears near the beginning of the sentence, usually after a word or phrase.
This comma lets the reader know where the introductory word or phrase ends and the main sentence
begins.

Without spoiling the surprise, we need to tell her to save the date.

In this sentence, without spoiling the surprise is an introductory phrase, while we need to tell her to save the
date is the main sentence. Notice how they are separated by a comma. When only an introductory word
appears in the sentence, a comma also follows the introductory word.

Ironically, she already had plans for that day.

Exercise 1

Look for the introductory word or phrase. On your own sheet of paper, copy the sentence and add a comma to
correct the sentence.

1. Suddenly the dog ran into the house.

2. In the blink of an eye the kids were ready to go to the movies.

3. Confused he tried opening the box from the other end.

4. Every year we go camping in the woods.

5. Without a doubt green is my favorite color.

6. Hesitating she looked back at the directions before proceeding.

7. Fortunately the sleeping baby did not stir when the doorbell rang.

8. Believe it or not the criminal was able to rob the same bank three times.

Commas in a List of Items

When listing several nouns in a sentence, separate each word with a comma. This allows the reader to pause
after each item and identify which words are included in the grouping. When you list items in a sentence, put
a comma after each noun, then add the word and before the last item. The Oxford comma is when one adds
a comma before the and that precedes the last item in the list. This is a style choice and is often optional.

We’ll need to get flour, tomatoes, and cheese at the store.

The pizza will be topped with olives, peppers and pineapple chunks.
PUNCTUATION 271

Commas and Coordinating Adjectives

You can use commas to list both adjectives and nouns. A string of adjectives that describe a noun are called
coordinating adjectives. These adjectives come before the noun they modify and are most often separated
by commas. One important thing to note, however, is that unlike listing nouns, the word and does not always
need to be before the last adjective.

It was a bright, windy, clear day. (a list of coordinating adjectives–no and needed)

Our kite glowed red, yellow, and blue in the morning sunlight. (a list of nouns–and needed)

Not all uses of two adjectives require a comma, though.

The class was made up of dedicated medical students. (both dedicated and medical describe students,
but medical is essential to confirm what type of students so no comma is needed.)

Exercise 2

On your own sheet of paper, use what you have learned so far about comma use to add commas to the following
sentences.

1. Monday Tuesday and Wednesday are all booked with meetings.

2. It was a quiet uneventful unproductive day.

3. We’ll need to prepare statements for the Franks Todds and Smiths before their portfolio

reviews next week.

4. Michael Nita and Desmond finished their report last Tuesday.

5. With cold wet aching fingers he was able to secure the sails before the storm.

6. He wrote his name on the board in clear precise delicate letters.

Commas before Conjunctions in Compound Sentences

Commas are sometimes used to separate two independent clauses that are included in the same sentence.
The comma comes after the first independent clause and is followed by a conjunction, such as for, and, or
but. For a full list of conjunctions, see “Writing Basics: What Makes a Good Sentence?”.

He missed class today, and he thinks he will be out tomorrow, too.

He says his fever is gone, but he is still very tired.

272 LET'S GET WRITING!

Exercise 3

On your own sheet of paper, create a compound sentence by combining the two independent clauses with a
comma and a coordinating conjunction.

1. The presentation was scheduled for Monday. The weather delayed the presentation for four days.

2. He wanted a snack before bedtime. He ate some fruit.

3. The patient is in the next room. I can hardly hear anything.

4. We could go camping for vacation. We could go to the beach for vacation.

5. I want to get a better job. I am taking courses at night.

6. I cannot move forward on this project. I cannot afford to stop on this project.

7. Patrice wants to stop for lunch. We will take the next exit to look for a restaurant.

8. I’ve got to get this paper done. I have class in ten minutes.The weather was clear yesterday. We decided to go on
a picnic.

9. I have never dealt with this client before. I know Leonardo has worked with them. Let’s ask Leonardo for his help.

Commas before and after Interrupting Words

In conversations, you might interrupt your train of thought by giving more details about what you are talking
about. In a sentence, you might interrupt your train of thought with a word or phrase called interrupting
words. Interrupting words can come at the beginning or middle of a sentence. When the interrupting words
appear at the beginning of the sentence, a comma appears after the word or phrase.

If you can believe it, people once thought the sun and planets orbited around Earth.

Luckily, some people questioned that theory.

When interrupting words come in the middle of a sentence, they are separated from the rest of the sentence
by commas. You can determine where the commas should go by looking for the part of the sentence that is
not essential for the sentence to make sense. In other words, you can take out the interrupting words, and
the sentence will still be complete and sensible.

My sister, a psychologist, lives in New York.

Her car, which has side air bags, has a higher insurance rate than her truck.
PUNCTUATION 273

Exercise 4

On your own sheet of paper, copy the sentence and insert commas to separate the interrupting words from the
rest of the sentence.

1. I asked my neighbors the retired couple from Florida to bring in my mail.

2. Without a doubt his work has improved over the last few weeks.

3. Our professor Mr. Alamut drilled the lessons into our heads.

4. The meeting is at noon unfortunately which means I will be late for lunch.

5. We came in time for the last part of dinner but most importantly we came in time for dessert.

6. All of a sudden our network crashed and we lost our files.

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.

Commas in Dates, Addresses, and the Greetings and Closings of Letters

You also use commas when you write a date, such as in cover letters and e-mails. Commas are used when
you write the date, when you include an address, and when you greet someone.

If you are writing out the full date, add a comma after the day and before the year. You do not need to add
a comma when you write the month and day or when you write the month and the year. If you need to con-
tinue the sentence after you add a date that includes the day and year, add a comma after the end of the
date.

The letter is postmarked May 4, 2001.

Her birthday is May 5.

He visited the country in July 2009.

I registered for the conference on March 7, 2010, so we should get our tickets soon.

Also use commas when you include addresses and locations. When you include an address in a sentence, be
sure to place a comma after the street and after the city. Do not place a comma between the state and the
274 LET'S GET WRITING!

zip code. Like a date, if you need to continue the sentence after adding the address, simply add a comma
after the address.

We moved to 4542 Boxcutter Lane, Hope, Missouri 70832.

After moving to Boston, Massachusetts, Eric used public transportation to get to work.

Greetings are also separated by commas. When you write an e-mail or a letter, you add a comma after the
greeting word or the person’s name. You also need to include a comma after the closing, which is the word
or phrase you put before your signature.

Hello,

I would like more information about your job posting.

Thank you,

Anita Al-Sayf

Dear Mrs. Al-Sayf,

Thank you for your letter. Please read the attached document for details.

Sincerely,

Jack Fromont

Exercise 5

On your own sheet of paper, use what you have learned about using commas to edit the following letter.

March 27 2010

Alexa Marché

14 Taylor Drive Apt. 6

New Castle Maine 90342

Dear Mr. Timmons

Thank you for agreeing to meet with me. I am available on Monday the fifth. I can stop by your office at any time. Is
your address still 7309 Marcourt Circle #501? Please get back to me at your earliest convenience.

Thank you
PUNCTUATION 275

Alexa

Commas for Clarification

Sometimes no specific rule calls for a comma, yet one is needed to clarify or eliminate confusion.

Unclear: To Emily Frank was an annoying person.

Clear: To Emily, Henry was an annoying person.

Unclear: The room was full of crying babies and mothers.

Clear: The room was fully of crying babies, and mothers.

Exercise 6

On your own sheet of paper, use what you have learned about comma usage to edit the following paragraphs.

1. My brother Nathaniel is a collector of many rare unusual things. He has collected lunch boxes limited edition
books and hatpins at various points of his life. His current collection of unusual bottles has over fifty pieces. Usually
he sells one collection before starting another.

2. Our meeting is scheduled for Thursday March 20. In that time we need to gather all our documents together.
Alice is in charge of the timetables and schedules. Tom is in charge of updating the guidelines. I am in charge of
the presentation. To prepare for this meeting please print out any e-mails faxes or documents you have referred to
when writing your sample.

3. It was a cool crisp autumn day when the group set out. They needed to cover several miles before they made
camp so they walked at a brisk pace. The leader of the group Garth kept checking his watch and their GPS location.
Isabelle Raoul and Maggie took turns carrying the equipment while Carrie took notes about the wildlife they saw.
As a result no one noticed the darkening sky until the first drops of rain splattered on their faces.

4. Please have your report complete and filed by April 15 2010. In your submission letter please include your contact
information the position you are applying for and two people we can contact as references. We will not be available
for consultation after April 10 but you may contact the office if you have any questions. Thank you HR Department.

Collaboration
276 LET'S GET WRITING!

Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.

Key Takeaways

• Punctuation marks provide visual cues to readers to tell them how to read a sentence and convey mean-
ing.

• A comma should be used after an introductory word to separate this word from the main sentence.

• A comma comes after every coordinating adjective except for the last adjective.

• Commas can be used to separate the two independent clauses in compound sentences as long as a con-
junction follows the comma.

• Commas are used to separate interrupting words from the rest of the sentence.

• When you write the date, you add a comma between the day and the year. You also add a comma after
the year if the sentence continues after the date.

• When they are used in a sentence, addresses have commas after the street address, and the city. If a
sentence continues after the address, a comma comes after the zip code.

• When you write a letter, you use commas in your greeting at the beginning and in your closing at the end
of your letter.

2. SEMICOLONS

Another punctuation mark that you will encounter is the semicolon (;). Like most punctuation marks, the
semicolon can be used in a variety of ways. The semicolon indicates a break in the flow of a sentence but
functions differently than a period or a comma. When you encounter a semicolon while reading aloud, this
represents a good place to pause and take a breath.

Semicolons to Join Two Independent Clauses

Use a semicolon to combine two closely related independent clauses. Relying on a period to separate the
related clauses into two shorter sentences could lead to choppy writing. Using a comma would create an
awkward run-on sentence.

Correct: Be sure to wear clean, well-pressed clothes to the interview; appearances are important.
PUNCTUATION 277

Choppy: Be sure to wear clean, well-pressed clothes to the interview. Appearances are important.

Incorrect: Be sure to wear clean, well-pressed clothes to the interview, appearances are important.

In this case, writing the independent clauses as two sentences separated by a period is correct. However,
using a semicolon to combine the clauses can make your writing more interesting by creating a variety of
sentence lengths and structures while preserving the flow of ideas.

Semicolons to Join Items in a List

You can also use a semicolon to join items in a list when the items in the list already require commas. Semi-
colons help the reader distinguish between items in the list.

Correct: The color combinations we can choose from are black, white, and grey; green, brown, and black; or
red, green, and brown.

Incorrect: The color combinations we can choose from are black, white, and grey, green, brown, and black,
or red, green, and brown.

By using semicolons in this sentence, the reader can easily distinguish between the three sets of colors.

Tip

Use semicolons to join two main clauses. Do not use semicolons with coordinating conjunctions such as and, or, and
but.

Exercise 7

On your own sheet of paper, correct the following sentences by adding semicolons. If the sentence is correct as it
is, write OK.

1. I did not notice that you were in the office I was behind the front desk all day.

2. Do you want turkey, spinach, and cheese roast beef, lettuce, and cheese or ham, tomato, and cheese?

3. Please close the blinds there is a glare on the screen.

4. Unbelievably, no one was hurt in the accident.

278 LET'S GET WRITING!

5. I cannot decide if I want my room to be green, brown, and purple green, black, and brown or green, brown, and
dark red.

6. Let’s go for a walk the air is so refreshing.

Key Takeaways

• Use a semicolon to join two independent clauses.

• Use a semicolon to separate items in a list when those items already require a comma.

3. COLONS

The colon (:) is another punctuation mark used to indicate a full stop. Use a colon to introduce lists, quotes,
examples, and explanations. You can also use a colon after the greeting in business letters and memos.

Dear Hiring Manager:

To: Human Resources

From: Deanna Dean

Colons to Introduce a List

Use a colon to introduce a list of items. Introduce the list with an independent clause.

The team will tour three states: New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland.

I have to take four classes this semester: Composition, Statistics, Ethics, and Italian.

Colons to Introduce a Quote

You can use a colon to introduce a quote.

Mark Twain said it best: “When in doubt, tell the truth.”

If a quote is longer than forty words, skip a line after the colon and indent the left margin of the quote five
spaces. Because quotations longer than forty words use line spacing and indentation to indicate a quote,
quotation marks are not necessary.

My father always loved Mark Twain’s words:

PUNCTUATION 279

There are basically two types of people. People who accomplish things, and people who claim

to have accomplished things. The first group is less crowded.

Tip

Long quotations, which are more than four typed lines, are called block quotations. Block quotations frequently
appear in longer essays and research papers. For more information about block quotations, see this resource
(https://tinyurl.com/nwzhlbk).

Colons to Introduce Examples or Explanations

Use a colon to introduce an example or to further explain an idea presented in the first part of a sentence.
The first part of the sentence must always be an independent clause; that is, it must stand alone as a com-
plete thought with a subject and verb. Do not use a colon after phrases like such as or for example.

Correct: Our company offers many publishing services: writing, editing, and reviewing.

Incorrect: Our company offers many publishing services, such as: writing, editing, and reviewing.

Also, do not use a colon after introductory verbs.

Correct: My favorite things to eat are dark chocolate, taffy, and french fries.

Incorrect: My favorite things to eat are: dark chocolate, taffy, and french fries.

Tip

Capitalize the first letter following a colon for a proper noun, the beginning of a quote, or the first letter of another inde-
pendent clause. Do NOT capitalize if the information following the colon is not a complete sentence.

Proper noun: We visited three countries: Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador.

280 LET'S GET WRITING!

Beginning of a quote: My mother loved this line from Hamlet: “To thine own self be true.”

Two independent clauses: There are drawbacks to modern technology: My brother’s cell phone died and
he lost a lot of phone numbers.

Incorrect: The recipe is simple: Tomato, basil, and avocado.

Exercise 8

On your own sheet of paper, correct the following sentences by adding semicolons or colons where needed. If the
sentence does not need a semicolon or colon, write OK.

1. Don’t give up you never know what tomorrow brings.

2. Our records show that the patient was admitted on March 9, 2010 January 13, 2010 and November 16, 2009.

3. Allow me to introduce myself I am the greatest ice-carver in the world.

4. Where I come from there are three ways to get to the grocery store by car, by bus, and by foot.

5. Listen closely you will want to remember this speech.

6. I have lived in Sedona, Arizona Baltimore, Maryland and Knoxville, Tennessee.

7. The boss’s message was clear Lateness would not be tolerated.

8. Next semester, we will read some more contemporary authors, such as Vonnegut, Miller, and Orwell.

9. My little sister said what we were all thinking “We should have stayed home.”

10. Trust me I have done this before.

Key Takeaways

• Use a colon to introduce a list, quote, or example.

• Use a colon after a greeting in business letters and memos.

4. QUOTES

Quotation marks (“ ”) set off a group of words from the rest of the text. Use quotation marks to indicate
direct quotations of another person’s words or to indicate a title. Quotation marks always appear in pairs.
PUNCTUATION 281

Direct Quotations

A direct quotation is an exact account of what someone said or wrote. To include a direct quotation in your
writing, enclose the words in quotation marks. An indirect quotation is a restatement of what someone said
or wrote. An indirect quotation does not use the person’s exact words. You do not need to use quotation
marks for indirect quotations.

Direct quotation: Carly said, “I’m not ever going back there again.”

Indirect quotation: Carly said that she would never go back there.

Writing at Work

Most word processing software is designed to catch errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation. While this can
be a useful tool, it is better to be well acquainted with the rules of punctuation than to leave the thinking to a com-
puter. Properly punctuated writing will convey your meaning clearly. Consider the subtle shifts in meaning in the
following sentences:

• The client said he thought our manuscript was garbage.

• The client said, “He thought our manuscript was garbage.”

The first sentence reads as an indirect quote in which the client does not like the manuscript. But did he actually
use the word “garbage”? (This would be alarming!) Or has the speaker paraphrased (and exaggerated) the client’s
words?
The second sentence reads as a direct quote from the client. But who is “he” in this sentence? Is it a third party?
Word processing software would not catch this because the sentences are not grammatically incorrect. However,
the meanings of the sentences are not the same. Understanding puntcuation will help you write what you mean,
and in this case, could save a lot of confusion around the office!

Punctuating Direct Quotations

Quotation marks show readers another person’s exact words. Often, you should identify who is speaking.
You can do this at the beginning, middle, or end of the quote. Notice the use of commas and capitalized
words.

Beginning: Madison said, “Let’s stop at the farmers’ market to buy some fresh vegetables for dinner.”

Middle: “Let’s stop at the farmers’ market,” Madison said, “to buy some fresh vegetables for dinner.”

End: “Let’s stop at the farmers’ market to buy some fresh vegetables for dinner,” Madison said.

Speaker not identified: “Let’s stop at the farmers’ market to buy some fresh vegetables for dinner.”

Always capitalize the first letter of a quote even if it is not the beginning of the sentence. When using iden-
tifying words in the middle of the quote, the beginning of the second part of the quote does not need to be
capitalized.
282 LET'S GET WRITING!

Use commas between identifying words and quotes. Quotation marks must be placed after commas and
periods. Place quotation marks after question marks and exclamation points only if the question or excla-
mation is part of the quoted text.

Question is part of quoted text: The new employee asked, “When is lunch?”

Question is not part of quoted text: Did you hear her say you were “the next Picasso”?

Exclamation is part of quoted text: My supervisor beamed, “Thanks for all of your hard work!”

Exclamation is not part of quoted text: He said I “single-handedly saved the company thousands of dol-
lars”!

Quotations within Quotations

Use single quotation marks (‘ ’) to show a quotation within in a quotation.

Theresa said, “I wanted to take my dog to the festival, but the man at the gate said, ‘No dogs allowed.’”

“When you say, ‘I can’t help it,’ what exactly does that mean?”

“The instructions say, ‘Tighten the screws one at a time.’”

Titles

Use quotation marks around titles of short works of writing, such as essays, songs, poems, short stories, arti-
cles in periodicals, and chapters in books. Usually, titles of longer works, such as books, magazines, albums,
newspapers, and novels, are italicized.

“Annabelle Lee” is one of my favorite romantic poems.

The New York Times has been in publication since 1851.

Writing at Work

In many businesses, the difference between exact wording and a paraphrase is extremely important. For legal pur-
poses, or for the purposes of doing a job correctly, it can be important to know exactly what the client, customer, or
supervisor said. Sometimes, important details can be lost when instructions are paraphrased. Use quotes to indi-
cate exact words where needed, and let your coworkers know the source of the quotation (client, customer, peer,
etc.).
PUNCTUATION 283

Exercise 9

Copy the following sentences onto your own sheet of paper, and correct them by adding quotation marks where
necessary. If the sentence does not need any quotation marks, write OK.

1. Yasmin said, I don’t feel like cooking. Let’s go out to eat.

2. Where should we go? said Russell.

3. Yasmin said it didn’t matter to her.

4. I know, said Russell, let’s go to the Two Roads Juice Bar.

5. Perfect! said Yasmin.

6. Did you know that the name of the Juice Bar is a reference to a poem? asked Russell.

7. I didn’t! exclaimed Yasmin. Which poem?

8. The Road Not Taken, by Robert Frost Russell explained.

9. Oh! said Yasmin, Is that the one that starts with the line, Two roads diverged in a yellow wood?

10. That’s the one said Russell.

Key Takeaways

Key Takeaways

• Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotes and titles of short works.

• Use single quotation marks to enclose a quote within a quote.

• Do not use any quotation marks for indirect quotations.

5. APOSTROPHES

An apostrophe (’) is a punctuation mark that is used with a noun to show possession or to indicate where a
letter has been left out to form a contraction.

Possession

An apostrophe and the letter s indicate who or what owns something. To show possession with a singular
noun, add ’s.
284 LET'S GET WRITING!

Jen’s dance routine mesmerized everyone in the room.

The dog’s leash is hanging on the hook beside the door.

Jess’s sister is also coming to the party.

Notice that singular nouns that end in s still take the apostrophe s (’s) ending to show possession.

To show possession with a plural noun that ends in s, just add an apostrophe (’). If the plural noun does not
end in s, add an apostrophe and an s (’s).

Plural noun that ends in s: The drummers’ sticks all moved in the same rhythm, like a machine.

Plural noun that does not end in s: The people’s votes clearly showed that no one supported the manage-
ment decision.

Tip

Do not use apostrophes for plurals. It is a common mistake and easy to find in signs and even newspapers.

Correct: The 1980s were when neon colors came into their own in the world of fashion.

Incorrect: The 1980’s were when neon color’s came into their own in the world of fashion.

Contractions

A contraction is a word that is formed by combining two words. In a contraction, an apostrophe shows
where one or more letters have been left out. Contractions are commonly used in informal writing but not
in formal writing.

I do not like ice cream.

I don’t like ice cream.

Notice how the words do and not have been combined to form the contraction don’t. The apostrophe shows
where the o in not has been left out.

We will see you later.

We’ll see you later.

Look at the chart for some examples of commonly used contractions.

PUNCTUATION 285

Figure 0.1 “Commonly Used Contractions”

Tip

Be careful not to confuse it’s with its. It’s is a contraction of the words it and is. Its is a possessive pronoun.
286 LET'S GET WRITING!

It’s cold and rainy outside. (It is cold and rainy outside.)

The cat was chasing its tail. (Shows that the tail belongs to the cat.)

When in doubt, substitute the words it is in a sentence. If sentence still makes sense, use the contraction it’s.

Exercise 10

On your own sheet of paper, correct the following sentences by adding apostrophes. If the sentence is correct as it
is, write OK.

1. “What a beautiful child! She has her mothers eyes.”

2. My brothers wife is one of my best friends.

3. I couldnt believe it when I found out that I got the job!

4. My supervisors informed me that I wouldnt be able to take the days off.

5. Each of the students responses were unique.

6. Wont you please join me for dinner tonight?

Key Takeaways

• Use apostrophes to show possession. Add ’s to singular nouns and plural nouns that do not end in s. Add
’ to plural nouns that end in s.

• Use apostrophes in contractions to show where a letter or letters have been left out.

6. PARENTHESES

Parentheses ( ) are punctuation marks that are always used in pairs and contain material that is secondary
to the meaning of a sentence. Parentheses must never contain the subject or verb of a sentence. A sentence
should make sense if you delete any text within parentheses and the parentheses.

Attack of the Killer Potatoes has to be the worst movie I have seen (so far).
PUNCTUATION 287

Your spinach and garlic salad is one of the most delicious (and nutritious) foods I have ever tasted!

Exercise 11

On your own sheet of paper, clarify the following sentences by adding parentheses. If the sentence is clear as it is,
write OK.

1. Are you going to the seminar this weekend I am?

2. I recommend that you try the sushi bar unless you don’t like sushi.

3. I was able to solve the puzzle after taking a few moments to think about it.

4. Please complete the questionnaire at the end of this letter.

5. Has anyone besides me read the assignment?

6. Please be sure to circle not underline the correct answers.

Key Takeaways

• Parentheses enclose information that is secondary to the meaning of a sentence.

• Parentheses are always used in pairs.

7. DASHES

A dash (—) is a punctuation mark used to set off information in a sentence for emphasis. You can enclose
text between two dashes, or use just one dash. To create a dash in Microsoft Word, type two hyphens
together. Do not put a space between dashes and text.

Arrive to the interview early—but not too early.

Any of the suits—except for the purple one—should be fine to wear.

Exercise 12

On your own sheet of paper, clarify the following sentences by adding dashes. If the sentence is clear as it is, write
OK.
288 LET'S GET WRITING!

1. Which hairstyle do you prefer short or long?

2. I don’t know I hadn’t even thought about that.

3. Guess what I got the job!

4. I will be happy to work over the weekend if I can have Monday off.

5. You have all the qualities that we are looking for in a candidate intelligence, dedication, and a strong work ethic.

Key Takeaways

• Dashes indicate a pause in text.

• Dashes set off information in a sentence to show emphasis.

8. HYPHENS

A hyphen (-) looks similar to a dash but is shorter and used in different ways.

Hyphens between Two Adjectives That Work as One

Use a hyphen to combine words that work together to form a single description.

The fifty–five–year–old athlete was just as qualified for the marathon as his younger opponents.

My doctor recommended against taking the medication, since it can be habit–forming.

My study group focused on preparing for the midyear review.

Hyphens When a Word Breaks at the End of a Line

Use a hyphen to divide a word across two lines of text. You may notice that most word-processing programs
will do this for you. If you have to manually insert a hyphen, place the hyphen between two syllables. If you
are unsure of where to place the hyphen, consult a dictionary or move the entire word to the next line.

My supervisor was concerned that the team meet–

ing would conflict with the client meeting.

PUNCTUATION 289

Key Takeaways

• Hyphens join words that work as one adjective.

• Hyphens break words across two lines of text.

CC Licensed Content, Shared Previously

Writing for Success, CC-BY-NC-SA.

Image Credits

Figure 9.1 “Commonly Used Contractions,” Kalyca Schultz, Virginia Western Community College, CC-0.

Let's Get Writing! by Jenifer Kurtz is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International
License, except where otherwise noted.
CHAPTER 10

Chapter 10 - Working With Words: Which Word is

Right?

JENIFER KURTZ

Just as a mason uses bricks to build sturdy homes, writers use words to build successful documents. Con-
sider the construction of a building. Builders need to use tough, reliable materials to build a solid and
structurally sound skyscraper. From the foundation to the roof and every floor in between, every part is
necessary. Writers need to use strong, meaningful words from the first sentence to the last and in every
sentence in between.

You already know many words that you use every day as part of your writing and speaking vocabulary. You
probably also know that certain words fit better in certain situations. Letters, e-mails, and even quickly jot-
ted grocery lists require the proper selection of vocabulary. Imagine you are writing a grocery list to pur-
chase the ingredients for a recipe but accidentally write down cilantro when the recipe calls for parsley. Even
though cilantro and parsley look remarkably alike, each produces a very different effect in food. This seem-
ingly small error could radically alter the flavor of your dish!

Having a solid everyday vocabulary will help you while writing, but learning new words and avoiding com-
mon word errors will make a real impression on your readers. Experienced writers know that deliberate,
careful word selection and usage can lead to more polished, more meaningful work. This chapter covers
word choice and vocabulary-building strategies that will improve your writing.

1. Commonly confused words

2. Spelling

3. Word choice

4. Prefixes and suffixes

5. Synonyms and antonyms

6. Using context clues

290
WORKING WITH WORDS: WHICH WORD IS RIGHT? 291

1. COMMONLY CONFUSED WORDS

Some words in English cause trouble for speakers and writers because these words share a similar pronun-
ciation, meaning, or spelling with another word. These words are called commonly confused words.

For example, read aloud the following sentences containing the commonly confused words new and knew:

I liked her new sweater.

I knew she would wear that sweater today.

These words may sound alike when spoken, but they carry entirely different usages and meanings. New is
an adjective that describes the sweater, and knew is the past tense of the verb to know. To read more about
adjectives, verbs, and other parts of speech see Chapter 8, “Writing Basics: What Makes a Good Sen-
tence?”.

Recognizing Commonly Confused Words

New and knew are just two of the words that can be confusing because of their similarities. Familiarize your-
self with the following list of commonly confused words. Recognizing these words in your own writing and
in other pieces of writing can help you choose the correct word.

Commonly Confused Words

A, An, And

• A (article). Used before a word that begins with a consonant.

• a key, a mouse, a screen
• An (article). Used before a word that begins with a vowel.
• an airplane, an ocean, an igloo
• And (conjunction). Connects two or more words together.
• peanut butter and jelly, pen and pencil, jump and shout

Accept, Except

• Accept (verb). Means to take or agree to something offered.

• They accepted our proposal for the conference.
• Except (conjunction). Means only or but.
• We could fly there except the tickets cost too much.

Affect, Effect

• Affect (verb). Means to create a change.

• Hurricane winds affect the amount of rainfall.
• Effect (noun). Means an outcome or result.
292 LET'S GET WRITING!

• The heavy rains will have an effect on the crop growth.

Are, Our

• Are (verb). A conjugated form of the verb be.

• My cousins are all tall and blonde.
• Our (pronoun). Indicates possession, usually follows the pronoun we.
• We will bring our cameras to take pictures.

By, Buy

• By (preposition). Means next to.

• My glasses are by the bed.
• Buy (verb). Means to purchase.
• I will buy new glasses after the doctor’s appointment.

Its, It’s

• Its (pronoun). A form of it that shows possession.

• The butterfly flapped its wings.
• It’s (contraction). Joins the words it and is.
• It’s the most beautiful butterfly I have ever seen.

Know, No

• Know (verb). Means to understand or possess knowledge.

• I know the male peacock sports the brilliant feathers.
• No. Used to make a negative.
• I have no time to visit the zoo this weekend.

Loose, Lose

• Loose (adjective). Describes something that is not tight or is detached.

• Without a belt, her pants are loose on her waist.
• Lose (verb). Means to forget, to give up, or to fail to earn something.
• She will lose even more weight after finishing the marathon training.

Of, Have

• Of (preposition). Means from or about.

• I studied maps of the city to know where to rent a new apartment.
• Have (verb). Means to possess something.
• I have many friends to help me move.
• Have (linking verb). Used to connect verbs.
WORKING WITH WORDS: WHICH WORD IS RIGHT? 293

• I should have helped her with that heavy box.

Quite, Quiet, Quit

• Quite (adverb). Means really or truly.

• My work will require quite a lot of concentration.
• Quiet (adjective). Means not loud.
• I need a quiet room to complete the assignments.
• Quit (verb). Means to stop or to end.
• I will quit when I am hungry for dinner.

Right, Write

• Right (adjective). Means proper or correct.

• When bowling, she practices the right form.
• Right (adjective). Also means the opposite of left.
• Begin the dance with your right foot.
• Write (verb). Means to communicate on paper.
• After the team members bowl, I will write down their scores.

Set, Sit

• Set (verb). Means to put an item down.

• She set the mug on the saucer.
• Set (noun). Means a group of similar objects.
• All the mugs and saucers belonged in a set.
• Sit (verb). Means to lower oneself down on a chair or another place
• I’ll sit on the sofa while she brews the tea.

Suppose, Supposed

• Suppose (verb). Means to think or to consider

• I suppose I will bake the bread because no one else has the recipe.
• Suppose (verb). Means to suggest.
• Suppose we all split the cost of the dinner.
• Supposed (verb). The past tense form of the verb suppose, meaning required or allowed.
• She was supposed to create the menu.

Than, Then

• Than (conjunction). Used to connect two or more items when comparing

• Registered nurses require less schooling than doctors.
• Then (adverb). Means next or at a specific time.
294 LET'S GET WRITING!

• Doctors first complete medical school and then obtain a residency.

Their, They’re, There

• Their (pronoun). A form of they that shows possession.

• The dog walkers feeds their dogs every day at two o’clock.
• They’re (contraction). Joins the words they and are.
• They’re the sweetest dogs in the neighborhood.
• There (adverb). Indicates a particular place.
• The dogs’ bowls are over there, next to the pantry.
• There (explitive used to delay the subject). Indicates the presence of something
• There are more treats if the dogs behave.

To, Two, Too

• To (preposition). Indicates movement.

• Let’s go to the circus.
• To. A word that completes an infinitive verb.
• to play, to ride, to watch.
• Two. The number after one. It describes how many.
• Two clowns squirted the elephants with water.
• Too (adverb). Means also or very.
• The tents were too loud, and we left.

Use, Used

• Use (verb). Means to apply for some purpose.

• We use a weed whacker to trim the hedges.
• Used. The past tense form of the verb to use
• He used the lawnmower last night before it rained.
• Used to. Indicates something done in the past but not in the present
• He used to hire a team to landscape, but now he landscapes alone.

Who’s, Whose

• Who’s (contraction). Joins the words who and either is or has.

• Who’s the new student? Who’s met him?
• Whose (pronoun). A form of who that shows possession.
• Whose schedule allows them to take the new student on a campus tour?

Your, You’re

• Your (pronoun). A form of you that shows possession.

WORKING WITH WORDS: WHICH WORD IS RIGHT? 295

• Your book bag is unzipped.

• You’re (contraction). Joins the words you and are.
• You’re the girl with the unzipped book bag.

Figure 10.1 “Camera Sign”

The English language contains so many words; no one can say for certain how many words exist. In fact,
many words in English are borrowed from other languages. Many words have multiple meanings and forms,
further expanding the immeasurable number of English words. Although the list of commonly confused
words serves as a helpful guide, even these words may have more meanings than shown here. When in
doubt, consult an expert: the dictionary!

Exercise 1

Complete the following sentences by selecting the correct word.

1. My little cousin turns ________(to, too, two) years old tomorrow.

2. The next-door neighbor’s dog is ________(quite, quiet, quit) loud. He barks constantly throughout the night.

3. ________(Your, You’re) mother called this morning to talk about the party.

4. I would rather eat a slice of chocolate cake ________(than, then) eat a chocolate muffin.
296 LET'S GET WRITING!

5. Before the meeting, he drank a cup of coffee and ________(than, then) brushed his teeth.

6. Do you have any ________(loose, lose) change to pay the parking meter?

7. Father must ________(have, of) left his briefcase at the office.

8. Before playing ice hockey, I was ________(suppose, supposed) to read the contract, but I only skimmed it and
signed my name quickly, which may ________(affect, effect) my understanding of the rules.

9. Tonight she will ________(set, sit) down and ________(right, write) a cover letter to accompany her résumé and job
application.

10. It must be fall, because the leaves ________(are, our) changing, and ________(it’s, its) getting darker earlier.

Strategies to Avoid Commonly Confused Words

When writing, you need to choose the correct word according to its spelling and meaning in the context. Not
only does selecting the correct word improve your vocabulary and your writing, but it also makes a good
impression on your readers. It also helps reduce confusion and improve clarity. The following strategies can
help you avoid misusing confusing words.

1. Use a dictionary. Keep a dictionary at your desk while you write. Look up words when you are uncertain
of their meanings or spellings. Many dictionaries are also available online, and the Internet’s easy access will
not slow you down. Check out your cell phone or smartphone to see if a dictionary app is available.

2. Keep a list of words you commonly confuse. Be aware of the words that often confuse you. When you
notice a pattern of confusing words, keep a list nearby, and consult the list as you write. Check the list again
before you submit an assignment to your instructor.

3. Study the list of commonly confused words. You may not yet know which words confuse you, but
before you sit down to write, study the words on the list. Prepare your mind for working with words by
reviewing the commonly confused words identified in this chapter.

Figure 10.2 ” A Commonly Misused Word on a Public Sign”

WORKING WITH WORDS: WHICH WORD IS RIGHT? 297

Tip

Commonly confused words appear in many locations, not just at work or at school. Be on the lookout for misused words
wherever you find yourself throughout the day. Make a mental note of the error and remember its correction for your
own pieces of writing.

Writing at Work

All employers value effective communication. From an application to an interview to the first month on the job,
employers pay attention to your vocabulary. You do not need a large vocabulary to succeed, but you do need to be
able to express yourself clearly and avoid commonly misused words.

When giving an important presentation on the effect of inflation on profit margins, you must know the difference
between effect and affect and choose the correct word. When writing an e-mail to confirm deliveries, you must know
if the shipment will arrive in to days, too days, or two days. Confusion may arise if you choose the wrong word. And,
whether fair or not, we do get judged on these things.

Consistently using the proper words will improve your communication and make a positive impression on your
boss and colleagues.
298 LET'S GET WRITING!

Exercise 2

The following paragraph contains eleven errors. Find each misused word and correct it by adding the proper word.

The original United States Declaration of Independence sets in a case at the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom as
part of the National Archives in Washington, DC. Since 1952, over one million visitors each year of passed through
the Rotunda too snap a photograph to capture they’re experience. Although signs state, “No Flash Photography,”
forgetful tourists leave the flash on, an a bright light flickers for just a millisecond. This millisecond of light may not
seem like enough to effect the precious document, but supposed how much light could be generated when all those
milliseconds are added up. According to the National Archives administrators, its enough to significantly damage
the historic document. So, now, the signs display quit a different message: “No Photography.” Visitors continue to
travel to see the Declaration that began are country, but know longer can personal pictures serve as mementos.
The administrators’ compromise, they say, is a visit to the gift shop for a preprinted photograph.

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.

Key Takeaways

• In order to write accurately, it is important for writers to be aware of commonly confused words.

• Although commonly confused words may look alike or sound alike, their meanings are very different.

• Consulting the dictionary is one way to make sure you are using the correct word in your writing. You
may also keep a list of commonly confused words nearby when you write or study the chart in this book.

• Choosing the proper words leaves a positive impression on your readers.

Writing Application

Review the latest assignment you completed for school or for work. Does it contain any commonly confused words?
Circle each example and use the circled words to begin your own checklist of commonly confused words. Continue
to add to your checklist each time you complete an assignment and find a misused word.
WORKING WITH WORDS: WHICH WORD IS RIGHT? 299

2. SPELLING

One essential aspect of good writing is accurate spelling. With computer spell checkers, spelling may seem
simple, but these programs fail to catch every error. Spell checkers identify some errors, but writers still
have to consider the flagged words and suggested replacements. Writers are still responsible for the errors
that remain.

For example, if the spell checker highlights a word that is misspelled and gives you a list of alternative words,
you may choose a word that you never intended even though it is spelled correctly. This can change the
meaning of your sentence. It can also confuse readers, making them lose interest. Computer spell check-
ers are useful editing tools, but they can never replace human knowledge of spelling rules, homonyms, and
commonly misspelled words. Also, autocorrect can sometimes make the wrong correction, changing the
meaning of your statement.

Common Spelling Rules

The best way to master new words is to understand the key spelling rules. Keep in mind, however, that some
spelling rules carry exceptions. A spell checker may catch these exceptions, but knowing them yourself will
prepare you to spell accurately on the first try. You may want to try memorizing each rule and its exception
like you would memorize a rhyme or lyrics to a song.

Write i before e except after c, or when pronounced ay like “neighbor” or “weigh.”

• achieve, niece, alien

• receive, deceive

When words end in a consonant plus y, drop the y and add an i before adding another ending.

• happy + er = happier
• cry + ed = cried

When words end in a vowel plus y, keep the y and add the ending.

• delay + ed = delayed

Memorize the following exceptions to this rule: day, lay, say, pay = daily, laid, said, paid

When adding an ending that begins with a vowel, such as –able, –ence, –ing, or –ity, drop the last e in a word.

• write + ing = writing

• pure + ity = purity

When adding an ending that begins with a consonant, such as –less, –ment, or –ly, keep the last e in a word.

• hope + less = hopeless

• advertise + ment = advertisement

For many words ending in a consonant and an o, add –s when using the plural form.
300 LET'S GET WRITING!

• photo + s = photos
• soprano + s = sopranos

Add –es to words that end in s, ch, sh, and x.

• church + es = churches
• fax + es = faxes

Exercise 3

Identify and correct the nine misspelled words in the following paragraph.

Sherman J. Alexie Jr. was born in October 1966. He is a Spokane/Coeur d’Alene Indian and an American writer, poet,
and filmmaker. Alexie was born with hydrocephalus, or water on the brain. This condition led doctors to predict
that he would likly suffer long-term brain damage and possibly mental retardation. Although Alexie survived with
no mental disabilitys, he did suffer other serious side effects from his condition that plagud him throughout his
childhood. Amazingly, Alexie learned to read by the age of three, and by age five he had read novels such as John
Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath. Reared on an Indian reservation, Alexie often felt aleinated from his peers because
of his avid love for reading and also from the long-term effects of his illness, which often kept him from socialize-
ing with his peers on the reservation. The reading skills he displaid at such a young age foreshadowed what he
would later become. Today Alexie is a prolific and successful writer with several story anthologeis to his credit, note-
ably The Lone Ranger and Tonto Fistfight in Heaven and The Toughest Indian in the World. Most of his fiction is about
contemporary Native Americans who are influenced by pop culture and pow wows and everything in between. His
work is sometimes funny but always thoughtful and full of richness and depth. Alexie also writes poetry, novels,
and screenplays. His latest collection of storys is called War Dances, which came out in 2009.

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.

Tip
WORKING WITH WORDS: WHICH WORD IS RIGHT? 301

Eight Tips to Improve Spelling Skills

1. Read the words in your assignment carefully, and avoid skimming over the page. Focusing on your written
assignment word by word will help you pay close attention to each word’s spelling. Skimming quickly, you may
overlook misspelled words.

2. Use mnemonic devices to remember the correct spelling of words. Mnemonic devices, or memory tech-
niques and learning aids, include inventive sayings or practices that help you remember. For example, the saying
“It is important to be a beautiful person inside and out” may help you remember that beautiful begins with “be
a.” The practice of pronouncing the word Wednesday Wed-nes-day may help you remember how to spell the word
correctly.

3. Use a dictionary. Many professional writers rely on the dictionary—either in print or online. If you find it difficult
to use a regular dictionary, ask your instructor to help you find a “poor speller’s dictionary.”

4. Use your computer’s spell checker. The spell checker will not solve all your spelling problems, but it is a useful
tool. See the introduction to this section for cautions about spell checkers.

5. Keep a list of frequently misspelled words. You will often misspell the same words again and again, but do
not let this discourage you. All writers struggle with the spellings of certain words; they become aware of their
spelling weaknesses and work to improve. Be aware of which words you commonly misspell, and you can add
them to a list to learn to spell them correctly.

6. Look over corrected papers for misspelled words. Add these words to your list and practice writing each
word four to five times each. Writing teachers will especially notice which words you frequently misspell, and it will
help you excel in your classes if they see your spelling improve.

7. Test yourself with flashcards. Sometimes the old-fashioned methods are best, and for spelling, this tried-and-
true technique has worked for many students. You can work with a peer or alone.

8. Review the common spelling rules explained in this chapter. Take the necessary time to master the material;
you may return to the rules in this chapter again and again, as needed.

Tip

Remember to focus on spelling during the editing and revising step of the writing process. Start with the big ideas such
as organizing your piece of writing and developing effective paragraphs, and then work your way down toward the
302 LET'S GET WRITING!

smaller—but equally important—details like spelling and punctuation. To read more about the writing process and edit-
ing and revising, see Chapter 4, “The Writing Process.”

Homonyms

Homonyms are words that sound like one another but have different meanings.

Commonly Misused Homonyms

Principle, Principal

• Principle (noun). A fundamental concept that is accepted as true.

• The principle of human equality is an important foundation for all nations.
• Principal (noun). The original amount of debt on which interest is calculated.
• The payment plan allows me to pay back only the principal amount, not any compounded inter-
est.
• Principal (noun). A person who is the main authority of a school.
• The principal held a conference for both parents and teachers.

Where, Wear, Ware

• Where (adverb). The place in which something happens.

• Where is the restaurant?
• Wear (verb). To carry or have on the body.
• I will wear my hiking shoes I when go on a climb tomorrow morning.
• Ware (noun). Articles of merchandise or manufacture (usually, wares).
• When I return from shopping, I will show you my wares.

Lead, Led

• Lead (noun). A type of metal used in pipes and batteries.

• The lead pipes in my homes are old and need to be replaced.
• Led (verb). The past tense of the verb lead.
• After the garden, she led the patrons through the museum.

Which, Witch
WORKING WITH WORDS: WHICH WORD IS RIGHT? 303

• Which (pronoun). Replaces one out of a group.

• Which apartment is yours?
• Witch (noun). A person who practices sorcery or who has supernatural powers.
• She thinks she is a witch, but she does not seem to have any powers.

Peace, Piece

• Peace (noun). A state of tranquility or quiet.

• For once, there was peace between the argumentative brothers.
• Piece (noun). A part of a whole.
• I would like a large piece of cake, thank you.

Passed, Past

• Passed (verb). To go away or move.

• He passed the slower cars on the road using the left lane.
• Past (noun). Having existed or taken place in a period before the present.
• The argument happened in the past, so there is no use in dwelling on it.

Lessen, Lesson

• Lessen (verb). To reduce in number, size, or degree.

• My dentist gave me medicine to lessen the pain of my aching tooth.
• Lesson (noun). A reading or exercise to be studied by a student.
• Today’s lesson was about mortgage interest rates.

Patience, Patients

• Patience (noun). The capacity of being patient (waiting for a period of time or enduring pains and
trials calmly).
• The novice teacher’s patience with the unruly class was astounding.
• Patients (plural noun). Individuals under medical care.
• The patients were tired of eating the hospital food, and they could not wait for a home-cooked
meal.

Sees, Seas, Seize

• Sees (verb). To perceive with the eye.

• He sees a whale through his binoculars.
• Seas (plural noun). The plural of sea, a great body of salt water.
• The tidal fluctuation of the oceans and seas are influenced by the moon.
• Seize (verb). To possess or take by force.
• The king plans to seize all the peasants’ land.
304 LET'S GET WRITING!

Threw, Through

• Threw (verb). The past tense of throw.

• She threw the football with perfect form.
• Through (preposition). A word that indicates movement.
• She walked through the door and out of his life.

Exercise 4

Complete the following sentences by selecting the correct homonym.

1. Do you agree with the underlying ________(principle, principal) that ensures copyrights are protected in the digital
age?

2. I like to ________(where, wear, ware) unique clothing from thrift stores that do not have company logos on them.

3. Marjorie felt like she was being ________(led, lead) on a wild goose chase, and she did not like it one bit.

4. Serina described ________(witch, which) house was hers, but now that I am here, they all look the same.

5. Seeing his friend without a lunch, Miguel gave her a ________(peace, piece) of his apple.

6. Do you think that it is healthy for mother to talk about the ________(passed, past) all the time?

7. Eating healthier foods will ________(lessen, lesson) the risk of heart disease.

8. I know it sounds cliché, but my father had the ________(patients, patience) of a saint.

9. Daniela ________(sees, seas, seize) possibilities in the bleakest situations, and that it is why she is successful.

10. Everyone goes ________(through, threw) hardships in life regardless of who they are.

Commonly Misspelled Words

Below is a list of commonly misspelled words. You probably use these words every day in either speaking or
writing. Each word has a segment in bold type, which indicates the problem area of the word that is often
spelled incorrectly. If you can, use this list as a guide before, during, and after you write.

Tip

Use the following two tricks to help you master these troublesome words:
WORKING WITH WORDS: WHICH WORD IS RIGHT? 305

1. Copy each word as few times and underline the problem area.

2. Copy the words onto flash cards and have the friend test you.

Figure 10.3 “Commonly Misspelled Words “

across disappoint integration particular separate

address disapprove intelligent perform similar

answer doesn’t interest perhaps since

argument eighth interfere personnel speech

athlete embarrass jewelry possess strength

beginning environment judgment possible success

behavior exaggerate knowledge prefer surprise

calendar familiar maintain prejudice taught

career finally mathematics privilege temperature

conscience government meant probably thorough

crowded grammar necessary psychology thought

definite height nervous pursue tired

describe illegal occasion reference until

desperate immediately opinion rhythm weight

different important optimist ridiculous written

Exercise 5

Identify and correct the ten commonly misspelled words in the following paragraph.

Brooklyn is one of the five boroughs that make up New York City. It is located on the eastern shore of Long Island
directly accross the East River from the island of Manhattan. Its beginings stretch back to the sixteenth century
when it was founded by the Dutch who originally called it “Breuckelen.” Immedietely after the Dutch settled Brook-
306 LET'S GET WRITING!

lyn, it came under British rule. However, neither the Dutch nor the British were Brooklyn’s first inhabitants. When
European settlers first arrived, Brooklyn was largely inhabited by the Lenapi, a collective name for several organized
bands of Native American people who settled a large area of land that extended from upstate New York through
the entire state of New Jersey. They are sometimes referred to as the Delaware Indians. Over time, the Lenapi suc-
cumbed to European diseases or conflicts between European settlers or other Native American enemies. Finalley
they were pushed out of Brooklyn completely by the British. In 1776, Brooklyn was the site of the first importent
battle of the American Revolution known as the Battle of Brooklyn. The colonists lost this battle, which was led by
George Washington, but over the next two years they would win the war, kicking the British out of the colonies
once and for all. By the end of the nineteenth century, Brooklyn grew to be a city in its own right. The completion
of the Brooklyn Bridge was an ocasion for celebration; transportation and commerce between Brooklyn and Man-
hattan now became much easier. Eventually, in 1898, Brooklyn lost its seperate identity as an independent city and
became one of five boroughs of New York City. However, in some people’s opinien, the intagration into New York
City should have never happened; they though Brooklyn should have remained an independent city.

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.

Writing at Work

In today’s job market, writing e-mails has become a means by which many people find employment. E-mails
to prospective employers require thoughtful word choice, accurate spelling, and perfect punctuation. Employers’
inboxes are inundated with countless e-mails daily. If even the subject line of an e-mail contains a spelling error, it
will likely be overlooked and someone else’s e-mail will take priority.

The best action to take after you proofread an e-mail to an employer and run the spell checker is to have an addi-
tional set of eyes go over it with you; one of your teachers may be able to read the e-mail and give you suggestions
for improvement. Most colleges and universities have writing centers, which may also be able to assist you.

Key Takeaways

• Accurate, error-free spelling enhances your credibility with the reader.

• Mastering the rules of spelling may help you become a better speller.
WORKING WITH WORDS: WHICH WORD IS RIGHT? 307

• Knowing the commonly misused homonyms may prevent spelling errors.

• Studying the list of commonly misspelled words in this chapter, or studying a list of your own, is one way
to improve your spelling skills.

Writing Application

What is your definition of a successful person? Is it based on a person’s profession or is it based on his or her char-
acter? Perhaps success means a combination of both. In one paragraph, describe in detail what you think makes a
person successful. When you are finished, proofread your work for spelling errors. Exchange papers with a partner
and read each other’s work. See if you catch any spelling errors that your partner missed.

3. WORD CHOICE

Effective writing involves making conscious choices with words. When you prepare to sit down to write your
first draft, you likely have already completed some freewriting exercises, chosen your topic, developed your
thesis statement, written an outline, and even selected your sources. When it is time to write your first draft,
start to consider which words to use to best convey your ideas to the reader.

Some writers are picky about word choice as they start drafting. They may practice some specific strategies,
such as using a dictionary and thesaurus, using words and phrases with proper connotations, and avoiding
slang, clichés, and overly general words.

Once you understand these tricks of the trade, you can move ahead confidently in writing your assignment.
Remember, the skill and accuracy of your word choice is a major factor in developing your writing style. Pre-
cise selection of your words will help you be more clearly understood—in both writing and speaking.

Using a Dictionary and Thesaurus

Even professional writers need help with the meanings, spellings, pronunciations, and uses of particular
words. In fact, they rely on dictionaries to help them write better. No one knows every word in the English
language and its multiple uses and meanings, so all writers, from novices to professionals, can benefit from
the use of dictionaries.

Most dictionaries provide the following information:

• Spelling. How the word and its different forms are spelled.
• Pronunciation. How to say the word.
• Part of speech. The function of the word.
• Definition. The meaning of the word.
• Synonyms. Words that have similar meanings.
308 LET'S GET WRITING!

• Etymology. The history of the word.

Look at the following sample dictionary entry to see which of the preceding information you can identify:

myth, mith, n. [Gr. mythos, a word, a fable, a legend.] A fable or legend embodying the convictions of a
people as to their gods or other divine beings, their own beginnings and early history and the heroes con-
nected with it, or the origin of the world; any invented story; something or someone having no existence in
fact.—myth • ic, myth • i • cal

Like a dictionary, a thesaurus is another indispensable writing tool. A thesaurus gives you a list of synonyms,
words that have the same (or very close to the same) meaning as another word. It also lists antonyms, words
with the opposite meaning of the word. A thesaurus will help you when you are looking for the perfect word
with just the right meaning to convey your ideas. It will also help you learn more words and use the ones you
already know more correctly. However, be careful to avoid choosing words from the thesaurus that don’t fit
the tone of your writing or whose meaning might not be a perfect fit for what you are trying to say.

precocious adj, She’s such a precocious little girl!: uncommonly smart, mature, advanced, smart, bright, bril-
liant, gifted, quick, clever, apt.

Ant. slow, backward, stupid.

Using Proper Connotations

A denotation is the dictionary definition of a word. A connotation, on the other hand, is the emotional or
cultural meaning attached to a word. The connotation of a word can be positive, negative, or neutral. Keep
in mind the connotative meaning when choosing a word.

Scrawny

• Denotation: Exceptionally thin and slight or meager in body or size.

• Word used in a sentence: Although he was a premature baby and a scrawny child, Martin has
developed into a strong man.
• Connotation: (Negative) In this sentence the word scrawny may have a negative connotation in
the readers’ minds. They might find it to mean a weakness or a personal flaw; however, the word
fits into the sentence appropriately.

Skinny

• Denotation: Lacking sufficient flesh, very thin.

• Word used in a sentence: Skinny jeans have become very fashionable in the past couple of
years.
• Connotation: (Positive) Based on cultural and personal impressions of what it means to be skinny,
the reader may have positive connotations of the word skinny.

Lean

• Denotation: Lacking or deficient in flesh; containing little or no fat.

• Word used in a sentence: My brother has a lean figure, whereas I have a more muscular build.
WORKING WITH WORDS: WHICH WORD IS RIGHT? 309

• Connotation: (Neutral) In this sentence, lean has a neutral connotation. It does not call to mind an
overly skinny person like the word scrawny, nor does imply the positive cultural impressions of the
word skinny. It is merely a neutral descriptive word.

Notice that all the words have a very similar denotation; however, the connotations of each word differ.

Exercises 6

In each of the following items, you will find words with similar denotations. Identify the words’ connotations as pos-
itive, negative, or neutral by writing the word in the appropriate box. Copy the chart onto your own piece of paper.

curious, nosy, interested

lazy, relaxed, slow

courageous, foolhardy, assured

new, newfangled, modern

mansion, shack, residence

spinster, unmarried woman, career woman

giggle, laugh, cackle

boring, routine, prosaic

noted, notorious, famous

assertive, confident, pushy

310 LET'S GET WRITING!

Positive Negative Neutral

Avoiding Slang

Slang describes informal words that are considered nonstandard English. Slang often changes with passing
fads and may be used by or be familiar to only a specific group of people. Most people use slang when
they speak and in personal correspondences, such as e-mails, text messages, and instant messages. Slang
is appropriate between friends in an informal context but should be avoided in formal academic writing.

Writing at Work

Frequent exposure to media and popular culture has desensitized many of us to slang. In certain situations, using
slang at work may not be problematic, but keep in mind that words can have a powerful effect. Slang in professional
e-mails or during meetings may convey the wrong message or even mistakenly offend someone.
WORKING WITH WORDS: WHICH WORD IS RIGHT? 311

Exercise 7

Edit the following paragraph by replacing the slang words and phrases with more formal language. Rewrite the paragraph
on your own sheet of paper.

I felt like such an airhead when I got up to give my speech. As I walked toward the podium, I banged my knee on a
chair. Man, I felt like such a klutz. On top of that, I kept saying “like” and “um,” and I could not stop fidgeting. I was
so stressed out about being up there. I feel like I’ve been practicing this speech 24/7, and I still bombed. It was ten
minutes of me going off about how we sometimes have to do things we don’t enjoy doing. Wow, did I ever prove my
point. My speech was so bad I’m surprised that people didn’t boo. My teacher said not to sweat it, though. Everyone
gets nervous his or her first time speaking in public, and she said, with time, I would become a whiz at this speech
giving stuff. I wonder if I have the guts to do it again.

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.

Avoiding Clichés

Clichés are descriptive expressions that have lost their effectiveness because they are overused. Writing that
uses clichés often suffers from a lack of originality and insight. Avoiding clichés in formal writing will help
you write in original and fresh ways.

• Clichéd: Whenever my brother and I get into an argument, he always says something that makes
my blood boil.
• Plain: Whenever my brother and I get into an argument, he always says something that makes me
really angry.
• Original: Whenever my brother and I get into an argument, he always says something that makes
me want to go to the gym and punch the bag for a few hours.
312 LET'S GET WRITING!

Tip

Think about all the cliché phrases that you hear in popular music or in everyday conversation. What would happen if
these clichés were transformed into something unique?

Exercise 8

On your own sheet of paper, revise the following sentences by replacing the clichés with fresh, original descriptions.

1. She is writing a memoir in which she will air her family’s dirty laundry.

2. Fran had an ax to grind with Benny, and she planned to confront him that night at the party.

3. Mr. Muller was at his wit’s end with the rowdy class of seventh graders.

4. The bottom line is that Greg was fired because he missed too many days of work.

5. Sometimes it is hard to make ends meet with just one paycheck.

6. My brain is fried from pulling an all-nighter.

7. Maria left the dishes in the sink all week to give Jeff a taste of his own medicine.

8. While they were at the carnival Janice exclaimed, “Time sure does fly when you are having fun!”

9. Jeremy became tongue-tied after the interviewer asked him where he saw himself in five years.

10. Jordan was dressed to the nines that night.

Avoiding Overly General Words

Specific words and images make your writing more interesting to read. Whenever possible, avoid overly gen-
eral words in your writing; instead, try to replace general language with particular nouns, verbs, and mod-
ifiers that convey details and that bring yours words to life. Add words that provide color, texture, sound,
and even smell to your writing.

• General: My new puppy is cute.

• Specific: My new puppy is a ball of white fuzz with the biggest black eyes I have ever seen.
• General: My teacher told us that plagiarism is bad.
• Specific: My teacher, Ms. Atwater, created a presentation detailing exactly how plagiarism is illegal
and unethical.
WORKING WITH WORDS: WHICH WORD IS RIGHT? 313

Exercise 9

Revise the following sentences by replacing the overly general words with more precise and attractive language.
Write the new sentences on your own sheet of paper.

1. Reilly got into her car and drove off.

2. I would like to travel to outer space because it would be amazing.

3. Jane came home after a bad day at the office.

4. I thought Milo’s essay was fascinating.

5. The dog walked up the street.

6. The coal miners were tired after a long day.

7. The tropical fish are pretty.

8. I sweat a lot after running.

9. The goalie blocked the shot.

10. I enjoyed my Mexican meal.

Key Takeaways

• Using a dictionary and thesaurus as you write will improve your writing by improving your word choice.

• Connotations of words may be positive, neutral, or negative.

• Slang, clichés, and overly general words should be avoided in academic writing.

Writing Application

Review a piece of writing that you have completed for school. Circle any sentences with slang, clichés, or overly gen-
eral words and rewrite them using stronger language.

4. PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES

The English language contains an enormous and ever-growing number of words. Enhancing your vocabulary
314 LET'S GET WRITING!

by learning new words can seem overwhelming, but if you know the common prefixes and suffixes of Eng-
lish, you will understand many more words.

Mastering common prefixes and suffixes is like learning a code. Once you crack the code, you cannot only
spell words more correctly but also recognize and perhaps even define unfamiliar words.

Prefixes

A prefix is a word part added to the beginning of a word to create a new meaning. Study the common pre-
fixes in the table below.

Tip

The main rule to remember when adding a prefix to a word is not to add letters or leave out any letters. See the table
below for examples of this rule.

Figure 0.4 ” Common Prefixes”

Prefix Meaning Example

dis not, opposite of dis + satisfied = dissatisfied

mis wrongly mis + spell = misspell

un not un + acceptable = unacceptable

re again re + election = reelection

inter between inter + related = interrelated

pre before pre + pay = prepay

non not non + sense = nonsense

super above super + script = superscript

sub under sub + merge = submerge

anti against, opposing anti + bacterial = antibacterial

WORKING WITH WORDS: WHICH WORD IS RIGHT? 315

Exercise 10

Identify the five words with prefixes in the following paragraph, and write their meanings on a separate sheet of paper.

At first, I thought one of my fuzzy, orange socks disappeared in the dryer, but I could not find it in there. Because
it was my favorite pair, nothing was going to prevent me from finding that sock. I looked all around my bedroom,
under the bed, on top of the bed, and in my closet, but I still could not find it. I did not know that I would discover
the answer just as I gave up my search. As I sat down on the couch in the family room, my Dad was reclining on his
chair. I laughed when I saw that one of his feet was orange and the other blue! I forgot that he was color-blind. Next
time he does laundry I will have to supervise him while he folds the socks so that he does not accidentally take one
of mine!

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.

Exercise 11

Add the correct prefix to the word to complete each sentence. Write the word on your own sheet of paper.

1. I wanted to ease my stomach ________comfort, so I drank some ginger root tea.

2. Lenny looked funny in his ________matched shirt and pants.

3. Penelope felt ________glamorous at the party because she was the only one not wearing a dress.

4. My mother said those ________aging creams do not work, so I should not waste my money on them.

5. The child’s ________standard performance on the test alarmed his parents.

6. When my sister first saw the meteor, she thought it was a ________natural phenomenon.

7. Even though she got an excellent job offer, Cherie did not want to ________locate to a different country.

8. With a small class size, the students get to ________act with the teacher more frequently.

9. I slipped on the ice because I did not heed the ________cautions about watching my step.

10. A ________combatant is another word for civilian.

316 LET'S GET WRITING!

Suffixes

A suffix is a word part added to the end of a word to create a new meaning. Study the suffix rules in the
following boxes.

Rule 1

When adding the suffixes –ness and –ly to a word, the spelling of the word does not change.

Examples:

• dark + ness = darkness

• scholar + ly = scholarly

Exceptions to Rule 1

When the word ends in y, change the y to i before adding –ness and –ly.

Examples:

• ready + ly = readily

• happy + ness = happiness

Rule 2

When the suffix begins with a vowel, drop the silent e in the root word.

Examples:

• care + ing = caring

• use + able = usable

Exceptions to Rule 2

When the word ends in ce or ge, keep the silent e if the suffix begins with a or o.
WORKING WITH WORDS: WHICH WORD IS RIGHT? 317

Examples:

• replace + able = replaceable

• courage + ous = courageous

Rule 3

When the suffix begins with a consonant, keep the silent e in the original word.

Examples:

• care + ful = careful

• care + less = careless

Exceptions to Rule 3

Examples:

• true + ly = truly

• argue + ment = argument

Rule 4

When the word ends in a consonant plus y, change the y to i before any suffix not beginning with i.

Examples:

• sunny + er = sunnier
318 LET'S GET WRITING!

• hurry + ing = hurrying

Rule 5

When the suffix begins with a vowel, double the final consonant only if (1) the word has only one syllable or is accented
on the last syllable and (2) the word ends in a single vowel followed by a single consonant.

Examples:

• tan + ing = tanning (one syllable word)

• regret + ing = regretting (The accent is on the last syllable; the word ends in a single vowel followed by a single
consonant.)

• cancel + ed = canceled (The accent is not on the last syllable.)

• prefer + ed = preferred

Exercise 12

On your own sheet of paper, write correctly the forms of the words with their suffixes.

1. refer + ed

2. refer + ence

3. mope + ing

4. approve + al

5. green + ness

6. benefit + ed

7. resubmit + ing
WORKING WITH WORDS: WHICH WORD IS RIGHT? 319

8. use + age

9. greedy + ly

10. excite + ment

Key Takeaways

• A prefix is a word part added to the beginning of a word that changes the word’s meaning.

• A suffix is a word part added to the end of a word that changes the word’s meaning.

• Learning the meanings of prefixes and suffixes will help expand your vocabulary, which will help improve
your writing.

Writing Application

Write a paragraph describing one of your life goals. Include five words with prefixes and five words with suffixes.
Exchange papers with a classmate and circle the prefixes and suffixes in your classmate’s paper. Correct each prefix
or suffix that is spelled incorrectly.

5. SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS

As you work with your draft, you will want to pay particular attention to the words you have chosen. Do they
express exactly what you are trying to convey? Can you choose better, more effective words? Familiarity with
synonyms and antonyms can be helpful in answering these questions.

Synonyms

Synonyms are words that have the same, or almost the same, meaning as another word. You can say an
“easy task” or a “simple task” because easy and simple are synonyms. You can say Hong Kong is a “large city”
or a “metropolis” because city and metropolis are synonyms.

However, it is important to remember that not all pairs of words in the English language are so easily inter-
changeable. The slight but important differences in meaning between synonyms can make a big difference
in your writing. For example, the words boring and insipid may have similar meanings, but the subtle differ-
ences between the two will affect the message your writing conveys. The word insipid evokes a scholarly and
perhaps more pretentious message than boring.

The English language is full of pairs of words that have subtle distinctions between them. All writers, profes-
sionals and beginners alike, face the challenge of choosing the most appropriate synonym to best convey
320 LET'S GET WRITING!

their ideas. When you pay particular attention to synonyms in your writing, it comes across to your reader.
The sentences become much more clear and rich in meaning.

Writing at Work

Any writing you do at work involves a careful choice of words. For example, if you are writing an e-mail to your
employer regarding your earnings, you can use the word pay, salary, or hourly wage. There are also other synonyms
to choose from. Just keep in mind that the word you choose will have an effect on the reader, so you want to choose
wisely to get the desired effect.

Exercise 13

Replace the underlined words in the paragraph with appropriate synonyms. Write the new paragraph on your own sheet
of paper.

When most people think of the Renaissance, they might think of artists like Michelangelo, Raphael, or Leonardo
da Vinci, but they often overlook one of the very important figures of the Renaissance: Filippo Brunelleschi.
Brunelleschi was born in Florence, Italy in 1377. He is considered the very best architect and engineer of the Renais-
sance. His impressive accomplishments are a testament to following one’s dreams, persevering in the face of obsta-
cles, and realizing one’s vision.

The most difficult undertaking of Brunelleschi’s career was the dome of Florence Cathedral, which took sixteen
years to construct. A major blow to the progress of the construction happened in 1428. Brunelleschi had designed a
special ship to carry the one hundred tons of marble needed for the dome. He felt this would be the most inexpen-
sive way to transport the marble, but the unthinkable happened. The ship went down to the bottom of the water,
taking all the marble with it to the bottom of the river. Brunelleschi was really sad. Nevertheless, he did not give
up. He held true to his vision of the completed dome. Filippo Brunelleschi completed construction of the dome of
Florence Cathedral in 1446. His influence on artists and architects alike was felt strongly during his lifetime and can
still be felt in this day and age.

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.

WORKING WITH WORDS: WHICH WORD IS RIGHT? 321

Exercise 14

On your own sheet of paper, write a sentence with each of the following words that illustrates the specific meaning
of each synonym.

1. leave, abandon

2. mad, insane

3. outside, exterior

4. poor, destitute

5. quiet, peaceful

6. riot, revolt

7. rude, impolite

8. talk, conversation

9. hug, embrace

10. home, residence

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.

Antonyms

Antonyms are words that have the opposite meaning of a given word. The study of antonyms will not only
help you choose the most appropriate word as you write; it will also sharpen your overall sense of language.
The table below lists common words and their antonyms.

Figure 0.5 ” Common Antonyms “

322 LET'S GET WRITING!

Word Antonym Word Antonym

absence presence frequent seldom

accept refuse harmful harmless

accurate inaccurate horizontal vertical

advantage disadvantage imitation genuine

ancient modern inhabited uninhabited

abundant scarce inferior superior

artificial natural intentional accidental

attractive repulsive justice injustice

borrow lend knowledge ignorance

bravery cowardice landlord tenant

create destroy, demolish likely unlikely

bold timid, meek minority majority

capable incapable miser spendthrift

combine separate obedient disobedient

conceal reveal optimist pessimist

common rare permanent temporary

decrease increase plentiful scarce

definite indefinite private public

despair hope prudent imprudent

discourage encourage qualified unqualified

employer employee satisfactory unsatisfactory

expand contract tame wild

forget remember vacant occupied

Tip
WORKING WITH WORDS: WHICH WORD IS RIGHT? 323

Learning antonyms is an effective way to increase your vocabulary. Memorizing words in combination with or in relation
to other words often helps us retain them.

Exercise 15

Correct the following sentences by replacing the underlined words with an antonym. Write the antonym on your
own sheet of paper.

1. The pilot who landed the plane was a coward because no one was injured.

2. Even though the botany lecture was two hours long, Gerard found it incredibly dull.

3. My mother says it is impolite to say thank you like you really mean it.

4. Although I have learned a lot of information through textbooks, it is life experience that has given me ignorance.

5. When our instructor said the final paper was compulsory, it was music to my ears!

6. My only virtues are coffee, video games, and really loud music.

7. Elvin was so bold when he walked in the classroom that he sat in the back row and did not participate.

8. Maria thinks elephants who live in freedom have a sad look in their eyes.

9. The teacher filled her students’ minds with gloomy thoughts about their futures.

10. The guest attended to every one of our needs.

Key Takeaways

• Synonyms are words that have the same, or almost the same, meaning as another word.

• Antonyms are words that have the opposite meaning of another word.

• Choosing the right synonym refines your writing.

• Learning common antonyms sharpens your sense of language and expands your vocabulary.
324 LET'S GET WRITING!

Writing Application

Write a paragraph that describes your favorite dish or food. Use as many synonyms as you can in the description,
even if it seems too many. Be creative. Consult a thesaurus, and take this opportunity to use words you have never
used before. Be prepared to share your paragraph.

6. USING CONTEXT CLUES

Context clues are bits of information within a text that will assist you in deciphering the meaning of unknown
words. Since most of your knowledge of vocabulary comes from reading, it is important that you recognize
context clues. By becoming more aware of particular words and phrases surrounding a difficult word, you
can make logical guesses about its meaning. The following are the different types of context clues:

• Brief definition or restatement

• Synonyms and antonyms
• Examples
• General sense of the passage

Brief Definition or Restatement

Sometimes a text directly states the definition or a restatement of the unknown word. The brief definition
or restatement is signaled by a word or a punctuation mark.

Consider the following example:

If you visit Alaska, you will likely see many glaciers, or slow-moving masses of ice.

In this sentence, the word glaciers is defined by the phrase that follows the signal word or, which is slow mov-
ing masses of ice.

In other instances, the text may restate the meaning of the word in a different way, by using punctuation as
a signal.

Look at the following example:

Marina was indignant—fuming mad—when she discovered her brother had left for the party without
her.

Although fuming mad is not a formal definition of the word indignant, it does serve to define it. These two
examples use signals—the word or and the punctuation dashes—to indicate the meaning of the unfamiliar
word. Other signals to look for are the words is, as, means, known as, and refers to.
WORKING WITH WORDS: WHICH WORD IS RIGHT? 325

Synonyms and Antonyms

Sometimes a text gives a synonym of the unknown word to signal the meaning of the unfamiliar word:

When you interpret an image, you actively question and examine what the image connotes and sug-
gests.

In this sentence the word suggests is a synonym of the word connotes. The word and sometimes signals syn-
onyms.

Likewise, the word but may signal a contrast, which can help you define a word by its antonym.

I abhor clothes shopping, but I adore grocery shopping.

The word abhor is contrasted with its opposite: adore. From this context, the reader can guess that abhor
means to dislike greatly.

Examples

Sometimes a text will give you an example of the word that sheds light on its meaning:

I knew Mark’s ailurophobia was in full force because he began trembling and stuttering when he saw
my cat, Ludwig, slink out from under the bed.

Although ailurophobia is an unknown word, the sentence gives an example of its effects. Based on this exam-
ple, a reader could confidently surmise that the word means a fear of cats.

Tip

Look for signal words like such as, for instance, and for example. These words signal that a word’s meaning may be
revealed through an example.

General Sense of the Passage

Sometimes you will happen upon a new term in a passage that has no examples, synonyms or antonyms to
help you decipher the word’s meaning. However, by looking at the words and sentences surrounding the
word and using your common sense, oftentimes you may make a fairly accurate guess at the meaning of
the term. For example if you read the sentence, “The newlyweds were trying to be frugal in their shopping
because they wanted to save enough money to buy a home,” your common sense would tell you that the
word frugal means saving money and being thrifty because they are trying to save to buy a house.
326 LET'S GET WRITING!

Exercise 16

Identify the context clue that helps define the underlined words in each of the following sentences. Write the con-
text clue on your own sheet of paper.

1. Lucinda is very adroit on the balance beam, but Constance is rather clumsy.

2. I saw the entomologist, a scientist who studies insects, cradle the giant dung beetle in her palm.

3. Lance’s comments about politics were irrelevant and meaningless to the botanist’s lecture on plant reproduction.

4. Before I left for my trip to the Czech Republic, I listened to my mother’s sage advice and made a copy of my pass-
port.

5. His rancor, or hatred, for socializing resulted in a life of loneliness and boredom.

6. Martin was mortified, way beyond embarrassment, when his friends teamed up to shove him into the pool.

7. The petulant four-year-old had a baby sister who was, on the contrary, not grouchy at all.

8. The philosophy teacher presented the students with several conundrums, or riddles, to solve.

9. Most Americans are omnivores, people that eat both plants and animals.

10. Elena is effervescent, as excited as a cheerleader, for example, when she meets someone for the first time.

Exercise 17

On your own sheet of paper, write the name of the context clue that helps to define the underlined words.

Maggie was a precocious child to say the least. She produced brilliant watercolor paintings by the age of three. At
first, her parents were flabbergasted—utterly blown away—by their daughter’s ability, but soon they got used to
their little painter. Her preschool teacher said that Maggie’s dexterity, or ease with which she used her hands, was
something she had never before seen in such a young child. Little Maggie never gloated or took pride in her paint-
ings; she just smiled contentedly when she finished one and requested her parents give it to someone as a gift.
Whenever people met Maggie for the first time, they often watched her paint with their mouths agape, but her par-
ents always kept their mouths closed and simply smiled over their “little Monet.”
WORKING WITH WORDS: WHICH WORD IS RIGHT? 327

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.

Tip

In addition to context clues to help you figure out the meaning of a word, examine the following word parts: prefixes,
roots, and suffixes.

Writing at Work

Jargon is a type of shorthand communication often used in the workplace. It is the technical language of a special
field. Imagine that it is your first time working as a server in a restaurant, and your manager tells you that he is
going to “eighty-six” the roasted chicken. If you do not realize that “eighty-six” means to remove an item from the
menu, you could be confused. When you first start a job, no matter where it may be, you will encounter jargon that
will likely be foreign to you. Perhaps after working the job for a short time, you too will feel comfortable enough to
use it. When you are first hired, however, jargon can be baffling and make you feel like an outsider. If you cannot
decipher the jargon based on the context, it is always a good policy to ask.

Key Takeaways

• Context clues are words or phrases within a text that help clarify vocabulary that is unknown to you.

• There are several types of context clues including brief definition and restatement, synonyms and
antonyms, and example.
328 LET'S GET WRITING!

Writing Application

Write a paragraph describing your first job. In the paragraph, use five words previously unknown to you. These
words could be jargon words or you may consult a dictionary or thesaurus to find a new word. Make sure to provide
a specific context clue for understanding each word. Exchange papers with a classmate and try to decipher the
meaning of the words in each other’s paragraphs based on the context clues.

CC Licensed Content, Shared Previously

Writing for Success, CC-BY-NC-SA.

Image Credits

All images are from Writing for Success, CC-BY-NC-SA except for Figure 10.1, Kathy Boylan, Virginia Western
Community College, CC-0.

Let's Get Writing! by Jenifer Kurtz is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International
License, except where otherwise noted.
Index

Index by Virginia Western Community College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except
where otherwise noted.

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