1 . Cell Biology (Core) – 1.

6 Cell division

Name: Adriana Baigorri

Understandings, Applications and Skills (This is what you maybe assessed on)

Statement Guidance

1.6.U1 Mitosis is division of the nucleus into two genetically The sequence of events in the four phases
identical daughter nuclei. of mitosis should be known. To avoid
confusion in terminology, teachers are
encouraged to refer to the two parts of a
chromosome as sister chromatids, while
they are attached to each other by a
centromere in the early stages of mitosis.
From anaphase onwards, when sister
chromatids have separated to form
individual structures, they should be
referred to as chromosomes.
1.6.U2 Chromosomes condense by supercoiling during mitosis.

1.6.U3 Cytokinesis occurs after mitosis and is different in plant

and animal cells.

1.6.U4 Interphase is a very active phase of the cell cycle with

many processes occurring in the nucleus and cytoplasm.

1.6.U5 Cyclins are involved in the control of the cell cycle.

1.6.U6 Mutagens, oncogenes and metastasis are involved in the

development of primary and secondary tumours.

1.6.A1 The correlation between smoking and incidence of

cancers.

1.6.S1 Identification of phases of mitosis in cells viewed with a Preparation of temporary mounts of root
microscope or in a micrograph. squashes is recommended but phases in
mitosis can also be viewed using
permanent slides.
1.6.S2 Determination of a mitotic index from a micrograph.

Recommended resources:
http://bioknowledgy.info/16-cell-division.html

Allott, Andrew. Biology: Course Companion. S.l.: Oxford UP, 2014. Print.

http://www.bioknowledgy.info/ (Chris Paine)

1.6.U4 Interphase is a very active phase of the cell cycle with many processes occurring in the nucleus and
cytoplasm.

1. Define the following:

Cell cycle All stages in the life cycle of a cell.

Interphase Consists of cell cycle components that do not entail cell division.

Mitosis The process of dividing the nucleus to result in two daughter cells.

Cytokinesis When the cytoplasm divides.

Apoptosis A cell death which is planned that entails an orderly series of biochemical activities that
result in cell alterations.
Necrosis A death which is categorized as premature death of cells in a living organ or tissue due to
the gradual degrading action of enzymes
Diploid An organism or cell which is comprised of two pairs of chromosomes: one from the father
and the other from the mother.
Haploid A cell (particularly germ cells or gametes) with half the amount of homologous
chromosomes seen in somatic cells.

2. Outline the stages of interphase.

Stage Events

G1 (Gap 1) - Expansion of the volume in the cytoplasm.

- Formation of organelles.
- Synthesis of proteins.
S (Synthesis) - The replication of DNA.

G2 (Gap 2) - Expansion of the volume in the cytoplasm.

- Formation of organelles.
- Synthesis of proteins.

3. List three metabolic reactions that occur during interphase.

 Proteins are synthesized – enzymes and proteins are required for the development and growth of the cell.
 The amount of organelles is increased initially to sustain the larger cell.
 DNA is duplicated to guarantee that a duplicate is available for mitosis.

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 1.6.U2 Chromosomes condense by supercoiling during mitosis.

4. Explain why cells need to supercoil their DNA molecules.

Human DNA molecules are quite lengthy, and chromosomes are required to be packed compactly in
order to fit into the cell nuclei. This also makes chromosomes compact and small enough to still be
split and transferred to opposite ends of the cell.

5. Outline how DNA molecules are supercoiled.

When a molecule supercoils, it releases helical stress by twirling around itself. The hydrogen bonds
that link complimentary bases together break down, and a portion of the double helix splits. Strand
separation is essential for transcription (the process of converting DNA to RNA) and replication.

N.B. A key point to remember is that supercoiling prevents DNA from being transcribed into messenger RNA.
[link to 2.7.U4]

1.6.U1 Mitosis is division of the nucleus into two genetically identical daughter nuclei.

6. Distinguish between cell division and mitosis.

Cell division is identified as the process through which cells self-replicate, resulting in the formation of
new cells from parent cells. Mitosis, on the other hand, is the division of the cell nucleus that results in
two genetically identical daughter nuclei. This is known as the primary distinction between mitosis and
cell division.

7. Other than maintaining optimum cell size, list four processes involving division by mitosis.

1. Growth: mitosis allows multicellular organisms to grow by increasing the number of cells.
2. Embryonic Development: In order to grow into an embryo, a zygote (fertilized egg) will go
through mitosis and differentiation.
3. Tissue repair: replacement of dead or damaged cells allows damaged tissue to heal.
4. Asexual reproduction: mitosis allows certain eukaryotic organisms to reproduce asexually (eg.
Vegetative reproduction).

8. Explain why eukaryotes need to use mitosis in cell division when prokaryotes do not.

Because eukaryotes have nuclei that contain chromosomes, they must employ mitosis in cell division, whereas
prokaryotes do not. Chromosomes are structural DNA, whereas chromatids are chromosome duplications.

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 9. Identify the outcome of one division by mitosis.

Number of daughter Nucleus

cells
A. 2 Haploid

B. 2 Diploid

C. 4 Haploid

D. 4 Diploid

10. Label the diagram.

a plasma membrane

b Spindle fibers

c Sister chromatids

d Centromere

e Centrosome

f telomeres

11. Distinguish between chromosomes and chromatids.

Each chromosome is made up of a single double-stranded DNA molecule. A centromere connects two molecules
of double stranded DNA at the core of a chromatid. Chromosomes are made up of a thin ribbon-like structure.
Chromatids have a fibrous structure that is both thin and lengthy.

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12. Outline the stages of mitosis of an animal cell with a chromosome number of four.

Diagram Outline

- The centrosomes travel to the cell's opposing poles, and spindle

fibers develop between them.
- When DNA supercoils* condensate, they form sister
Prophase

chromatids, which are visible under a light microscope.

- The nuclear membrane degrades and eventually vanishes.

Metaphase is a step in the cell cycle during which all of the

genetic material condenses into chromosomes. During this stage,
the nucleus vanishes and the chromosomes emerge in the cell's
cytoplasm. The chromosomes become visible under the
microscope during this stage in human cells.
Metaphase

Anaphase is the fourth phase of mitosis, and it is the process by

which the replicated genetic material held in the nucleus of a
parent cell is separated into two identical daughter cells. The
spindle then pulls the divided chromosomes to opposing poles of
the cell.
Anaphase

- Chromosomes reach the poles

- New nuclear membranes develop around every group of
chromosomes
- Chromosomes uncoil and decondense to chromatin (and are no
Telophase

longer present underneath a light microscope)

- Microtubule spindle fibers vanish

13. Explain how mitosis leads to two genetically identical nuclei.

Sister chromatids They are formed during the synthesis phase, when all of a cell's
chromosomes are reproduced. Are split into two distinct cells.

S-phase Replication of dna permits the chromosome number to double.

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 Semi-conservative, complementary base-pairing results in fewer
DNA Replication mistakes and copies of all genes in all new chromosomes.

There at equator, chromosomes realign, and spindle fibers link to

Metaphase centromeres.

Sister chromatids are separated at the centromere and relocated to opposing

Anaphase sides, resulting in two daughter chromosomes.

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 1.6.U3 Cytokinesis occurs after mitosis and is different in plant and animal cells.

14. Distinguish between mitosis and cytokinesis.

Mitosis is the process by which duplicated chromosomes are condensed and bind to fibers that drag
the sister chromatids to opposing ends of the cells. Following this, the cell divides by cytokinesis.
Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm of a single eukaryotic cell into two daughter cells.

15. Outline cytokinesis in plant and animal cells

http://upload.w ikimedia.org/w ikibooks/en/thumb/9/98/Cyto.png/800px-Cyto.png

Animal cells Plant cells

Animal Cells
- Immediately within the equator, a ring of Contractile protein (microfilaments) pushes the plasma membrane inward.
- the inward pressure on the plasma membrane causes the distinctive cleavage furrow to emerge 
- when the cleavage furrow reaches the cell's center, it is squeezed apart to generate two daughter cells

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Plant Cells

- During telophase, Golgi apparatus-derived membrane-enclosed vesicles travel to the cell's center.
- Vesicles link together to create tubular structures.
- The tubular structures join together (with the addition of extra vesicles) to create 2 layers of plasma membrane (i.e.
cell plate)
- The cell plate continues to expand until it merges with the plasma membrane of the existing cell.
- This completes the cytoplasmic division and the production of two identical daughter cells.
- Vesicles deposit pectins and other compounds in the lumen between both the daughter cells of the middle lamella
('gluing' the cells together) via exocytosis.

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 1.6.U5 Cyclins are involved in the control of the cell cycle. AND Serendipity and scientific discoveries—the
discovery of cyclins was accidental. (1.4)

Like many discoveries and inventions, the discovery of cyclins was an accidental one.

16. Draw and label a pie chart to show the relative amount of time spent in each phase of the cell cycle,
including the stages of interphase and mitosis, as well as cytokinesis.

17. Define the term cyclin:

Cyclin is a protein group that governs a cell's passage through the cell cycle by activating cyclin-
dependent kinase (CDK) enzymes or a set of enzymes essential for cell cycle production.

18. Explain how cyclins affect control the progression of a cell through the cell cycle.

1) Cells cannot advance to the next stage of the cell cycle unless a certain cyclin exceeds a certain threshold.
2) Cyclins bind to cyclin-dependent kinases, which are enzymes.
3) Once activated, these kinases link phosphate groups to other proteins in the cell.
4) The phosphate attachment causes the other proteins to become active and perform jobs (specific to one of the
phases of the cell cycle)

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19. Outline the roles of the four cyclins involved in control of the cell cycle:

Function

In S phase, it initiates DNA replication within the nucleus.

Cyclin A

Stimulates the formation of the mitotic spindle and other cytoplasmic functions in preparation
Cyclin B for mitosis.

Causes cells to transition from G0 to G1, and then from G1 to S-phase.

Cyclin D

In S phase, prepares the cell for DNA replication.

Cyclin E

20. The graph shows the concentrations of the four main cyclins at different points in the cell cycle. Label
the graph to identify which line represents of the four main cyclins outlined above.

adapted from: http://upload.w ikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Cyclin_Expression.svg/800px-Cyclin_Expression.svg.png

http://www.bioknowledgy.info/ (Chris Paine)

1.6.S1 Identification of phases of mitosis in cells viewed with a microscope or in a micrograph.

21. Label the micrograph to identify at least one example of a cell in each phase of mitosis.

http://cnx.org/resources/4035aea2d706510a12ec779a06dd68dd/graphics51.jpg

1.6.S2 Determination of a mitotic index from a micrograph.

Micrograph of a pressed onion root meristem

http://upload.w ikimedia.org/w ikipedia/commons/e/e3/Mitosis_%28261_13%29_Pressed%3B_root_meristem_of_onio n_

%28cells_in_prophase,_metaphase,_anaphase,_telophase%29.jpg

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 22. Complete the table by classifying each cell (do not count cells wholly in the image) based on what phase
of the cell cycle it is in.

Mitosis
Interphase
Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Total
Number 53
46 1 2 1 3
of cells
86% 2% 4% 2% 6% 100%
%

23. Using the table state the mitotic index of the above micrograph?

7 / 53 = 0,132

1.6.U6 Mutagens, oncogenes and metastasis are involved in the development of primary and secondary
tumours.

24. Define the term tumour.

A neoplasm is an abnormal layer of tissue that develops as a result of unregulated and progressive
cell division. Tumours serve no use in the body. They might be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant
(cancerous).

25. Cancer (also known as a malignant tumor) is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the
potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. List the names of four common types of cancer:

 Lung Cancer
 Breast Cancer
 Leukemia
 Colon & Rectal Cancer

26. Outline a primary tumour, metastasis and it’s development into secondary tumours.

- A primary tumor is a malignant tumor that grows at the location where the abnormal growth first appeared.
- Cancerous cells can detach from the primary tumor. 
- Some cancerous cells gain the ability to penetrate the walls of lymph or blood vessels and thus circulate
throughout the body. 
- The circulating cancerous cells invade tissues at different locations and develop into secondary tumors through
uncontrolled cell division.
- Metastasis is the migration of cells from a primary tumor to form new tumors in other regions of the body.

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 27. A mutation is a change in an organisms genetic code. A mutation/change in the base sequence of a
certain genes can result in cancer.

a. What is the name given to the few genes that can become cancerous after mutating?

Oncogenes

b. What role do these genes have in normal, healthy cells?

Oncogenes govern the cell cycle and cell division in normal cells.

c. Explain briefly why a mutation in these genes could result in a cancer.

Mutation in an oncogene = breakdown in cell cycle control = uncontrolled cell division = tumor genesis.

28. Mutagens are agents that cause gene mutations. Not all mutations result in cancers, but anything that
causes a mutation has the potential to cause a cancer.
a. State the collective name given to chemicals that cause mutations.

Carcinogens.

b. Give examples of non-chemical mutagens

- Reactive oxygen species.

- UV-light
- X-rays
- Some genetic and viruses.

29. Several mutations must occur in the same cell for it to become a tumour causing cell. The probability of
this happening in a single cell is extremely small. What factors (other than exposure to mutagens)
increase the probability of tumour development in humans?

- The large number of cells in the human body 

-the bigger the number of cells, the greater the possibility of a mutation. 
- The longer a person lives, the more likely a mutation occurs.

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 1.6.A1 The correlation between smoking and incidence of cancers.

30. The graph below plots cigarette consumption and lung cancer deaths over time.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Smoking_lung_cancer.png

a. Describe the relationship shown.

Both the blue and black lines have a similar pattern, as both of them go up exponentially and then
decrease at the same time.

b. What type of correlation is shown?

It represents a rather strong correlation.

c. How strong is the correlation? Justify your answer by discussing the evidence.

This is represented as once the cigarette intake increases, the more lung cancer deaths are evoked as
a result. However, as the cigarette intake decreases, so do the resulting deaths.

d. The correlation shown here is lagged. A lag is a time gap between the factors. Estimate the size
of the lag between cigarette consumption and lung cancer death.

The time the people have smoked the cigarettes for is undefined, however, due to the strong correlation
implemented through the graph and its results, it estimates that every 25 years.

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 31. There are many other similar survey in different countries, with different demographics that show similar
results. Along with lung cancer, cancers of mouth and throat are very common as these areas are in
direct contact with the smoke too. List out 6 examples of other cancers that are more common in
smokers than non-smokers.

 Bladder
 Head and neck
 Kidney
 Colon
 Pancreas
 Breasts

32. Correlation does not equal causation. Outline the direct evidence shows that it is tobacco smoke that
causes the increased incidence of these cancers.

- Over 20 compounds discovered in tobacco have been linked to cancer in experimental animals
and/or people.
- More than 40 additional tobacco-related compounds have been recognized as carcinogenic.

Citations:

Allott, Andrew. Biology: Course Companion. S.l.: Oxford UP, 2014. Print.

Taylor, Stephen. "Essential Biology 02.5 Cell Division.docx." Web. 24 Aug. 2014.
<https://www.box.net/shared/3yh5839dua>.

http://www.bioknowledgy.info/ (Chris Paine)