CSEC BIOLOGY

• LETS LOOK AT THE TOPICS THAT NEED TO BE COVERED IN THE TWO YEAR
PERIOD.
• ALSO THE STRUCTURE OF THE EXAM AND ALSO THE SBA COMPONENTS.
• THE COURSE IS DIVIDED INTO THREE (3) SECTIONS ACCORDING TO THE NEW CSEC BIOLOGY SYLLABUS:

• SECTION A - LIVING ORGANISMS IN THE ENVIRONMENT

• CHARACTERISTICS AND CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS
• ECOLOGICAL STUDY (SAMPLING METHODS, BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC FACTORS ETC)
• FOOD CHAINS AND FOOD WEBS
• NUTRIENT CYCLES
• SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS
• RECYCLING
• IMPACT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ENVIRONMENT
• CLIMATE CHANGE
• HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH

• SECTION B - LIFE PROCESSES AND DISEASE

• CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
• NUTRITION (NUTRIENTS, DIET, DIGESTIVE SYSTEM, FOOD TESTS ETC)
• RESPIRATION AND GASEOUS EXCHANGE
• TRANSPORT IN ANIMAL AND PLANTS (HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, BLOOD, PHLOEM, XYLEM)
• EXCRETION AND HOMEOSTASIS (URINARY SYSTEM, SKIN, OSMOREGULATION, BLOOD GLUCOSE REGULATION)
• MOVEMENT (SKELETON, LOCOMOTION ETC)
• IRRITABILITY (NERVOUS SYSTEM, SENSE ORGANS, ENDOCRINE SYSTEM)
• GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION (REPRODUCTION, FEMALE/MALE SEX ORGANS, MENSTRUAL CYCLE, EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT, BIRTH CONTROL ETC)
• DISEASE CONTROL

• SECTION C - CONTINUITY AND VARIATION

• CELL DIVISION (MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS)
• INHERITANCE OF CHARACTERISTICS (GENETIC VARIATION, GENETIC CROSSES)
• SPECIES AND BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
• NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
• GENETIC ENGINEERING
CELL STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION
 You should be able to:
THE
STRUCTURE
■ draw and label simple diagrams to show the structure
AND of unspecialised plant and animal cells;

FUNCTION
OF PLANT ■ state the functions and explain the importance of the
cell wall, cell membrane, nucleus, chromosomes,
cytoplasm, mitochondria, vacuoles and chloroplast; and
AND ANIMAL
CELLS
■ differentiate between plant and animal cells.
Structure of Unspecialized Plant and Animal Cell

Animal and plant cells have the following features in common:

• Cell membrane

• Cytoplasm

• Nucleus

• Vacuole

• Mitochondria
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS:
Cell membrane – a cell’s protective coat

It separates and protects a cell from its surrounding

environment.

It consists of a double layer of phospholipids. Embedded within

are other molecules such as proteins, that act as channels and
pumps to move different molecules into and out of the cell.

It controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell

and is said to be partially permeable.
Cytoplasm – a cell’s inner space

It is the watery material between the nucleus and the

cell membrane with a jelly-like consistency.

It contains mainly water and dissolved materials,

allowing materials to move around the cell through a
process called cytoplasmic streaming.

The function of the cytoplasm, and the organelles

which reside in it, are critical for a cell’s survival.
 It stores deoxyribonucleic Its function, therefore, is to
It is usually spherical, acid (DNA), which is wound protect the cell’s genetic
separated from the cytoplasm into structures called material and control cell
Nucleus – a cell’s centre by a double membrane chromatin. DNA is the genetic activities. It plays an
called the nuclear envelope. material of an organism, important role in DNA
carrying instructions for cell replication and protein
activities and heredity. synthesis
Vacuole – a cell’s storage space

In a plant cell, the vacuole is a permanent structure with

a fixed shape, occupying a large central part of the cell.
It is surrounded by a membrane (tonoplast) and contains
cell sap, a solution of mineral salts and sugars.

Plant cells pump a lot of water into the vacuoles which

expand and push against the cell wall. This creates a
turgor pressure which is important to the plant to keep
the cells turgid and thus provide support to the plant
 In animal cells, the vacuoles are small
and scattered throughout the cytoplasm.
Vacuole – a cell’s storage space They are
temporary structures and are
membrane-bound sacs which have
various functions such as:
• • transporting materials,
• • storing sugars,
• • containing digestive enzymes to
digest invading bacteria,
• • helping the cell to expel excess water
 They are rod shaped and surrounded
by a double membrane with an inner Cells which have a high metabolic
membrane extensively folded. They rate need a constant supply of
Mitochondria – a cell’s power are sites of respiration (see Chapter energy. These cells, such as muscle
generator 5) and are responsible for the release and liver cells, contain a large number
of energy which is subsequently of mitochondria
stored in adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) molecules.
Structure and Function of the Cell and Its Organelles

Cell wall – a plant cell’s extra armour

It is found only in plant cells; it is an extra layer of material in addition to the

cell membrane.

Unlike the cell membrane, the cell wall is fully permeable. It is a rigid structure
made up of cellulose and provides strength and shape to the cell.

It prevents the plant cell from bursting when too much water enters the vacuole
(see Chapter 4).
CHLOROPLASTS – A PLANT CELL’S SOLAR
GENERATOR
• THEY ARE LIKE MITOCHONDRIA BUT ARE
FOUND ONLY IN PLANT CELLS WHICH
PHOTOSYNTHESIZE. THEY ARE FLAT
DISCS, SURROUNDED BY A DOUBLE
MEMBRANE CALLED THE CHLOROPLAST
ENVELOPE.
• THEY ARE USUALLY GREEN IN COLOUR
BECAUSE OF A PIGMENT CALLED
CHLOROPHYLL. DURING
PHOTOSYNTHESIS, CHLOROPLASTS
TRAP LIGHT ENERGY FROM THE SUN
AND ENERGY IS STORED IN ATP.
 3.2 CELL SPECIALISATION IN
MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS

YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

■ EXPLAIN THE IMPORTANCE OF CELL SPECIALISATION;
AND
■ DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN CELL, TISSUE, ORGAN AND
ORGAN SYSTEM.
CELL SPECIALIZATION

• MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS ARE COMPOSED OF SEVERAL DIFFERENT

TYPES OF CELLS; EACH CELL IS DIFFERENTLY ADAPTED TO PERFORM A
SPECIFIC FUNCTION.

• AS THE CELLS ARE PRODUCED AND DEVELOPED, THEY CHANGE THEIR

STRUCTURE IN SOME WAYS TO SPECIALIZE IN A SPECIFIC FUNCTION.

• THIS PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT IS KNOWN AS CELL DIFFERENTIATION.

 EXAMPLES OF SPECIALIZED CELLS
IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS:

XYLEM VESSELS
• ARE PIPE-LIKE COLUMNS;
• PROVIDE SUPPORT;
• TRANSPORT WATER AND
MINERAL SALTS FROM ROOTS
TO OTHER PARTS.
EXAMPLES OF SPECIALIZED CELLS IN
PLANTS AND ANIMALS:

ROOT HAIR CELL

• HAS A LONG NARROW EXTENSION
OF THE CELL;
• HAS A LARGE SURFACE AREA TO
VOLUME RATIO;
• INCREASES THE RATE OF
DIFFUSION OF WATER
AND MINERAL SALTS.
EXAMPLES OF SPECIALIZED CELLS IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS:

RED BLOOD CELLS

• SUPPLY OXYGEN TO OTHER BODY CELLS;
• CONTAIN RED PIGMENT CALLED HAEMOGLOBIN – COMBINE EASILY
WITH OXYGEN;
• DO NOT HAVE NUCLEUS – CAN PACK MORE HAEMOGLOBIN;
• ARE BICONCAVE SHAPED – INCREASE SURFACE AREA;
• HAVE AN ELASTIC CELL MEMBRANE – ALLOWS THEM TO BE SQUEEZED
THROUGH NARROW CAP
• CELL ORGANIZATION

• SOME ORGANISMS, SUCH AS BACTERIA, ARE UNICELLULAR,

CONSISTING OF A SINGLE CELL. OTHER ORGANISMS, SUCH AS
HUMANS, ARE MULTICELLULAR, OR HAVE MANY CELLS − AN
ESTIMATED 100,000,000,000,000 CELLS!

• MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS ARE COMPOSED OF SEVERAL DIFFERENT

TYPES OF CELLS ORGANIZED INTO ORGAN SYSTEMS WHICH WORK
WITH ONE ANOTHER TO ENSURE THAT THE WHOLE ORGANISM
FUNCTIONS EFFECTIVELY.
 The different levels 1. Similar cells work
Cell Organisation of organisation are together as tissues
as follows: to carry out a
particular function.
DIFFERENT TISSUES WORK TOGETHER AS AN ORGAN TO CARRY OUT A
PARTICULAR FUNCTION.
DIFFERENT ORGANS WORK TOGETHER AS AN ORGAN SYSTEM TO CARRY OUT
A PARTICULAR FUNCTION.
AN ORGANISM CONSISTS OF
SEVERAL ORGAN SYSTEMS
WITH EACH CARRYING OUT
ITS OWN FUNCTION.
• OTHER SYSTEMS INCLUDE THE:

• RESPIRATORY SYSTEM,

• CIRCULATORY SYSTEM,

• NERVOUS SYSTEM,

• DIGESTIVE SYSTEM,

• EXCRETORY SYSTEM,

• MUSCULO SKELETAL SYSTEM, AND

• REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM.
Cell Organisation

Plants are also multicellular organisms.

Epidermal cells make up the epidermal tissue. Xylem cells and phloem cells make up the vascular
tissue. Many other cells of the cortex and pith make up the supporting tissue of the stems.

These different plant tissues group together to form the plant organs – the roots, leaves and flowers.

The different organs make up the organ systems of the plant – the roots or shoots system.
Plant organs
 Cell structure and organelles

KEY All plant and animal cells have a cell membrane made up of
proteins and phospholipids, cytoplasm, a nucleus which contains
CONCEPTS deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and rod-shaped structures
involved in respiration called mitochondria.

Plant cells are also surrounded by a cell wall which is made up

of cellulose. The cell wall is fully permeable unlike the cell
membrane which is partially permeable. The cell membrane
controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell.
 KEY CONCEPTS

CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANELLES

• PLANT CELLS ARE OCCUPIED BY A LARGE CENTRAL VACUOLE WHICH
CONTAINS A SOLUTION OF SALTS AND SUGARS CALLED CELL SAP.
THIS VACUOLE IS SURROUNDED BY A MEMBRANE KNOWN AS THE
TONOPLAST.
• ANIMAL CELLS MAY ALSO CONTAIN VACUOLES; HOWEVER THEY ARE
SMALLER AND SCATTERED THROUGHOUT THE CYTOPLASM.
• CHLOROPLASTS ARE FOUND IN PLANT CELLS WHICH
PHOTOSYNTHESISE. THEY CONTAIN A PIGMENT CALLED
CHLOROPHYLL.
 KEY CONCEPTS
CELL SPECIALIZATION AND ORGANIZATION

• CELLS BECOME SPECIALIZED IN STRUCTURE TO PERFORM A SPECIFIC FUNCTION IN A

PROCESS CALLED CELL DIFFERENTIATION.

• SIMILAR CELLS WORK TOGETHER AS A TISSUE TO CARRY OUT A PARTICULAR

FUNCTION.

• DIFFERENT TISSUES WORK TOGETHER AS AN ORGAN TO CARRY OUT A PARTICULAR

FUNCTION.

• DIFFERENT ORGANS WORK TOGETHER AS AN ORGAN SYSTEM TO CARRY OUT A

PARTICULAR FUNCTION.

• A MULTICELLULAR ORGANISM IS MADE UP OF MANY ORGAN SYSTEMS WORKING

TOGETHER.