ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2020-22 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
MATHS (0580)
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE MATHS (0580)

1. Number
Natural numbers:
used for counting purposes
A∩B is shaded A∪B ‎is shaded
all possible rational &irrational numbers
Integer: a whole number ‎⊂‎‘is a subset of’
Prime numbers:
divisible only by itself and one
1 is not a prime number
Rational numbers: can be written as a fraction
Irrational numbers: cannot be written as a fraction e.g. π
Cube numbers: made from multiplying a rational number
ξ = {a, b, c, d, e} A’ is shaded
to itself twice.
b∈X
Reciprocals: A number made by raising a rational number
to -1, or 1 over that number
of elements in A

1.2. HCF and LCM ∈ = …is an element of…

\n otin = …is not an element of…
Highest Common Factor and Lowest Common Multiple: A′ = compliment of set A
Ø or   = empty set
ξ = Universal set
A ∪ B = union of A and B
A ∩ B = intersection of A and B
A ⊆ B = A is a subset of B
HCF = product of common factors of x and y
A ⊂ B = A is a proper subset of B
LCM = product of all items in Venn diagram
A⊄B = A is not a subset of B

1.4. Indices
Standard form:

10 4 = 10000
10 3 = 1000
10 2 = 100
Prime Factorization: finding which prime numbers 10 1 = 10
multiply together to make the original number 10 0 = 1
10 −1 = 0.1
1.3. Sets 10 −2 = 0.01
10 −3 = 0.001
Definition of sets e.g. 10 −4 = 0.0001
A = { x : x is a natural number} 10 −5 = 0.00001
B = {( x , y): y = mx + c } Limits of accuracy:
C = { x : a ≤ x ≤ b}
D = { a, b, c , … } The degree of rounding of a number
E.g. 2.1 to 1 d.p 2.05 ≤ x < 2.15
Set representations: Finding limits when adding/multiplying: add/multiply
respective
limits of values
Finding maximum value possible when
dividing/subtracting: max
value divided by/minus min
value
Finding minimum value possible when
A∩B is shaded A∪B ‎is shaded dividing/subtracting: min
value divided by/minus max
value
‎⊂‎‘is a subset of’

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Units of speed: km/hr or m/s

1.5. Ratio & Proportion
Units of distance: km or m
Ratio: used to describe a fraction Units of time: hr or sec
e.g. 3 : 1
5
Foreign exchange: money changed from one currency to km/hr × = m/sec
18
​

another
using proportion
E.g. Convert $22.50 to Dinars 18
m/sec × = km/hr
$1 : 0.30KD 5
​

$22.50 : 6.75KD
Map scales: using proportion to work out map scales
1km = 1000m
2. Algebra & Graphs
1m = 100cm
1cm = 10mm 2.1. Factorisation
Direct variation: y is proportional to x
Common factors:
y∝x
3x 2 + 6x
y = kx
3x(x + 2)
Inverse variation: y is inversely proportional to x
Difference of two squares:
1
y∝
x 25 − x 2
​

k
y= ​
(5 + x)(5 − x)
x
Group factorization:
1.6. Percentages
4d + ac + ad + 4c
Percentage:
Convenient way of expressing fractions 4 (d + c ) + a(c + d)
Percent means per 100
(4 + a)(c + d)
Percentage increase or decrease:
Trinomial:
Actual Change
P ercentage increase =  × 100
Original Amount x 2 + 14x + 24
​

Simple interest:
x 2 + 12x + 2x + 24
PRT
I= x (x + 12 ) + 2 (x + 12 )
100
​

Where, P= P rincipal, R = Rate Of I nterest, and (x + 2)(x + 12)

T = T ime
2.2. Quadratic Factorization
Compound interest:
n General equation:
A = P (1 + )
R
100 ax 2 + bx + c = 0
​

Where, P= P rincipal, T = Rate Of I nterest, and Solve quadratics by:

T = T ime Trinomial factorization
Quadratic formula
1.7. Speed, Distance & Time −b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
​

2a
​

Distance
Speed =
Time When question says, “give your answer to two decimal
​

Total Distance places”,
use formula!
Average Speed = Derivation of the Quadratic Formula is the same as saying
Total Time
​

“Make
x the subject in ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ”

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ax 2 + bx + c = 0 - Quadratic Formula
e.g. x 2 − x − 6 = 0
Factorize a out
Where a = 1 , b = −1 , c = −6
Plug the numbers in the Quadratic Formula:
a (x 2 + x) + c = 0
b
​

a −b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
​

2a
​

Complete the Square

2 Therefore:
a ((x + ) − 2) + c = 0
b b2
2a 4a (−1 )2 − 4 (1 ) (−6 )
​ ​

− (−1 ) ± ​

x=
2 (1 )
​

b 2 b2
a (x + ) − +c=0
2a 4a
​ ​

x1 = 3
​

2
b2 − 4ac
a (x + ) =
b x 2 = −2
​

2a 4a
​ ​

- Complete the Square

2
b2 − 4ac e.g. x 2 + 10x + 5 = 0
(x + ) =
b
2a 4a2 (WARNING! Coefficient of x 2 Must be 1 for this to work)
​ ​

b b2 − 4ac x 2 + 10x + 5 = 0
x+ =±
2a 4a2
​ ​ ​

(x + 5 )2 − 5 2 + 5 = 0
b ± b2 − 4ac 2
x+ =
​

2a
​

4a2 ​
​

(x + 5 ) − 20 = 0

Note: 4a2 is a square number (x + 5 )2 = 20

b ± b2 − 4ac x + 5 = ± 20
x+ =
​
​

2a 2a
​ ​

x = −5 ± 20 ​

−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
​

2a
​

Answer is:

Standardized form: x 1 = −5 +
​ 20 , x 2 = −5 −
​ ​ 20 ​

y = ax2 +bx + c
Complete Square form: 2.3. Reciprocal Graphs (Hyperbola)
y = (x + a)2 +b
(Where axis of symmetry is x =
−a) Standardized Form:
To find turning point of quadratic equation, complete y = ax ​

the
square, then the turning point is: (−a,   b)
Ways to solve Quadratic equation: If a is Positive: If a is Negative:
Graphing Method The Line will be in the The Line will be in the
Factorizing 1st &3rd Quadrant 2nd&4th Quadrant
Quadratic Formula
Complete the Square
2.4. Cubic Equation
- Graphing Method – Graph the equation,
see where the it touches the x-axis Standardized Form:
- Factorizing y =ax3 +bx2 +cx + d
e.g. x 2 −x−6=0 Properties:
Highest Exponent of x is 3
x2 − x − 6 = 0 Has a maximum of 2 turning points

(x − 3 ) (x + 2 ) = 0 Turning points are points after which a graph changes its

gradient’s sign, therefore changing direction between up or
x1 = 3 ​

down
 
x 2 = −2 ​

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Using differentiation
dy
dx gives you the gradient of the
curve at any point in
​

terms of x
dy
When y = xn , dx ​
= nx n−1
Stationary/ turning point: dy
dx ​ =0
st ′
1 Derivative =
dy
dx = f ( x ) ​

d2 y ′′
2nd Derivative =
dx2 = f (x ) ​

To determine if stationary point is maximum or

minimum:
2.5. Exponential Graphs
Use 2nd derivative
d2 y
Maximum point: dx2 ​ <0
d2 y
Minimum point: dx 2 ​ >0
Use gradients around the point
Input x values slightly above and below
stationary
point and calculate gradient

2.7. Simultaneous Equations

Can be solved either by substitution or elimination
Generally solved by substitution as follows:
Step 1: obtain an equation in one unknown and solve
this
equation
Step 2: substitute the results from step 1 into linear
equation
to find the other unknown
The points of intersection of two graphs are given by the
solution of their simultaneous equations

2.8. Inequalities
Standardized form:
y = a (b )x Solve like equations
Properties: Multiplying or dividing by negative ⇒ switch sign
a is the y-intercept y
Asymptotes are lines that a curve approaches, but −3 ≥ −7
​

never touches
because the curve continues to infinity, y ≤ −7 × −3
in this case the y-axis
b is the rate of growth y ≤ 21
When 0 < b < 1 , the graph will go downwards from When two inequalities present, split into two
left to
right
x < 3x − 1 < 2x + 7
2.6. Gradient of a Curve
x < 3x − 1 3x − 1 < 2x + 7
By drawing tangents 1
x> 2
​
x<8
In a straight line, gradient is constant
Curves have varying gradients throughout the graph. 1
To find the
gradient at a point: <x<8
2
​

1. Draw the graph

2. Draw a tangent at the point in the graph, ensuring it 2.9. Linear Programming
only touches the graph at that point (Use a ruler)
3. Find the gradient of the tangent For strict inequalities (<, >) use broken line
For non-strict inequalities (≤, ≥) use solid line
Steps to solve:
Interpret y = mx + c
Draw straight line graphs
Shade

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Solve From O to A: Uniform speed

From A to B: Constant speed (acceleration = 0)
From B to C: Uniform deceleration / retardation

Area under a graph = distance travelled.

Gradient = acceleration.
If the acceleration is negative, it is called deceleration or
retardation. (moving body is slowing down.)
2.10. Sequences
Linear sequences: Find common difference e.g. 3, then 2.13. Functions
multiply
by n and work out what needs to be added
Quadratic sequences: Function notation:
Format: an2 + bn + c f : x → 2x − 1
Function f  such that x maps onto 2x − 1
Composite function: Given two functions f (x )
and g (x ) ,
the composite function of f and g
is the function which
maps x onto
f (g (x ))
Work out the values and then place into formula to f (2 )
work out nth
term formula Substitute x = 2  and solve for f (x )
Geometric progression: sequence where term has been
fg(x)
multiplied
by a constant to form next term
Substitute x = g (x )
−1
nth term of G.P .  = ar(n−1) f (x)
Let y = f(x) and make x the subject
a = 1st term r = common difference

2.11. Distance-Time Graphs

3. Geometry
3.1. Similarity
Similarity can be worked out by the AAA (Angle – Angle –
Angle)
rule.
AAA (Angle – Angle – Angle) rule: All the corresponding
From O to A: Uniform speed angles
of the triangles must be equal.
From B to C: Uniform speed (return journey)
From A to B: Stationery (speed = 0)

3.2. Congruence
Gradient  =  speed
SSS (Side – Side – Side) rule: All the three sides of the
triangles must be equal
2.12. Speed-Time Graphs

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Rectangle:

diagonals bisect each other

RHS (Right angle – Hypotenuse – Side) rule : Parallelogram:

There must two right-angled triangles Opposite sides parallel/equal

The length of the hypotenuses must be the same
One of the corresponding sides of each triangle must be opposite angles equal
the same
diagonals bisect each other
SAS (Side – Angle – Side) rule: Rhombus:
There must be an angle and a side present
A parallelogram with all sides
The angle of the adjacent sides must be equal
equal
The two sides of the triangle must be equal

opposite angles equal

diagonals bisect each other

Trapezium:

ASA (Angle – Side – Angle) rule: The sides adjacent to the

equal
angles must be of the same length. One pair of sides parallel

Kite:

Two pairs of adjacent sides

equal

diagonals are perpendicular

3.3. Triangles to each other

3.5. Construction
Constructing triangles:

3.4. Quadrilaterals
Rectangle:
Opposite sides parallel/equal
all angles 90°

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3.6. Symmetry
Line of symmetry: Divides a two-dimensional shape into
two congruent (identical) shapes
Plane of symmetry: Divides a three-dimensional shape
into two congruent solid shapes

The number of times shape fits its outline during a

complete revolution is called the order of rotational Corresponding angles are equal
symmetry

Number of Lines of Rotational Symmetry

Shape
Symmetry Order
Square 4 4
Rectangle 2 2
Parallelogram 0 2
Alternate angles
Rhombus 2 2
Trapezium 0 1
Kite 1 1
Equilateral
3 3
triangle
Regular
6 6
hexagon

Properties of circles:
Equal chords are equidistant from the centre
The perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through
the centre
Tangents from an external point are equal in length

Co-interior angles add up to 180°

3.7. Polygons
Sum of angles at a point = 360 ∘
Angles on a straight line =  180 ∘
Sum of angles in a triangle = 180 ∘
For regular polygon
∘
External angles = 360n ​

∘
Internal angles = 180 ∘ − 360
n ​

For irregular polygon:

Sum of exterior angles = 360 ∘
Sum of interior angles= 180(n − 2)
Vertically opposite angles are equal

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OR

ab sin θ

Triangle= 12 b × h
​

Trapezium= 12 (a +
​ b) h
Circle=πr 2
Sector= πr 2 × θ
360 ​

4.2. Volume and Surface Area

Cuboid
Surface area = 2lw + 2hl + 2hw
V olume = hlw
Cylinder
Exterior angle=sum of interior opposite ∠ C urved surface area = 2πrh
V olume = πr 2 h
Cone
C urved surface area = πrl
V olume = 13 (πr 2 h)
​

Sphere
Surface area = 4πr 2
V olume = 43 πr 3 ​

Hemisphere
Surface area = 2πr 2
3.8. Circle Theorem V olume = 23 πr 3 ​

4.3. Units
Volume:

Angle at center = twice

Angle subtended by same arc at
angle on circumference
circumference are equal

Angles in semicircleare
90° Opposite angles in a cyclic
quadrilateral = 180°

Tangents from one point Mass:

are equal. ‎∠‎between
tangent and radius is 90° Alternate segment theorem

4. Mensuration
4.1. Area
Parallelogram = b× h

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x 1 + x 2 y1 + y2
( ,  )
​ ​ ​ ​

2 2
​ ​

Length between two points:

2 2
(x 2 − x 1 ) + (y2 − y1 )
​ ​ ​ ​
​

5.2. Sketching Graphs

Capacity:

f(x) = 1‎ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓( 𝑥) = 𝑥2

f(x) = x3‎ f(x) = 1/x f(x) = 1/x2

6. Trigonometry
Connecting volume and capacity:
1ml = 1cm3 6.1. Bearings
1kl = 1m3
Mass
Density = Volume ​
The bearing of a point B from another point A is:
An angle measured from the north at A.
In a clockwise direction.
5. Coordinate Geometry Written as three-figure number (i.e. from 000° to 360°)
e.g. The bearing of B from A is 050°

5.1. Graphs
Gradient of a Straight Line:

y2 − y1
Gradient =
​ ​

x2 − x1
​

6.2. Pythagoras Theorem

​ ​

Equation of Line:
To find hypotenuse
y = mx + c a2 + b2 = c 2
Find the gradient, m
Find the y -intercept, c

Midpoint of Graph:

( )

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6.4. Graphs of simple trigonometric

functions
∘
sin (x) = sin (180 − x)

To find one of the shorter sides

a2 = c 2 − b2
b2 = c 2 − a2
Angle of elevation:
Angle above the horizontal line

∘
cos (x ) = cos (360 − x)

Angle of depression:
Angle below the horizontal line.

Area of a triangle:  12 ab sin c

​

6.3. Ratios
Right angled triangles: Sine and cosine shifted by 90°
Sine has x-intercepts at multiples 180°, and cosine at (90°
opposite
sin x = hypotenuse → SOH
​

+
multiples of 180°)
adjacent ∘
cos x = hypotenuse → CAH ​ tan (x) = tan (180 + x)
tan x = opposite
adjacent → TOA

Goes to infinity at 90°, 270°, 450°, …

Has x-intercepts at multiples of 180°

6.5. Sine & Cosine Rules

Sine rule:

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a b c The centre, angle and direction of rotation are needed

= =
sin a sin b sin c to describe a rotation
​ ​ ​

A clockwise rotation is negative, and an anticlockwise

Cosine rule
rotation is positive
To find the angle given 3 sides
Translation (T):

b2 + c 2 − a2
cos a =
2bc
​

To find side given angle and two sides

a2 = b2 + c 2 − 2bc cos a

7. Vectors & Transformations When describing a translation, it is necessary to give

the
translation vector
Enlargement (E):
7.1. Vectors To describe an enlargement, state the scale factor, K
and the
centre of enlargement
Vector quantity has both magnitude and direction
E.g. Vectors a and b represented by the line segments, length of image
Scale factor =
can be
added using ‘parallelogram rule’ or ‘nose-to-tail length of object
​

Area of image = K 2 ×  area of object
If K > 0, both object and image lie on same side of the
centre of
enlargement
If K < 0, object and image lie on opposite side of the centre
of
enlargement

method’ 8. Probability
Multiplication by a scalar:
Scalar quantity: has a
magnitude but no direction Probability is the study of chance, or the likelihood of an
The negative sign reverses the direction of the vector event
happening
Column vector:
number of favourable outcomes
P (event) =
total number of outcomes
​

If probability = 0, event is impossible

If probability =1, event is certain to happen
All probabilities lie between 0 and 1

8.2. Events
Top number = horizontal component
Bottom number = vertical component Exclusive events:

Parallel vectors: Two events are exclusive if they cannot occur at the same
Vectors are parallel if they have the same direction time

In general, the vector k ( ab ) is

parallel to ( ab )
​ ​

Modulus of a vector:
In general, if x = (m
n ) ,
∣x ∣ =
​ (m2 + n2 ​

7.2. Transformation
Reflection (M):
When describing a reflection, the position of the
mirror line is essential
Rotation (R):

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Construct tree diagram.

Write the outcomes of the first event
Connect both the second and first events outcome
Write probability on top of each event’s line
Multiply probabilities on the lines to the required outcome
Note: The probabilities reduce with each step if objects
are
replaced

Calculate using two-way tables:

The OR Rule:
Column and row headers are the sample space of the
For exclusive events A and B
two events
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
Fill in each cell with the correct number of outcomes
Independent events: Take the required number from the table and divide
by the sum of
all values in the row/column of the
Two events are independent if occurrence of one is condition provided.
unaffected by
occurrence of other Remember: P(A|B) and P(B|A) are not the
same
The AND Rule:
P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B)
9. Statistics
8.3. Conditional Probability
9.1. Histograms
Probability of an event (A), given that another (B) has
already
occurred

Symbol : P (A∣B)

Histogram: Displays frequency of continuous or grouped

discrete data in the form of bars
Bars are joined together and may be of varying width
Frequency of the data is represented by the area of the
bar and not
the height
When class intervals are different, area of the bar
represents the
frequency, not the height
Frequency density plotted on y-axis,
not frequency
Class width = Interval
Frequency density = Height

Calculate using Venn diagram: F requency = Class width × F requency density

Construct the Venn diagram, using sample space of both 9.2. Averages
events
P(A|B) = P(A ∩ B) / P(B) Mean
Calculate using tree diagrams: Sum of values
number of values
​

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Median: Difference in position of boxes represents if data in

The middle value - when the data has been written in one set is
overall higher or lower than another data
ascending
or descending order set. (3) and (4)
5+1 Variation in lengths of different sections and position
Odd no. of values 2 = 3rd value
​

6+1
Even no. of values 2 = 3.5th value
​
of
median show how evenly the data is spread,
(add two values divide by 2) compared to other
data sets (1)
Mode:
Most frequently occurring value
Range:
Difference between highest and lowest values
Estimated mean of grouped data:
Work out midpoints of each group and multiply by
frequency
Divide by number of values
9.5. Pie Charts
9.3. Cumulative Frequency
Sectors represent data, and these sectors form a circle.
Cumulative frequency is the total frequency up to a given
Angle of a sector:
point
Inter-quartile range = upper quartile − Number of an item ∘
θ =    × 360
lower quartile Total number of items
​

9.4. Box-and-whisker plots

Construction
Find median and two quartiles
Draw three lines of equal width along these values
Complete the boxes ∘
Sum of angles in a pie chart is 360
Draw ‘whiskers’ extending from the box to the
maximum and
minimum values.
Draw two more lines at the ends 9.6. Stem and Leaf diagrams
Stem-and-Leaf diagram is a quick way of summarizing a
range of data.
There is a column known as the stem, contains which
contains unique
elements of data formed by removing
last digits of the data.
Keys are used in this diagram

Interpretation:
Median, quartiles and extreme values can be found by
reading on
the scale of y-axis
Short boxes mean low IQR and vice versa (2), (3)
Long whiskers mean a lot of extreme values and vice
versa (1)

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Displays the correlation between two sets of data

9.7. Pictograms
May have positive, negative or no correlation
Data is represented in pictures
A key is given to represent the value of a picture.

E.g.
= 5 people
Line of best fit drawn through points that has an equal
number of
points on each side to show the trend

Favorite Fast Food of 100 Children

9.8. Scatter Diagrams

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UPDATED TO 2020-22 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
ADD MATHS
(0606)
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE ADD MATHS (0606)

Determine the shape

a > 0 – u-shaped ∴ minimum point
1. Functions a < 0 – n-shaped ∴ maximum point
Use the turning point
One-to-one functions: each x value maps to one distinct
Express y = ax2 + bx + c as
y = a (x − h)
2
+k
y value (check using vertical line test) by completing the square
e.g. n 2 n 2
x2 + nx  ⟺ (x + ) −( )
2 2
​ ​

f (x) = 3x − 1
2
a (x + n) + k
Many-to-one functions: there are some f (x) values
which are
generated by more than one x value Where the vertex is (−n, k)
e.g. Find the y -intercept:
Substitute x as 0 to get y intercept
f (x) = x2 − 2x + 3
Find the x-intercept:
Domain =x values Range = y values Factorize or use formula
Type of root by calculating discriminant b2 − 4ac
Notation: f (x) can also be written as
f :x↦ If b2 − 4ac = 0, real and equal roots
To find range: If b2 − 4ac > 0, real and distinct roots
Complete the square 2
If b − 4ac < 0, no real roots
Intersections of a line and a curve: if the equations of the
x2 − 2x + 3 → (x − 1)2 + 2
line and curve leads to a quadratic equation then:
Work out min/max point If b2 − 4ac = 0, line is tangent to the curve
If b2 − 4ac > 0, line meets curve in two points
Minimum point = (1, 2) If b2 − 4ac < 0, line does not meet curve
∴ all y values are greater than or equal to 2.
f (x) ≥ 2 Quadratic inequality:
One-to-many functions do not exist (x − d) (x − β ) < 0 ⟹ d < x < β
Domain of g (x) = Range of g −1 (x)
(x − d) (x − β ) > 0 ⟹ x < d or x > β
Solving functions:
f (2): substitute x = 2 and solve for f (x) 3. Equations, inequalities and
fg (x) : Substitute x = g(x)
f −1 (x) : let y = f (x) and make x the
subject graphs
Composite Functions:
f (g (x)) or f ⋅ g (x) Transformation of graphs:
Substitute all instances of x in f(x) with g(x) f (−x): reflection in the y -axis
Simplify −f (x) : reflection in the x-axis
If it is
f 2 (x) ,  or f (f (x)) ,
then for every x in f(x) f (x) + a : translation of a units parallel
to y -axis
substitute f(x)’s contents
f (x + a) : translation of –a units parallel
to x-axis
Inverse Functions
f (ax): stretch, scale factor a1 parallel to
x-axis
Only 1 to 1 functions have inverses
​

af (x) : stretch, scale factor a

parallel to y -axis
If f(x) is a function, equate f(x) to y
Modulus function:
Replace all occurrences of x in f(x) with y
Try to make x the subject of the function again Denoted by ∣f (x)∣
Modulus of a number is its absolute value
That is the f −1 (x)
Never goes below x-axis
Transformation of graphs:
Makes negative graph into positive by reflecting
f (−x): reflection in the y -axis
negative part
into x-axis
−f (x) : reflection in the x-axis
Solving modulus function:
f (x) + a : translation of a units parallel
to y -axis Sketch graphs and find points of intersection
f (x + a) : translation of –a units parallel
to x-axis Square the equation and solve quadratic
Relationship of a function and its inverse:

2. Quadratic Functions The graph of the inverse of a function is the reflection

of a graph of the function in y = x

To sketchy = ax2 + bx + c ; a ≠ 0

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Simultaneous linear equations can be solved either by

4. Indices & Surds substitution
or elimination
Simultaneous linear and non-linear equations are
generally solved by
substitution as follows:
4.1. Indices
Step 1: obtain an equation in one unknown & solve it
Step 2: substitute the results from step 1 into the
Definitions:
linear
equation to find the other unknown
for a > 0 and positive integers p and q
The points of intersection of two graphs are given by the
1 solution
of their simultaneous equations
a0 = 1                                    a−p =
ap
​

1
ap = ​ p
p
a                                    a q = ( q a)
​ ​
p
7. Logarithmic & Exponential
Rules: Functions
for a > 0, b > 0 and rational numbers m and n
Definition
am × an = am+n                                     an × bn = (ab)n
for a > 0 and a ≠ 1
m n
a a a n
= am−n                                      n = ( ) y = ax ⇔ x = loga y
an b b
​ ​ ​

n
(am ) = amn For loga ​ y to be defined

y > 0 and a > 0, a ≠ 1

4.2. Surds
When the logarithms are defined
Definition
An irrational root is a surd, not all roots are surds loga 1 = 0                                              loga b + loga c ≡ log
​ ​ ​

 
Rationalizing the Denominator loga a = 1                                              loga b − loga c ≡ log
​ ​ ​

When the denominator is a surd, we can simplify by

multiplying both the
numerator and the denominator by the log b
rationalization factor to
rationalize loga b ≡                                                  loga bn ≡ n log
log a
​ ​ ​

When solving logarithmic equations, check solution with

original
equation and discard any solutions that causes
logarithm to be
undefined
5. Factors of Polynomials Solution of ax = b where a ≠ −1,  0,  1
If b can be easily written as an , then
To find unknowns in a given identity
Substitute suitable values of x ax = an ⇒ x = n
OR
Equalize the given coefficients of like powers of x Otherwise take logarithms on both sides, i.e.

 
log b
log ax = log b and so x =
log a
​

Factor Theorem:

If (x − t) is a factor of the function p(x) then

p(t) =0 log ⇒ log10  
ln  ⇒ loge   ​

  Change of base rule:

Remainder Theorem:
logb (x)
loga (x) =
​

If a function f (x) is divided by (x − t) then: loga (x)

​ ​

Remainder = f (t) Logarithmic & Exponential Graphs

The formula for remainder theorem:

Dividend = Divisor  ×  Quotient + Remainder

6. Simultaneous Equations

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Mostly in the form y= axn or y = Abn , that must be

converted to the form y = mx + c.

9. Circular Measure
Radian measure:

π = 180º               2π = 360º

8. Straight Line Graphs π

Degree to Rad = × 180 Rad to Degree =
​ × 180
π

Arc length:
Equation of a straight line:
s = rθ
y = mx + c
Area of a sector:
y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
​ ​

1 2
Gradient: A= r θ
2
​

y2 − y1
m=
10. Trigonometry
​ ​

x2 − x1
​

​ ​

Length of a line segment:

Trigonometric ratio of special angles:
2 2
Length = (x2 − x1 ) + (y2 − y1 )
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Midpoint of a line segment:

x1 + x2 y1 + y2
(  ,  )
​ ​ ​ ​

2 2
​ ​

Point on line segment with ratio m:n

nx1 + mx2 ny1 + my2

(  ,  )
​ ​ ​ ​

m+n m+n
​ ​

SINE CURVE COSINE CURVE

Parallelogram:
ABCD is a parallelogram ⟺ diagonals AC and
BD
have a common midpoint
Special parallelograms = rhombuses, squares,
rectangles
Special gradients:
Parallel lines: m1 = m2 ​ ​

Perpendicular lines: m1 m2 ​ ​ = −1
Perpendicular bisector: line passes through midpoint
To work out point of intersection of two lines/curves, TANGENT CURVE CAST DIAGRAM
solve
equations simultaneously
Find Tangent: Once the gradient is obtained, substitute
the
point into the slope-intercept form to get c and the
equation.
Find normal: Obtain the gradient by taking the negative
reciprocal (see perpendicular gradients ). Once the
gradient is
obtained, substitute the point (original point)
into the
slope-intercept form to get c and the equation.
Find Area, using two methods
Straight Line graphs: find variables when an equation that
does
not involve x and y but rather other forms of x and y
example:
(x3 ) or ln(y) . This is represented as a straight
line.

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Trigonometric ratios: 4
e.g. Expand (2x − 1)

1 1 1 (2x − 1)4 =4 C0 (2x)4 +4 C1 (2x)3 (−1)

sec θ =       cosecθ =         cot θ = ​ ​

cos θ sin θ tan θ

​

Trigonometric identities: +4 C2 (2x)2 (−1)2 +4 C3 (2x)  (−1)3 +4 C4 (−1)4

​ ​ ​

sin θ = 1(2x)4 + 4 (2x)3 (−1) + 6 (2x)2 (−1)2

tan θ =                                          sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
cos θ
​

  3 4
+4 (2x) (−1) + 1 (−1)
2 2 2 2
cot θ + 1 = cosec θ                                         tan θ + 1 = sec θ
= 16x4 − 32x3 + 24x2 − 8x + 1
Sketching trigonometric graphs:
The powers of x are in descending order

12.2. Sequences & Series

Arithmetic Progression

A sequence made by adding the same value each time.

A common difference d is added or subtracted (n-1) times
11. Permutations & General form: Un = a + (n − 1) d
​

Where n is the number of the term, a (U1 ) is the first term

Combinations and d is the common difference
​

Formula for the sum of the first n terms between

ustart ​

Basic counting principle: to find the number of ways of to uend ​

performing
several tasks in succession, multiply the
number of ways in which
each task can be performed: n
Sn = (ustart +  uend )
2
​ ​ ​ ​

e.g. 5 × 4 × 3 × 2
Factorial:
n! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) … × 3 × 2 × 1 Example:
NOTE: 0! = 1 Sequence: 1,2,3,4,5,6
Permutations: Sum: 21
The number of ordered arrangements of r objects
taken from n
unlike objects is:  
Geometric Progression
n n!
  Pr = A sequence made by multiplying by the same value each
(n − r)!
​ ​ ​

time.
Order matters A common ration r is multiplied or divided (n-1) times
General form: Un = ar n−1
Combinations:
​

Where n is the number of the term, a is the first term and

The number of ways of selecting r objects
from n r is the
common ratio
unlike objects is:
Example:
n!
n
  Cr = Sequence: 2, 4, 8, 16, 32
r! (n − r)!
​ ​ ​

Sum: 62
Order does not matter Formula for the sum of the first n numbers of a geometric
series

12. Series 1 − rn
Sn = a1 ×
1−r
​ ​ ​

12.1. Binomial Expansion  

Sum to infinity
The binomial theorem allows expansion of any
n
expression in the form
(a + b) Where the common ratio satisfies the condition:
−1 < r < 1, it is an infinite geometric progression
(x + y )n =n C0 xn +n C1 xn−1 y +n C2 xn−2 y 2
​ ​ ​

(convergent
progression)

+ … +n Cn y n 1
S∞ = a1 ×
​

1−r
​ ​ ​

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dy
13. Vectors in 2 Dimensions dx
=0​

2nd Derivative: finds nature of the stationary point

Position vector: position of point relative to origin,
OP d2 y
Forms of vector: If dx2 > ​ 0 → minimum
stationary point
d2 y
If dx 2 < ​ 0 → maximum
stationary point
( )                          AB                          p                         ai − bj
a Chain rule:
b
​

dy dy du
Parallel vectors: same direction but different magnitude = ×
dx du dx
​ ​ ​

Generally,
  AB = OB − OA Product rule:
Magnitude = i2 + j 2 ​

Unit vectors: vectors of magnitude 1 dy dv du

=u +v
dx dx dx
​ ​

Examples: consider vector AB

Quotient rule:
AB = 2i + 3j
dy v du   −  u dv
= dx 2 dx
​ ​

∣ ∣ dx
AB = 13
​ ​

v
∣ ∣
​ ​ ​

Special Differentials
1
∴ U nit vector  = (2i + 3j)
13 dy
​

 (sin ax) = a cos ax

dx
​

Collinear vectors: vectors that lie on the same line

Velocity Vecotr: dy
 (cos ax) = −a sin ax
dx
​

( )
a
dy
b  (tan ax)  = a sec2 ax
​

dx
​

Getting velocity from speed: Find k to get velocity based dy ax+b

on
speed  ( e ) = aeax+b
dx
​

∣ a ∣ dy 1
k × ( ) = speed  (ln x) =
∣ b ∣ dx
​ ​ ​
​ ​

x
′
Point of intersection: dy f (x)
 (ln (f (x)) =
dx f (x)
​ ​

initial y ) + t ( )
a
Object 1 =
( initial x
b Related rates of change:
​ ​

initial y ) + t (d)
c If x and y are related by the equation y = f (x),
then
Object 2 =
( initial x ​ ​

dx dy
the rates of change dt and
dt are related by: ​ ​

Object 1 = Object 2 at time t. If both x and y are not same at

intersection time then they will never meet. dy dy dx
= ×
dt dx dt
​ ​ ​

14. Differentiation & Small changes:

= f (x) and small change δx in x causes a
small
If y
Integration change δy in y , then

dy
14.1. Differentiation δy ≈ ( ) ×  δx
dx x=k
​ ​

FUNCTION 1ST DERIVATIVE 2ND DERIVATIVE 14.2. Integration

2
y= xn dy n−1 d y n−2
dx ​
= nx dx2 ​
= n (n − 1) x
xn+1
∫ axn = a +c
(n + 1)
​

INCREASING FUNCTION DECREASING FUNCTION

dy dy
>0 <0 (ax + b)n+1
dx dx
∫ (ax + b) = +c n
​ ​

a(n + 1)
​

Stationary point: equate first derivative to zero

d

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Definite integral: substitute coordinates/values & find c Special Integrals

Indefinite integral: has c (constant of integration)
∫ sin (ax + b) = − a1 cos (ax + b) + c
​

Integrating by parts: ∫ cos (ax + b) = a1 sin (ax + b) + c

​

dv du ∫ sec2 (ax + b) = a1 tan (ax + b) + c

∫ u  dx = uv − ∫ v dx 
​

1 1
dx dx
∫ ax+b = a ln ∣ax + b∣ + c
​ ​

​ ​

∫ eax+b = a1 eax+b + c
​

What to make u: LATE

Logs Algebra Trig e

14.3. Kinematics

To find area under the graph (curve and

x-axis):
Integrate curve
Substitute boundaries of x
Subtract one from another (ignore c)

b Particle at instantaneous rest, v =0

∫ ​ y d̃ x Maximum displacement from origin, v =0
a
Maximum velocity, a = 0
To find area between curve and y-axis:
Make x subject of the formula
Follow above method using y -values instead of x-
values

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