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Cd writer Use the CREATE DIRECTORY statement to create a directory object. A directory object

specifies an alias for a directory on the server file system where external binary file LOBs ( BFILEs)
and external table data are located. You can use directory names when referring to BFILEs in your
PL/SQL code and OCI calls, rather than hard coding the operating system path name, for
management flexibility.

All directories are created in a single namespace and are not owned by an individual schema. You
can secure access to the BFILEs stored within the directory structure by granting object privileges
on the directories to specific users.

 you are automatically granted the READ and WRITE object privileges on the directory, and you can
grant these privileges to other users and roles. The DBA can also grant these privileges to other
users and roles.

Description of the illustration create_directory.gif

Log writer 

Alter lock files 

Parameter files 

Parameter Files
A parameter file is a file that contains a list of initialization parameters and a value for each parameter. You
specify initialization parameters in a parameter file that reflect your particular installation. Oracle supports the
following two types of parameter files:

 Server Parameter Files

 Initialization Parameter Files

Server Parameter Files

A server parameter file is a binary file that acts as a repository for initialization parameters. The server parameter file can
reside on the machine where the Oracle database server executes. Initialization parameters stored in a server parameter file
are persistent, in that any changes made to the parameters while an instance is running can persist across instance
shutdown and startup.

Initialization Parameter Files

An initialization parameter file is a text file that contains a list of initialization parameters. The file should be written in
the client's default character set.

The following are sample entries in an initialization parameter file:

PROCESSES = 100

OPEN_LINKS = 12

GLOBAL_NAMES = true

The name of the initialization parameter file varies depending on the operating system. For example, it can be in mixed
case or lowercase, or it can have a logical name or a variation of the name init.ora. Also supplied is
an initdw.ora file, which contains suggested parameter settings for data warehouses and data marts. The database
administrator can choose a different filename for the initialization parameter file.

Refer to your operating system-specific Oracle documentation for the default locations and filenames for initialization
parameter files on your operating system. The initialization parameter file is read by the client-side tool used to start the
server (such as SQL*Plus).

Sample initialization parameter files are provided on the Oracle distribution medium for each operating system. A sample
file is sufficient for initial use, but you will probably want to modify the file to tune the database for best performance.
Any changes will take effect after you completely shut down and restart the instance.

Specifying Values in an Initialization Parameter File

This section describes several aspects of setting parameter values in an initialization parameter file.

Rules Governing Initialization Parameter Files

The following rules govern the specification of parameters in initialization parameter files:

 An initialization parameter file should contain only parameters and comments. A pound sign (#) starts a
comment line. The rest of the line is ignored.
 You can specify parameters in any order.
 Case (upper or lower) in filenames is significant only if case is significant on the host operating system.
 To enter several parameters on one line, use spaces between parameter names and values, as in the following
example:
 PROCESSES = 100 CPU_COUNT = 1 OPEN_CURSORS = 10

 Some parameters, such as ROLLBACK_SEGMENTS, accept multiple value entries. Enter multiple values enclosed
in parentheses and separated by commas. For example:
 ROLLBACK_SEGMENTS = (SEG1, SEG2, SEG3, SEG4, SEG5)
 Alternatively, you can enter multiple values without parentheses and commas. For example:

ROLLBACK_SEGMENTS = SEG1 SEG2 SEG3 SEG4 SEG5

Either syntax is valid.

If you enter values for one parameter in multiple entries, then the entries must be on consecutive lines. If they are
not, then the first entry will not be processed properly. For example, in the following entry the setting
for SEG3 and SEG4 will override the setting for SEG1 and SEG2:

ROLLBACK_SEGMENTS = SEG1 SEG2

OPEN_CURSORS = 10

ROLLBACK_SEGMENTS = SEG3 SEG4

 A backslash (\), also known as an escape character, indicates continuation of the parameter specification. If a
backslash continues a line, then the continued line must have no leading spaces. For example:
 ROLLBACK_SEGMENTS = (SEG1, SEG2, \

 SEG3, SEG4, SEG5)

 You can use the IFILE initialization parameter to embed the contents of another initialization parameter file into
the current initialization parameter file.

Backup hot back  Difference between a hot backup and a cold backup

A cold backup is taken when database is not running. This means no users should be logged and no
activity in progress. Because of this there are no changes in the data files while backup is being taken.
This makes it easier to take a back up.

Hot backup is entirely the opposite and is usually taken when the database has to run all the time due to
critical requirements. Because of this there may be changes in the data files while backup is being taken.

Parsing  Whenever a statement is executed, Oracle follows a methodology to evaluate the

statement in terms of syntax, validity of objects being referred and of course, privileges to
the user. Apart from this, Oracle also checks for identical statements that may have been
fired, with the intention of reducing processing overheads. All this takes place in a fraction
of a second, even less, without the user knowing what is happening to the statement that
was fired. This process is known as Parsing.

Types of Parsing
All statements, DDL or DML, are parsed whenever they are executed. The only key fact is
that whether it was a Soft (statement is already parsed and available in memory) or
a Hard (all parsing steps to be carried out) parse. Soft parse will considerably improve the
system performance where as frequent Hard parsing will affect the system. Reducing Hard
parsing will improve the resource utilization and optimize the SQL code.

Parsing process

Oracle internally does the following to arrive at the output of an SQL statement.

1. Syntactical check. The query fired is checked for its syntax.

2. Semantic check. Checks on the validity of the objects being referred in the statement and
the privileges available to the user firing the statement. This is a data dictionary check.

3. Allocation of private SQL area in the memory for the statement.

4. Generating a parsed representation of the statement and allocating Shared SQL area.
This involves finding an optimal execution path for the statement.

In point four, Oracle first checks if the same statement is already parsed and existing in the
memory. If found, the parsed representation will be picked up and the statement executed
immediately (Soft parse). If not found, then the parsed representation is generated and
stored in a shared SQL area (Part of shared pool memory in SGA), the statement is then
executed (Hard parse). This step involves the optimization of the statement, the one that
decides the performance.