0% found this document useful (0 votes)

112 views

Booklet - Final - High - Resolution - Vehicle Data

Uploaded by

Sidharth Mahesh

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

0% found this document useful (0 votes)

112 views

Booklet - Final - High - Resolution - Vehicle Data

Uploaded by

Sidharth Mahesh

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 48

BATTERY ELECTRIC TECHNOLOGY

IN THE HEAVY-DUTY
VEHICLE SEGMENT
© COPYRIGHT The material in this publication is copyrighted. Content from this discussion paper may be used
for non-commercial purposes, provided it is attributed to the source. Enquiries concerning reproduction should
be sent to the address: Mr Sharif Qamar, The Energy and Resources Institute, Darbari Seth Block, India Habitat
Centre, Lodhi, Road, New Delhi – 110 003, India

Reviewers

Mr Easwaran Narassimhan, Postdoctoral Fellow, Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs,
Harvard University and Climate Policy Lab, The Fletcher School, Tufts University

Mr Shri Prakash, Former Member Traffic, Railway Board and Distinguished Fellow, TERI

Suggested format for citation

Qamar S and Jamal F, 2021, Potential and impact of electrification of medium and heavy-duty vehicles.
New Delhi: The Energy and Resources Institute

For more information

Sharif Qamar, Centre for Sustainable Mobility, TERI, Darbari Seth Block, IHC Complex
Lodhi Road, New Delhi 110 003, India
Tel: +91 11 2468 2100 or 2468 2111 | Fax: +91 11 2468 2144 or 2468 2145
Email: [email protected] | Web: www.teriin.org
Table of contents

Acknowledgment ................................................................................... 5
Introduction........................................................................................... 6
Heavy duty – Long distance trucking...................................................... 8
Market assessment................................................................................. 8
India ........................................................................................................................ 10
Production and sales: MHDV....................................................................... 10
Domestic production – company-wise......................................................... 12
Domestic sales – company-wise................................................................... 12
China....................................................................................................................... 17
Production and sales: MHDV....................................................................... 17
Freight demand, energy and emissions – HDV sector............................. 19
Stock of Commercial Vehicles ............................................................................... 21
Increasing freight demand..................................................................................... 22
Freight transportation and energy consumption ................................................. 23
Freight transport and CO2 emissions..................................................................... 24
Low/Zero-carbon Technologies: HDVs................................................... 25
Initiatives to reduce emissions – India and China................................................ 25
Auto Fuel Policy............................................................................................. 25
Fuel Economy Standards.............................................................................. 27
Scrappage schemes........................................................................................ 28
Fuel taxes....................................................................................................... 29
Alternative Fuel Options: MHDV Sector...................................................... 30
Electric Road System..................................................................................... 31
Hydrogen-Fuel Cell Vehicle Technology ..................................................... 33
Focus on Battery-electric vehicle (BEV) technology.................................... 34
Conclusions............................................................................................ 38
Key suggestions for future...................................................................... 40
Battery cost and density......................................................................................... 40
Battery Disposal..................................................................................................... 41
Vehicle Manufacturing........................................................................................... 41
Learnings from China............................................................................................. 42
References.............................................................................................. 43
Endnotes................................................................................................. 44
Annexures.............................................................................................. 45

Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment | 3

Acknowledgment

The author greatly appreciates the China-India Visiting

Scholars (CIVS) Fellowship initiative of the Centre for
China Studies, Ashoka University. We would like to
thank the programme and Amb. Shivshankar Menon,
Chair, Centre for China Studies, Ashoka University
for all the support and boosting the morale of the first
batch of CIVS Fellowship through the difficult pandemic
times. We would like to thank Dr Ajay Mathur, Director
General, Indian Solar Alliance and Mr Shri Prakash,
Distinguished Fellow, TERI for their constant support
and guidance.

We also acknowledge the massive efforts put in by Mr

Suhail Thandi, Ms Mahak Chhajer and Ms Dhwanni
Arora of Asia Century Foundation throughout the
fellowship programme, especially during the pandemic.

We greatly acknowledge the support received from

researchers based in China, especially Prof. Ye WU,
Dr. Shaojun ZHANG and Mr. Fang Wang of Tsinghua
University, Beijing. We also thank Dr Abhijit Sen Gupta,
Senior Economist at Asian Infrastructure Investment
Bank, Beijing.

We would like to thank the support and feedback

received from the commercial vehicle segment of
the Indian automotive industry during the course of
the study, including Society for Indian Automobile
Manufacturers (SIAM), Tata Motors Limited and Ashok
Leyland Limited. We acknowledge the inputs shared by
Mr Karthick Atmanathan, Professor of Practice, Indian
Institute of Technology – Madras, and Mr SP Singh,
Senior Fellow and Coordinator, Indian Foundation of
Transport Research and Training (IFTRT).

Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment | 5

Potential and Impact of Electrification
of Medium and Heavy-duty Vehicles

Introduction

While the transport sector generates massive arisen from the road transport sector has
positive externalities namely, enabling recorded the highest growth in the world. It
mobility and job creation, it also contributes is important to note that India’s dependence
significantly to India’s import burden, GHG on import to meet its fuel demand is as high
emissions and air pollution. Transport as 85%2.
sector accounts for the largest share in terms
of consumption of petroleum products Indian transport sector also plays a critical
in India— nearly 70% of diesel and 100% role in achieving the targets – reduce the
gasoline are consumed by the transport emissions intensity of Gross Domestic
sector (PPAC, 2014). In the last one decade, Product (GDP) by 33–35% over 2005 levels,
the use of oil by India’s transport sector has by 2030 – set under the nationally determined
risen by as much as 91%. About 90% of the contribution (NDC)3. As per TERI estimates,
total energy demand has arisen from the it is estimated that the transport sector has
road transport sector, followed by rail and a huge potential in energy savings – 40% by
air .
1
2030 – mainly on account of electrification
of vehicles and shift from private to public
As per The Energy and Resources Institute transport.
(TERI) estimates, the current total energy
demand from the transport sector is about India’s freight transport is dominated by
90 million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe). the road sector, with about 70% of the total
During the last two decades (between 2000 freight, in terms of net tonne km being
and 2020), India’s oil demand which has moved by road (TERI, 2015). Within road,

6 | Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment

Table 1:

India’s road freight sector at a glance (2020-21)

Details All energy sectors Transport Road Freight

Oil use (primary energy) / energy 32,732 6,248 2,207

consumption (final energy) (PJ)

Carbon dioxide emissions (million tonnes) 2,611 419 NA

Freight activity (in BTKM) – – 2,791

Source: TERI

about 60% of the total freight transport

demand is contributed by the medium Vehicle Classification
and heavy-duty vehicles (MHDVs), while
According to MoRTH classification, there are two
remaining by the light duty vehicles (LDVs).
types of vehicles: transport and non-transport.
The rapid rise in share of road transport
Freight vehicles such as multi-axle vehicles,
in India, especially in the last two decades,
lorries, trucks, and light duty vehicles fall under the
could be explained by factors such as – rapid
category of transport vehicles and are meant to be
economic growth, substantial improvement
used as commercial vehicles. Other vehicles such
in highway infrastructure, inherent
as trailers and tractors fall under non-transport
advantage of providing door-to-door service,
vehicles category and are used for carrying heavy
and capability of transporters to provide
goods. Further, transport vehicles like multi-axles
customized solutions to the customers.
vehicles, lorries, and trucks within the segments
can be categorized into Medium or Heavy-Duty
Reducing emissions from the sectors
Vehicles (MHDVs) depending upon the Gross
including – medium/heavy-duty long-
Vehicle Weight (GVW) and Tonnage. The report
distance transport, aviation and shipping,
focuses on MDVs and HDVs (MHDVs) in India.
which constitute the ‘hard to abate (HTA)’
The definition of MHDVs is same in China as well.
sectors will remain critical. The efforts in this
MDV: GVW > 3.5 tonne and < 12 tonne
direction will be vital in achieving India’s as
HDV: GVW > 12 tonne
well as global emission intensity reduction
target set under the NDC.

The focus of this study is to look into discusses the HTA sector – long-distance
the current status as well as potential of road transport involving MHDVs – in detail,
electrification of MHDVs in India. It also including factors which could be considered
looks into the progress China has made in as impediments to decarbonize the transport
this particular sector. The following section sector.

Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment | 7

Heavy duty – Long distance n Technical viability: Availability
trucking of HDVs catering to the needs of the
operators (assessing the trip distances
As per TERI, it is estimated that India has vis-à-vis battery sizing, etc.).
over 55 lakhs on-road HDVs and the number
of trucks added per year is increasing at rapid n Ownership pattern: The ownership
rate. The trucking sector also accounts for pattern of trucks is another challenge –
the largest share in diesel consumption. Of more than 3/4th of the trucks are owned
the 74% of the diesel consumed by the entire by people having less than 5 trucks. This
transport sector in India, HDVs and LDVs would have significant implication on
accounted for 33% (2014-15)4. the affordability of such owners to deploy
electric/hydrogen-fuel based trucks.
What makes this sector HTA? Therefore, large fleet owners would
be the target customers for electric/
There are a number of areas, which need to hydrogen-fuel based trucks.
be explored in the process to decarbonize the
long-distance trucking/HDV sector. Some of n Resale value: The rate of electric
these have been listed below. trucks in secondary market/second-
hand market will also be critical in
n Financial viability: Better determining the success of alternate
understanding of the commercial technologies.
viability of deploying alternate fuel run
vehicles will be critical. Commercial n Driving condition and its effect
viability of electric HDVs5 and semi- on efficiency of alternate-fuel run
trucks6 has been demonstrated across HDVs: Besides climatic condition,
various regions of the world. However, Indian road and traffic conditions will
such proof of viability is absent for the also play a determining role in the
Indian case. penetration of alternate technologies.

n Infrastructure: One of the biggest Market assessment

concerns is the availability/setting up
of infrastructure along the highways This section includes a detailed market
supporting electric mobility or alternate assessment of both India and China MHDV
fuel for the trucking industry. Better sector. It includes analyses of the production
understanding of the fuel related and sales trends of MHDV sector in both
ecosystem involving demand and supply the countries and detailed information
sides is therefore pertinent. regarding the current major players/Original
Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) and their
MHDV models available in the market.

8 | Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment

Indian Trucking Operation
n Indian truck transport is a dependent and fragmented business. At present, there are 55 lakhs trucks and
trailers in the country.
n Operation on medium and long routes through national permit, inter-state and intra-state, there are almost
40 lakh drivers and 25 lakh helpers. Of this, almost 90% do not have any legal/socio-economic protection
of minimum wages, etc. as prescribed under the Motor Transport Workers Act, 1961.
n The ownership profile has changed over the decades. From ‘95% of fleet owned by truck owners with less
than 5 trucks in 1980s’ to ‘75% of the fleet owned by truck owners with less than 5 trucks in 2010s’. It is
quite clear that there is no fresh study conducted to estimate the ownership pattern in the Indian trucking
industry. Based on recent developments in the industry and discussion with stakeholders, the authors
believe that consolidation of fleet has been increasing significantly.
n Diesel and tires put together are
90% of the total variable expenses
of truck operators. A number of
medium and large truckers have
the option of deferred payment
facility for diesel and tires. The
deferred payments are through
oil cards and liberal credit by tire
dealers on tire purchase, with
4-6 week credit.
n The Government of India has
rolled out multiple initiatives,
which have resulted in
improvement in efficiency of
trucking industry and operations.
Source: (Raghuram, 2015)
These include implementation
of GST e-way bill, which has reduced the need for stoppages and spontaneous inspection, and RFID-based
toll payment system and toll lanes (FASTag) that have reduced congestion at the toll plazas across the
Indian national highways.
n Replacement demand (purchase of new trucks to replace the heritage trucks) has picked up because there
is very little repossession of Bharat Stage (BS)-4 trucks. As a result, there is a short supply of old trucks (2- 5
year old) in the market as their prices are up by 10-15% in second hand MHDV market across India.
n With higher activities in the cement sector and infrastructure projects, and exports, fleet utilization was
reported to be over 75% as of June 2021 which has increased to 80-85% in March 2022.
n Other key cost for the truckers is the insurance premium and road/toll taxes. Since 2019, the Government
has not allowed the Motor Insurance premium to be revised upward to protect the truckers. Further, road
taxes, state and national permit free and fitness renewal fees were also not revised during the ongoing
pandemic – March 2020 - till date (August 2021).

Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment | 9

India segment, including the light-duty vehicles
(LDVs). As per SIAM, production of
India has emerged as a hub for commercial commercial vehicles declined from 756,725
vehicles in the last two decades. The upgrade units in 2019-20 to 624,939 units in 2020-
in the technical advancement in this sector 21, while the sale of commercial vehicles
has really shaped-up the Indian commercial declined from 717,593 units in 2019-20 to
markets. The production capacity on the 568,559 units in 2020-21.
Indian MHDV market has doubled in the last
five years. The sale of MHDVs also doubled This section looks at the production trend of
during the same period. There was a slight MHDVs in detail from 2011-12 to 2018-19,
shift in sales between engine sizes 2.5 ltr and and market share of sales for 2019-20 has
4 ltr, and 4.5 and 8 ltr, where sales of the been analysed to get the most recent picture.
smaller engine-vehicles declined while sales The historic analysis of production of HDVs
improved in the larger size category. The shows that despite significant increase in
vehicle capacities witnessed advancements the number of units sold, the sector has
with increase in efficiencies and safety observed a slight decline in the production
features as well. Emission standards were from 82.7% in 2011-12 to 80.9% in 2018-19
revised recently keeping in mind the of the total production. On the other hand,
environmental safety. the production data of MDVs shows a slight
increase from 17.3% to 19.1% during the
Production and sales: MHDV same span of time. However, HDVs continue
to dominate the MHDV sector in terms of
The impact of COVID-19 in the production absolute numbers, which reflects the nature
and sales has been adverse for the commercial of traffic in India (Figure 1).

10 | Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment

Figure 1: Production of MDVs and HDVs in India
350
MDVs HDVs
300

250
Produc�on ('000)

200

150

100

0
2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19

Source: SIAM

As per Society of Indian Automobile during the same time period. The share of
Manufacturers (SIAM), domestic sales trend domestic sales of MDVs declined from 22.4%
of MHDVs from 2011-12 to 2018-19 were in 2011-12 to 21.8% in 2018-19, while the
found quite similar to the production trend share of HDVs in domestic sales increased
for the same period. The domestic sales of from 77.6% in 2011-12 to 78.2% in 2018-19
HDVs continued to grow within the segment (Figure 2).
but the domestic sales declined for MDVs

Figure 2: Sale of MDVs and HDVs in India

300

MDVs HDVs
250

200
Sales ('000)

150

100

0
2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19
Source: SIAM

Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment | 11

Domestic production – company-wise manufacturer of MDVs with approximately
0.32 lakhs units produced in 2018-19, while
The major players in the MHDV sector Tata Motors produced 0.22 lakhs units,
in India are Tata Motors Limited, Ashok Ashok Leyland 0.19 lakhs units and SML
Leyland Limited, Mahindra & Mahindra Isuzu 0.03 lakh units (Figure 3).
(M&M) Limited and Volvo-Eicher
Commercial Vehicles (VECV) Limited. Tata Domestic sales – company-wise
Motors and Ashok Leyland have dominated
the HDV production, followed by VECV7 and Similar to the production trend, Tata
M&M. Motors, Ashok Leyland, Volvo-Eicher and
Mahindra & Mahindra dominate the MHDV
Unlike the HDV sector, VECVs-Eicher sales. In the HDV and MDV sectors, sales
which is a subsidiary of Eicher Motors Ltd. is dominated by Tata Motors, with about
has dominated the MDV sector in the last 1.5 lakhs units sold in 2018-19, followed by
6-7 years followed by Tata Motors, Ashok Ashok Leyland with 0.98 lakh units, VECVs-
Leyland and SML Isuzu Ltd. Eicher 0.13 lakh units, M&M 0.11 lakh units,
and VECVs-Volvo 0.01 lakh units. In the
Tata Motors reported about 1.9 lakh units MDV segment, Tata Motors sold 0.26 lakh
production of HDVs in 2018-19, while Ashok units, followed by Ashok Leyland - 0.17 lakh
Leyland reported 1.08 lakh units during units, SML Isuzu - 0.03 lakh units, and M&M
the same year, followed by VECVs-Eicher, sold 0.002 lakh units (Figure 4).
and M&M. VECVs-Eicher Ltd. is the top

Figure 3: Total Production of commercial vehicles in India (Manufacturer -wise)

2018-19 (In Nos.)

200000
180000
MDVs HDVs
160000
140000
120000
Units

100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
Ashok SML Tata VECVs- Mahindra Trucks
Leyland Ltd. Isuzu Ltd. Motors Ltd. Eicher and Buses Ltd.
Source: SIAM

12 | Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment

Figure 4: Annual domestic sales of commercial vehicles in India (Manufacturer
-wise) 2018-19 (In Nos.)

160000
140000
120000
MDVs HDVs
100000
80000
Units

60000
40000
20000
0
Ashok SML Tata VECVs- Mahindra Trucks VECVs-
Leyland Ltd. Isuzu Ltd. Motors Ltd. Eicher and Buses Ltd. Volvo

Source: SIAM

Tata Motors dominates the MHDV market in see that the share of Tata Motors and VECVs-
India with about 53% market share in terms Eicher increased by around 2% each, while
of total sales. As indicated in Figure 5, other the share of Ashok Leyland and VECVs-
key commercial vehicle manufacturers are Volvo decreased by 4% and 1%, respectively,
Ashok Leyland, Volvo-Eicher, and M&M. We in the last five years.

Figure 5: Market share of MHDV manufacturers - 2019-20

VECVs-Eicher
Ashok Leyland Ltd. 14%
29% Mahindra Trucks and
Buses Ltd.
3%
VECVs-Volvo
1%

SML Isuzu Ltd.

Tata Motors Ltd.

53%
Source: SIAM

Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment | 13

14 | Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment
Table below comprises of the MHDV Eicher Motors and Bharat Benz - which
models by the top five OEMs that are is a brand of Daimler India Commercial
currently available in Indian market, with Vehicles (DICV), a wholly-owned subsidiary
their gross vehicle weights (GVWs), engine of Germany-based Daimler AG. The table
specifications and fuel type. Tata Motors also shows the dominance of diesel-operated
being the top manufacturer has a wide vehicles in the Indian market despite having
variety of models present in the current new technological interventions in other
market followed by Ashok Leyland, M&M, low-carbon fuels like LNG and CNG.

Table 2: Manufacturer-wise HDV and MDV models available in Indian market

Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment | 15

Company Vehicle Model GVW Engine Specification Fuel
Name type Name Type
ICVs FURIO 13100kg | 14050 kg | 3.5L mDi Tech, 4 cylinders Diesel
16140kg | 17000kg (With EGR + SCR Technology)
Mahindra
Haulage BLAZO 28000 kg | 35000kg | mPOWER 7.2 L FuelSmart Diesel
&
42000kg | 49000kg
Mahindra
Tractor BLAZO 39500 kg | 45500kg | mPOWER 7.2 L FuelSmart Diesel
trailers 55000kg
Medium Pro 12976kg | 14000kg | 3.8L | 5.1L | 7.7L Diesel |
Duty 16020kg CNG
Haulage Pro 18500kg | 28000kg | 3.8L | 5.1L | 7.7L Diesel
Eicher
35000kg | 42000kg |
Motors
47500kg
Tractor Pro 39500kg | 45500kg | 5.1L | 7.7L Diesel
trailers 54000kg | 55000kg
Medium MDT 13000kg | 14500kg | 4D34i Diesel
duty 16200kg | 55000kg
Bharat Haulage HDT-R 28000 kg | 35000kg | 7200cc Diesel
Benz 42000kg
Tractor HDT-T 33747kg | 49960kg | 7200cc Diesel
trailers 52000kg | 54960kg
MDVs
LCV LPT 8750 kg | 9600kg | 3.3L | 3.8 SGI Diesel |
10900kg | 11990kg | CNG
ULTRA 8750 kg | 9600kg | 3.3L Diesel
11250kg | 11990kg
Tata LCV GOLD 4450 kg | 4995kg 4SPCR Diesel
Motors
SFC 5300 kg | 5950 kg | 4SPCR | 3.8SGI (CNG) Diesel |
Ltd.
6250 kg | 7490 kg CNG
LPT 7490kg | 7300 kg | 3.3L | 3.8 SGI (CNG) Diesel |
CNG
ULTRA 7300 kg 4SPCR Diesel
LCV DOST 3490 kg 1.5L Diesel
Ashok
Partnet 6250 kg | 7200 kg | ZD30Diesel Engine with DDTi Diesel
Leyland
7490 kg
Mahindra ICVs FURIO 11280kg | 11990 kg 3.5L Diesel
& LCV JAYO 4990 kg mDi Tech, 4 cylinders Diesel
Mahindra
Sub-5 tonne Pro 4900kg 2.0L | 3.3L Diesel |
CNG
Light duty Pro 5400kg | 4590kg | 2.0L | 3.0L | 5.0L | 3.3L Diesel |
Eicher
6950kg | 7490kg | CNG
Motors
8990kg | 9700kg |
11100kg
Medium duty Pro 11990 kg 3.8L Diesel
Bharat Medium MDT 10600 kg | 10700kg | 4D34i Diesel
Benz duty 11990kg

Source: Author’s compilation (non-exhaustive)

16 | Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment

China Production and sales: MHDV

China’s MHDV market has been growing at a China had MHDV sales of 1.7 million in 2012
rapid pace with an average annual increase of and almost 2 million in 2013; this dropped
5.7% by the year 2014. It has a comparatively to 1.8 million and 1.3 million in 2014 and
higher number of manufacturers as compared 2015, respectively. China’s HDV market
to India. The size of the trucks is increasing began to recover in 2016, and by 2017, total
with increased power and displacement with sales returned to the same level as 2013. The
a good efficiency performance and that is decline in MHDV sales during 2014 and 2015
leading to a good market share for China. The is a well-documented consequence of the
engines for these sectors are mostly supplied broader economic turmoil during that period
by domestic OEMs. The fuel consumption (Allen, 2015).
limits in the proposed Stage 3 standards was
a worthy step for controlling the efficiency Diesel engines dominated the conventional
gap but longer-term measures are required HDV market in China during the evaluation
to ensure the best fuel efficiency levels. period, accounting for over 95% of HDV
Advancement in the technologies resulted sales. Still, natural gas powertrains have had
in great potential to improve fuel efficiency a consistent market presence throughout
of China’s HDV sector and this may result the past years, peaking in 2014, when they
in reduction of fuel consumption by 35% to represented 5% of new HDV sales. The
45% compared with the Stage 311 limits by penetration of gasoline powertrains in the
2030 (Karali, et al., 2017). HDV segments is negligible.

Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment | 17

Figure 6: Stock of MDVs and HDVs in China (2000-19)
1.6
MDVs HDVs
1.4

1.2

1.0
Million units

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
00

19
20

20
Source: Tsinghua University, China

Sales in the different vehicle segments were Pierre-Louis, & Rodriguez, 2021).
largely dominated by a few GVW categories.
Straight trucks were mostly concentrated at In the Chinese market, FAW Group
GVWs of around 5 tonnes, which exemplifies dominated the sales market with 22% shares
how important small straight trucks 12
are in the year 2017 with 300% growth during
within the regulatory category. Similarly, the last half decade, JAC Motors sealed the
GVWs around 5 tonnes were also a large second position, with 19% share keeping
number of the sales of coaches and dump its sales growing at the similar pace as the
trucks. Most tractor-trailers were gathered overall market and Foton Motor experienced
around approximately GVW of 49 tonnes, a slight decline in the shares since last half
which is the upper limit for the total weight decade and occupied third place with 16%
of tractor-trailers in China (MIIT, 2016). of the market share. Figure 7 shows the
manufacturers in 2017, and the vehicle
According to market estimates, there were categories that represented the bulk of their
about 670 commercial vehicle manufacturers sales. Even though straight trucks were still
in China, of which eight were responsible the leading category for the majority of the
for approximately 48% of the total sales in manufacturers in 2017, the shares of tractor-
the country in 2012. Five years later, the trailers in their product portfolios increased
number of HDV manufacturers increased significantly during 2012-17 (Shiyue, Pierre-
to over 700, and the share of top eight Louis, & Rodriguez, 2021)
manufacturers increased to 51% (Shiyue,

18 | Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment

Figure 7: Market share of MHDV manufacturers – 2017

Nanjing Automobile

Jiangling Motors
4% FAW Group

6% 22%

Foton- Daimler JV
10%

Dongfeng Motor
11%
JAC Motors
19%

Shaanxi Automobile Foton Motor

12% 16%

Source: Mao et al, 2021

Table 3 below comprises of the MHDV Freight demand, energy and

models that are currently available in China emissions – HDV sector
with their GVWs, engine specifications and
fuel type by the top five manufacturing India’s road-based freight transportation
companies in the country. FAW Group being has increased rapidly in the last two decades.
the top manufacturer has a wide variety According to TERI estimates for the road
of models present in the current market, freight sector, the total traffic, in terms of
followed by Dongfeng Motor, Sinotruk, BTKM, increased from about 400 btkm
Shaanxi Automobile and Beijing Automotive in 2000-01 to 2,800 btkm in 2020-21 - a
Industry Company (BAIC). We also see 7-fold increase. Of the total road freight,
dominance of diesel vehicles in the Chinese the volume of HDV segment increased
market. The following table also depicts from 330 btkm in 2000-01 to 2,219 btkm in
the fuel-technology based status of Chinese 2020-21. Though the total volume increased
market – majority of the HDVs are still diesel significantly, the share of HDV segment in
with few LPG/CNG options available. While total freight declined slightly from about 86%
in the MDV sector, a technological shift can in 2000-01 to 80% in 2020-21, largely on
be observed with various low-carbon options account on proliferation of LDV segment for
available in the market. the urban freight movement. The following

Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment | 19

Table 3: Manufacturer-wise HDV and MDV models available in China
Company Vehicle Model
GVW Engine Specification Fuel Type
Name type Name
HDVs
J6P Tractor 25000 kg | 18,000 kg 9L | 11 L | 13L Diesel
20000kg | 25000 kg |
Tractor CA6DL2-35E5 Diesel
First Auto J6M 18,000 kg
Works (FAW) Lorry 20,010 kg CA6DK1-28E5 Diesel
J6L Lorry 25000 kg | 18,000 kg CA6DK1-24E5 Diesel
J5p Tractor 39,755 kg | 35,000 kg Not mentioned Diesel

4.75 L | six-cylinder four-

20 | Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment

Source: Author’s compilation (non-exhaustive)

section looks into the growth of the MHDV to grow to 10% by 2031. It is to be noted
sector, which is based on modelling exercise that the stock of LDVs has been increasing
conducted through TERI’s transport 13
and rapidly and overcame the HDVs, in absolute
MARKAL models. 14
numbers, in mid-2010s, largely on account
of growing urbanization and urban freight
Stock of Commercial Vehicles demand. By 2031, the total stock of HDVs on
Indian roads is estimated to reach 17 million,
As per estimates, the share of commercial with diesel technology dominating the entire
vehicles in total stock of vehicles on road stock in the business as usual scenario.
stood at 8% in 2021, which is expected

Figure 8: Estimated stock of LDVs and HDVs on Indian Roads

40
35
LDVs HDVs
30
units in million

25
20
15
10
5
0
2001 2006 2011 2016 2021 2026 2031 2036 2041 2046 2051

Source: TERI Analysis

Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment | 21

Increasing freight demand be approximately six-times the current
estimated freight demand.
As mentioned earlier, the total freight
carried by the road sector increased seven- Looking at the share of HDVs in total freight,
fold between 2001 and 2021. The freight including rail and air sectors, it has increased
carried by the HDV sector, which accounts from 47% in 2001 to 57% in 2021. In fact, the
for a small share in total stock of vehicles, share of HDV in total freight is estimated
has been increasing rapidly and is estimated to increase to as high as 60% in 2031, and
to touch 4,500 btkm by 2031. With rapid further to 70% by 2051. This indicates the
economic growth anticipated in the future, continuing dominance and reliance on the
India’s HDV segment is expected to cater road sector in the freight traffic demand,
to about 13,000 btkm by 2051, which would economic activities and energy demand.

Figure 9: Freight traffic demand reported by the LDV and HDV segments of Road
Transport

140
000
120
000
BTKM-HDV
- BTKM-LDV
billion tonne km

100
000
80
000
60
000
40
000
20
000
0
2001 2006 2011 2016 2021 2026 2031 2036 2041 2046 2051

Source: TERI Analysis

Figure 10: Estimated share of HDVs in total freight demand

100%
90%
80%
70%
billion tonne km

60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
2001 2006 2011 2016 2021 2026 2031 2036 2041 2046 2051

BTKM-HDV BTKM-Total Freight

Source: TERI Analysis

22 | Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment

Freight transportation and energy in turn, is produced from imported crude
consumption oil. Also, the share of railways in total energy
consumption, which uses a mix of electricity
According to TERI estimates, total energy and diesel, continues to be marginal as
consumption on account of movement of compared to the road sector.
freight (including road, rail and air) stands
at 2.3 exajoules (EJ) in 2021. Over the years, Within road transport, the HDV segment
the dominant share of road sector in freight accounts for about three-fourth of the total
transportation has driven the demand for the energy consumed on account of movement
energy consumption. Over 90% of the energy of total freight. It is estimated that the HDV
consumption during 2021 was estimated to sector reported consumption of 1.75 EJ of
be on account of the road transport sector. energy in 2021, increasing from 0.36 EJ in
As indicated earlier, the road freight sector 2001.
is almost entirely dependent on diesel, which

Figure 11: Total energy consumption by HDV and Freight Transport

9000.0
8000.0
HDV Total Freight Transport
7000.0
6000.0
5000.0
PJ

4000.0
3000.0
2000.0
1000.0
0.0
2001 2006 2011 2016 2021 2026 2031 2036 2041 2046 2051

Source: TERI Analysis

Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment | 23

Freight transport and CO2 emissions cost reduction of EVs in the coming years.
EV adoption is expected to be relatively
Scenario Analysis higher in the MDV segment as compared to
the HDV segment due to the size of battery
Based on interaction with the OEMs and key pack and load restrictions. Details related to
sector experts, it is expected that under the scenario-wise penetration of eMHDVs are
business as usual scenario penetration of shared in Annexure 2 of the document.
electric technology in the MHDV segment
will be tapered during the entire period of As per TERI analysis, with the induction of
analysis. Under the ambitious scenario, the battery-electric technology, emissions on
penetration of e-MHDVs are anticipated account of the MHDV segment is likely to
to be significantly higher, which in turn is decline by 20% by 2050 in the ambitious
based on technology learning and upfront scenario vis-à-vis business-as-usual scenario.

Figure 12: Projected number of electric MHDVs in total sales in the business as
usual and ambitious scenario

9.00

8.00
BAU Ambi�ous
7.00

6.00
Million vehicles

5.00

4.00

3.00

2.00

1.00

0.00
2050-51
2046-47
2047-48
2048-49
2049-50
2043-44
2044-45
2045-46
2041-42
2042-43
2039-40
2040-41
2037-38
2038-39
2034-35
2035-36
2036-37
2032-33
2033-34
2028-29
2029-30
2030-31
2031-32
2025-26
2026-27
2027-28
2023-24
2024-25
2020-21
2021-22
2022-23

Source: TERI Analysis

24 | Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment

Figure 13: Projected CO2 emissions from the MHDV sector under the BAU and
ambitious scenarios

700

600
BAU Ambi�ous
500

400
MtCO2

300

200

100

0
2026-27
2027-28
2028-29
2029-30
2030-31
2031-32
2032-33
2033-34
2034-35
2035-36
2036-37
2037-38
2038-39
2039-40
2040-41
2041-42
2042-43
2043-44
2044-45
2045-46
2046-47
2047-48
2048-49
2049-50
2050-51
2024-25
2025-26
2022-23
2023-24
2020-21
2021-22

Source: TERI Analysis

Low/Zero-carbon Technologies:
HDVs

Initiatives to reduce emissions –

India and China

Auto Fuel Policy

China and India have developed and

implemented respective fuel emission
policies, which are in line with the Euro
Standards. In China, stage-wise emission
standards have been rolled out since 2000
and China VI-b norm is scheduled to be rolled
out in 2023. India, on the other hand, skipped
the Bharat Stage (BS) V norm altogether and
moved to the BS VI norm in April 2020, well
before the scheduled adoption of BS VI in
April 202415.

Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment | 25

Table 4: Specifications of implemented Auto Fuel Policies in India and China
Country/ Phase Implementation Date Truck types regulated
CHINA
1 Jul 2000 (Type 1)
For Light Duty Vehicles
1 Oct 2001 (Type 2)
China I
1 Sep 2001 For Heavy Duty Vehicles
1 Jul 2003 For Heavy Duty Gasoline Vehicles
1 Jul 2005 (Type 1)
For Light Duty Vehicles
1 Jul 2006 (Type 2)
China II
1 Sep 2004 For Heavy Duty Vehicles
1 Sep 2004 For Heavy Duty Gasoline Vehicles
1 Jul 2008 (No EOBD required)
1 Jul 2009 (EOBD required for type 1) For Light Duty Vehicles
1 Jul 2011 (EOBD required for others)
China III
1 Jan 2008 For Heavy Duty Vehicles

1 Jul 2010 For Heavy Duty Gasoline Vehicles

1 Jul 2011 (Diesel)
For Light Duty Vehicles
1 Jul 2013 (Gasoline)
China IV
1 Jul 2013 For Heavy Duty Vehicles
1 Jul 2013 For Heavy Duty Gasoline Vehicles
1 Jan 2017 (Diesel)*
For Light Duty Vehicles
1 Jan 2017 (Gasoline)
China V 1 Jan 2021**
For Heavy Duty Vehicles
1 Jul 2023
- For Heavy Duty Gasoline Vehicles
1 Jul 2020 (China 6a)16
For Light Duty Vehicles
1 Jul 2023 (China 6b)
1 Jul 2019 (China VI-a)**
China VI 1 Jul 2020 (China VI-a)^
1 Jul 2021 (China VI-a) For Heavy Duty Vehicles
1 Jan 2021 (China VI-b)**
1 Jul 2023 (China VI-b)
INDIA
India 2000 From 2000
Bharat Stage II From 2005 (Nationwide)
Applicable to all vehicle types, including
Bharat Stage III From 2010 (Nationwide)
MHDVs
Bharat Stage IV From 2017 (Nationwide)
Bharat Stage VI 2020 (Nationwide)

EOBD: European On-Board Diagnostics; * For public bus, sanitation and postal trucks, and other civil vehicle
fleets; ** For gas fuelled HDVs; ^ For public bus, sanitation and postal trucks, and other civil vehicle fleets

Source: Author’s compilation

26 | Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment

Fuel Economy Standards In India, efficiency norms are currently
available for LDV sector only, popularly
China introduced national truck fuel known as CAFE (Corporate Average Fuel
economy program in a phased manner since Emission) norm, notified by the Ministry
2012 with an allotted compliance period and of Power in 2017. The nodal agency for
set benchmarks for the vehicle efficiency implementation of CAFE norm is MoRTH17.
improvement standards. Fuel economy The draft fuel consumption norm for HDVs
limits set under Stage 3 for new buses, trucks, was finalized in 2017. The norm for HDVs
and tractors is lower by 15.9%, 13.8%, and is still to be adopted, which has been in
15.3%, respectively as compared to the Stage discussion for a long time.
2 standard. Stage 3 standard was applied to
all new heavy commercial vehicles in July
2021.

Table 5: Specifications of implemented national truck fuel economy in China

Compliance
Country/ period / Truck types Truck size Average targeted efficiency
Phase Standard type regulated categories improvement
(target metric)
First standard to benchmark
Tractors, energy consumption of trucks.
8 bins for tractors
2012-15 trucks (excl. Consumption limits based on
> 3.5 t, 11 bins for
China Phase I Fuel consumption dump trucks,) weight between 38 - 56 l/100 km
non-tractor trucks
(litre/100 km) buses and for tractors, 15.5 – 50 l/100 km
> 3.5 t.
coaches. for non-tractor trucks and 14 –
33 l/100 km for busses/coaches.
10.5% for coach buses, 11.5%
8 bins for tractors
for trucks and 14% for tractors,
Tractors, heavy > 3.5 t, 11 bins for
2014-20 compared to MY 2012 Phase I
duty vocational trucks (excluding
China Phase II Fuel consumption fuel consumption limits from
vehicles, buses dump trucks) > 3.5
(litre/100 km) July 2014 (type approvals)/July
and coaches. t, 11 bins for dump
2015 (all sales), depending on
trucks.
truck type and size.
15.9% (for buses), 21.7% (for
coach buses), 23.7% (for trucks
8 bins for tractors
Tractors, dump [excl. dump trucks]), 14.1% (for
> 3.5 t, 11 bins
From 2019 trucks, trucks dump trucks) and 27.2% (for
non-tractor/non-
China Phase III Fuel consumption (excl. dump tractors) compared to MY 2012
dump trucks > 3.5
(litre/100 km) trucks), buses Phase I fuel consumption limits
t, 11 bins of dump
and coaches. from July 2019 (type approvals)
trucks.
/ July 2021 (all sales), depending
on truck type & size.

Source: Author’s compilation

Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment | 27

Scrappage schemes where trucks have to go under scrappage
after their fitness lifespan. In India, the
Scrappage scheme is a critical policy tool scrappage policy was first announced in
to discard old vehicles that exceed their the union budget 2021-22, but has been in
fitness life and cause substantial harm to discussion for many years. The key objective
the environment if allowed to continue. for the roll out of this policy is to reduce the
The scheme contributes in cutting down the number of old and defective vehicles, bring
emissions from unfit vehicles and helps in down vehicular air pollution, and enhance
bringing down vehicular air pollutants and road and vehicular safety (MoRTH, 2021).
also allows new technologically-advanced Once rolled out, all old vehicles will have
vehicles to come on-road with better and to go a mandatory fitness test at authorised
improved engine standards. and automated fitness centres, which
will be implemented as per international
China started this scheme in 2009-10 and the standards18.
policy was named as ‘Old-Swap-New Policy’,

Table 6: Scrappage schemes of China and India

Country Scrappage Year(s) of operation Truck criteria Premium offered
China Old-Swap- 2009-10 Between 10 and 15 USD 1400-2400
New years old
India - Yet to be notified. There Commercial 4-6% of ex-showroom price of a
will be a mandatory vehicles that are new vehicle
fitness testing for heavy over 15 years
duty vehicles. old will have to
The state governments may be
undergo fitness
advised to offer a road tax rebate
tests
of up to 15% for commercial
vehicles.

The registration fees may also

be waived for purchase of new
vehicle against the scrapping
certificate.

Source: Author’s compilation

28 | Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment

Fuel taxes lower than in Europe, while countries like
Japan and Australia have moderate taxes.
Fuel taxes are among the simplest Middle Eastern countries generally subsidise
instruments of fiscal policy, they display a fuel heavily, while countries in the ASEAN
direct connection with the volume of fuel region subsidise diesel intermediately. North
consumed and CO2 emissions. These taxes African countries, including Algeria, Egypt
directly imitate the environmental costs and Libya, subsidise gasoline heavily, while
of emissions. Tax levels on diesel, which countries in Central Africa and Southern
is primarily used by the heavy commercial Africa tend to apply moderate-to-high
vehicles and responsible for carcinogenic fuel taxes (IEA, 2017). India has recently
emission; tend to be lower than taxes increased the tax rates (central and state
applied to gasoline. For instance, emission taxes) on diesel and gasoline, which accounts
on account of MDVs is equal to 0.6 kg CO2/ for over 50% of the total retail price per litre
km compared to 0.73 kg CO2/km on account of fuel.
of HDVs . 19

Currently, taxes on road fuel, including diesel

Countries like New Zealand and Europe have and gasoline, accounts for about 40% of the
high tax rates on gasoline and European retail price in China20. On the other hand,
countries have high taxes on diesel as India has one of the highest tax rates on fuel
well, with few exceptions among Eastern in the World as of May 2021. On average,
European countries, where intermediate tax state governments collect Rs 20 on every
rates have been adopted. Fuel taxes in North litre of petrol, compared to the Centre’s levy
America and Central America are appreciably of Rs 33 per litre (as of July 2021).

Table 7: Different levels of taxation on gasoline and diesel fuel in different

countries
Fuel type Low/intermediate taxes High taxes

Africa, Australia, Canada, Central Asia, Japan, Europe, New Zealand, China,
Gasoline
Latin America, United States India

Africa, Australia, Canada, Central Asia, Japan,

Diesel Europe, China, India
Korea, Latin America, United States

The boundary between intermediate taxation and high taxation is the price of fuel applied in Luxembourg.

Source: The Future of Trucks, 2017 (IEA, 2017)

Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment | 29

Alternative Fuel Options: MHDV Sector China

LNG China is one of the largest countries with

LNG-based transport sector in the world.
In the MHDV segment, liquified natural gas In the downstream LNG segment, Chinese
(LNG) work similar to the gasoline-powered transport sector accounted for 27% and 29%
vehicles, with a spark-ignited combustion in the years 2017 and 2018, respectively
engine. LNG is stored in liquid form in a tank (Yuan & Shell, 2019). This is the second-
on the either side of a truck. It is typically highest share in terms of LNG consumption
an expensive alternative than compressed after the industrial sector. Surge in sales of
natural gas (CNG) and is most often used in LNG vehicles was reported in 2017. It was
MHDVs to meet long range requirement. Due primarily driven by LNG-based heavy-duty
to its characteristics at room temperature trucks, which grew year-on-year by 500%. By
– energy density higher than CNG, higher 2018, of the total population of LNG vehicles
volume of LNG fuel could be stored on-board in China, two-thirds were heavy-duty trucks
a vehicle. This makes LNG well suited for the and the remaining one-third comprised
trucks that are traveling longer distances. of LNG buses and coaches. With regard to
With respect to CO2 emissions, LNG trucks refuelling infrastructure, China had 2,552
are more efficient compared to diesel hybrid LNG stations across the country as of end-
trucks (Smajla, Karasalihović Sedlar, & 2018. Like India, China is also dependent on
Drljača, 2019). imported LNG, mainly from the middle-east

30 | Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment

and Australia. China also has availability of laid the foundation stone for setting up of
LNG through domestically mini-liquefaction 50 LNG fuelling stations across the golden
plants. quadrilateral and major national highway
corridors of the country, and aims to set up
The sale of LNG-based trucks is inversely 1,000 LNG stations by 2023. India’s leading
related to the price of the fuel. China reported commercial vehicle manufacturers, especially
high LNG during 2013-16 due to rise in Tata Motors, already has LNG powered
pipeline gas price during China’s natural gas commercial vehicles in their portfolio. Tata
price reform, which coincided with tapered Motors showcased their LNG bus model
sale of LNG trucks in the country. However, in 2014 and successfully conducted a pilot
sale of LNG trucks increased significantly project in 2016 in Thiruvananthapuram,
during 2017 on account of recovered fuel Kerala. Tata Motors also completed delivery
prices. The sale of LNG trucks again declined of one LNG bus to LNG Petronet Limited in
due to uncertainty in fuel supply and rising Dahej, Gujarat, and two LNG buses in Kochi,
prices (Yuan & Shell, 2019). Kerala.

India Electric Road System

In India, government is pushing for the use Electric Road System (ERS) is defined as
of LNG for inter-city bus travels. In 2020, roads that support dynamic power transfer
the Minister of Petroleum & Natural Gas from the road to vehicles while the vehicles

Figure 14: Cumulative number of LNG refuelling stations and LNG HDT Sales

3000 100000
Cumula�ve no. of site HDT Sales

2500
80000
Cumula�ve no. of LNG sta�ons

2000
No. of HDT sales

60000

1500

40000
1000

20000
500

0 0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Source: (Yuan & Shell, 2019)

Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment | 31

are moving, which could be a supplement to n Inductive Power Transfer from Road: In
overcome some of the challenges of battery- this, power transmission is contactless
EVs, especially performance related to and takes place between coils embedded
range (Schulte & Ny, 2018). Electric roads in the road and vehicles. The high
can be classified into three categories based frequency AC power creates a magnetic
on how the power transmission takes place field, which is picked up by the coils of
(Mårtensson, 2020): the vehicle to generate voltage.

n Overhead conductive: In this, charging Under this technology, power moves directly
power is continuously transferred from into the propulsion system or used to charge
overhead lines to the vehicle with the on-board batteries. As soon as the vehicle
help of a pantograph. It is best suitable moves to a non-ERS road, it switches to
for trucks and buses that are elevated battery-electric or internal combustion
enough to reach the electric lines. It also engine (ICE) mode. ERS can be beneficial in
works better with vehicles that travel in providing a much cleaner alternative options
a predetermined route, with low friction, in MHDV sector than other combustion and
so that they can stay continuously polluting engines. Extremely high upfront
connected to the lines. cost of infrastructure development, which
could range from Euro 2-2.5 million per
n Conductive Power Transfer from km21, especially for a developing country like
Road: Here, the power is transmitted to India may not be feasible. However, technical
the vehicle through rails embedded in or research works and feasibility studies need
on top of the road surface. to be conducted before postponing the

32 | Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment

technology adoption in India. High degree of Hebei Province, FTXT Energy Technology,
traffic and closed-circuit operation of HDVs, a subsidiary of GWM, along with Dayun,
implying high utilization, might make the Dongfeng Motor, and Foton, delivered
technology viable even in India, provided 100 hydrogen fuel cell HDVs with 111 kWh
innovative financing model is adopted. capacity for Xiong’an construction project in
August 2021. The authorities have already
Hydrogen-Fuel Cell Vehicle Technology set up 10 fuel stations for refuelling the fleet,
which is likely to be operational shortly.
Hydrogen fuel cells produce electricity Currently, the fuel cell vehicles account for
by combining hydrogen with oxygen. The less than 5% of the commercial truck market
hydrogen tanks built into the FCEV reacts in China and that could grow to about one-
with the oxygen to produce electricity, water, third of total market share in 2050.
and heat. The electricity powers the electric
motor and the only by-product is water India is proactively looking at hydrogen as
vapour, thereby making it a zero-emission one of the clean energy options. The National
technology. Hydrogen can be produced Hydrogen Mission was launched in August
from a range of domestic resources, like 2021 to reduce carbon emissions and increase
natural gas, biomass, etc. These are some of the share of clean energy in the overall energy
the potentials of hydrogen that makes it an basket. TERI undertook a study on the
attractive fuel option for transportation. potential role of hydrogen in India in 2020.
It was assessed that sectors like industry,
China has been undertaking numerous power sector, and transport (particularly
steps towards adoption of hydrogen fuel- heavy-duty vehicles) will emerge as key end-
cell electric vehicle (HFCEV) technology, users. Table 8 looks at the role of hydrogen
including that for MHDV segment. In the as a fuel in the transportation sector, with

Table 8: The role of hydrogen across Transport sector

Sector Use-Case 2020s 2030s 2040s
Short-distance, BEVs becoming
BEVs competitive with BEVs competitive with
regular-route heavy- competitive with ICEs.
both FCEVs and ICEs both FCEVs and ICEs
duty transport FCEVs not competitive
Transport FCEVs likely to be
FCEVs and BEVs
Long-distance heavy- competitive with
ICEs competitive becoming competitive
duty freight transport ICE. BEVs partly
with ICE
competitive

Legends: Brown = fossil fuels dominate. Yellow = direct electrification without using H2 as an energy vector,
e.g. battery electric vehicles or Li-ion batteries in electricity storage. Green = mixed paradigm with several
technologies including hydrogen.

Source: TERI analysis

Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment | 33

Table 9: Multi-criteria assessment for heavy-duty trucks and inter-city buses
Diesel Electric Hydrogen
Competitive for shorter distances
Not competitive post post 2030. Potentially competitive Competitive over
Total Cost Ownership
2030 across all relevant distances by longer distances
2050.
Refuel / charging time 15mins 2 hrs+ 15 mins
Infrastructure New high capacity charging New hydrogen
Already in place
requirements network refuelling stations
User acceptability No change Change to fleet operation required Minimal change
Weight penalty of
Minimal Significant for long distance Minimal
drivetrain + storage
Minimal: confident in cost declines Dependent on
Crude oil prices and of batteries. Some uncertainty about cost declines in
Risks
fuel taxes pace of improvement in battery fuel cells, tanks,
energy density. and electrolysers

Source: TERI analysis

a future prediction taking several use-cases An overall impression that develops from
for the next three decades (Hall, Spencer, this analysis is that HFCEV trucks may be
Renjith, & Dayal, 2020). a preferred option for longer routes, even
though competitiveness of this option
While TERI analysis suggested a handy depends upon vigorous cost declines in
competition between BEVs and FCEVs over several technologies and very low delivered
the long-term, the adoption of hydrogen costs of hydrogen.
fuel cell technology in transport will be
governed by reducing the recharging time, Focus on Battery-electric vehicle
rolling out high capacity charging practices, (BEV) technology
raising awareness, and reducing the weight
penalty. Apart from setting up of hydrogen BEV freight transport is much efficient and
refueling network, HFCEVs would be more cleaner than HFCEV applications. Similar to
competitive because of more rapid refueling the hydrogen-based trucks, upfront cost of
and the similar operation of an FCEV truck battery-EV is significantly high, with major
or bus versus a diesel equivalent. Key benefit compromise on payload capacity due to high
of hydrogen fuel cell technology is faster battery size. However, with high-capacity
refuelling, which could take 10-15 mins, as loading, BEVs can manage to accelerate
well as range achieved by this technology faster than diesel vehicles due to the high
reaching up to 500-800 km, based on the torque capabilities of the electric motors
fuel storage capacity. (Smajla, Karasalihović Sedlar, & Drljača,
2019).

34 | Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment

Manufacturing status Motors Limited, and Volvo Eicher Motors
Limited (VECV Ltd).
Currently, there are no OEMs in India
manufacturing commercially available JBM Solaris Electric Vehicles Ltd, is a
electric MHDVs, except for the passenger joint venture between India's JBM Auto
bus segment. Prototypes of electric trucks and Europe's Solaris Bus & Coach SA, and
are being developed by Ashok Leyland they launched their first electric bus series
Limited and is expected to be piloted on 'Eco-Life' in the Indian market in 2018.
Indian highways (Delhi-Agra Expressway Olectra Greentech Limited also launched
and Delhi-Jaipur Highway) in December their electric buses ‘K’ series namely K6,
2021. In the battery electric bus segment, K7, and K9. Based on discussion with the
major players in India are Ashok Leyland stakeholders from the OEM industry, it was
Limited, Solaris Bus & Coach S.A., JBM Auto highlighted that it would take 18 months
Limited, Olectra Greentech Limited, Tata for the manufacturers to come out with an
electric MHDV.

Table 10: Manufacturing status of electric MHDVs in India

Company Name Current Model/Series Name (if available)
Tata Motors Ltd. Star bus, Ultra
VECV Ltd. Skyline Pro
Olectra Greentech Ltd. K6, K7, K9
JBM Solaris Electric Vehicles Ltd. Eco life

Source: Author’s compilation

Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment | 35

Charging infrastructure Nagars23 and depots. With regard to the
technical guidelines for setting of charging
In an effort to promote electric vehicles in the infrastructure for heavy duty vehicles, MoP
country, government launched the FAME guidelines suggest at least 2 chargers with
India scheme through which a subsidy will minimum 100 kW (minimum 200-750 Volt)
be provided to the owner on the purchase of of different charger specification with single
new electric vehicles. Government is pushing connector gun each.
deployment of EV charging stations by
providing subsidy through the FAME India Retro-fitment technology
Scheme Phase II and state level initiatives.
About 350 new charging stations under the A Gurugram based start-up – Infraprime
second phase of this scheme have already Logistics Technology (IPLT) – has come up
been installed. Additionally, government with country’s first ever 60-tonne electric
has also delicenced the activity of setting truck. The truck is basically a medium-
up EV charging stations to attract private haul logistics vehicle for transporting
investments. The Ministry of Power (MoP) commodities such as aggregates from mines
guidelines also suggests setting up of charging to the construction sites, cement, etc. The
infrastructure every 100 km on each side claimed range of this vehicle is in the range
of the highways for buses and trucks . For 22 of 400 km (without payload) and 200 km
urban centres, the guideline suggests setting (loaded) per charge. It is capable to handle
up of charging infrastructure in Transport a 20-degree gradient, which is higher than

Table 11: Specification of Charging Infrastructure

Charger Rated Output No. of Connector Charging EV
Charger Connectors*
Type Voltage Guns (CG) Type
Combined Charging System
200 – 750 or higher 1 CG 4-W
(CCS) (min. 50 kW)
Fast CHArge de MOve
200 – 500 or higher 1 CG 4-W
(CHAdeMO) (min. 50 kW)
Type – 2 AC (min. 22 kW) 380 – 415 1 CG 4-W, 3-W, 2-W
Bharat DC-001 (15 kW) 48 1 CG 4-W, 3-W, 2-W
Slow/
Bharat DC-001 (15 kW) 72 or higher 1 CG 4-W
Moderate
Bharat AC – 001 (10 kW) 230 3 CG of 3.3 kW each 4-W, 3-W, 2-W

*In addition, any other Fast / Moderate / Slow charger as approved by Department of Science & Technology
(DST) / Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) standards whenever notified.

Note: Type – 2 AC (min. 22 kW) is capable of charging electric 2-wheeler / 3-wheeler with the provision of an
adaptor

Source: Ministry of Power

36 | Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment

a typical EV. IPLT electric truck has been Other key highlights of the trucks are:
equipped with battery cooling system, which
keeps the battery temperature close to 35 n Retrofitted in India (40% reduction in
degree Celsius. The commercial run of this production cost)
truck demonstrated up to 60% savings in n Reduce wear and tear of brakes
overall operating cost over conventional n 40% less maintenance cost than diesel
diesel trucks. IPLT is already operating trucks
two charging stations on the Delhi-Jaipur n 98% more efficiency
highway and a fleet of 12 electric trucks is n 4,000 cycle battery life
already on the road .
24

Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment | 37

Conclusions

India has emerged as a hub for commercial period, accounting for more than 95.3% of
vehicles in the last few years. The HDV sales. Natural gas-based trucks have
advancement in technology in this sector has recorded consistent increase in the Chinese
shaped up the Indian commercial markets market share. FWA Group dominated
and the MHDV sector has witnessed an the MHDV sales market, followed by JAC
upsurge in production and sales by almost Motors, and Foton Motor. FAW Group being
two-folds since 2014. the top manufacturer has a wide variety
of models present in the current market
The production data from 2011-12 to 2018- followed by Dongfeng Motor, Sinotruk,
19 shows the dominance of HDVs over MDVs Shaanxi Automobile, and BAIC.
in terms of production. It also indicates the
nature of traffic India has been experiencing With regard to traffic demand, Indian road
over the same period of time. Tata Motors transport sector reported rapid growth in
Ltd. has dominated the market both in freight traffic in the last two decades, and
terms of domestic production and sales of is expected to increase in the future as well.
MHDVs. Tata Motors has the maximum By 2031, the total stock of HDVs on Indian
MHDV market share in India. Other players roads is expected to rise at a significant rate,
like Ashok Leyland, Volvo-Eicher, and with diesel technology dominating the entire
Mahindra & Mahindra have emerged as key stock in the business-as-usual scenario. The
manufacturers of MHDVs in the country. freight carried by the HDV sector, which
accounts for a small share in the total stock
On the other hand, China’s MHDV of vehicles, has been increasing rapidly and
market has a comparatively large number is expected to increase at a good pace in the
of manufacturers and is much more future as well.
consolidated. The engines for these sectors
are mostly supplied by domestic OEMs. The Over the years, the dominant share of the
size of the trucks is increasing with increased road sector in freight transportation has
power and displacement with a good driven the demand for energy consumption.
efficiency performance and that is leading Within road transport, the HDV segment
to a good market share for both China and accounts for about three-fourths of the
India. total energy consumed on account of the
movement of total freight. According to
Diesel engines dominate the conventional ambitious scenario estimates undertaken by
HDV market in China during the evaluation TERI, CO2 emission from the MHDV freight

38 | Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment

sector is projected to decline by 20% in 2051. be used as pilot projects or as an example
because of the non-warranty tags with them.
India and China are in the top 5 carbon Battery swapping technology could be a
emitters of the World. Both the countries critical option in case of heavy pack traffic in
have taken or initiating multiple measures to the city premises while waiting for charging
mitigate emissions from the transport sector, the vehicle but it is definitely not a good option
including commercial vehicle segment. These for long-distance trucks. The battery prices
are mitigation policies and steps related are coming down gradually with technical
to vehicle efficiency norm, fuel emission advancements in this field. Finance and
standards, scrappage policy, and alternate insurance related market for battery-electric
fuel technology, including EVs. Fuel taxes technology, particularly for commercial
are among the simplest instruments of fiscal vehicles, is currently immature and requires
policy to regulate volume of fuel consumed huge regulatory and institutional support to
and CO2 emissions. Currently, India has push for rapid adoption of EVs. One of the
the highest fuel tax in the world where the key concerns is the absence of after-market
central government is collecting more tax on and resale value of EVs.
diesel and petrol as compared to the state
governments. Lastly, the need for a good policy is
very crucial in this sector, policy has the
There are various other alternatives present power to turn around things and various
in the MHDV sector like LNG, electric road policies on infrastructure building without
systems, hydrogen fuel cell technologies, that worrying about the future, finding ways to
could contribute to making this sector less for making the TCO less than that of diesel
carbon-intensive. Investing in the charging vehicles and distances between the charging
infrastructure is very critical, investments infrastructures on important expressways,
attract business and for the electrification of national/state highways, major district roads
this sector, infrastructure building should be are required.
at most priority. Retrofitted trucks could only

Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment | 39

Key suggestions for future

Battery cost and density advancements, more investments and

interests. According to BloombergNEF, the
Batteries are the primary important cost battery pack prices have fallen from $1,100
component for an electric vehicle. Lithium- per kilowatt-hour (kWh) in 2010 to $137 per
ion batteries are currently the key choice for kWh in 2020, which is further expected to
EVs and are largely available commercially. decline to $100 per kWh by 202325. Already,
However, there are multiple lithium-ion some of the battery used in e-buses in China
battery chemistries that are used in different have reported price of $100 per kWh.
heavy-duty applications – lithium titanium
oxide (LTO), lithium manganese oxide India has also approved the Production
(LMO), etc. Battery requirement for MHDVs Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme in May
are different from those for light-duty ones, 2021 to promote manufacturing of Advance
and it is mostly due to factors such as weight, Chemistry Cell (ACC) and reduce import
driving cycle, and life expectancy. MHDVs are dependency of the country26. It could emerge
heavier and therefore require more power, as a game changer and give a boost to high-
larger and predictable lifetime mileages, density batteries for heavy duty performance
and extra-duty cycles. Nevertheless, it is requirements. The aim is to bring in
important to recognize the chemistry of the investment in battery manufacturing for
battery for the reason that of the differences which an outlay of Rs 18,100 crore has
in the material costs, technological been set aside to be spent over a period of 5
advancements, production volumes which years. Total battery manufacturing capacity
are some critical factors that influence the envisaged to be established under the scheme
battery cost. Limitations in the data sets is to the tune of 50 Giga-Watt hour (GWh)
of present studies makes it challenging to and 5 GWh of niche ACC. This will not only
estimate projections for specific chemistries help reduce cost of battery, but also augment
of lithium-ion batteries for heavy-duty India’s effort to promote indigenization of
vehicle (California Air Resources Board, EV production.
2016).
Achieving highest energy density is a
Battery cost of these vehicles has eventually significant part in the development of
witnessed a downfall in the last few years batteries, it could also be understood as,
and keeping the above-mentioned factors with equal size and weight a battery is able
in mind, the cost is expected to decline in to gather a higher energy quantity and hence
the future as well with new technological maximum efficiency could be achieved with

40 | Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment

the maximum running time and in a cost- resolutions. The major players in the sector
effective way. Therefore, the density of the are taking numerous steps right from
battery is another sector that needs some installing charging infrastructure to investing
attention while designing the batteries. in R&D for EVs that are appropriate for the
Indian roads. Building an ecosystem for this
Battery Disposal sector is the most critical activities in the
country like India, where the lack of adequate
Properly disposal of EV batteries is a EV infrastructure is a challenge as compared
crucial practice if one of the prime purposes to other countries.
of electrification is to safeguard our
environment. The disputes for MHDVs Like any other vehicle segment or vehicle
are seriously undermined if one of the technology, the availability of fuel plays a
side-outcomes of electrification will be an vital role in widespread acceptability. This
increasing amount of battery waste going to also applies to EV technology, including the
the landfills, garbage-dumps and roadsides. MHDV sector. It is crucial that if we want
As these MHDVs uses a high voltage battery, to shift our focus from conventional fuel to
the disposal of these types of Li-ion batteries battery-electric vehicle, we need to set-up
increases serious environmental concerns. an ecosystem on a topmost priority basis.
Although Li-ion batteries themselves are eco- This could be named as “You build it, they’ll
friendly comparative to few others such as come” model for identified close-circuit
lead acid starter batteries, used high voltage operations of trucks or key corridors to start
Li-ion batteries come with a risk - possibility with. The running and maintenance costs of
of stranded energy. A used battery lying in a these vehicles are significantly lower than the
landfill, garbage-dumps or by the roadside diesel vehicles. Initiative towards providing
poses a potentially lethal risk to a person charging infrastructure on India highway is
that touches it. It is important for public underway, and EVCI facilities for e-buses
safety that all high voltage Li-ion batteries be would be launched on Delhi-Jaipur highway
completely decommissioned and irreversibly and Delhi-Agra Yamuna expressway shortly.
discharged at end-of-life (EOL) (Kelleher
Environmental, 2019). Electrification of this sector also results
in the reduction of payload of the vehicle,
Vehicle Manufacturing hence directly affecting the cost of travelling
and reduction in income opportunity that
Build ecosystem arises due to reduction in payload. Hence,
we require a tech-solution like high power
Currently, hard-to-abate road segments – density batteries, and fast chargers to
long-distance buses and HDVs – account overcome the issue.
for more than 40% 27
of the total energy
consumption and hence needs long-term Similar to business strategy of e-bus segment

Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment | 41

in India, e-trucking sector also needs a similar is now looking forward to enter a new era of
approach and focus in meeting the daily-run its EV development, in the context of both
requirements, including the critical support increasing global competition and nation’s
structure – charging infrastructure. Plug- new pledge to achieve carbon neutrality by
in chargers and pantograph-based chargers 2060, and for this China will be keeping an
are few technology advancements that need eye on some more holistic EV strategy in the
investments to enhance the electrification of future.
this sector.
The financial structure and technological
Electrification of MHDV sector has long advancements in China are best in the entire
been recognized as a potential pathway to world hence, India should also be looking for
reduce fuel expenses and emissions from like-wise strategies where funding process
the freight movement, yet expansion of a and techno-advancements should grow.
sustainable market for electrified CVs has Focus on setting-up of battery manufacturing
lagged behind the LDV sector. Over the last units in the country, as envisaged under the
few years, battery performance has witnessed PLI scheme, will fast-track the EV transition
improvements and battery costs have in the HDV sector and will significantly cut
reduced considerably, making electrification down cost of batteries, as it accounts for the
of MHDVs more attractive. But these factors majority share in total cost of vehicles.
have still not been realized in this sector due
to low volume purchases and customized China introduced innovative EV pilot
pack specifications. The MHDV sector is programs on an enormous scale, many
expensive and capital-intensive, even well- cities showed their interests and prioritized
known OEMs, except for few, are reluctant deployment in public fleets. Further, there
in committing about e-MHDVs. OEMs are was support from the Chinese government
following the ‘wait and watch’ policy. Making in the form of investments in R&D and direct
the EV components in-house or purchasing subsidies. The period from 2012 to 2017,
them from the global market is an area that witnessed speedy and massive growth of
could be looked into. EV market is growing China’s EV market. Post 2018, China started
at a substantial rate across the globe and the to move from subsidizing the industry to
Indian OEMs will play a very crucial role. providing a combination of incentives and
policy regulations to augment the potential
Learnings from China of the market. This shift in the policy,
collectively with increasing market openness
Currently, China has swiftly shaped the and competition, showed China’s improved
world’s largest EV market, and now accounts confidence in its EV strategy and the
for half of World’s electric vehicles and maturing of its EV market (Jin, et al., 2021).
about 90% of e-buses and e-trucks. China

42 | Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment

References

Allen, K. e. (2015, August 25). China financial crisis: From dizzy heights of peak to dark depths of Black Monday.
The Guardian.

Burgess, M. (2021, August). Great Wall Motor delivers 100 hydrogen trucks in China. Retrieved from H2 View’s
Mobility: https://www.h2-view.com/story/great-wall-motor-delivers-100-hydrogen-trucks-in-china/

California Air Resources Board. (2016). Advanced Clean Transit Battery Cost for Heavy-Duty Electric Vehicles
(Discussion Draft). California Air Resources Board .

Gopal, A., Karali, N., Sharpe, B., Delgado, O., Bandivadekar, A., & Garg, M. (2017). Improved Heavy-Duty Vehicle
Fuel Efficiency in India: Benefits, Costs and Environmental Impacts. New Delhi: ICCT.org.

Hall, W., Spencer, T., Renjith, G., & Dayal, S. (2020). The Potential Role of Hydrogen in India: A pathway for
scaling-up low carbon hydrogen across the economy. New Delhi: The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI).

IEA. (2017). The future of Trucks- Implications for Energy and the Environment. iea.org.

Jin, L., He, H., Cui, H., Lutsey, N., Wu, C., Chu, Y., . . . Liu, X. (2021). DRIVING A GREEN FUTURE- A RETROSPECTIVE
REVIEW OF CHINA’S ELECTRIC VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT AND OUTLOOK FOR THE FUTURE. ICCT.org.

Kelleher Environmental. (2019). Research Study on Reuse and Recycling of Batteries: The Technical, Environmental,
Economic, Energy and Cost Implications of Reusing and Recycling EV Batteries. Api.org.

Mårtensson, L. (2020). Volvo Trucks Global . Retrieved from Volvo Trucks Global .

MIIT. (2016). Limits of dimensions, axle load and masses for motor vehicles, trailers and combination vehicles.
Ministry of Industry and Information Technology. Retrieved from Ministry of Industry and Information Technology.

MoRTH. (2021). Draft Guidelines for Vehicle Scrapping. New Delhi: MoRTH.

OECD. (2019). Taxing Energy Use-Using Taxes for Climate Action. oecd.org. Retrieved from oecd website.

Raghuram, G. (2015). An Overview of the Trucking Sector in India: Significance and Structure. Ahmedabad: IIM-
Ahmedabad.

Schulte, J., & Ny, H. (2018). Electric Road Systems: Strategic Stepping Stone on the Way towards Sustainable Freight
Transport? MDPI, Sustaiability.

Shiyue, M., Pierre-Louis, R., & Rodriguez, F. (2021). The evolution of commercial vehicles in China: A retrospective
evaluation of fuel consumption standards and recommendations for the future. ICCT.

Smajla, I., Karasalihović Sedlar, D., & Drljača, B. (2019). Fuel Switch to LNG in Heavy Truck Traffic. MDPI-Energies.

TERI. (2015). Green Growth and Transport in India. New Delhi: TERI.

Yuan, Y., & Shell. (2019). CHINA – THE ‘MOVE’ TO LNG. Shanghai.

Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment | 43

Endnotes

1. https://niti.gov.in/sites/default/files/2020-01/IEA-India-In-depth-review2020.pdf
2. https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/india-s-crude-oil-production-tapers-delaying-cut-in-import-
dependence-121010100001_1.html
3. https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/ndcstaging/PublishedDocuments/India%20First/INDIA%20INDC%20TO%20UNFCCC.pdf
4. http://ppac.org.in/WriteReadData/Reports/201411110329450069740AllIndiaStudyonSectoralDemandofDiesel.pdf (Page:
33); accessed on April 25, 2019
5. https://frevue.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/FREVUE-TCO-for-Medium-Electric-Freight-Factsheet.pdf
6. https://arxiv.org/pdf/1804.05974.pdf
7. VECV-Eicher in 16-40.2 tonnes segment and VECV-Volvo in > 49 tonne segment
8. A self-propelled wheeled vehicle, designed primarily to transport goods and heavy equipment.
9. Intermediate and Light Commercial Vehicle.
10. Truck (usually 10-wheeler) made-up of two sections joint together, a tractor and a trailer to carry heavy loads.
11. Key elements of the Stage 3 standard are:
• Similar to the Stage 2 National Standard, the Stage 3 standard sets fuel consumption limits following a step function, using
gross vehicle weight to segment each vehicle type.
• The Stage 3 standard tightens vehicle fuel consumption limits for tractors, trucks, dump trucks, coaches, and city buses by
an average of 12.5% to 15.9% compared to Stage 2 limits, and by an average of 21.7% to 27.2% compared to Stage 1 limits.
• When comparing Stage 2 and 3 standards, the largest percent reduction comes from city buses with GVW 3.5-4.5 tonnes,
tightened by 17.9%, and the smallest percent reduction comes from coach buses with GVW 14.5-16.5 tonnes, tightened by
10.7%.
12. A type of truck, that has all its axles attached to a single frame.
13. In TERI’s transport model, medium-duty and heavy-duty vehicles are clubbed into one category ‘HDVs’
14. https://www.iamconsortium.org/resources/model-resources/markal-india/
15. http://petroleum.nic.in/sites/default/files/autopol.pdf (page 252/294), last accessed on September 30, 2021
16. Sales and registration of in-stock China 5 LDVs are allowed in regions that have not yet adopted China 6 until January 1, 2021.
By April 2020, Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, Chongqing, Hebei, Henan, Guangdong, Shandong, Hainan, Anhui, Zhejiang, and
Jiangsu, as well as central cities of Shanxi, Shaanxi, Sichuan, and Neimenggu, had all implemented China 6.
17. The Indian OEMs have to report an annual fleet level fuel efficiency summary for monitoring purpose. Under CAFE Phase I,
CO2 emission target of 130 gm/km has been set by 2022-23. The overall aim is to improve fuel efficiency of on road vehicles
by 35% by 2030.
18. The Gazette of India, Part-2, Section 3, Sub-section 1, New Delhi, March 15, 2021
19. https://shaktifoundation.in/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/WRI-2015-India-Specific-Road-Transport-Emission-Factors.
pdf
20. https://www.argusmedia.com/en/news/2194921-chinese-majors-push-for-oil-tax-reforms (last accessed on September 30,
2021)
21. https://www.cleanenergywire.org/factsheets/electric-highways-offer-most-efficient-path-decarbonise-trucks
22. https://powermin.gov.in/sites/default/files/uploads/Revised_MoP_Guidelines_01_10_2019.pdf
23. Transport Nagar is place within/outside a city with offices of transporters, workshops, small warehouses, transhipment of
goods from bigger to smaller vehicles, etc.
24. Infraprime Logistics to roll out 1,000 heavy electric trucks in India, ANI Press release, November,2020.
25. https://about.bnef.com/blog/battery-pack-prices-cited-below-100-kwh-for-the-first-time-in-2020-while-market-average-
sits-at-137-kwh/
26. https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1744879#:~:text=2021%20has%20approved%20the%20
Production,Giga%20Watt%20hour%2DGWh).
27. https://www.teriin.org/sites/default/files/files/Decarbonization_of_Transport%20Sector_in_India.pdf

44 | Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment

Annexure 1

Truck rentals on trunk routes for multi-axle truck carrying 18-19 tonne payload (full round
trip) - August 2021

ODs Rs (hike from July 2021)

Delhi - Mumbai – Delhi 1,16,500/- rental up to 1,18,000/- (+ 2500/- , +1.5%)

Delhi - Nagpur - Delhi 1,00,500/- up to 1,02,500/- (+2000/-, + 1.9%)

Delhi -Kolkata – Delhi 98,000/- up to 1,00,500/- (+2500/- , + 2.5%)

Delhi - Guwahati – Delhi 1,50,300/- up to 1,53,500/- (+ 3200/-, + 2.2%)

Delhi - Hyderabad – Delhi 1,32,800/- up to 1,35,300/- (+ 2,500/- , + 2.1%)

Delhi - Chennai – Delhi 1,44,000/- up to 1,46,800/- (+2,800/- , + 2%)

Delhi - Bengaluru – Delhi 1,29,000/- up to 1,31,600/- (+ 2,600/-,+ 1.9%)

Delhi - Ranchi – Delhi 1,00,500/- up to 1,02,200/- (+ 1,700/- , 1.6%)

Delhi - Raipur – Delhi 1,01,000/- up to 1,03,500/- (+ 2,500/- , + 2.1%)

Delhi - Kandla port – Delhi 1,47,500/- up to 1,50,000/- (+2,500/- , + 1.5%)

Delhi - Vijayawada – Delhi 1,32,500/- up to 1,34,500/- (+ 2,000/- , + 1.7%)

Source: IFTRT

Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment | 45

Annexure 2

BAU Scenario – HDV Fuel Technology (% in new sales)

>16.2 but <=25

>7.5 but ≤12 tonnes >12 but ≤16.2 tonnes > 25 tonnes
tonnes
Diesel/ Diesel/ Diesel/ Diesel/
L/C NG Electric L/C NG Electric L/C NG Electric L/C NG Electric
1980-81 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00%
1990-91 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00%
2000-01 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00%
2010-11 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00%
2020-21 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00%
2030-31 98.00% 2.00% 99.50% 0.50% 99.50% 0.50% 99.50% 0.50%
2040-41 95.00% 5.00% 98.50% 1.50% 98.50% 1.50% 98.50% 1.50%
2050-51 92.00% 8.00% 97.00% 3.00% 97.00% 3.00% 97.00% 3.00%

Ambitious Scenario – HDV Fuel Technology (% in new sales)

>16.2 but <=25

>7.5 but ≤12 tonnes >12 but ≤16.2 tonnes > 25 tonnes
tonnes
Diesel/ Diesel/ Diesel/ Diesel/
L/CNG Electric L/CNG Electric L/C NG Electric L/C NG Electric
1980-81 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00%
1990-91 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00%
2000-01 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00%
2010-11 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00%
2020-21 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00%
2030-31 95.00% 5.00% 95.00% 5.00% 98.00% 2.00% 98.00% 2.00%
2040-41 70.00% 30.00% 70.00% 30.00% 90.00% 10.00% 90.00% 10.00%
2050-51 40.00% 60.00% 50.00% 50.00% 70.00% 30.00% 70.00% 30.00%

46 | Battery Electric Technology in the Heavy-duty Vehicle Segment

Risk Assessment For Kerb Stones, Wheel Stopper and Paving Interlocks
92% (25)
Risk Assessment For Kerb Stones, Wheel Stopper and Paving Interlocks
4 pages
MotoJitsu Master Riding Program - Greg Widmar
40% (5)
MotoJitsu Master Riding Program - Greg Widmar
30 pages
Punch Press JH21-200
No ratings yet
Punch Press JH21-200
133 pages
TRB Deck V 2 PDF
No ratings yet
TRB Deck V 2 PDF
89 pages
WBAKS4702J0Y21762 Service History
No ratings yet
WBAKS4702J0Y21762 Service History
30 pages
Chevrolet Competitor Analysis
50% (2)
Chevrolet Competitor Analysis
3 pages
0126 - Testing The Starting Valve Actuation Engine 102 KE
No ratings yet
0126 - Testing The Starting Valve Actuation Engine 102 KE
9 pages
Design of A Lightweight Heavy Goods Vehicle Trailer
No ratings yet
Design of A Lightweight Heavy Goods Vehicle Trailer
17 pages
Hirac Infra Development
No ratings yet
Hirac Infra Development
9 pages
Cow PDF
No ratings yet
Cow PDF
34 pages
E Trucks Market in India Whitepaper Mar 2024
100% (1)
E Trucks Market in India Whitepaper Mar 2024
16 pages
Iso26262 The Ecall System: Massimo Violante
No ratings yet
Iso26262 The Ecall System: Massimo Violante
21 pages
Differential and Bevel Gear: - Install
No ratings yet
Differential and Bevel Gear: - Install
5 pages
Reform of Chinese Automobile Industry & Motivation For Bangladesh PDF
No ratings yet
Reform of Chinese Automobile Industry & Motivation For Bangladesh PDF
15 pages
AVT Lecture 2 Aspects of Passive Safety
No ratings yet
AVT Lecture 2 Aspects of Passive Safety
105 pages
Polisport Offroad 2022 PDF
No ratings yet
Polisport Offroad 2022 PDF
184 pages
Baja Sponsorship Brochure
No ratings yet
Baja Sponsorship Brochure
4 pages
Pathfinder 2014 PCM
No ratings yet
Pathfinder 2014 PCM
6 pages
Powersonic Catalogue1
No ratings yet
Powersonic Catalogue1
48 pages
Bus and Coach
No ratings yet
Bus and Coach
15 pages
Forced Inductions
No ratings yet
Forced Inductions
9 pages
Hydrogen Class8 Long Haul Truck Targets
No ratings yet
Hydrogen Class8 Long Haul Truck Targets
31 pages
Kaz Tech Importance of Dampers
No ratings yet
Kaz Tech Importance of Dampers
3 pages
Ae 201709 PDF
No ratings yet
Ae 201709 PDF
45 pages
Argonne National Laboratory Electric Vehicle Battery Manufacturing Report
No ratings yet
Argonne National Laboratory Electric Vehicle Battery Manufacturing Report
58 pages
IBEF Auto-Components-November-2022 PDF
No ratings yet
IBEF Auto-Components-November-2022 PDF
33 pages
Lockheed Mini
No ratings yet
Lockheed Mini
23 pages
NEW CRSP 2015 Effective 15th October 2015
No ratings yet
NEW CRSP 2015 Effective 15th October 2015
145 pages
Student Companion
No ratings yet
Student Companion
34 pages
Eicher Investor Presentation June 2018
No ratings yet
Eicher Investor Presentation June 2018
60 pages
Auto Tronic S
No ratings yet
Auto Tronic S
20 pages
Handbook of Driver Assistance Systems
No ratings yet
Handbook of Driver Assistance Systems
25 pages
Glass and Mirrors
No ratings yet
Glass and Mirrors
27 pages
Unit 2 - Automobile Engineering - WWW - Rgpvnotes.in PDF
No ratings yet
Unit 2 - Automobile Engineering - WWW - Rgpvnotes.in PDF
13 pages
Electric Vehicle Transmissions
No ratings yet
Electric Vehicle Transmissions
9 pages
Automotive Technology and Human Factors PDF
No ratings yet
Automotive Technology and Human Factors PDF
28 pages
Cit Sio Bsit At112 FLP
No ratings yet
Cit Sio Bsit At112 FLP
68 pages
Brake Components Calculator V1.0
No ratings yet
Brake Components Calculator V1.0
2 pages
Redi-Line Installation Manual
No ratings yet
Redi-Line Installation Manual
97 pages
NCHRP RPT 646
No ratings yet
NCHRP RPT 646
139 pages
Basic Concepts On GDI Systems PDF
No ratings yet
Basic Concepts On GDI Systems PDF
18 pages
ROULUNDS RUBBER - Korea - Japan
No ratings yet
ROULUNDS RUBBER - Korea - Japan
60 pages
List of Registered Vendors As On June 2015: Avionic Instruments
No ratings yet
List of Registered Vendors As On June 2015: Avionic Instruments
33 pages
Tesla Case
No ratings yet
Tesla Case
4 pages
Lab Manual of Farm Power & Engine System (Agri-Ii/I and Internal Combustion Engines (Mech-Iii/Ii)
No ratings yet
Lab Manual of Farm Power & Engine System (Agri-Ii/I and Internal Combustion Engines (Mech-Iii/Ii)
350 pages
FS2014 Event Guide WEB
No ratings yet
FS2014 Event Guide WEB
96 pages
Digital Report Perodua Myvi 2017 Web PDF
No ratings yet
Digital Report Perodua Myvi 2017 Web PDF
4 pages
Speaker CDM7NT Usermanual
No ratings yet
Speaker CDM7NT Usermanual
24 pages
Telematics Wire April2023 Compressed
No ratings yet
Telematics Wire April2023 Compressed
64 pages
BMW Hydrogen 7 Presentation
No ratings yet
BMW Hydrogen 7 Presentation
9 pages
Automobile September 20161
No ratings yet
Automobile September 20161
50 pages
Ey Electrifying Indian Mobility Report
No ratings yet
Ey Electrifying Indian Mobility Report
102 pages
bq40z80EVM Li-Ion Battery Pack Manager Evaluation: User's Guide
No ratings yet
bq40z80EVM Li-Ion Battery Pack Manager Evaluation: User's Guide
33 pages
Nissan History of EV Technology
No ratings yet
Nissan History of EV Technology
47 pages
Seminar Final
No ratings yet
Seminar Final
24 pages
Ae PPT-1
No ratings yet
Ae PPT-1
179 pages
IN Mahindra Cruzio Grande Buses 20221124
No ratings yet
IN Mahindra Cruzio Grande Buses 20221124
13 pages
933-AUDI02-3.16.195.3 2009-Audi-A5 IG EN 20220504
No ratings yet
933-AUDI02-3.16.195.3 2009-Audi-A5 IG EN 20220504
25 pages
Airsuspension
No ratings yet
Airsuspension
4 pages
Aircraft Flight
No ratings yet
Aircraft Flight
4 pages
India - Commercial Vehicle Sector - December 2021
100% (1)
India - Commercial Vehicle Sector - December 2021
24 pages
G - 7 - Interactive Windshield HUD (Final)
No ratings yet
G - 7 - Interactive Windshield HUD (Final)
25 pages
Study of Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing With Aluminum Alloy 2219
No ratings yet
Study of Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing With Aluminum Alloy 2219
75 pages
Global Solid-State Battery Market 360 Millions Research Papers Academic Articles
No ratings yet
Global Solid-State Battery Market 360 Millions Research Papers Academic Articles
1 page
WrightBus Brochure
No ratings yet
WrightBus Brochure
11 pages
Micro Analysis of Electric Vehicle Industry in India
No ratings yet
Micro Analysis of Electric Vehicle Industry in India
38 pages
Brochure-Q1R-eTruck-NOV-21
No ratings yet
Brochure-Q1R-eTruck-NOV-21
2 pages
Calculation of IGBT Power Losses and Junction Temperature in Inverter Drive
No ratings yet
Calculation of IGBT Power Losses and Junction Temperature in Inverter Drive
6 pages
JMechanicalEngineeringScience_2021_Gundabattini_Mystkowski
No ratings yet
JMechanicalEngineeringScience_2021_Gundabattini_Mystkowski
15 pages
Dirlik Examples
No ratings yet
Dirlik Examples
13 pages
PADT ANSYS Lattice Material - Homogenization 1
No ratings yet
PADT ANSYS Lattice Material - Homogenization 1
39 pages
Direct Liquid Cooling Method Verified With An Axial Flux PM Traction Machine Prototype
No ratings yet
Direct Liquid Cooling Method Verified With An Axial Flux PM Traction Machine Prototype
9 pages
2011-Stiffness Matrix Calculation of Rolling Element Bearings Using A Finite Element Contact Mechanics Model
No ratings yet
2011-Stiffness Matrix Calculation of Rolling Element Bearings Using A Finite Element Contact Mechanics Model
14 pages
1 s2.0 S2666546821000641 Main
No ratings yet
1 s2.0 S2666546821000641 Main
9 pages
D2Z India - Industry Assessment - Product Landscape
No ratings yet
D2Z India - Industry Assessment - Product Landscape
26 pages
India Full Truckload Road Freight Transport Market 1676607714480
No ratings yet
India Full Truckload Road Freight Transport Market 1676607714480
82 pages
9192016120802PMAmds and AIS 113 F
No ratings yet
9192016120802PMAmds and AIS 113 F
65 pages
Automatic Paper Recycling Machine For Domestic Purpose: Abstract
No ratings yet
Automatic Paper Recycling Machine For Domestic Purpose: Abstract
1 page
Mechanical Material Properties For Structural Simulation of SRM
No ratings yet
Mechanical Material Properties For Structural Simulation of SRM
7 pages
Computation of The Effective Lamination Stack'S Behavior Considering The Contact Simulation With A Multi-Scale Homogenization
No ratings yet
Computation of The Effective Lamination Stack'S Behavior Considering The Contact Simulation With A Multi-Scale Homogenization
10 pages
2019 - Determination of Equivalent Transversely Isotropic Material Parameters For Sheet-Layered Lamination Stacks - Elseveir
No ratings yet
2019 - Determination of Equivalent Transversely Isotropic Material Parameters For Sheet-Layered Lamination Stacks - Elseveir
30 pages
D10T2 Service Training Course Announcement 031215
No ratings yet
D10T2 Service Training Course Announcement 031215
1 page
Yfm 400 Quad - 2000
No ratings yet
Yfm 400 Quad - 2000
371 pages
Roads-By OKIROR
No ratings yet
Roads-By OKIROR
100 pages
Consilium Guide Maintenance of Fire and Gas Detection Systems
No ratings yet
Consilium Guide Maintenance of Fire and Gas Detection Systems
1 page
Gmdss All Pages123
No ratings yet
Gmdss All Pages123
5 pages
Swift MT103
No ratings yet
Swift MT103
15 pages
I-Flash - Export - Release - Notes 1.9
No ratings yet
I-Flash - Export - Release - Notes 1.9
19 pages
Travel Reservation December 04 for SURENDRA CHETTY
No ratings yet
Travel Reservation December 04 for SURENDRA CHETTY
2 pages
Course Notes Dry Cargo Operation 0120
No ratings yet
Course Notes Dry Cargo Operation 0120
226 pages
Smart Cities Asia 2023 Brochure
No ratings yet
Smart Cities Asia 2023 Brochure
5 pages
Hongkong Itinerary 2024
No ratings yet
Hongkong Itinerary 2024
3 pages
Kawasaki Ninja ZX-11 ZZ-R1100 Motorcycle Service Manual Supplement ZX1100-C1 C2 1990-1991
100% (1)
Kawasaki Ninja ZX-11 ZZ-R1100 Motorcycle Service Manual Supplement ZX1100-C1 C2 1990-1991
124 pages
Mitsubishi L2E en L3 Workshop
No ratings yet
Mitsubishi L2E en L3 Workshop
155 pages
Squat, Interectation, Manoeuvring - The Nautical Institute, 1995
No ratings yet
Squat, Interectation, Manoeuvring - The Nautical Institute, 1995
60 pages
Radio 10 Codes
No ratings yet
Radio 10 Codes
4 pages
Denizcilik Ingilizcesi 2
100% (1)
Denizcilik Ingilizcesi 2
4 pages
Tariff PTP
No ratings yet
Tariff PTP
22 pages
Knapp St. Safety Petition 1
No ratings yet
Knapp St. Safety Petition 1
5 pages
Chapter 6 SCM
No ratings yet
Chapter 6 SCM
32 pages
Tolerancia Pasador y Biela
No ratings yet
Tolerancia Pasador y Biela
1 page
Ecaras Note
No ratings yet
Ecaras Note
17 pages
TỔNG ÔN GIAI ĐOẠN CUỐI
No ratings yet
TỔNG ÔN GIAI ĐOẠN CUỐI
139 pages
1ST Term 3º Adultos
No ratings yet
1ST Term 3º Adultos
7 pages
Shipping SOP Template
No ratings yet
Shipping SOP Template
6 pages