Modul Riset dan Statistik Terapan

Student Development SC MM UI 2022

Bab 1 - Introduction to research

Research, a somewhat intimidating term for some, is simply the process of finding solutions to
a problem after a thorough study and analysis of the situational factors.
Business research can be described as a systematic and organized effort to investigate a
specific problem encountered in the work setting, which needs a solution.
In essence, research provides the necessary information that guides managers to make
informed
decisions to successfully deal with problems.
The information provided could be the result of a careful analysis
of
o primary data gathered first-hand (interviews, observation, administering
questionnaires, and experiments) or of
o secondary data that are already available (in the company, industry, archives, statistical
bulletins, government publications, published or unpublished information available from
either within or outside the organization, the internet, etc.).
These data can be
o quantitative (quantitative data are data in the form of numbers as generally
gathered through structured questions) or
o qualitative (qualitative data are data in the form of words) as generated from the
broad answers to questions in interviews, or from responses to open-ended questions in a
questionnaire, or through observation, or from already available information gathered from
various sources such as the internet.
Research can be undertaken for two different purposes.
Applied research is to solve a cw-rent problem faced by the manager in the work setting,
demanding a timely solution. For example, a particular product may not be selling well and the
manager might want to find the reasons for this in order to take corrective action.
Basic, fundamental, or pure research is to generate a body of knowledge by trying to
comprehend how certain problems that occur in organizations can be solved.

Bab 2 - The scientific approach and alternative approaches to investigation

The hallmarks or main distinguishing characteristics of scientific research may be listed as follows:
Purposiveness: The manager has started the research with a definite aim or purpose.
Rigor: A good theoretical base and a sound methodological design add rigor to a purposive
study.
Rigor connotes carefulness, scrupulousness, and the degree of exactitude in research
investigations.
 TestabiLity: Scientific research thus lends itself to testing logicaUy developed hypotheses to see
whether or not the data support the educated conjectures or hypotheses that are developed after a
careful study of the problem situation.
Replicability: Replicability is the extent to which a re-study is made possible by the provision of
the design details of the study in the research report.
Precision and confidence
o Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to "reality" based on a sample. In other
words, precision reflects the degree of accuracy or exactitude of the results on the basis of
the sample, to what really exists in the universe. You may recall the term confidence
interval in statistics, which is what is referred to here as precision.
o Confidence refers to the probability that our estimations are correct. That is, it is not merely
enough to be precise, but it is also important that we can confidently claim that 95% of the
time our results will be true and there is only a 5% chance of our being wrong. This is also

known as the confidence level.

Objectivity: The more objective the interpretation of the data, the more scientific the research
investigation becomes.
Generalizability: Generalizability refers to the scope of applicability of the research findings in one
organizational setting to other settings.
Parsimony: Parsimony can be introduced with a good understanding of the problem and the
important factors that influence it.

The seven-step process in the hypothetico-deductive method

The hypothetico-deductive method involves the seven steps of identifying a broad problem area,
defining the problem statement, hypothesizing, determining measures, data co!Jection, data
analysis, and the interpretation of the results.
The scientific method uses deductive reasoning to test a theory (recall that, to a scientist, a
theory
is an organized set of assumptions that generates testable predictions) about a topic of interest.
Inductive reasoning works in the opposite direction: it is a process where we observe
specific phenomena and on this basis arrive at general conclusions.

Bab 3- Defining and refining the problem

Problem is any situation where a gap exists between an actual and a desired ideal
state.
Problem statement must be unambiguous, specific, and focused, and that the problem is addressed
from a specific academic perspective.
A good problem statement includes both a statement of the research objective(s) and the
research question(s).
o The purpose or objective of the study thus explains why the study is being done.
 o The research question(s) specify what you want to learn about the topic.

BUSINESS PROBLEM TRANSLATED INTO PROBLEM STATEMENT

Problem statement
Problem Research objective Research questions
Frequent and long delays may The purpose of this 1. What are the factors that affect the perceived
translate into much frustration study is twofold: (1) to waiting experience of airline passengers and
among airline passengers, to identify the factors that to what extent do these factors affect the
switching behavior, and to influence the passengers' perception of waiting times?
negative word-of-mouth waiting experience and 2. What are the affective consequences of
communication. These feelings (2) to investigate the waiting and how does affect mediate the
and behaviors eventually have possible impact of relationship between waiting and service
negative effects on the waiting on customer evaluations?
performance and the satisfaction and service 3. How do situational variables (such as filled
profitability of the firm. evaluations. time) influence customer reactions to the
waiting experience?

Basic types of questions: exploratory and descriptive

Exploratory research questions: Exploratory research often relies on qualitative approaches to data
gathering such as informal discussions (with consumers, employees, managers), interviews, focus
groups, and/or case studies.
Descriptive research questions: The objective of a descriptive study is to obtain data that
describes the topic of interest.
Causal research questions: In a causal study, the researcher is interested in delineating one or more
factors that are causing a problem.

Bab 4 - The critical literature

review
Data sources: The quality of a literature review depends on a cautious selection and reading of books,
academic and professional journals, reports, theses, conference proceedings, unpublished manuscripts,
and the like.

Bab 5 - Theoretical framework and hypothesis

development
A theoretical framework represents your beliefs on how certain phenomena ( or variables
or concepts) are related to each other (a model) and an explanation of why you believe that
these variables are associated with each other (a theory).
A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values. The values can differ at various
times for the same object or person, or at the same time for different objects or persons.
Examples of variables are production units, absenteeism, and motivation.
 The dependent variable is the variable of primary interest to the researcher. The researcher's
goal is to understand and describe the dependent variable, or to explain its variability, or predict
it.
It is generally conjectured that an independent variable is one that influences the
dependent variable in either a positive or negative way.
The moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent effect on the independent
variable• dependent variable relationship. That is, the presence of a third variable (the moderating
variable) modifies the original relationship between the independent and the dependent variables.
A mediating variable (or intervening variable) is one that surfaces between the time
the
independent variables start operating to influence the dependent variable and the time their impact
is felt on it.

Workforce Creative Organizational

diversity synergy effectiveness

Independent variable Mediating variable Dependent variable

Moderating variable

Formulating such testable statements is called hypothesis

development.
A hypothesis can be defined as a tentative, yet testable, statement, which predicts what you
expect to find in your empirical data.
The hypothetico-deductive method requires that hypotheses are falsifiable: they must be written in
such a way that other researchers can show them to be false. For this reason, hypotheses are
sometimes accompanied by null hypotheses.
o A null hypothesis (Ho) is a hypothesis set up to be rejected in order to support an alternate
hypothesis, labeled H. When used, the null hypothesis is presumed true until
statistical evidence, in the form of a hypothesis test, indicates otherwise.
o The alternate hypothesis, which is the opposite of the null, is a statement expressing
a relationship between two variables or indicating differences between groups.

Bab 6 - Elements of research design

A research design is a blueprint or plan for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data,
created to answer yow· research questions.
Research strategies: experiment, survey research, observation, case studies, grounded theory, action
research, mixed methods
Extent of researcher interference: minimal (studying events as they normally occur),
manipulation and/or control and/or simulation
Study setting: contrived, non-contrived
Unit of analysis (population to be studied): individuals, dyads (two-person), groups,
organizations, machines
Time horizon: one-shot (cross-sectional), longitudinal

Bab 7 - Interviews
A widely used method of collecting data in business research is to interview respondents to obtain
information on an issue of interest. An interview is a guided, purposeful conversation between two or
more people. There are many different types of interviews. Individual or group interviews may be
unstructured or structured, and conducted face to face, by telephone, or online.

Bab 8 - Data collection methods:

Observation
Observation concerns the planned watching, recording, analysis, and interpretation of behavior,
actions, or events. Various approaches of observation have been used in business research. These
may be distinguished by four key dimensions that characterize the way observation is conducted:
(1) control (are the observations conducted in an artificial or in a natural
setting?),
(2) whether the observer is a member of the group that is observed or not (participant versus
nonparticipant observation),
(3) structure (to what extent the observation is focused, predetermined, systematic, and quantitative
in
nature), and
(4) concealment of observation (are the members of the social group under study told that they are
being studied or not?).

Bab 9 - Administering
questionnaires
A questionnaire is a preformulated written set of questions to which respondents record their
answers, usually within rather closely defined alternatives.
The principles of wording refer to such factors as:
1. The appropriateness of the content of the questions.
2. How questions are worded and the level of sophistication of the language used.
3. The type and form of questions asked.
 o Open-ended questions allow respondents to answer them in any way they choose.
An example of an open-ended question is asking the respondent to state five things that
are interesting and challenging in the job.
o A closed question, in contrast, asks the respondents to make choices among a set of
alternatives given by the researcher. For instance, instead of asking the respondent to state
any five aspects of the job that she finds interesting and challenging, the researcher
might list 10 or 15 aspects that might seem interesting or challenging in jobs and
ask the respondents to rank the first five among these in the order of their preference. All
items in a questionnaire using a nominal, ordinal, Likert, or ratio scale are considered
closed.
4. The sequencing of the questions.
5. The personal data sought from the respondents.

Bab 10 - Experimental
designs
Experimental designs fall into two categories: experiments done in an artificial or contrived
environment, known as lab experiments, and those done in the natural environment in which activities
regularly take place, known as field experiments.

Bab 11 - Measurement of variables: Operational

definition
Operational Definition
(Operationalization)
One technique to measure the more nebulous variables is to reduce these abstract notions or
concepts to observable behavior and/or characteristics. In other words, the abstract notions are
broken down into observable behavior or characteristics.
For instance, the concept of thirst is abstract; we cannot see it. However, we would expect a thirsty
person to drink plenty of fluids. In other words, the expected reaction of people to thirst is to
drink fluids. If several people say they are thirsty, then we may determine the thirst levels of each of
these individuals by the measure of the quantity of fluids that they drink to quench their thirst.
We will thus be able to measure their levels of thirst, even though the concept of thirst itself is
abstract and nebulous. Reduction of abstract concepts to render them measurable in a tangible
way is called operationalizing the concepts.
Operationalizing is done by looking at the behavioral dimensions, facets, or properties denoted
by the concept. These are then translated into observable and measurable elements so as to develop
an index of measurement of the concept.

Bab 12 - Measurement: Scaling, reliability and

validity
A scale is a tool or mechanism by which individuals are distinguished as to bow they differ from one
another on the variables of interest to our study.
 A nominal scale is one that allows the researcher to assign subjects to certain categories or
groups. For example, with respect to the variable of gender, respondents can be grouped into two
categories
-male and female.
An ordinal scale not only categorizes the variables in such a way as to denote differences
among the various categories, it also rank-orders the categories in some meaningful way.
In an interval scale, or equal interval scale, numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal
values in the characteristics being measured. The clinical thermometer is a good example of an
interval-scaled instrument; it has an arbitrary origin and the magnitude of the difference
between
37 degrees (supposed to be the normal body temperature) and 38 degrees is the same as the
magnitude of the difference between 40 and 41 degrees.
The ratio scale not only measures the magnitude of the differences between points on the scale but
also taps the proportions in the differences. It is the most powerful of the four scales because it has
a unique zero origin (not an arbitrary origin) and subsumes all the properties of the other three
scales. The weighing balance is a good example of a ratio scale. It has an absolute (and not arbitrary)
zero origin calibrated on it, which allows us to calculate the ratio of the weights of two individuals.
For instance, a person weighing 100 kilograms is twice as heavy as one who weighs 50 kilograms.
Others
Rating scales have several response categories and are used to elicit responses with regard to the
object, event, or person studied.
Ranking scales, on the other hand, make comparisons between or among objects, events, or persons
and elicit the preferred choices and ranking among them.
The Likert scale is a scale designed to examine how strongly respondents agree with a statement

(such as "I enjoy having a soft drink") on a five-point scale with the following anchors: 1 = Strongly
Disagree, 2= Disagree, 3 = Neither Agree Nor Disagree, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Agree.
Reliability is a test of how consistently a measuring instrument measures whatever concept it is
measuring. In other words, reliability is concerned with stability and consistency of measurement.
Validity is a test of how well an instrument that is developed measures the particular concept it is
intended to measure. In other words, validity is concerned with whether we measure the right
concept.

Bab 13 - Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting the right individuals, objects, or events as representatives for
the entire population.
Population: the entire group of people, events, or things of interest that the researcher wishes to
investigate.
Element: a single member of the population.
Sample: a subset of the population.
 Sampling unit: the element or set of elements that is available for selection in some stage of the
sampling process.
Subject: a single member of the sample, just as an element is a single member of the
population. The major steps in sampling include:
1. Define the population.
2. Determin e the sample frame.
3. Determin e the sampling design.
o Probability sampling: the elements in the population have some known, nonzero
chance or probability of being selected as sample subjects.
o Nonprobability sampling: the elements do not have a known or predetermined chance
of being selected as subjects.
4. Determine the appropriate sample size.
5. Execute the sampling process.
sam pling design Desc ription Advantag es Disadvan tag es

Probability sam pling

1. Simple random All elements in the population High generaliza bility of Not as efficient as
sampling are considered and each findings. stratified sampling.
element has an equal chance
of being chosen as the
subject.
2. Systematic Every nth element in the Easy to use if sampling Systematic biases are
sampling population is chosen startin g fram e is available. possible.
from a random point in the
sampling frame.

Sampling design Description Advantages Disadvantages

3. Stratified random Population is first divided into Most efficient among all Stratification must be
sampling (Str.R.S.) meanin gful segments; probability designs. meanin gful. More
Proportionate thereafter subjects are All groups are adequately time consumin g
Str.R.S. drawn in proportion to sampled and than simple
Disproportionate their original numbers in comparisons among random sampling
Str.R.S. the population. groups are possible. or systematic
Based on criteria other than sampling.
their original population Sampling frame for
numbers. each stratum is
essential.
4. Cluster sampling Groups that have In geographic clusters, The least reliable and
heterogeneous members are costs of data efficient among
first identified;
then some are chosen at collection
are low. all
probability
random; all the members sampling
in of the randomly
each designs
since subsets of
chosen groups are studied. clusters are more
homogeneous than
heterogeneous.
5. Area sampling Cluster sampling within a Cost-effective. Useful for Takes time to collect
particular area or locality. decisions relating to a data from an area.
particular location.
6. Double sampling The same sample or a subset Offers more detailed Original biases, if any,
of the sample is studied information on will be carried over.
twice. the of study.
topic Individuals may
not be happy
responding a
second time.

Nonprobability
sampling
7. Convenience The most easily accessible Quick, convenient, less Not generalizable
sampling members are chosen as expensive. at all.
subjects.
8. Judgment sampling Subjects selected on the basis of Sometimes, the only Generaliza bility is
their expertise in the subject meaningful way to questionable;
investigated. investigate. not generalizable
to entire
population.
9. Quota sampling Subjects are conveniently Very useful where Not easily
chosen from targeted minority participation generaliza ble.
groups according to some in a study is critical.
predetermined number or
quota.
Bab 14 - Quantitative data analysis
Outlier: An outlier is an observation that is substantially different from the other
observations.
Measures of central tendency and
dispersion
There are three measures of central tendency: the mean, the median, and the
mode.
o The mean: The mean, or the average, is a measure of central tendency that offers a
general picture of the data without unnecessarily inundating one with each of the
observations in a data set.
o The median: The median is the central item in a group of observations when they are
arrayed in either an ascending or a descending order.
o The mode: The mode is the mostfrequently occurring phenomenon.
Measures of dispersion include the range, the standard deviation, the variance (where the
measure of central tendency is the mean), and the interquartile range (where the measure of central
tendency is the median).
o Range: Range refers to the extreme values in a set of observations.
o Variance: The variance is calculated by subtracting the mean from each of the
observations in the data set, taking the square of this difference, and dividing the total of
these by the number of observations.
o Standard deviation: The standard deviation, which is another measure of dispersion
for
interval and ratio scaled data, offers an index of the spread of a distribution or the
variability in the data.
o Other measures of dispersion: The measure of dispersion for the median, the interquartile
range, consists of the middle 50% of the observations (i.e., observations excluding
the bottom and top 25% quartiles).

Bab 15- Quantitative data analysis: Hypothesis

testing
The purpose of hypothesis testing is to determine accurately if the null hypothesis can be rejected
in favor of the alternate hypothesis. Based on the sample data the researcher can reject the null
hypothesis (and therefore accept the alternate hypothesis) with a certain degree of confidence: there
is always a risk that the inference that is drawn about the population is incorrect.
There are two kinds of errors (or two ways in which a conclusion can be incorrect), classified as type
I
errors and type II errors.
A type I error, also referred to as alpha (a), is the probability ofrejecting the null hypothesis
when it is actually true. The probability of type I error, also known as the significance level, is
determined by the researcher. Typical significance levels in business research are 5% (<0.05) and
1% (<0.01). A type II error, also referred to as beta ([), is the probability of failing to reject the
null hypothesis given that the alternate hypothesis is actually true;
A third important concept in hypothesis testing is statistical power (I [). Statistical power, or
just power, is the probability of correctly rejecting the nuU hypothesis.

Bab 16 - Qualitative data

analysis
Qualitative data are data in the form of words. Examples of qualitative data are interview notes,
transcripts of focus groups, answers to open-ended questions, transcriptions of video recordings,
accounts of experiences with a product on the Internet, news articles, and the like. Qualitative data can
come from a wide variety of primary sources and/or secondary sources, such as individuals, focus
groups, company records, government publications, and the Internet. The analysis of qualitative data is
aimed at making valid inferences from the often overwhelming amount of collected data.
"Big data" is a popular term nowadays that is commonly used to describe the exponential growth
and
availability of data from digital sources inside and outside the organization.

Bab 17 - The research

report

• Pendahuluan laporan penelitian • Kerangka teori

Pendabuluan • Desain penelitian

Perumusan masalah • Hasil

Tujuan penelitian
• Kesimpulan

Pertanyaan penelitian
• Rekomendasi
Ruang lingkup penelitian
• Keterbatasan penelitian dan saran untuk
Metode penelitian penelitian selanjutnya
Relevansi manajerial
• Referensi
Sistematika penulisan
• Lampiran

Daftar
Referensi
Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2016). Research Methods for Business: A Skill-Building Approach (7th
ed.).
John Wiley & Sons Ltd.